Institutionalisation and Emancipation Compiled by the Editors

Project Education of Roma | History Roma Children Council Conseil of Europe de l´Europe in Europe Institutionalisation 6.2 and Emancipation Institutionalisation and Emancipation compiled by the editors

Strive for Justice l Towards an International Representation l The Awakening of the “Romani Movement” – the First World Romani Congress (1971) l The Second Romani World Congress (1978) l Recognition of Genocide and Institutionalisation of Roma-Politics l A Shift to the East l Political Participation on National and Community Level l The Challenge of Cooperation l Future Prospects

For the most part of the 20th century, the Roma’s emancipatory activities remained largely isolated experiments. In the 1950s and 60s, a growing number of organisations originated, preparing the ground for the “Romani-Movement” of the 1970s. This decade saw the emergence of local and national Roma organisations in large numbers and of a variety of goals, and significant efforts were made towards a political representation of the Roma at an international level. Since 1989, in several Eastern European countries Roma have increasingly been represented in communal and national political bodies.

Gelem, Gelem

Gelem, gelem, lungone dromensa A Romale, a Čhavale Kaj putajile e romane droma Maladilem baxtale Romensa Vi man sas ek bari familija, Ake vrijama, ušti Rom akana, A Romale katar tumen aven, Murdadas la e kali legija Men khutasa mišto kaj kerasa! E carensa baxtale dromensa? Aven mansa sa lumnijake Roma, A Romale, a Čhavale

I’ve travelled, travelled

I’ve travelled, travelled long roads, O Roma, o fellow Roma For the Romani roads have opened And I met happy Roma Once I had a great family Now is the time, now rise up Roma, O Roma, from where have you come, The Black Legion murdered them We will rise high if we act! With tents on happy roads? Now come, all the world’s Roma O Roma, o fellow Roma

Ill. 1 “Gelem, Gelem” was proposed for official Roma anthem at the first World Romani Congress in London, 1971. It is very probably the most frequently recorded Romani song today. (The Romani text is shown as written by Jarko Jovanović during the 1971 Congress, after a traditional melody.)

Introduction liament, demanding electoral rights for society became the “All-Russian Uni- their people, which had been removed on of Gypsies”, led by Andrei Taranov, The first attempts at Roma emancipato- from them. member of the All-Union Communist ry activities originated in Eastern Euro- Beginning in Poland and Ro- Party (Bolsheviks), and Ivan Rom-Le- pean countries. mania in the 1930s, the first attempts bedev. The dissolution of the union in At the end of the 19th century, were made to unite the representative 1928 did not affect the multitude of cul- Lazar Naftanaila was the first to try to bodies of one country and set up na- tural, social, and educational activities organise the Romanian Roma in his “In- tional organisations. Such endeavours, which had emerged by then and which fratirea Neorustica” (Association of The however, more often than not, failed continued until a general change in state Brotherhood of New Farmers). In Bul- due to internal rivalries and claims of policies in the late 1930s. garia, there are meetings recorded for leadership. In the Western European coun- 1905 and 1906, where Romani leaders In Soviet Russia, with the as- tries, there were no similar activities at drew up petitions to the national par- sistance of the state, in 1925 a voluntary all before World War II. Strive for Justice Towards an International Representation The Awakening of the “Romani Movement” – the First World Romani Congress (1971) The Second World Romani Congress (1978)

THE ROMA’s Emancipatory activities (later renamed “Nevo Drom” – New Road – together with the in COMMUNIST COUNTRIES “Roma Central Gypsy Musical Theatre”). Towards the end of the 1940s the policy changed radically, and Shakir Pashov was expel- Although the Roma of Eastern Europe, especially Yugoslavia, were led from the Bulgarian Communist Party and sent to the Belene to play a crucial role in the emancipatory activities on an inter- concentration camp, the Roma press and theatre ceased to exist national level, they mainly originated in Western Europe. This is and the local branches of the Roma organisations became part of mainly due to the fact that the very establishment and development the “Fatherland Front” (a mass public organisation dominated by of Roma organisations in communist countries was not possible the Bulgarian Communist Party). In 1957 an attempt was made without the approval and active support of the state and party to revive the organised movement of Roma; nevertheless, this was structures. quickly stopped and Roma were placed entirely under the auspices The “United General Cultural Organisation of Gypsy Mi- of the Fatherland Front who also published the “New Life Gypsy” norities ‘Ekhipe’” (“Ekhipe”: Romani for “unity”) in Bulgaria newspaper (until 1988). [Ill. 3] headed by Shakir Pashov, a well-known Roma activist and long In Hungary, the “Magyar Ciganyok Müvelödesi Szovetseg” time functionary of the Bulgarian Communist Party, was created (Hungarian Gypsy Cultural Association) headed by Maria Laszlo on March 6, 1945. “Ekhipe” set up many local branches and the was founded in 1957. She tried to expand her activity and turn “Romano Esi” (“Voice of the Roma”) newspaper was published it into a national minority organisation, however it only existed

Starting in the 1950s, different man Sinti and Roma) in 1982. Although Strive for Justice Sinti associations were founded in Ger- not unchallenged in its claim to represent many, whose primary aim was to help all Sinti and Roma living in Germany, survivors of the Nazi persecution assert this organisation effectively tackled the After 1945, when most governments did their right to retribution and support tri- issues of reparation and official recogni- not accept responsibility for the crimes als against their former torturers. Later tion of Sinti and Roma and became one committed during the Nazi time and felt on, they expanded their activities to the of the most influential representative no need to deal with the consequences, fight for civil rights and social equality bodies of Roma in Europe. the Roma did not have a strong enough for the Sinti. Already in 1968, the unsolved lobby. Only individual non-Roma or- A milestone in the history of issue of nationality and the uncertain sta- ganisations stood up for the once again Roma emancipation was the foundation tus of residence for immigrant Roma had marginalised minority. Their work for ju- of the “Verband rassisch verfolgter nicht- led to the founding of the International stice and equality, however, did not bring Juden” (Association of racially persecut- Gypsy Rights Commission in Hamburg. forth significant achievements. ed non-Jews) by Oskar and Vinzenz Rose However, in 1969 the envisioned crea- The denial of basic rights, such as in 1956. Out of this association evolved tion of a united German representation in the case of Germany, where the Roma the “Verband Deutscher Sinti” (Associa- failed due to conflicting claims of leader- (that is to say mainly Sinti) were ignored tion of German Sinti) in 1972, whose lo- ship by Roma delegates as well as diffe- in the reparation process, as well as on- cal and regional organisations eventually rences in opinion on the competences of going discrimination brought about the merged to form the “Zentralrat Deutscher a trans-regional and trans-Roma-group founding of new organisations. Sinti und Roma” (Central Council of Ger- committee.

ris. From the CMG, which was dissolved The CIT’s declared aim was to stop Towards an International by the French government in 1965, the forced assimilation and improve the Representation “Comité International Tzigane” (CIT) Roma’s legal and social conditions evolved. Headed by Vanko Rouda, the worldwide. For this purpose, it used As in the case of Germany, attempts were committee started out to transcend exi- modern strategies: public relations, me- made in France to unite all the Roma groups sting borders among Roma resulting from dia campaigns, demonstrations and lob- living in the country within one common national, religious, and group differences. bying which intended to make govern- representation. France moreover func- The CIT, which worked closely together ments and society change their ways of tioned as a starting point for endeavours with the Romani Evangelical Church thinking and help the Roma achieve a to move the initiated process of self-or- founded in 1952 by Clement Le Cossec, higher level of equality. The CIT, ren- ganisation to an international level. made contact with foreign organisations amed “Komiteto Lumniako Romano” In 1960, Ionel Rotaru founded like the “Gypsy Council” in Great Britain (in French “Comité International Rom”, the “Communauté Mondiale Gitane” (founded 1966) and the “Nordic Roma CIR) in 1971, also issued a periodical, (World Gypsy Community, CMG) in Pa- Council” in Sweden (founded 1973). “La Voix Mondiale Tsigane”. In 1971,

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for two years. The “Ciganyszövetseg” (Gypsy Council) headed by of Roma culture. However they existed only for several years and Menyhert Lakatos was created in 1974, and in 1985 was succeeded were disbanded in the early 1970s. by “Orszagos Ciganytanacs” (National Gypsy Council) headed by The situation in Yugoslavia is a specific case. The “Rom Joszef Daroczi. The new Roma organisation was mainly an active Association”, created in 1969, built up branches and other Roma factor in the cultural sphere. associations throughout the country. In the 1970s, over 60 Roma In Czechoslovakia Roma organisations existed for a short organisations existed, with their number constantly increasing. In time. The “Zväz Ciganov-Romov” (Union of Gypsy-Roma) hea- 1986 they united in a Union of Roma Associations in Yugoslavia. ded by Anton Facuna was created in 1968 in Slovakia, and the In fact, in the other countries of Eastern Europe there was following year the similar “Svaz Cikanu-Romu” (Union of Gypsy no organised Romani movement. In Poland and Romania several – Roma) was founded in the Czech Socialist Republic. The two local Roma associations, whose activities were limited to the cul- organisations became one under the “People’s Front” (a mass pu- tural sphere, arose in the 70s (organising schools and groups for blic organisation dominated by the Communist Party). The Roma Roma music and dances, participation in feasts and festivals, etc). organisations created a network of local branches and attempted Similar activities took place on a large scale in the tens of Roma to carry out activities in the sphere of employment, in improving musical and dance ensembles in the Soviet Union, and there were housing conditions and the education of Roma children, in resol- sporadic examples even in Albania. ving the problems of Roma women and in the field of promotion Ill. 2 (provided by Elena Marushiakova / Veselin Popov)

the CIR formally organised the First twenty-three international organisa- Canada and Australia, had been linked World Romani Congress. By 1972, tions in twenty-one countries, including through the CIR.

Roma’s prescribed social and economic unity”, the fight against social margi- The Awakening of the status. [Ill. 2] nalisation and a common striving for a “Romani Movement” – The striving for equality and so- positive future. the First World Romani cial recognition to a great degree resulted Based on the existence of a so- Congress (1971) from a change in the way the Roma dealt called “Romani Nation”, the song “Ge- with their own identity. Assimilation to lem, Gelem” was proposed as the offi- The launching of the later so-called the majority population and self denial cial Romani anthem and a common flag “Romani Movement” triggered a radical were replaced by clear public support was created. The motto “Opre Roma!” change in the behaviour of Roma socie- and acceptance of Roma culture. Inte- became the political credo of the Ro- ties in dealing with political and social gration no longer was to depend on the mani Movement and its fight for social realities: for the longest time, the Roma’s loss of cultural identity. The Roma de- justice and equality. The choice of the destiny had been defined from “outside” manded to be recognised and respected terms “Rom” and “Romani” as official by the majority populations. Their beha- by society as Roma. Along with political designations was to do away with old vioural pattern throughout the centuries demands, there was the attempt to descri- prejudices and help create new self con- corresponded to that of a so-called “exit be the history and culture of the Roma fidence. Slobodan Beberski was elected society”, as it was characterised by avo- from the inside and make this accessible Honorary president, Dr. Jan Čibula from idance of conflicts and escape from un- to Non-Roma. Czechoslovakia (Vice-)President, and favourable conditions. The formation of the World Ro- Grattan Puxon, Head of the British Gyp- Towards the early 1970s, a small mani Congress in 1971 constitutes the sy Council, General Secretary, and com- but proper Roma elite had formed in breakthrough of the new political mo- missions were established which dealt Eastern and Western Europe, which for vement. Its first conference in London with war crimes, social and educational the first time voiced Roma issues in pu- with participants from 14 states was an conditions, as well as the language and blic and showed opposition against the expression of the need for “international culture of the Roma. [Ills. 1, 4, 5]

mation of other politically active Roma United States, India and Pakistan. An THE Second World Romani organisations within and outside Euro- important step for the future was the Congress (1978) pe. Consequently, the Second Romani formation of the International Romani World Congress, which took place in Union (IRU) in 1977, joining regional The London Congress triggered and Geneva in April 1978, already had the and national representatives. In the fol- strengthened emancipatory activities participation of no less than 50 Roma lowing years and decades, the IRU ma- worldwide, which resulted in the for- organisations from all over Europe, the naged to make governments pay closer

Recognition of Genocide and Institutionalisation of Roma Politics A Shift to the East

Ill. 4 Participants at the first World Romani Congress, held in Lon- don 1971, singing the anthem “Gelem, gelem” (with words Ill. 3 by Jarko Jovanović, white coat). Jan Čibula (far left) later Shakir Pashov (centre) among participants at a conference of the All- became the first President of the International Romani Union Gypsies’ Organisation against Fascism and Racism and for the Promotion and Grattan Puxon (far right) played a key role in setting up of the Cultural Development of the Gypsy Minority in Bulgaria, March the second congress. Walsall, 1971. Behind (l and r) are La- 12-13, 1949. dislav Demeter, Vanko Rouda and Juan de Dios Ramirez. (from the archives of Studii Romani, Sofia, Bulgaria) (from Acton / Klímová 2001, p. 159)

attention to Roma issues and push Roma The international recognition of course of an international Roma festival lobbying with and within the internati- the Romani movement gained new im- that took place in Chandigarh, the Indian onal community. In 1979 the IRU was pulses, with support from India. Indian Prime Minister Indira Ghandi received accepted into the economic and social politicians worked to establish and in- a Roma delegation, assuring the Roma councils of the UN as a private organi- tensify cultural contacts between the of India’s support in the presence of the sation. Roma and their country of origin. In the United Nations.

man Sinti and Roma with Chancellor organisations could be established. In Recognition of Genocide Schmidt (and also later with opposition 1986, the International Romani Union and Institutionalisation leader Kohl), this official recognition became a member of UNICEF. of Roma Politics of the genocide was achieved in 1982. Both the so-called “Congress of Furthermore, foundations for reparation Local and Regional Authorities of Eu- The Third World Romani Congress was and financing of the Sinti and Roma or- rope” as part of the Council of Europe, held in Göttingen in 1981. In light of ganisations were laid. and the Human Rights Committee of the ongoing violations of civil rights, 300 This success had positive effects European Parliament repeatedly dealt delegates from 22 countries deman- on the self-confidence of the entire mo- with the situation of the Roma. After the ded that the Helsinki File be applied to vement. Additionally, in the period of IRU had been accepted into the OSCE Roma people. Another emphasis of the time between the third and fourth (held in 1990, Permanent Office of Contact for discussion which was worked on under in Warsaw in 1990) congresses an im- Sinti and Roma was established in War- the patronage of the “Gesellschaft für provement of the Roma’s social condi- saw as part of the Conference in 1994. bedrohte Völker” (Society for the Pro- tions and the conservation of their na- In the wake of the Fifth World tection of Endangered Peoples) was the tional and minority rights was achieved Romani Congress held in Prague in the fate of the Roma during the time of Na- in several countries. At meetings with year 2000, reforms had to be carried tional Socialism. The German govern- representatives of different institutions out within the IRU and new structures ment was asked to recognise the Roma of the UN, UNESCO, the European were established. What followed was the genocide and work out an appropriate Council, and the EC, Roma issues were foundation of a Roma Parliament, which solution to the problem of reparation. discussed by international committees. from then on was to define the direction In the course of a reception of represen- In this way, the kind of conditions nee- of internal and international IRU poli- tatives of the Central Council of Ger- ded for the successful work of Roma tics. Along with the parliament, which is

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The Leading Role of Yugoslav Roma on and a Roma delegation at the festival (chiefly representatives from the International Scene Yugoslavia) was received by Prime Minister Indira Ghandi. The meeting was arranged via the channels of the Yugoslav Ministry The vivid Yugoslav Romani Movement quickly came to the fore on of Foreign Affairs via the Non-Aligned Movement (at the time the international scene. The delegation of Yugoslavia took an active Yugoslavia and India were leading members of the Non-Aligned part in the First World Congress of Roma held in London in 1971. movement). Representatives from 8 countries – and participants from some During the first stages of the development of the internati- more – attended, among them 2 from Eastern Europe (Yugoslavia onal Romani Movement the policy of Yugoslavia was an important and Czechoslovakia). Slobodan Berberski was elected Honorary factor in its support. The Yugoslav delegation at the first three con- President of the Congress and the International Romani Union gresses were supported by the state and were the largest, which (then known by the name of RIC) was founded at its base, with Ber- was the reason why there always were Yugoslav Roma in leading berski as first President of this international Romani organisation. positions in the leading bodies of the IRU. At the second congress According to the documentation of the congress one of the main in 1978 in Geneva the IRU voted a new leadership – Dr Jan Čibula tasks of the newly established organisation was to spread the exa- (an emigrant from Czechoslovakia) was elected President and mple of Yugoslavia as a state with an exemplary role in its attitude Shaip Yusuf (Yugoslavia) Secretary General. At the third congress towards Roma. Even the flag of the Roma adopted at the Congress of the IRU in 1981 Sait Balic was elected President (at the time a existed in two variants – one the “official” one, known to the public member of the Central Committee of the Union of Yugoslav Com- as the blue-green flag with the Old Indian “chakra” in the centre, munists), and Rajko Djuric (Yugoslavia) Secretary General. The and the other, for Eastern Europe also including a red star. final of Yugoslav influence on the international Romani Movement Yugoslav official support for the international Romani Mo- was the fourth congress of the IRU in Warsaw in 1990, when Rajko vement was constant and took various forms. In 1974 the First Djuric was elected President. World Festival of Gypsy Culture took place at Chandigarh, India Ill. 5 (provided by Elena Marushiakova / Veselin Popov)

the union’s decisive agency, a new exe- Yet, the very fact that their pro- sions on their minority status. Whereas cutive organ was established in the form blems are being institutionalised often some organisations support the recog- of a committee. Former IRU President does not meet with the Roma’s agree- nition of the Roma as a “non-territori- Dr. Emil Ščuka was elected President of ment. So far, success in the realisation al” nation or “trans-national” minority, this committee made up of 15 members. of Roma demands has not only been others claim the recognition of the Roma The sixth and so far last World Romani impaired by resistance from the various as a national or ethnic minority. In light Congress was held in Lanciano, Italy, in governments, but the Roma themselves of future progress, a status combining 2004, where a new President, Stanislaw differ greatly in opinion and standpoint. national and trans-national membership Stankiewicz, was elected. [Ills. 6, 7] There are still serious internal discus- needs to be found.

Britain, France, Germany, Scandina- minority and the passing of a “Roma A Shift to the East via and other countries. For instance, Charter” by international organisations, autochthonous Roma were declared a which would officially lay down Roma national minority with special rights in rights. In Western Europe, numerous indepen- Austria (1993), in Finland (1995), and In Central and Eastern Europe, dent organisations emerged from 1970 in Germany. Mainly due to the compa- apart from the above cited and individu- onwards, funded by paying members ratively small number of Roma in most al activities, the process of Roma eman- and sometimes subsidised by national western countries, the promotion of po- cipation was delayed for some twenty authorities. The wealth of these associa- litical representation was not at the top years. Ignited by the political changes tions was, and still is, focused on human of the activist’s lists. after 1989, and fuelled by the urgent rights, cultural or educational issues. In On the initiatives by the Ham- needs of a population under enormous France and Great Britain, respectively, burg-based “Roma & Cinti Union” economic pressure, regional and trans- the interest was mainly centred on the (founded 1980), EUROM and, short- regional unions formed in all Eastern problems faced by the travelling Roma ly after, the Roma National Congress European countries with significant population, such as hostility from the (RNC) were founded. This latter organi- Roma minorities. Yet the beginnings of majority population, the lack of proper sation, today in addition to the IRU the this social, political and cultural pro- caravan sites, and education problems. second major international Roma orga- cess of renewal proved to be difficult, To the present day, many achievements nisation, focused its activities on the as there were major tensions among the were made by organisations in Great recognition of the Roma as a European Roma due to cultural and social hetero-

Political Participation on National and Community Level The Challenge of Cooperation Future Prospects

Ill. 6 Emil Ščuka (left), elected IRU Secretary General at the Fourth World Ro- Ill. 7 mani Congress and President at the fifth congress, talks to Estref Abdura- Lyobov Demetrova, Russian Roma Union, sings Romani anthem manoski, the President of Australian Roma Union. Prague, July 2000. to open the Fifth World Romani Congress in Prague. (from Acton / Klímová 2001, p. 192) (from Acton / Klímová 2001, p. 171)

geneity, and gaps between democratic help, media lobbying, training of me- organisations like the “Open Society principles and traditional authorities as diators, press reporting etc. Funded by Institute”, and the founding of legal ad- well as between political and personal foreign, mostly US-based foundations vocacy agencies, most notably the “Eu- ambitions. Moreover, there was great and trusts, and run almost exclusively ropean Roma Rights Centre” (ERRC) political opposition to Roma self-orga- by non-Roma, this “Gypsy industry”, as in Budapest, helped raise the issues of nisation. it has been called sarcastically, proved Eastern European Roma to a national The 1990s saw the rapid emer- and still proves to be problematic in se- and international level. On the other gence of NGOs concerned with human veral respects. The overall adequacy and hand, almost without exception it did rights monitoring, housing develop- efficiency of the many efforts has been not create job opportunities for Roma, ment, legal consultation, educational questioned repeatedly. For instance, the despite the various trainee-programmes promotion, health improvement, social engagement of influential international allegedly designed for this purpose.

ka (of the conservative party FIDESZ- lition with the Civic Forum and Public Political Participation MPSZ), and the communication expert Against Violence, respective political on National and and journalist, Viktória Mohácsi (of the movements that played a crucial role in Community Level liberal SZDSZ), became Members of the bringing down the communist regime. European Parliament. The first MEP of The ROI obtained four seats in the Czech The breakdown of the communist re- Roma roots had been Juan de Dios Ra- National Parliament, and one mandate in gimes did not only enable the Roma to mirez-Heredia, in 1986 founder and sin- Slovakia’s National Council. carry out lobbying activities in their own ce President of the Spanish Unión Ro- The ROI decided to run as an inde- countries and abroad. It also offered the maní, who held a seat in the European pendent political party in the 1992 parlia- possibility to participate in national po- Parliament for a short period in 1999. mentary elections. However, it received litics. They approached sympathetic po- In Czechoslovakia, for examp- only 0.53% of votes. The increasing num- litical parties to be included on electoral le, in March 1990 representatives of ber of conflicts between the Roma and nominee lists, or founded their own par- the Roma intelligentsia registered the members of the majority population in the ties, which in turn formed alliances with “Roma Obcanska Iniciativia” (Roma Ci- mid-90s indirectly led to the establish- larger parties of similar ideological ori- vic Initiative, ROI) with the Ministry of ment of a new Roma political entity cal- entation. In this way, Roma candidates in the Interior, a Roma political party with a led Roma Intelligentsia for Coexistence Romania, Bulgaria, the Czech Republic, nationwide basis. Its leader, Emil Ščuka, in the Slovak Republic (RIS). Since 1998, Slovakia, and Hungary managed to enter later became President of the Internatio- Roma politicians have tried to unite Roma parliament. In 2004, both the Hungarian nal Roma Union. In June 1990, the ROI political parties in Slovakia, but there politician and anthropologist, Livia Járó- ran in the parliamentary elections in coa- were only unsuccessful negotiations.

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Hungary: Local and national for Roma councils were Roma themselves. After a modification of structures of support the law in June 2005, in order to have the right to vote, the voters have to be registered as Roma by the Roma organisations. But there As an institutional framework by the state, the National and Ethnic are only an estimated third of the Roma who are willing to open- Minorities Office (NEKH) was established in 1990 to develop and ly identify themselves as such, and, as many organisations argue, oversee minority policies in Hungary. even fewer of them will register for elections. The Minorities Act of 1993 expanded minority rights and In 2002 the government established a new Roma Office established Hungary’s unique Minority Self-Government (MSG) under the Office of the Prime Minister, to coordinate Roma policies system, which allows minorities to form their own elected bodies to across the government. Consequently, specific Roma topics can be work in partnership with both local and national governments. The discussed at the highest political level. Many of NEKH’s respon- MSG system for the Roma and other minorities was established in sibilities related to the social integration of the Roma and coordi- 1995. The approximately 1,000 communal Roma self-governments nation on sectoral policies have been transferred to the new Roma receive a state support of € 2,700 each. The communities are obli- Office. Responsibility for Roma culture and minority rights remains ged to provide a local infrastructure for the Roma organisations. with NEKH. In addition, a Parliamentary Commissioner for Eth- In this context, however, the communities often explain that they nic and National Minorities (Minorities Ombudsman) was establis- can only act within their “range of possibilities”. Another major hed. This institution is monitoring the implementation of minority problem with the MSG system has been the fact that until recently rights, investigating complaints, and pursuing remediation for the anyone could vote for representatives to minority councils; thus, it infringements of the rights of national and ethnic minorities. has been estimated that fewer than ten per cent of those who voted Ill. 8

The municipal elections of 1998 parties. 254 Roma candidates ran for nued without major results. They fai- were more successful. The Roma were deputies’ posts and seven candidates led to agree on a common strategy for featured mostly on candidates’ lists of ran for mayoral positions. In the end, the national elections in 2002, which the ROI and the RIS, and ran as inde- a total of 56 Roma were elected as de- accordingly, like all the elections after pendent candidates, but they also ap- puties and six Roma candidates became 1990, did not result in parliament seats peared on candidates’ lists of other mayors. Merging attempts have conti- for Roma.

Roma groups often would not cooperate in Eastern and South-Eastern Europe- The Challenge of with members of “assimilated” groups, an countries hardly differed from each Cooperation which are mostly considered inferior. other in their demands (recognition of Other tensions within the Romani the Roma as an ethnic and national mi- Generally speaking, in view of the high Movement result from the heterogenei- nority, financial support of independent percentage of Roma in Central and Eas- ty of their leading persons. This group cultural centres, presence in the media tern European countries, their political consists of people who are highly re- and corresponding representation on po- influence is still very small. The reason spected among the Roma but often, due litical committees). for this situation can be seen not only in to their lack of formal education, poorly In Western Europe, so-called ignorance and missing financial support equipped to handle modern structures of “autochthonous” (well-established) and on the part of the non-Roma, but also in administration. Recently, there has been “allochthonous” (newly-arrived) Roma the substantial heterogeneity of the Roma a growing number of young, educated are politically played off against each population throughout Europe. people who are taking on political re- other due to their different legal status. many groupings differ consi- sponsibility. The contrast between tradi- In Austria, for example, the Roma who derably in terms of housing, language tional and modern democratic leadership have been living in the country for one (some speak Romani, others do not, those has caused a dramatic increase in Roma- century or more are recognised as a mi- who do, speak different dialectal variants ni organisations and has triggered com- nority, the allochthonous Roma, on the of Romani, etc.), and the level of margi- petition for the right of representation. other hand, are not recognised as such, nalisation, assimilation and integration. Despite the differences between irrespective of whether they have Austri- These factors influence the “romanipen” individual organisations, alliances could an nationality or not. Accordingly they (“Roma-being”) – the fulfilment and the be established in some countries in or- may not enjoy the rights and support for maintenance of the specific culture of der to ensure an at least partly united ethnic groups. As a consequence, most the Roma, and accordingly, self-esteem form of action. The resolution of inter- Roma organisations in Austria – as in and social standing within the Roma so- nal conflicts was fundamental, especial- many other countries – focus on intra- ciety. Members of “traditional”, “real” ly because the individual organisations group issues, and cooperation between

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No need for Paternalism NGOs. The initiative led to a considerable success of various local Roma parties in the 1999 communal elections. Although the pres- The founding of the “Euro-Roma” organisation in Bulgaria marks sure of the established parties continued to increase – with Roma- an outstanding event in the development of Roma emancipation. leaders imprisoned or driven to exile – in the following years, the In 1998, 3,386 delegates from 205 communal Roma organisations 2003 communal elections brought even greater success, with 164 gathered in Sofia with the aim of consolidating the Roma commu- Roma elected as members of different municipality councils. Be- nity, regardless of which grouping they belong to. Funded by Roma sides this, a considerable number of Roma were elected as mayors – mostly Kalderaš – exclusively, “Euro-Roma” started out to prove of many villages that are inhabited predominantly by Roma. that Roma do not need sponsoring by the state or (inter)national Ill. 9 (see Marushiakova / Popov 2005, pp. 433-455)

them is limited. There are but a few based Roma National Congress (RNC) fer legal, social and educational support exceptions, for instance the Hamburg- or “Romano Centro” in Vienna, who of- for newly arrived Roma as well.

ve a major step in the process of Roma in 2003, an initiative of nine Eastern Eu- Future Prospects emancipation. ropean governments (Bulgaria, Croatia, In 2004, the “European Roma and the Czech Republic, Hungary, “the for- Travellers Forum” (ERTF) was founded mer Yugoslav Republic of Macedonia”, Thanks to the founding of Roma orga- in Strasbourg. As a pan-European asso- Serbia, Romania, Slovak Republic, and nisations, worldwide lobbying, coopera- ciation, the forum aims at bringing to- Montenegro) together with international tion with international organisations and gether international and national Roma institutions (among others the European the institutionalisation of their issues, the organisations and linking them with the Commission, the Council of Europe, the Roma today are in a position to influence European Commission, the Council of World Bank), international NGOs (like political processes on a communal, nati- Europe, OSCE and other international the Open Society Institute) and interna- onal and international level. bodies and organisations. At the first tional Roma organisations declared the Over the past years, various de- meeting of the ERTF in December 2005, years until 2015 the “Decade of Roma partments of the Council of Europe and Rudko Kawczynski, leader of the Roma Inclusion”. An evaluation of the results European Union have been dealing with National Congress, was elected Presi- of this initiative will only be possible in Roma issues. Their numerous recom- dent. The Forum registered its national the years to come, yet the mere fact that mendations, however, have not yet been bodies, which in turn are responsible the Roma Decade involves several Eas- turned into many significant actions. for registering the various organisations tern European states at government level After all, there are two recent develop- that participate and have a vote in the as well as Roma organisations marks an ments, which, judging from their very Forum‘s assembly in Strasbourg. In outstanding event in the history of Roma design and first results, may well pro- 2005, following a conference in Hungary self-organisation and emancipation.

Bibliography

Acton, Thomas / Klímová, Ilona (2001) The International Romani Union. An East European answer to West European questions? Shifts in the focus of World Romani Congresses 1971-2000. In: Guy, Will (ed.) Between past and future. The Roma of Central and Eastern Europe. Hatfield: University of Hertfordshire Press, pp. 157-226 | Hancock, Ian (2002) We are the Romani people. Ame sam e Rromane džene. Hatfield: University of Hertfordshire Press | Marushiakova, Elena / Popov, Veselin (2005) The Roma - a Nation without a State? Historical Background and Contemporary Tendencies. In: Burszta, Wojciech et al. (eds.) Nationalismus Across the Globe. Poznan: School of Humanities and Journalism, pp. 433-455 | Matras Yaron (1998) The development of the Romani civil rights movement in Germany 1945-1996. In: Tebbutt, Susan (ed.) Sinti and Roma in German-speaking society and literature. Oxford / Providence: Berghahn, pp. 49-63