Annex I Glossary Editor: A.P.M. Baede (Netherlands) Notes: This glossary defines some specific terms as the lead authors intend them to be interpreted in the context of this report. Red, italicised words indicate that the term is defined in the Glossary.
8.2ka event Following the last post-glacial warming, a rapid Albedo The fraction of solar radiation reflected by a surface or climate oscillation with a cooling lasting about 400 years occurred object, often expressed as a percentage. Snow-covered surfaces have about 8.2 ka. This event is also referred to as the 8.2kyr event. a high albedo, the surface albedo of soils ranges from high to low, and vegetation-covered surfaces and oceans have a low albedo. The Abrupt climate change The nonlinearity of the climate system Earth’s planetary albedo varies mainly through varying cloudiness, may lead to abrupt climate change, sometimes called rapid climate snow, ice, leaf area and land cover changes. change, abrupt events or even surprises. The term abrupt often refers to time scales faster than the typical time scale of the responsible Albedo feedback A climate feedback involving changes in the forcing. However, not all abrupt climate changes need be externally Earth’s albedo. It usually refers to changes in the cryosphere, which forced. Some possible abrupt events that have been proposed has an albedo much larger (~0.8) than the average planetary albedo include a dramatic reorganisation of the thermohaline circulation, (~0.3). In a warming climate, it is anticipated that the cryosphere rapid deglaciation and massive melting of permafrost or increases in would shrink, the Earth’s overall albedo would decrease and more soil respiration leading to fast changes in the carbon cycle. Others solar radiation would be absorbed to warm the Earth still further. may be truly unexpected, resulting from a strong, rapidly changing forcing of a nonlinear system. Alkalinity A measure of the capacity of a solution to neutralize acids. Active layer The layer of ground that is subject to annual thawing and freezing in areas underlain by permafrost (Van Everdingen, Altimetry A technique for measuring the height of the sea, lake 1998). or river, land or ice surface with respect to the centre of the Earth within a defined terrestrial reference frame. More conventionally, the Adiabatic process An adiabatic process is a process in which no height is with respect to a standard reference ellipsoid approximating external heat is gained or lost by the system. The opposite is called the Earth’s oblateness, and can be measured from space by using a diabatic process. radar or laser with centimetric precision at present. Altimetry has the advantages of being a geocentric measurement, rather than a Adjustment time See Lifetime; see also Response time. measurement relative to the Earth’s crust as for a tide gauge, and of affording quasi-global coverage. Advection Transport of water or air along with its properties (e.g., temperature, chemical tracers) by the motion of the fluid. Regarding Annular modes Preferred patterns of change in atmospheric the general distinction between advection and convection, the former circulation corresponding to changes in the zonally averaged mid- describes the predominantly horizontal, large-scale motions of the latitude westerlies. The Northern Annular Mode has a bias to the atmosphere or ocean, while convection describes the predominantly North Atlantic and has a large correlation with the North Atlantic vertical, locally induced motions. Oscillation. The Southern Annular Mode occurs in the Southern Hemisphere. The variability of the mid-latitude westerlies has also Aerosols A collection of airborne solid or liquid particles, with a been known as zonal flow (or wind) vacillation, and defined through a typical size between 0.01 and 10 µm that reside in the atmosphere zonal index. For the corresponding circulation indices, see Box 3.4. for at least several hours. Aerosols may be of either natural or anthropogenic origin. Aerosols may influence climate in several Anthropogenic Resulting from or produced by human beings. ways: directly through scattering and absorbing radiation, and indirectly by acting as cloud condensation nuclei or modifying Atlantic Multi-decadal Oscillation (AMO) A multi-decadal (65 to the optical properties and lifetime of clouds (see Indirect aerosol 75 year) fluctuation in the North Atlantic, in which sea surface effect). temperatures showed warm phases during roughly 1860 to 1880 and 1930 to 1960 and cool phases during 1905 to 1925 and 1970 to 1990 Afforestation Planting of new forests on lands that historically with a range of order 0.4°C. have not contained forests. For a discussion of the term forest and related terms such as afforestation, reforestation and deforestation, Atmosphere The gaseous envelope surrounding the Earth. The see the IPCC Special Report on Land Use, Land-Use Change dry atmosphere consists almost entirely of nitrogen (78.1% volume and Forestry (IPCC, 2000). See also the report on Definitions mixing ratio) and oxygen (20.9% volume mixing ratio), together and Methodological Options to Inventory Emissions from Direct with a number of trace gases, such as argon (0.93% volume mixing Human-induced Degradation of Forests and Devegetation of Other ratio), helium and radiatively active greenhouse gases such as Vegetation Types (IPCC, 2003). carbon dioxide (0.035% volume mixing ratio) and ozone. In addition, the atmosphere contains the greenhouse gas water vapour, Air mass A widespread body of air, the approximately homogeneous whose amounts are highly variable but typically around 1% volume properties of which (1) have been established while that air was mixing ratio. The atmosphere also contains clouds and aerosols. situated over a particular region of the Earth’s surface, and (2) undergo specific modifications while in transit away from the source Atmospheric boundary layer The atmospheric layer adjacent to region (AMS, 2000). the Earth’s surface that is affected by friction against that boundary
941 Annex I
surface, and possibly by transport of heat and other variables which influence its production from cosmic rays (see Cosmogenic across that surface (AMS, 2000). The lowest 10 metres or so of isotopes). the boundary layer, where mechanical generation of turbulence is dominant, is called the surface boundary layer or surface layer. C3 plants Plants that produce a three-carbon compound during photosynthesis, including most trees and agricultural crops such as Atmospheric lifetime See Lifetime. rice, wheat, soybeans, potatoes and vegetables.
Attribution See Detection and attribution. C4 plants Plants that produce a four-carbon compound during photosynthesis, mainly of tropical origin, including grasses and Autotrophic respiration Respiration by photosynthetic organisms the agriculturally important crops maize, sugar cane, millet and (plants). sorghum.
Bayesian method A Bayesian method is a method by which a Carbonaceous aerosol Aerosol consisting predominantly of statistical analysis of an unknown or uncertain quantity is carried organic substances and various forms of black carbon (Charlson and out in two steps. First, a prior probability distribution is formulated Heintzenberg, 1995, p. 401). on the basis of existing knowledge (either by eliciting expert opinion or by using existing data and studies). At this first stage, an element Carbon cycle The term used to describe the flow of carbon (in of subjectivity may influence the choice, but in many cases, the prior various forms, e.g., as carbon dioxide) through the atmosphere, probability distribution is chosen as neutrally as possible, in order ocean, terrestrial biosphere and lithosphere. not to influence the final outcome of the analysis. In the second step, newly acquired data are introduced, using a theorem formulated by Carbon dioxide (CO2) A naturally occurring gas, also a by-product and named after the British mathematician Bayes (1702–1761), to of burning fossil fuels from fossil carbon deposits, such as oil, gas update the prior distribution into a posterior distribution. and coal, of burning biomass and of land use changes and other industrial processes. It is the principal anthropogenic greenhouse Biomass The total mass of living organisms in a given area or gas that affects the Earth’s radiative balance. It is the reference gas volume; dead plant material can be included as dead biomass. against which other greenhouse gases are measured and therefore has a Global Warming Potential of 1. Biome A biome is a major and distinct regional element of the biosphere, typically consisting of several ecosystems (e.g. forests, Carbon dioxide (CO2) fertilization The enhancement of the growth rivers, ponds, swamps within a region). Biomes are characterised by of plants as a result of increased atmospheric carbon dioxide (CO2) typical communities of plants and animals. concentration. Depending on their mechanism of photosynthesis, certain types of plants are more sensitive to changes in atmospheric Biosphere (terrestrial and marine) The part of the Earth system CO2 concentration. In particular, C3 plants generally show a larger comprising all ecosystems and living organisms, in the atmosphere, response to CO2 than C4 plants. on land (terrestrial biosphere) or in the oceans (marine biosphere), including derived dead organic matter, such as litter, soil organic CFC See Halocarbons. matter and oceanic detritus. Chaos A dynamical system such as the climate system, governed by Black carbon (BC) Operationally defined aerosol species based nonlinear deterministic equations (see Nonlinearity), may exhibit erratic on measurement of light absorption and chemical reactivity and/or or chaotic behaviour in the sense that very small changes in the initial thermal stability; consists of soot, charcoal and/or possible light- state of the system in time lead to large and apparently unpredictable absorbing refractory organic matter (Charlson and Heintzenberg, changes in its temporal evolution. Such chaotic behaviour may limit 1995, p. 401). the predictability of nonlinear dynamical systems.
Blocking anticyclone An anticyclone that remains nearly stationary Charcoal Material resulting from charring of biomass, usually for a week or more at middle to high latitudes, so that it blocks the retaining some of the microscopic texture typical of plant tissues; normal eastward progression of high- and low-pressure systems. chemically it consists mainly of carbon with a disturbed graphitic structure, with lesser amounts of oxygen and hydrogen (Charlson Bowen ratio The ratio of sensible to latent heat fluxes from the and Heintzenberg, 1995, p. 402). See Black carbon; Soot. Earth’s surface up into the atmosphere. Values are low (order 0.1) for wet surfaces like the ocean, and greater than 2 for deserts and Chronology Arrangement of events according to dates or times of drought regions. occurrence.
Burden The total mass of a gaseous substance of concern in the Clathrate (methane) A partly frozen slushy mix of methane gas atmosphere. and ice, usually found in sediments.
13C Stable isotope of carbon having an atomic weight of Climate Climate in a narrow sense is usually defined as the average approximately 13. Measurements of the ratio of 13C/12C in carbon weather, or more rigorously, as the statistical description in terms of dioxide molecules are used to infer the importance of different the mean and variability of relevant quantities over a period of time carbon cycle and climate processes and the size of the terrestrial ranging from months to thousands or millions of years. The classical carbon reservoir. period for averaging these variables is 30 years, as defined by the World Meteorological Organization. The relevant quantities are most 14C Unstable isotope of carbon having an atomic weight of often surface variables such as temperature, precipitation and wind. approximately 14, and a half-life of about 5,700 years. It is often Climate in a wider sense is the state, including a statistical description, used for dating purposes going back some 40 kyr. Its variation of the climate system. In various chapters in this report different in time is affected by the magnetic fields of the Sun and Earth, averaging periods, such as a period of 20 years, are also used.
942 Annex I
Climate change Climate change refers to a change in the state of of the climate in the future, for example, at seasonal, interannual the climate that can be identified (e.g., by using statistical tests) by or long-term time scales. Since the future evolution of the climate changes in the mean and/or the variability of its properties, and that system may be highly sensitive to initial conditions, such predictions persists for an extended period, typically decades or longer. Climate are usually probabilistic in nature. See also Climate projection; change may be due to natural internal processes or external forcings, Climate scenario; Predictability. or to persistent anthropogenic changes in the composition of the atmosphere or in land use. Note that the Framework Convention on Climate projection A projection of the response of the climate Climate Change (UNFCCC), in its Article 1, definesclimate change system to emission or concentration scenarios of greenhouse as: ‘a change of climate which is attributed directly or indirectly to gases and aerosols, or radiative forcing scenarios, often based human activity that alters the composition of the global atmosphere upon simulations by climate models. Climate projections are and which is in addition to natural climate variability observed over distinguished from climate predictions in order to emphasize that comparable time periods’. The UNFCCC thus makes a distinction climate projections depend upon the emission/concentration/ between climate change attributable to human activities altering radiative forcing scenario used, which are based on assumptions the atmospheric composition, and climate variability attributable concerning, for example, future socioeconomic and technological to natural causes. See also Climate variability; Detection and developments that may or may not be realised and are therefore Attribution. subject to substantial uncertainty.
Climate change commitment Due to the thermal inertia of the Climate response ocean and slow processes in the biosphere, the cryosphere and See Climate sensitivity. land surfaces, the climate would continue to change even if the atmospheric composition were held fixed at today’s values. Past Climate scenario A plausible and often simplified representation change in atmospheric composition leads to a committed climate of the future climate, based on an internally consistent set of change, which continues for as long as a radiative imbalance persists climatological relationships that has been constructed for explicit and until all components of the climate system have adjusted to a new use in investigating the potential consequences of anthropogenic state. The further change in temperature after the composition of the climate change, often serving as input to impact models. Climate atmosphere is held constant is referred to as the constant composition projections often serve as the raw material for constructing temperature commitment or simply committed warming or warming climate scenarios, but climate scenarios usually require additional commitment. Climate change commitment includes other future information such as about the observed current climate. A climate changes, for example in the hydrological cycle, in extreme weather change scenario is the difference between a climate scenario and and climate events, and in sea level change. the current climate.
Climate feedback An interaction mechanism between processes in Climate sensitivity In IPCC reports, equilibrium climate sensitivity the climate system is called a climate feedback when the result of refers to the equilibrium change in the annual mean global surface an initial process triggers changes in a second process that in turn temperature following a doubling of the atmospheric equivalent influences the initial one. A positive feedback intensifies the original carbon dioxide concentration. Due to computational constraints, process, and a negative feedback reduces it. the equilibrium climate sensitivity in a climate model is usually estimated by running an atmospheric general circulation model Climate Feedback Parameter A way to quantify the radiative coupled to a mixed-layer ocean model, because equilibrium climate response of the climate system to a global surface temperature sensitivity is largely determined by atmospheric processes. Efficient change induced by a radiative forcing (units: W m–2 °C–1). It varies models can be run to equilibrium with a dynamic ocean. as the inverse of the effective climate sensitivity. Formally, the The effective climate sensitivity is a related measure that Climate Feedback Parameter (Λ) is defined as: Λ = (ΔQ – ΔF) / circumvents the requirement of equilibrium. It is evaluated from ΔT, where Q is the global mean radiative forcing, T is the global model output for evolving non-equilibrium conditions. It is a mean air surface temperature, F is the heat flux into the ocean and Δ measure of the strengths of the climate feedbacks at a particular time represents a change with respect to an unperturbed climate. and may vary with forcing history and climate state. The climate sensitivity parameter (units: °C (W m–2)–1) refers to the equilibrium Climate model (spectrum or hierarchy) A numerical representation change in the annual mean global surface temperature following a of the climate system based on the physical, chemical and biological unit change in radiative forcing. properties of its components, their interactions and feedback The transient climate response is the change in the global surface processes, and accounting for all or some of its known properties. The temperature, averaged over a 20-year period, centred at the time of climate system can be represented by models of varying complexity, atmospheric carbon dioxide doubling, that is, at year 70 in a 1% that is, for any one component or combination of components yr–1 compound carbon dioxide increase experiment with a global a spectrum or hierarchy of models can be identified, differing in coupled climate model. It is a measure of the strength and rapidity of such aspects as the number of spatial dimensions, the extent to the surface temperature response to greenhouse gas forcing. which physical, chemical or biological processes are explicitly represented, or the level at which empirical parametrizations are Climate shift or climate regime shift An abrupt shift or jump involved. Coupled Atmosphere-Ocean General Circulation Models in mean values signalling a change in regime. Most widely used (AOGCMs) provide a representation of the climate system that in conjunction with the 1976/1977 climate shift that seems to is near the most comprehensive end of the spectrum currently correspond to a change in El Niño-Southern Oscillation behavior. available. There is an evolution towards more complex models with interactive chemistry and biology (see Chapter 8). Climate models Climate system The climate system is the highly complex are applied as a research tool to study and simulate the climate, system consisting of five major components: the atmosphere, the and for operational purposes, including monthly, seasonal and hydrosphere, the cryosphere, the land surface and the biosphere, interannual climate predictions. and the interactions between them. The climate system evolves in time under the influence of its own internal dynamics and because Climate prediction A climate prediction or climate forecast is the of external forcings such as volcanic eruptions, solar variations and result of an attempt to produce an estimate of the actual evolution
943 Annex I
anthropogenic forcings such as the changing composition of the Emissions from Direct Human-induced Degradation of Forests and atmosphere and land use change. Devegetation of Other Vegetation Types (IPCC, 2003).
Climate variability Climate variability refers to variations in Desertification Land degradation in arid, semi-arid, and dry the mean state and other statistics (such as standard deviations, sub-humid areas resulting from various factors, including climatic the occurrence of extremes, etc.) of the climate on all spatial and variations and human activities. The United Nations Convention to temporal scales beyond that of individual weather events. Variability Combat Desertification defines land degradation as a reduction or may be due to natural internal processes within the climate system loss in arid, semi-arid, and dry sub-humid areas, of the biological (internal variability), or to variations in natural or anthropogenic or economic productivity and complexity of rain-fed cropland, external forcing (external variability). See also Climate change. irrigated cropland, or range, pasture, forest, and woodlands resulting from land uses or from a process or combination of processes, Cloud condensation nuclei (CCN) Airborne particles that serve as including processes arising from human activities and habitation an initial site for the condensation of liquid water, which can lead to patterns, such as (i) soil erosion caused by wind and/or water; (ii) the formation of cloud droplets. See also Aerosols. deterioration of the physical, chemical and biological or economic properties of soil; and (iii) long-term loss of natural vegetation. Cloud feedback A climate feedback involving changes in any of the properties of clouds as a response to other atmospheric changes. Detection and attribution Climate varies continually on all time Understanding cloud feedbacks and determining their magnitude scales. Detection of climate change is the process of demonstrating and sign require an understanding of how a change in climate may that climate has changed in some defined statistical sense, without affect the spectrum of cloud types, the cloud fraction and height, providing a reason for that change. Attribution of causes of climate and the radiative properties of clouds, and an estimate of the impact change is the process of establishing the most likely causes for the of these changes on the Earth’s radiation budget. At present, cloud detected change with some defined level ofconfidence . feedbacks remain the largest source of uncertainty in climate sensitivity estimates. See also Cloud radiative forcing; Radiative Diatoms Silt-sized algae that live in surface waters of lakes, rivers forcing. and oceans and form shells of opal. Their species distribution in ocean cores is often related to past sea surface temperatures. Cloud radiative forcing Cloud radiative forcing is the difference between the all-sky Earth’s radiation budget and the clear-sky Diurnal temperature range The difference between the maximum Earth’s radiation budget (units: W m–2). and minimum temperature during a 24-hour period.
CO2-equivalent See Equivalent carbon dioxide. Dobson unit (DU) A unit to measure the total amount of ozone in a vertical column above the Earth’s surface (total column ozone). The Confidence The level of confidence in the correctness of a result number of Dobson units is the thickness in units of 10–5 m that the is expressed in this report, using a standard terminology defined in ozone column would occupy if compressed into a layer of uniform Box 1.1. See also Likelihood; Uncertainty. density at a pressure of 1,013 hPa and a temperature of 0°C. One DU corresponds to a column of ozone containing 2.69 × 1,020 Convection Vertical motion driven by buoyancy forces arising from molecules per square metre. A typical value for the amount of ozone static instability, usually caused by near-surface cooling or increases in a column of the Earth’s atmosphere, although very variable, is in salinity in the case of the ocean and near-surface warming in the 300 DU. case of the atmosphere. At the location of convection, the horizontal scale is approximately the same as the vertical scale, as opposed to Downscaling Downscaling is a method that derives local- to the large contrast between these scales in the general circulation. regional-scale (10 to 100 km) information from larger-scale models The net vertical mass transport is usually much smaller than the or data analyses. Two main methods are distinguished: dynamical upward and downward exchange. downscaling and empirical/statistical downscaling. The dynamical method uses the output of regional climate models, global models Cosmogenic isotopes Rare isotopes that are created when a high- with variable spatial resolution or high-resolution global models. energy cosmic ray interacts with the nucleus of an in situ atom. They The empirical/statistical methods develop statistical relationships are often used as indications of solar magnetic activity (which can that link the large-scale atmospheric variables with local/regional shield cosmic rays) or as tracers of atmospheric transport, and are climate variables. In all cases, the quality of the downscaled product also called cosmogenic nuclides. depends on the quality of the driving model.
Cryosphere The component of the climate system consisting of all Drought In general terms, drought is a ‘prolonged absence or marked snow, ice and frozen ground (including permafrost) on and beneath deficiency of precipitation’, a ‘deficiency that results in water shortage the surface of the Earth and ocean. See also Glacier; Ice sheet. for some activity or for some group’, or a ‘period of abnormally dry weather sufficiently prolonged for the lack of precipitation to cause Dansgaard-Oeschger events Abrupt warming events followed a serious hydrological imbalance’ (Heim, 2002). Drought has been by gradual cooling. The abrupt warming and gradual cooling is defined in a number of ways.Agricultural drought relates to moisture primarily seen in Greenland ice cores and in palaeoclimate records deficits in the topmost 1 metre or so of soil (the root zone) that from the nearby North Atlantic, while a more general warming affect crops, meteorological drought is mainly a prolonged deficit followed by a gradual cooling has been observed in other areas as of precipitation, and hydrologic drought is related to below-normal well, at intervals of 1.5 to 7 kyr during glacial times. streamflow, lake and groundwater levels. A megadrought is a long- drawn out and pervasive drought, lasting much longer than normal, Deforestation Conversion of forest to non-forest. For a discussion usually a decade or more. For further information, see Box 3.1. of the term forest and related terms such as afforestation, reforestation, and deforestation see the IPCC Special Report on Dynamical system A process or set of processes whose evolution Land Use, Land-Use Change and Forestry (IPCC, 2000). See also in time is governed by a set of deterministic physical laws. The the report on Definitions and Methodological Options to Inventory climate system is a dynamical system. See Abrupt climate change; Chaos; Nonlinearity; Predictability. 944 Annex I
Ecosystem A system of living organisms interacting with each implies that, globally, the amount of incoming solar radiation on other and their physical environment. The boundaries of what could average must be equal to the sum of the outgoing reflected solar be called an ecosystem are somewhat arbitrary, depending on the radiation and the outgoing thermal infrared radiation emitted by the focus of interest or study. Thus, the extent of an ecosystem may climate system. A perturbation of this global radiation balance, be it range from very small spatial scales to, ultimately, the entire Earth. anthropogenic or natural, is called radiative forcing.
Efficacy A measure of how effective a radiative forcing from a Ensemble A group of parallel model simulations used for given anthropogenic or natural mechanism is at changing the climate projections. Variation of the results across the ensemble equilibrium global surface temperature compared to an equivalent members gives an estimate of uncertainty. Ensembles made with radiative forcing from carbon dioxide. A carbon dioxide increase by the same model but different initial conditions only characterise definition has an efficacy of 1.0. the uncertainty associated with internal climate variability, whereas multi-model ensembles including simulations by several Ekman pumping Frictional stress at the surface between two fluids models also include the impact of model differences. Perturbed- (atmosphere and ocean) or between a fluid and the adjacent solid parameter ensembles, in which model parameters are varied in a surface (Earth’s surface) forces a circulation. When the resulting systematic manner, aim to produce a more objective estimate of mass transport is converging, mass conservation requires a vertical modelling uncertainty than is possible with traditional multi-model flow away from the surface. This is called Ekman pumping. The ensembles. opposite effect, in case of divergence, is called Ekman suction. The effect is important in both the atmosphere and the ocean. Equilibrium and transient climate experiment An equilibrium climate experiment is an experiment in which a climate model Ekman transport The total transport resulting from a balance is allowed to fully adjust to a change in radiative forcing. Such between the Coriolis force and the frictional stress due to the action experiments provide information on the difference between the of the wind on the ocean surface. See also Ekman pumping. initial and final states of the model, but not on the time-dependent response. If the forcing is allowed to evolve gradually according El Niño-Southern Oscillation (ENSO) The term El Niño was initially to a prescribed emission scenario, the time-dependent response of used to describe a warm-water current that periodically flows along a climate model may be analysed. Such an experiment is called a the coast of Ecuador and Perú, disrupting the local fishery. It has transient climate experiment. See Climate projection. since become identified with a basin-wide warming of the tropical Pacific Ocean east of the dateline. This oceanic event is associated Equilibrium line The boundary between the region on a glacier with a fluctuation of a global-scale tropical and subtropical surface where there is a net annual loss of ice mass (ablation area) and that pressure pattern called the Southern Oscillation. This coupled where there is a net annual gain (accumulation area). The altitude of atmosphere-ocean phenomenon, with preferred time scales of two this boundary is referred to as equilibrium line altitude. to about seven years, is collectively known as the El Niño-Southern Oscillation (ENSO). It is often measured by the surface pressure Equivalent carbon dioxide (CO2) concentration anomaly difference between Darwin and Tahiti and the sea surface The concentration of carbon dioxide that would cause the same temperatures in the central and eastern equatorial Pacific. During an amount of radiative forcing as a given mixture of carbon dioxide ENSO event, the prevailing trade winds weaken, reducing upwelling and other greenhouse gases. and altering ocean currents such that the sea surface temperatures warm, further weakening the trade winds. This event has a great Equivalent carbon dioxide (CO2) emission The amount of carbon impact on the wind, sea surface temperature and precipitation dioxide emission that would cause the same integrated radiative patterns in the tropical Pacific. It has climatic effects throughout the forcing, over a given time horizon, as an emitted amount of a well Pacific region and in many other parts of the world, through global mixed greenhouse gas or a mixture of well mixed greenhouse gases. teleconnections. The cold phase of ENSO is called La Niña. The equivalent carbon dioxide emission is obtained by multiplying the emission of a well mixed greenhouse gas by its Global Warming Emission scenario A plausible representation of the future Potential for the given time horizon. For a mix of greenhouse gases development of emissions of substances that are potentially it is obtained by summing the equivalent carbon dioxide emissions radiatively active (e.g., greenhouse gases, aerosols), based on a of each gas. Equivalent carbon dioxide emission is a standard and coherent and internally consistent set of assumptions about driving useful metric for comparing emissions of different greenhouse gases forces (such as demographic and socioeconomic development, but does not imply exact equivalence of the corresponding climate technological change) and their key relationships. Concentration change responses (see Section 2.10). scenarios, derived from emission scenarios, are used as input to a climate model to compute climate projections. In IPCC (1992) a set Evapotranspiration The combined process of evaporation from the of emission scenarios was presented which were used as a basis for Earth’s surface and transpiration from vegetation. the climate projections in IPCC (1996). These emission scenarios are referred to as the IS92 scenarios. In the IPCC Special Report on External forcing External forcing refers to a forcing agent outside Emission Scenarios (Nakićenović and Swart, 2000) new emission the climate system causing a change in the climate system. Volcanic scenarios, the so-called SRES scenarios, were published, some of eruptions, solar variations and anthropogenic changes in the which were used, among others, as a basis for the climate projections composition of the atmosphere and land use change are external presented in Chapters 9 to 11 of IPCC (2001) and Chapters 10 and forcings. 11 of this report. For the meaning of some terms related to these scenarios, see SRES scenarios. Extreme weather event An extreme weather event is an event that is rare at a particular place and time of year. Definitions of rare Energy balance The difference between the total incoming and vary, but an extreme weather event would normally be as rare as total outgoing energy. If this balance is positive, warming occurs; or rarer than the 10th or 90th percentile of the observed probability if it is negative, cooling occurs. Averaged over the globe and over density function. By definition, the characteristics of what is called long time periods, this balance must be zero. Because the climate extreme weather may vary from place to place in an absolute sense. system derives virtually all its energy from the Sun, zero balance Single extreme events cannot be simply and directly attributed to
945 Annex I
anthropogenic climate change, as there is always a finite chance the hydrological, cryospheric and atmospheric effects; Earth rotation event in question might have occurred naturally. When a pattern of variations and polar motion; nutation and precession; tectonics extreme weather persists for some time, such as a season, it may be and other effects such as post-glacial rebound. The geoid is classed as an extreme climate event, especially if it yields an average global and extends over continents, oceans and ice sheets, and at or total that is itself extreme (e.g., drought or heavy rainfall over a present includes the effect of the permanent tides (zero-frequency season). gravitational effect from the Sun and the Moon). It is the surface of reference for astronomical observations, geodetic levelling, and Faculae Bright patches on the Sun. The area covered by faculae is for ocean, hydrological, glaciological and climate modelling. In greater during periods of high solar activity. practice, there exist various operational definitions of the geoid, depending on the way the time-variable effects mentioned above Feedback See Climate feedback. are modelled.
Fingerprint The climate response pattern in space and/or time to a Geostrophic winds or currents A wind or current that is in balance specific forcing is commonly referred to as a fingerprint. Fingerprints with the horizontal pressure gradient and the Coriolis force, and thus are used to detect the presence of this response in observations and is outside of the influence of friction. Thus, the wind or current is are typically estimated using forced climate model simulations. directly parallel to isobars and its speed is inversely proportional to the spacing of the isobaric contours. Flux adjustment To avoid the problem of coupled Atmosphere- Ocean General Circulation Models (AOGCMs) drifting into some Glacial isostatic adjustment See Post-glacial rebound. unrealistic climate state, adjustment terms can be applied to the atmosphere-ocean fluxes of heat and moisture (and sometimes the Glacier A mass of land ice that flows downhill under gravity surface stresses resulting from the effect of the wind on the ocean (through internal deformation and/or sliding at the base) and is surface) before these fluxes are imposed on the model ocean and constrained by internal stress and friction at the base and sides. A atmosphere. Because these adjustments are pre-computed and glacier is maintained by accumulation of snow at high altitudes, therefore independent of the coupled model integration, they are balanced by melting at low altitudes or discharge into the sea. See uncorrelated with the anomalies that develop during the integration. Equilibrium line; Mass balance. Chapter 8 of this report concludes that most models used in this report (Fourth Assessment Report AOGCMs) do not use flux Global dimming Global dimming refers to perceived widespread adjustments, and that in general, fewer models use them. reduction of solar radiation received at the surface of the Earth from about the year 1961 to around 1990. Forest A vegetation type dominated by trees. Many definitions of the term forest are in use throughout the world, reflecting wide Global surface temperature The global surface temperature is differences in biogeophysical conditions, social structure and an estimate of the global mean surface air temperature. However, economics. For a discussion of the term forest and related terms for changes over time, only anomalies, as departures from a such as afforestation, reforestation and deforestation see the IPCC climatology, are used, most commonly based on the area-weighted Report on Land Use, Land-Use Change and Forestry (IPCC, 2000). global average of the sea surface temperature anomaly and land See also the Report on Definitions and Methodological Options to surface air temperature anomaly. Inventory Emissions from Direct Human-induced Degradation of Forests and Devegetation of Other Vegetation Types (IPCC, 2003). Global Warming Potential (GWP) An index, based upon radiative properties of well-mixed greenhouse gases, measuring the Fossil fuel emissions Emissions of greenhouse gases (in particular radiative forcing of a unit mass of a given well-mixed greenhouse carbon dioxide) resulting from the combustion of fuels from fossil gas in the present-day atmosphere integrated over a chosen time carbon deposits such as oil, gas and coal. horizon, relative to that of carbon dioxide. The GWP represents the combined effect of the differing times these gases remain in the Framework Convention on Climate Change See United Nations atmosphere and their relative effectiveness in absorbing outgoing Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC). thermal infrared radiation. The Kyoto Protocol is based on GWPs from pulse emissions over a 100-year time frame. Free atmosphere The atmospheric layer that is negligibly affected by friction against Greenhouse effect Greenhouse gases effectively absorb thermal the Earth’s surface, and which is above the atmospheric boundary infrared radiation, emitted by the Earth’s surface, by the atmosphere layer. itself due to the same gases, and by clouds. Atmospheric radiation is emitted to all sides, including downward to the Earth’s surface. Frozen ground Soil or rock in which part or all of the pore water is Thus, greenhouse gases trap heat within the surface-troposphere frozen (Van Everdingen, 1998). Frozen ground includes permafrost. system. This is called the greenhouse effect. Thermal infrared Ground that freezes and thaws annually is called seasonally frozen radiation in the troposphere is strongly coupled to the temperature ground. of the atmosphere at the altitude at which it is emitted. In the troposphere, the temperature generally decreases with height. General circulation The large-scale motions of the atmosphere Effectively, infrared radiation emitted to space originates from an and the ocean as a consequence of differential heating on a rotating altitude with a temperature of, on average, –19°C, in balance with Earth, which tend to restore the energy balance of the system the net incoming solar radiation, whereas the Earth’s surface is kept through transport of heat and momentum. at a much higher temperature of, on average, +14°C. An increase in the concentration of greenhouse gases leads to an increased infrared General Circulation Model (GCM) See Climate model. opacity of the atmosphere, and therefore to an effective radiation into space from a higher altitude at a lower temperature. This causes Geoid The equipotential surface (i.e., having the same gravity a radiative forcing that leads to an enhancement of the greenhouse potential at each point) that best fits the mean sea level (see relative effect, the so-called enhanced greenhouse effect. sea level) in the absence of astronomical tides; ocean circulations;
946 Annex I
Greenhouse gas (GHG) Greenhouse gases are those gaseous resulting in growth of continental ice sheets and mountain glaciers constituents of the atmosphere, both natural and anthropogenic, that (glaciation). absorb and emit radiation at specific wavelengths within the spectrum of thermal infrared radiation emitted by the Earth’s surface, the Ice cap A dome shaped ice mass, usually covering a highland area, atmosphere itself, and by clouds. This property causes the greenhouse which is considerably smaller in extent than an ice sheet. effect. Water vapour (H2O), carbon dioxide (CO2), nitrous oxide (N2O), methane (CH4) and ozone (O3) are the primary greenhouse gases in the Ice core A cylinder of ice drilled out of a glacier or ice sheet. Earth’s atmosphere. Moreover, there are a number of entirely human- made greenhouse gases in the atmosphere, such as the halocarbons Ice sheet A mass of land ice that is sufficiently deep to cover and other chlorine- and bromine-containing substances, dealt with most of the underlying bedrock topography, so that its shape is under the Montreal Protocol. Beside CO2, N2O and CH4, the Kyoto mainly determined by its dynamics (the flow of the ice as it deforms Protocol deals with the greenhouse gases sulphur hexafluoride (SF6), internally and/or slides at its base). An ice sheet flows outward from hydrofluorocarbons (HFCs) and perfluorocarbons (PFCs). a high central ice plateau with a small average surface slope. The margins usually slope more steeply, and most ice is discharged Gross Primary Production (GPP) The amount of energy fixed from through fast-flowing ice streams or outlet glaciers, in some cases the atmosphere through photosynthesis. into the sea or into ice shelves floating on the sea. There are only three large ice sheets in the modern world, one on Greenland and Ground ice A general term referring to all types of ice contained two on Antarctica, the East and West Antarctic Ice Sheets, divided in freezing and seasonally frozen ground and permafrost (Van by the Transantarctic Mountains. During glacial periods there were Everdingen, 1998). others.
Ground temperature The temperature of the ground near the surface Ice shelf A floating slab of ice of considerable thickness extending (often within the first 10 cm). It is often calledsoil temperature. from the coast (usually of great horizontal extent with a level or gently sloping surface), often filling embayments in the coastline of Grounding line/zone The junction between a glacier or ice sheet the ice sheets. Nearly all ice shelves are in Antarctica, where most and ice shelf; the place where ice starts to float. of the ice discharged seaward flows into ice shelves.
Gyre Basin-scale ocean horizontal circulation pattern with Ice stream A stream of ice flowing faster than the surrounding ice slow flow circulating around the ocean basin, closed by a strong sheet. It can be thought of as a glacier flowing between walls of and narrow (100–200 km wide) boundary current on the western slower-moving ice instead of rock. side. The subtropical gyres in each ocean are associated with high pressure in the centre of the gyres; the subpolar gyres are associated Indirect aerosol effect Aerosols may lead to an indirect radiative with low pressure. forcing of the climate system through acting as cloud condensation nuclei or modifying the optical properties and lifetime of clouds. Hadley Circulation A direct, thermally driven overturning cell in the Two indirect effects are distinguished: atmosphere consisting of poleward flow in the upper troposphere, subsiding air into the subtropical anticyclones, return flow as part of Cloud albedo effect A radiative forcing induced by an increase the trade winds near the surface, and with rising air near the equator in anthropogenic aerosols that cause an initial increase in droplet in the so-called Inter-Tropical Convergence Zone. concentration and a decrease in droplet size for fixed liquid water content, leading to an increase in cloud albedo. This effect Halocarbons A collective term for the group of partially is also known as the first indirect effect or Twomey effect. halogenated organic species, including the chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs), hydrochlorofluorocarbons (HCFCs), hydrofluorocarbons Cloud lifetime effect A forcing induced by an increase in (HFCs), halons, methyl chloride, methyl bromide, etc. Many of the anthropogenic aerosols that cause a decrease in droplet size, halocarbons have large Global Warming Potentials. The chlorine- reducing the precipitation efficiency, thereby modifying the and bromine-containing halocarbons are also involved in the liquid water content, cloud thickness and cloud life time. This depletion of the ozone layer. effect is also known as the second indirect effect or Albrecht effect. Halosteric See Sea level change. Apart from these indirect effects, aerosols may have a semi- direct effect. This refers to the absorption of solar radiation HCFC See Halocarbons. by absorbing aerosol, which heats the air and tends to increase the static stability relative to the surface. It may also cause HFC See Halocarbons. evaporation of cloud droplets.
Heterotrophic respiration The conversion of organic matter to Industrial revolution A period of rapid industrial growth with far- carbon dioxide by organisms other than plants. reaching social and economic consequences, beginning in Britain during the second half of the eighteenth century and spreading to Holocene The Holocene geological epoch is the latter of two Europe and later to other countries including the United States. Quaternary epochs, extending from about 11.6 ka to and including The invention of the steam engine was an important trigger of this the present. development. The industrial revolution marks the beginning of a strong increase in the use of fossil fuels and emission of, in particular, Hydrosphere The component of the climate system comprising fossil carbon dioxide. In this report the terms pre-industrial and liquid surface and subterranean water, such as oceans, seas, rivers, industrial refer, somewhat arbitrarily, to the periods before and after fresh water lakes, underground water, etc. 1750, respectively.
Ice age An ice age or glacial period is characterised by a Infrared radiation See Thermal infrared radiation. long-term reduction in the temperature of the Earth’s climate,
947 Annex I
Insolation The amount of solar radiation reaching the Earth by Last Interglacial (LIG) See Interglacial. latitude and by season. Usually insolation refers to the radiation arriving at the top of the atmosphere. Sometimes it is specified as Latent heat flux The flux of heat from the Earth’s surface to the referring to the radiation arriving at the Earth’s surface. See also: atmosphere that is associated with evaporation or condensation Total Solar Irradiance. of water vapour at the surface; a component of the surface energy budget. Interglacials The warm periods between ice age glaciations. The previous interglacial, dated approximately from 129 to 116 ka, is Level of Scientific Understanding (LOSU) This is an index on referred to as the Last Interglacial (AMS, 2000) a 5-step scale (high, medium, medium-low, low and very low) designed to characterise the degree of scientific understanding of the Internal variability See Climate variability. radiative forcing agents that affect climate change. For each agent, the index represents a subjective judgement about the evidence for Inter-Tropical Convergence Zone (ITCZ) The Inter-Tropical the physical/chemical mechanisms determining the forcing and the Convergence Zone is an equatorial zonal belt of low pressure near consensus surrounding the quantitative estimate and its uncertainty. the equator where the northeast trade winds meet the southeast trade winds. As these winds converge, moist air is forced upward, resulting Lifetime Lifetime is a general term used for various time scales in a band of heavy precipitation. This band moves seasonally. characterising the rate of processes affecting the concentration of trace gases. The following lifetimes may be distinguished: Isostatic or Isostasy Isostasy refers to the way in which the Turnover time (T) (also called global atmospheric lifetime) is the lithosphere and mantle respond visco-elastically to changes in ratio of the mass M of a reservoir (e.g., a gaseous compound in the surface loads. When the loading of the lithosphere and/or the mantle atmosphere) and the total rate of removal S from the reservoir: T = M is changed by alterations in land ice mass, ocean mass, sedimentation, / S. For each removal process, separate turnover times can be defined. erosion or mountain building, vertical isostatic adjustment results, In soil carbon biology, this is referred to as Mean Residence Time. in order to balance the new load. Adjustment time or response time (Ta ) is the time scale characterising the decay of an instantaneous pulse input into the Kyoto Protocol The Kyoto Protocol to the United Nations reservoir. The term adjustment time is also used to characterise the Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC) was adopted adjustment of the mass of a reservoir following a step change in in 1997 in Kyoto, Japan, at the Third Session of the Conference the source strength. Half-life or decay constant is used to quantify of the Parties (COP) to the UNFCCC. It contains legally binding a first-order exponential decay process. See response time for a commitments, in addition to those included in the UNFCCC. different definition pertinent toclimate variations. Countries included in Annex B of the Protocol (most Organisation The term lifetime is sometimes used, for simplicity, as a surrogate for Economic Cooperation and Development countries and countries for adjustment time. with economies in transition) agreed to reduce their anthropogenic In simple cases, where the global removal of the compound is greenhouse gas emissions (carbon dioxide, methane, nitrous oxide, directly proportional to the total mass of the reservoir, the adjustment hydrofluorocarbons, perfluorocarbons, and sulphur hexafluoride) by time equals the turnover time: T = Ta. An example is CFC-11, which at least 5% below 1990 levels in the commitment period 2008 to is removed from the atmosphere only by photochemical processes 2012. The Kyoto Protocol entered into force on 16 February 2005. in the stratosphere. In more complicated cases, where several reservoirs are involved or where the removal is not proportional to Land use and Land use change Land use refers to the total of the total mass, the equality T = Ta no longer holds. Carbon dioxide arrangements, activities and inputs undertaken in a certain land (CO2) is an extreme example. Its turnover time is only about four cover type (a set of human actions). The term land use is also used years because of the rapid exchange between the atmosphere and in the sense of the social and economic purposes for which land is the ocean and terrestrial biota. However, a large part of that CO2 is managed (e.g., grazing, timber extraction and conservation). Land returned to the atmosphere within a few years. Thus, the adjustment use change refers to a change in the use or management of land time of CO2 in the atmosphere is actually determined by the rate by humans, which may lead to a change in land cover. Land cover of removal of carbon from the surface layer of the oceans into its and land use change may have an impact on the surface albedo, deeper layers. Although an approximate value of 100 years may be evapotranspiration, sources and sinks of greenhouse gases, or other given for the adjustment time of CO2 in the atmosphere, the actual properties of the climate system and may thus have a radiative adjustment is faster initially and slower later on. In the case of forcing and/or other impacts on climate, locally or globally. See methane (CH4), the adjustment time is different from the turnover also the IPCC Report on Land Use, Land-Use Change, and Forestry time because the removal is mainly through a chemical reaction with (IPCC, 2000). the hydroxyl radical OH, the concentration of which itself depends on the CH4 concentration. Therefore, the CH4 removal rate S is not La Niña See El Niño-Southern Oscillation. proportional to its total mass M.
Land surface air temperature The surface air temperature as Likelihood The likelihood of an occurrence, an outcome or a measured in well-ventilated screens over land at 1.5 m above the result, where this can be estimated probabilistically, is expressed ground. in this report using a standard terminology, defined in Box 1.1. See also Uncertainty; Confidence. Lapse rate The rate of change of an atmospheric variable, usually temperature, with height. The lapse rate is considered positive when Lithosphere The upper layer of the solid Earth, both continental the variable decreases with height. and oceanic, which comprises all crustal rocks and the cold, mainly elastic part of the uppermost mantle. Volcanic activity, although part Last Glacial Maximum (LGM) The Last Glacial Maximum refers to of the lithosphere, is not considered as part of the climate system, the time of maximum extent of the ice sheets during the last glaciation, but acts as an external forcing factor. See Isostatic. approximately 21 ka. This period has been widely studied because the radiative forcings and boundary conditions are relatively well known Little Ice Age (LIA) An interval between approximately AD 1400 and because the global cooling during that period is comparable with and 1900 when temperatures in the Northern Hemisphere were the projected warming over the 21st century. generally colder than today’s, especially in Europe. 948 Annex I
Mass balance (of glaciers, ice caps or ice sheets) The balance fraction differs from volume mixing ratio, often expressed in ppmv between the mass input to the ice body (accumulation) and the mass etc., by the corrections for non-ideality of gases. This correction is loss (ablation, iceberg calving). Mass balance terms include the significant relative to measurement precision for many greenhouse following: gases. (Schwartz and Warneck, 1995). Specific mass balance: net mass loss or gain over a hydrological cycle at a point on the surface of a glacier. Monsoon A monsoon is a tropical and subtropical seasonal reversal Total mass balance (of the glacier): The specific mass balance in both the surface winds and associated precipitation, caused by spatially integrated over the entire glacier area; the total mass a differential heating between a continental-scale land mass and the glacier gains or loses over a hydrological cycle. adjacent ocean. Monsoon rains occur mainly over land in summer. Mean specific mass balance: The total mass balance per unit area of the glacier. If surface is specified specific( surface mass balance, Montreal Protocol The Montreal Protocol on Substances that etc.) then ice flow contributions are not considered; otherwise, mass Deplete the Ozone Layer was adopted in Montreal in 1987, and balance includes contributions from ice flow and iceberg calving. subsequently adjusted and amended in London (1990), Copenhagen The specific surface mass balance is positive in the accumulation (1992), Vienna (1995), Montreal (1997) and Beijing (1999). It area and negative in the ablation area. controls the consumption and production of chlorine- and bromine- containing chemicals that destroy stratospheric ozone, such as Mean sea level See Relative sea level. chlorofluorocarbons, methyl chloroform, carbon tetrachloride and many others. Medieval Warm Period (MWP) An interval between AD 1000 and 1300 in which some Northern Hemisphere regions were warmer Microwave Sounding Unit (MSU) A satellite-borne microwave than during the Little Ice Age that followed. sounder that estimates the temperature of thick layers of the atmosphere by measuring the thermal emission of oxygen Meridional Overturning Circulation (MOC) Meridional (north- molecules from a complex of emission lines near 60 GHz. A series south) overturning circulation in the ocean quantified by zonal of nine MSUs began making this kind of measurement in late 1978. (east-west) sums of mass transports in depth or density layers. Beginning in mid 1998, a follow-on series of instruments, the In the North Atlantic, away from the subpolar regions, the MOC Advanced Microwave Sounding Units (AMSUs), began operation. (which is in principle an observable quantity) is often identified with the Thermohaline Circulation (THC), which is a conceptual MSU See Microwave Sounding Unit. interpretation. However, it must be borne in mind that the MOC can also include shallower, wind-driven overturning cells such as occur Nonlinearity A process is called nonlinear when there is no simple in the upper ocean in the tropics and subtropics, in which warm proportional relation between cause and effect. The climate system (light) waters moving poleward are transformed to slightly denser contains many such nonlinear processes, resulting in a system with waters and subducted equatorward at deeper levels. a potentially very complex behaviour. Such complexity may lead to abrupt climate change. See also Chaos; Predictability. Metadata Information about meteorological and climatological data concerning how and when they were measured, their quality, North Atlantic Oscillation (NAO) The North Atlantic Oscillation known problems and other characteristics. consists of opposing variations of barometric pressure near Iceland and near the Azores. It therefore corresponds to fluctuations in Metric A consistent measurement of a characteristic of an object or the strength of the main westerly winds across the Atlantic into activity that is otherwise difficult to quantify. Europe, and thus to fluctuations in the embedded cyclones with their associated frontal systems. See NAO Index, Box 3.4. Mitigation A human intervention to reduce the sources or enhance the sinks of greenhouse gases. Northern Annular Mode (NAM) A winter fluctuation in the amplitude of a pattern characterised by low surface pressure in the Arctic Mixing ratio See Mole fraction. and strong mid-latitude westerlies. The NAM has links with the northern polar vortex into the stratosphere. Its pattern has a bias to Model hierarchy See Climate model (spectrum or hierarchy). the North Atlantic and has a large correlation with the North Atlantic Oscillation. See NAM Index, Box 3.4. Modes of climate variability Natural variability of the climate system, in particular on seasonal and longer time scales, Ocean acidification A decrease in the pH of sea water due to the predominantly occurs with preferred spatial patterns and time uptake of anthropogenic carbon dioxide. scales, through the dynamical characteristics of the atmospheric circulation and through interactions with the land and ocean Ocean heat uptake efficiency This is a measure (W m–2 °C–1) surfaces. Such patterns are often called regimes, modes or of the rate at which heat storage by the global ocean increases as teleconnections. Examples are the North Atlantic Oscillation global surface temperature rises. It is a useful parameter for climate (NAO), the Pacific-North American pattern (PNA), the El Niño- change experiments in which the radiative forcing is changing Southern Oscillation (ENSO), the Northern Annular Mode (NAM; monotonically, when it can be compared with the climate sensitivity previously called Arctic Oscillation, AO) and the Southern Annular parameter to gauge the relative importance of climate response and Mode (SAM; previously called the Antarctic Oscillation, AAO). ocean heat uptake in determining the rate of climate change. It can Many of the prominent modes of climate variability are discussed in be estimated from a 1% yr–1 atmospheric carbon dioxide increase section 3.6. See also Patterns of climate variability. experiment as the ratio of the global average top-of-atmosphere net downward radiative flux to the transient climate response (see Mole fraction Mole fraction, or mixing ratio, is the ratio of the climate sensitivity). number of moles of a constituent in a given volume to the total number of moles of all constituents in that volume. It is usually Organic aerosol Aerosol particles consisting predominantly of reported for dry air. Typical values for long-lived greenhouse gases organic compounds, mainly carbon, hydrogen, oxygen and lesser are in the order of µmol mol–1 (parts per million: ppm), nmol mol–1 amounts of other elements. (Charlson and Heintzenberg, 1995, p. (parts per billion: ppb), and fmol mol–1 (parts per trillion: ppt). Mole 405). See Carbonaceous aerosol. 949 Annex I
+ Ozone Ozone, the triatomic form of oxygen (O3), is a gaseous pH = –log10(H ). Thus, a pH decrease of 1 unit corresponds atmospheric constituent. In the troposphere, it is created both to a 10-fold increase in the concentration of H+, or acidity. naturally and by photochemical reactions involving gases resulting from human activities (smog). Tropospheric ozone acts as a Photosynthesis The process by which plants take carbon dioxide greenhouse gas. In the stratosphere, it is created by the interaction from the air (or bicarbonate in water) to build carbohydrates, between solar ultraviolet radiation and molecular oxygen (O2). releasing oxygen in the process. There are several pathways of Stratospheric ozone plays a dominant role in the stratospheric photosynthesis with different responses to atmospheric carbon radiative balance. Its concentration is highest in the ozone layer. dioxide concentrations. See Carbon dioxide fertilization; C3 plants; C4 plants. Ozone hole See Ozone layer. Plankton Microorganisms living in the upper layers of aquatic Ozone layer The stratosphere contains a layer in which the systems. A distinction is made between phytoplankton, which concentration of ozone is greatest, the so-called ozone layer. The depend on photosynthesis for their energy supply, and zooplankton, layer extends from about 12 to 40 km above the Earth’s surface. The which feed on phytoplankton. ozone concentration reaches a maximum between about 20 and 25 km. This layer is being depleted by human emissions of chlorine and Pleistocene The earlier of two Quaternary epochs, extending from bromine compounds. Every year, during the Southern Hemisphere the end of the Pliocene, about 1.8 Ma, until the beginning of the spring, a very strong depletion of the ozone layer takes place over Holocene about 11.6 ka. the antarctic region, caused by anthropogenic chlorine and bromine compounds in combination with the specific meteorological Pollen analysis A technique of both relative dating and conditions of that region. This phenomenon is called the ozone hole. environmental reconstruction, consisting of the identification and See Montreal Protocol. counting of pollen types preserved in peat, lake sediments and other deposits. See Proxy. Pacific decadal variability Coupled decadal-to-inter-decadal variability of the atmospheric circulation and underlying ocean in Post-glacial rebound The vertical movement of the land and sea the Pacific Basin. It is most prominent in the North Pacific, where floor following the reduction of the load of an ice mass, for example, fluctuations in the strength of the winter Aleutian Low pressure since the Last Glacial Maximum (21 ka). The rebound is an isostatic system co-vary with North Pacific sea surface temperatures, and land movement. are linked to decadal variations in atmospheric circulation, sea surface temperatures and ocean circulation throughout the whole Precipitable water The total amount of atmospheric water vapour Pacific Basin. Such fluctuations have the effect of modulating theEl in a vertical column of unit cross-sectional area. It is commonly Niño-Southern Oscillation cycle. Key measures of Pacific decadal expressed in terms of the height of the water if completely condensed variability are the North Pacific Index (NPI), the Pacific Decadal and collected in a vessel of the same unit cross section. Oscillation (PDO) index and the Inter-decadal Pacific Oscillation (IPO) index, all defined in Box 3.4. Precursors Atmospheric compounds that are not greenhouse gases or aerosols, but that have an effect on greenhouse gas or aerosol Pacific-North American (PNA) pattern An atmospheric large-scale concentrations by taking part in physical or chemical processes wave pattern featuring a sequence of tropospheric high- and low- regulating their production or destruction rates. pressure anomalies stretching from the subtropical west Pacific to the east coast of North America. See PNA pattern index, Box 3.4. Predictability The extent to which future states of a system may be predicted based on knowledge of current and past states of the Palaeoclimate Climate during periods prior to the development system. of measuring instruments, including historic and geologic time, for Since knowledge of the climate system’s past and current states which only proxy climate records are available. is generally imperfect, as are the models that utilise this knowledge to produce a climate prediction, and since the climate system is Parametrization In climate models, this term refers to the technique inherently nonlinear and chaotic, predictability of the climate of representing processes that cannot be explicitly resolved at the system is inherently limited. Even with arbitrarily accurate models spatial or temporal resolution of the model (sub-grid scale processes) and observations, there may still be limits to the predictability of by relationships between model-resolved larger-scale flow and the such a nonlinear system (AMS, 2000) area- or time-averaged effect of such sub-grid scale processes. Pre-industrial See Industrial revolution. Patterns of climate variability See Modes of climate variability. Probability Density Function (PDF) A probability density function Percentile A percentile is a value on a scale of one hundred that is a function that indicates the relative chances of occurrence of indicates the percentage of the data set values that is equal to or different outcomes of a variable. The function integrates to unity below it. The percentile is often used to estimate the extremes of a over the domain for which it is defined and has the property that distribution. For example, the 90th (10th) percentile may be used to the integral over a sub-domain equals the probability that the refer to the threshold for the upper (lower) extremes. outcome of the variable lies within that sub-domain. For example, the probability that a temperature anomaly defined in a particular Permafrost Ground (soil or rock and included ice and organic way is greater than zero is obtained from its PDF by integrating material) that remains at or below 0°C for at least two consecutive the PDF over all possible temperature anomalies greater than zero. years (Van Everdingen, 1998). Probability density functions that describe two or more variables simultaneously are similarly defined. pH pH is a dimensionless measure of the acidity of water (or any solution) given by its concentration of hydrogen Projection A projection is a potential future evolution of a quantity ions (H+). pH is measured on a logarithmic scale where or set of quantities, often computed with the aid of a model.
950 Annex I
Projections are distinguished from predictions in order to emphasize Regime A regime is preferred states of the climate system, often that projections involve assumptions concerning, for example, future representing one phase of dominant patterns or modes of climate socioeconomic and technological developments that may or may variability. not be realised, and are therefore subject to substantial uncertainty. See also Climate projection; Climate prediction. Region A region is a territory characterised by specific geographical and climatological features. The climate of a region is Proxy A proxy climate indicator is a local record that is affected by regional and local scale forcings like topography, land interpreted, using physical and biophysical principles, to represent use characteristics, lakes, etc., as well as remote influences from some combination of climate-related variations back in time. other regions. See Teleconnection. Climate-related data derived in this way are referred to as proxy data. Examples of proxies include pollen analysis, tree ring records, Relative sea level Sea level measured by a tide gauge with respect characteristics of corals and various data derived from ice cores. to the land upon which it is situated. Mean sea level is normally defined as the average relative sea level over a period, such as a Quaternary The period of geological time following the Tertiary month or a year, long enough to average out transients such as (65 Ma to 1.8 Ma). Following the current definition (which is waves and tides. See Sea level change. under revision at present) the Quaternary extends from 1.8 Ma until the present. It is formed of two epochs, the Pleistocene and the Reservoir A component of the climate system, other than the Holocene. atmosphere, which has the capacity to store, accumulate or release a substance of concern, for example, carbon, a greenhouse gas or Radiative forcing Radiative forcing is the change in the net, a precursor. Oceans, soils and forests are examples of reservoirs downward minus upward, irradiance (expressed in W m–2) at the of carbon. Pool is an equivalent term (note that the definition of tropopause due to a change in an external driver of climate change, pool often includes the atmosphere). The absolute quantity of the such as, for example, a change in the concentration of carbon substance of concern held within a reservoir at a specified time is dioxide or the output of the Sun. Radiative forcing is computed with called the stock. all tropospheric properties held fixed at their unperturbed values, and after allowing for stratospheric temperatures, if perturbed, to Respiration The process whereby living organisms convert readjust to radiative-dynamical equilibrium. Radiative forcing is organic matter to carbon dioxide, releasing energy and consuming called instantaneous if no change in stratospheric temperature is molecular oxygen. accounted for. For the purposes of this report, radiative forcing is further defined as the change relative to the year 1750 and, unless Response time The response time or adjustment time is the time otherwise noted, refers to a global and annual average value. needed for the climate system or its components to re-equilibrate to Radiative forcing is not to be confused with cloud radiative forcing, a new state, following a forcing resulting from external and internal a similar terminology for describing an unrelated measure of the processes or feedbacks. It is very different for various components impact of clouds on the irradiance at the top of the atmosphere. of the climate system. The response time of the troposphere is relatively short, from days to weeks, whereas the stratosphere Radiative forcing scenario A plausible representation of the reaches equilibrium on a time scale of typically a few months. Due future development of radiative forcing associated, for example, to their large heat capacity, the oceans have a much longer response with changes in atmospheric composition or land use change, or time: typically decades, but up to centuries or millennia. The with external factors such as variations in solar activity. Radiative response time of the strongly coupled surface-troposphere system forcing scenarios can be used as input into simplifiedclimate models is, therefore, slow compared to that of the stratosphere, and mainly to compute climate projections. determined by the oceans. The biosphere may respond quickly (e.g., to droughts), but also very slowly to imposed changes. See lifetime Rapid climate change See Abrupt climate change. for a different definition of response time pertinent to the rate of processes affecting the concentration of trace gases. Reanalysis Reanalyses are atmospheric and oceanic analyses of temperature, wind, current, and other meteorological and Return period The average time between occurrences of a defined oceanographic quantities, created by processing past meteorological event (AMS, 2000). and oceanographic data using fixed state-of-the-art weather forecasting models and data assimilation techniques. Using fixed Return value The highest (or, alternatively, lowest) value of a data assimilation avoids effects from the changing analysis system given variable, on average occurring once in a given period of time that occurs in operational analyses. Although continuity is improved, (e.g., in 10 years). global reanalyses still suffer from changing coverage and biases in the observing systems. Scenario A plausible and often simplified description of how the future may develop, based on a coherent and internally consistent Reconstruction The use of climate indicators to help determine set of assumptions about driving forces and key relationships. (generally past) climates. Scenarios may be derived from projections, but are often based on additional information from other sources, sometimes combined Reforestation Planting of forests on lands that have previously with a narrative storyline. See also SRES scenarios; Climate contained forests but that have been converted to some other scenario; Emission scenario. use. For a discussion of the term forest and related terms such as afforestation, reforestation and deforestation, see the IPCC Report Sea ice Any form of ice found at sea that has originated from the on Land Use, Land-Use Change and Forestry (IPCC, 2000). See also freezing of seawater. Sea ice may be discontinuous pieces (ice floes) the Report on Definitions and Methodological Options to Inventory moved on the ocean surface by wind and currents (pack ice), or a Emissions from Direct Human-induced Degradation of Forests and motionless sheet attached to the coast (land-fast ice). Sea ice less Devegetation of Other Vegetation Types (IPCC, 2003) than one year old is called first-year ice. Multi-year ice is sea ice that has survived at least one summer melt season.
951 Annex I
Sea level change Sea level can change, both globally and locally, Soot Particles formed during the quenching of gases at the outer due to (i) changes in the shape of the ocean basins, (ii) changes edge of flames of organic vapours, consisting predominantly of in the total mass of water and (iii) changes in water density. Sea carbon, with lesser amounts of oxygen and hydrogen present as level changes induced by changes in water density are called steric. carboxyl and phenolic groups and exhibiting an imperfect graphitic Density changes induced by temperature changes only are called structure. See Black carbon; Charcoal (Charlson and Heintzenberg, thermosteric, while density changes induced by salinity changes are 1995, p. 406). called halosteric. See also Relative Sea Level; Thermal expansion. Source Any process, activity or mechanism that releases a Sea level equivalent (SLE) The change in global average sea level greenhouse gas, an aerosol or a precursor of a greenhouse gas or that would occur if a given amount of water or ice were added to or aerosol into the atmosphere. removed from the oceans. Southern Annular Mode (SAM) The fluctuation of a pattern like the Seasonally frozen ground See Frozen ground. Northern Annular Mode, but in the Southern Hemisphere. See SAM Index, Box 3.4. Sea surface temperature (SST) The sea surface temperature is the temperature of the subsurface bulk temperature in the top few Southern Oscillation See El Niño-Southern Oscillation (ENSO). metres of the ocean, measured by ships, buoys and drifters. From ships, measurements of water samples in buckets were mostly Spatial and temporal scales Climate may vary on a large range switched in the 1940s to samples from engine intake water. Satellite of spatial and temporal scales. Spatial scales may range from local measurements of skin temperature (uppermost layer; a fraction of (less than 100,000 km2), through regional (100,000 to 10 million a millimetre thick) in the infrared or the top centimetre or so in the km2) to continental (10 to 100 million km2). Temporal scales may microwave are also used, but must be adjusted to be compatible with range from seasonal to geological (up to hundreds of millions of the bulk temperature. years).
Sensible heat flux The flux of heat from the Earth’s surface to the SRES scenarios SRES scenarios are emission scenarios developed atmosphere that is not associated with phase changes of water; a by Nakićenović and Swart (2000) and used, among others, as a basis component of the surface energy budget. for some of the climate projections shown in Chapter 10 of this report. The following terms are relevant for a better understanding Sequestration See Uptake. of the structure and use of the set of SRES scenarios:
Significant wave height The average height of the highest one- Scenario family Scenarios that have a similar demographic, third of the wave heights (sea and swell) occurring in a particular societal, economic and technical change storyline. Four scenario time period. families comprise the SRES scenario set: A1, A2, B1 and B2.
Sink Any process, activity or mechanism that removes a Illustrative Scenario A scenario that is illustrative for each of the greenhouse gas, an aerosol or a precursor of a greenhouse gas or six scenario groups reflected in the Summary for Policymakers aerosol from the atmosphere. of Nakićenović and Swart (2000). They include four revised scenario markers for the scenario groups A1B, A2, B1, B2, Slab-ocean model A simplified presentation in a climate model and two additional scenarios for the A1FI and A1T groups. All of the ocean as a motionless layer of water with a depth of 50 to scenario groups are equally sound. 100 m. Climate models with a slab ocean can only be used for estimating the equilibrium response of climate to a given forcing, Marker Scenario A scenario that was originally posted in not the transient evolution of climate. See Equilibrium and transient draft form on the SRES website to represent a given scenario climate experiment. family. The choice of markers was based on which of the initial quantifications best reflected the storyline, and the features of Snow line The lower limit of permanent snow cover, below which specific models. Markers are no more likely than other scenarios, snow does not accumulate. but are considered by the SRES writing team as illustrative of a particular storyline. They are included in revised form in Soil moisture Water stored in or at the land surface and available Nakićenović and Swart (2000). These scenarios received the for evaporation. closest scrutiny of the entire writing team and via the SRES open process. Scenarios were also selected to illustrate the other two Soil temperature See Ground temperature. scenario groups.
Solar activity The Sun exhibits periods of high activity observed in Storyline A narrative description of a scenario (or family numbers of sunspots, as well as radiative output, magnetic activity of scenarios), highlighting the main scenario characteristics, and emission of high-energy particles. These variations take place relationships between key driving forces and the dynamics of on a range of time scales from millions of years to minutes. See their evolution. Solar cycle. Steric See Sea level change. Solar (‘11 year’) cycle A quasi-regular modulation of solar activity with varying amplitude and a period of between 9 and 13 years. Stock See Reservoir.
Solar radiation Electromagnetic radiation emitted by the Sun. Storm surge The temporary increase, at a particular locality, It is also referred to as shortwave radiation. Solar radiation has a in the height of the sea due to extreme meteorological conditions distinctive range of wavelengths (spectrum) determined by the (low atmospheric pressure and/or strong winds). The storm surge is temperature of the Sun, peaking in visible wavelengths. See also: defined as being the excess above the level expected from the tidal Thermal infrared radiation, Insolation. variation alone at that time and place.
952 Annex I
Storm tracks Originally, a term referring to the tracks of individual the name THC has been used synonymously with Meridional cyclonic weather systems, but now often generalised to refer to the Overturning Circulation. regions where the main tracks of extratropical disturbances occur as sequences of low (cyclonic) and high (anticyclonic) pressure Thermokarst The process by which characteristic landforms result systems. from the thawing of ice-rich permafrost or the melting of massive ground ice (Van Everdingen, 1998). Stratosphere The highly stratified region of theatmosphere above the troposphere extending from about 10 km (ranging from 9 km at Thermosteric See Sea level change. high latitudes to 16 km in the tropics on average) to about 50 km altitude. Tide gauge A device at a coastal location (and some deep-sea locations) that continuously measures the level of the sea with respect Subduction Ocean process in which surface waters enter the ocean to the adjacent land. Time averaging of the sea level so recorded interior from the surface mixed layer through Ekman pumping gives the observed secular changes of the relative sea level. and lateral advection. The latter occurs when surface waters are advected to a region where the local surface layer is less dense and Total solar irradiance (TSI) The amount of solar radiation received therefore must slide below the surface layer, usually with no change outside the Earth’s atmosphere on a surface normal to the incident in density. radiation, and at the Earth’s mean distance from the Sun. Reliable measurements of solar radiation can only be made Sunspots Small dark areas on the Sun. The number of sunspots is from space and the precise record extends back only to 1978. The higher during periods of high solar activity, and varies in particular generally accepted value is 1,368 W m−2 with an accuracy of about with the solar cycle. 0.2%. Variations of a few tenths of a percent are common, usually associated with the passage of sunspots across the solar disk. The Surface layer See Atmospheric boundary layer. solar cycle variation of TSI is of the order of 0.1% (AMS, 2000). See also Insolation. Surface temperature See Global surface temperature; Ground temperature; Land surface air temperature; Sea surface Transient climate response See Climate sensitivity. temperature. Tree rings Concentric rings of secondary wood evident in a cross- Teleconnection A connection between climate variations section of the stem of a woody plant. The difference between the over widely separated parts of the world. In physical terms, dense, small-celled late wood of one season and the wide-celled teleconnections are often a consequence of large-scale wave early wood of the following spring enables the age of a tree to be motions, whereby energy is transferred from source regions along estimated, and the ring widths or density can be related to climate preferred paths in the atmosphere. parameters such as temperature and precipitation. See Proxy.
Thermal expansion In connection with sea level, this refers to Trend In this report, the word trend designates a change, generally the increase in volume (and decrease in density) that results from monotonic in time, in the value of a variable. warming water. A warming of the ocean leads to an expansion of the ocean volume and hence an increase in sea level. See Sea level Tropopause The boundary between the troposphere and the change. stratosphere.
Thermal infrared radiation Radiation emitted by the Earth’s surface, Troposphere The lowest part of the atmosphere, from the surface the atmosphere and the clouds. It is also known as terrestrial or to about 10 km in altitude at mid-latitudes (ranging from 9 km at longwave radiation, and is to be distinguished from the near-infrared high latitudes to 16 km in the tropics on average), where clouds radiation that is part of the solar spectrum. Infrared radiation, in and weather phenomena occur. In the troposphere, temperatures general, has a distinctive range of wavelengths (spectrum) longer generally decrease with height. than the wavelength of the red colour in the visible part of the spectrum. The spectrum of thermal infrared radiation is practically Turnover time See Lifetime. distinct from that of shortwave or solar radiation because of the difference in temperature between the Sun and the Earth-atmosphere Uncertainty An expression of the degree to which a value (e.g., system. the future state of the climate system) is unknown. Uncertainty can result from lack of information or from disagreement about what Thermocline The layer of maximum vertical temperature gradient is known or even knowable. It may have many types of sources, in the ocean, lying between the surface ocean and the abyssal ocean. from quantifiable errors in the data to ambiguously defined concepts In subtropical regions, its source waters are typically surface waters or terminology, or uncertain projections of human behaviour. at higher latitudes that have subducted and moved equatorward. At Uncertainty can therefore be represented by quantitative measures, high latitudes, it is sometimes absent, replaced by a halocline, which for example, a range of values calculated by various models, or by is a layer of maximum vertical salinity gradient. qualitative statements, for example, reflecting the judgement of a team of experts (see Moss and Schneider, 2000; Manning et al., Thermohaline circulation (THC) Large-scale circulation in the 2004). See also Likelihood; Confidence. ocean that transforms low-density upper ocean waters to higher- density intermediate and deep waters and returns those waters back United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC) to the upper ocean. The circulation is asymmetric, with conversion The Convention was adopted on 9 May 1992 in New York and to dense waters in restricted regions at high latitudes and the return signed at the 1992 Earth Summit in Rio de Janeiro by more than 150 to the surface involving slow upwelling and diffusive processes countries and the European Community. Its ultimate objective is the over much larger geographic regions. The THC is driven by high ‘stabilisation of greenhouse gas concentrations in the atmosphere densities at or near the surface, caused by cold temperatures and/or at a level that would prevent dangerous anthropogenic interference high salinities, but despite its suggestive though common name, is with the climate system’. It contains commitments for all Parties. also driven by mechanical forces such as wind and tides. Frequently, Under the Convention, Parties included in Annex I (all OECD 953 Annex I
countries and countries with economies in transition) aim to return References greenhouse gas emissions not controlled by the Montreal Protocol to 1990 levels by the year 2000. The convention entered in force in AMS, 2000: AMS Glossary of Meteorology, 2nd Ed. American March 1994. See Kyoto Protocol. Meteorological Society, Boston, MA,http://amsglossary. allenpress.com/glossary/browse. Uptake The addition of a substance of concern to a reservoir. Charlson, R.J., and J. Heintzenberg (eds.), 1995: Aerosol Forcing The uptake of carbon containing substances, in particular carbon of Climate. John Wiley and Sons Limited, pp. 91–108. dioxide, is often called (carbon) sequestration. Copyright 1995 John Wiley and Sons Limited. Reproduced with permission. Urban heat island (UHI) The relative warmth of a city compared Heim, R.R., 2002: A Review of Twentieth-Century Drought Indices with surrounding rural areas, associated with changes in runoff, the Used in the United States. Bull. Am. Meteorol. Soc., 83, concrete jungle effects on heat retention, changes in surface albedo, 1149–1165 changes in pollution and aerosols, and so on. IPCC, 1992: Climate Change 1992: The Supplementary Report to the IPCC Scientific Assessment [Houghton, J.T., B.A. Ventilation The exchange of ocean properties with the atmospheric Callander, and S.K. Varney (eds.)]. Cambridge University surface layer such that property concentrations are brought closer to Press, Cambridge, United Kingdom and New York, NY, equilibrium values with the atmosphere (AMS, 2000). USA, 116 pp. IPCC, 1996: Climate Change 1995: The Science of Climate Change. Volume mixing ratio See Mole fraction. Contribution of Working Group I to the Second Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change Walker Circulation Direct thermally driven zonal overturning [Houghton., J.T., et al. (eds.)]. Cambridge University Press, circulation in the atmosphere over the tropical Pacific Ocean, with Cambridge, United Kingdom and New York, NY, USA, 572 rising air in the western and sinking air in the eastern Pacific. pp. IPCC, 2000: Land Use, Land-Use Change, and Forestry. Special Water mass A volume of ocean water with identifiable properties Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (temperature, salinity, density, chemical tracers) resulting from its [Watson, R.T., et al. (eds.)]. Cambridge University Press, unique formation process. Water masses are often identified through Cambridge, United Kingdom and New York, NY, USA, 377 a vertical or horizontal extremum of a property such as salinity. pp. IPCC, 2001: Climate Change 2001: The Scientific Basis. Younger Dryas A period 12.9 to 11.6 kya, during the deglaciation, Contribution of Working Group I to the Third Assessment characterised by a temporary return to colder conditions in many Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change locations, especially around the North Atlantic. [Houghton, J.T., et al. (eds.)]. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, United Kingdom and New York, NY, USA, 881 pp. IPCC, 2003: Definitions and Methodological Options to Inventory Emissions from Direct Human-Induced Degradation of Forests and Devegetation of Other Vegetation Types [Penman, J., et al. (eds.)]. The Institute for Global Environmental Strategies (IGES), Japan , 32 pp. Manning, M., et al., 2004: IPCC Workshop on Describing Scientific Uncertainties in Climate Change to Support Analysis of Risk of Options. Workshop Report. Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change, Geneva. Moss, R., and S. Schneider, 2000: Uncertainties in the IPCC TAR: Recommendations to Lead Authors for More Consistent Assessment and Reporting. In: IPCC Supporting Material: Guidance Papers on Cross Cutting Issues in the Third Assessment Report of the IPCC. [Pachauri, R., T. Taniguchi, and K. Tanaka (eds.)]. Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change, Geneva, pp. 33–51. Nakićenović, N., and R. Swart (eds.), 2000: Special Report on Emissions Scenarios. A Special Report of Working Group III of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, United Kingdom and New York, NY, USA, 599 pp. Schwartz, S.E., and P. Warneck, 1995: Units for use in atmospheric chemistry. Pure Appl. Chem., 67, 1377–1406. Van Everdingen, R. (ed.): 1998. Multi-Language Glossary of Permafrost and Related Ground-Ice Terms, revised May 2005. National Snow and Ice Data Center/World Data Center for Glaciology, Boulder, CO, http://nsidc.org/fgdc/glossary/.
954 Annex II Contributors to the IPCC WGI Fourth Assessment Report
ACHUTARAO, Krishna ARBLASTER, Julie BAUER, Eva Lawrence Livermore National Laboratory National Center for Atmospheric Research Potsdam Institute for Climate USA and Bureau of Meteotology Research Center Impact Research USA, Australia Germany ADLER, Robert National Aeronautics and ARCHER, David BENESTAD, Rasmus Space Administration University of Chicago Norwegian Meteorological Institute USA USA Norway
ALEXANDER, Lisa ARORA, Vivek BENISTON, Martin Hadley Centre for Climate Prediction Canadian Centre for Climate Modelling University of Geneva and Research, Met Office and Analysis, Environment Canada Switzerland UK, Australia, Ireland Canada BERGER, André ALEXANDERSSON, Hans ARRITT, Raymond Université catholique de Louvain, Swedish Meteorological and Iowa State University Institut d’Astronomie et de Hydrological Institute USA Géophysique G. Lemaitre Sweden Belgium ARTALE, Vincenzo ALLAN, Richard Italian National Agency for BERNTSEN, Terje Environmental Systems Science New Technologies, Energy and Centre for International Climate and Centre, University of Reading the Environment (ENEA) Environmantal Research (CICERO) UK Italy Norway
ALLEN, Myles ARTAXO, Paulo BERRY, Joseph A. Climate Dynamics Group, Atmospheric, Instituto de Fisica, Universidade Carnegie Institute of Washington, Oceanic and Planetary Physics, Department de Sao Paulo Department of Global Ecology of Physics, University of Oxford Brazil USA UK AUER, Ingeborg BETTS, Richard A. ALLEY, Richard B. Central Institute for Meteorology Hadley Centre for Climate Prediction Department of Geosciences, and Geodynamics and Research, Met Office Pennsylvania State University Austria UK USA AUSTIN, John BIERCAMP, Joachim ALLISON, Ian National Oceanic and Atmospheric Deutsches Klimarechenzentrum GmbH Australian Antarctic Division and Administration, Geophysical Germany Antarctic Climate and Ecosystems Fluid Dynamics Laboratory Cooperative Research Centre USA BINDOFF, Nathaniel L. Australia Antarctic Climate and Ecosystems BAEDE, Alphonsus Cooperative Research Centre and CSIRO AMBENJE, Peter Royal Netherlands Meteorological Marine and Atmospheric Research Kenya Meteorological Department Institute (KNMI) and Ministry of Housing, Australia Kenya Spatial Planning and the Environment Netherlands BITZ, Cecilia AMMANN, Caspar University of Washington Climate and Global Dynamics Division, BAKER, David USA National Center for Atmospheric Research National Center for Atmospheric Research USA USA BLATTER, Heinz Institute for Atmospheric and ANDRONOVA, Natalia BALDWIN, Mark P. Climate Science, ETH Zurich University of Michigan Northwest Research Associates Switzerland USA USA BODEKER, Greg ANNAN, James BARNOLA, Jean-Marc National Institute of Water and Frontier Research Center for Global Laboratoire de Glaciologie et Atmospheric Research Change, Japan Agency for Marine- Géophysique de l’Environnement New Zealand Earth Science and Technology France Japan, UK BOJARIU, Roxana BARRY, Roger National Institute of Meteorology ANTONOV, John National Snow and Ice Data and Hydrology (NIMH) National Oceanic and Center, University of Colorado Romania Atmospheric Administration USA USA, Russian Federation BONAN, Gordon BATES, Nicholas Robert National Center for Atmospheric Research Bermuda Institute of Ocean Sciences USA Bermuda Coordinating lead authors, lead authors, and contributing authors are listed alphabetically by surname. 955 Annex II
BONFILS, Cèline BROVKIN, Victor CHEN, Anthony School of Natural Sciences, Potsdam Institute for Climate Department of Physics, University Univerity of California, Merced Impact Research of the West Indies USA, France Germany, Russian Federation Jamaica
BONY, Sandrine BROWN, Ross CHEN, Zhenlin Laboratoire de Météorologie Dynamique, Environment Canada Dept of International Cooperation, Institut Pierre Simon Laplace Canada China Meteorological Administration France China BUJA, Lawrence BOONE, Aaron National Center for Atmospheric Research CHIDTHAISONG, Amnat CNRS CNRM at Meteo France USA The Joint Graduate School of Energy France, USA and Environment, King Mongkut’s BUSUIOC, Aristita University of Technology Thonburi BOONPRAGOB, Kansri National Meteorological Administration Thailand Department of Biology, Faculty of Romania Science, Ramkhamhaeng University CHRISTENSEN, Jens Hesselbjerg Thailand CADULE, Patricia Danish Meteorological Institute Institut Pierre Simon Laplace Denmark BOUCHER, Olivier France Hadley Centre for Climate Prediction CHRISTIAN, James and Research, Met Office CAI, Wenju Fisheries and Oceans, canada, Candian UK, France CSIRO Marine and Atmospheric Research Centre for Climate Modelling and Analysis Australia Canada BOUSQUET, Philippe Institut Pierre Simon Laplace, CAMILLONI, Inés CHRISTY, John Laboratoire des Sciences du Universidad de Buenos Aires, Cwentro de University of Alabama in Huntsville Climat et de l’Environnement Investigaciones del Mar y la Atmósfera USA France Argentina CHURCH, John BOX, Jason CANADELL, Josep CSIRO Marine and Atmospheric Ohio State University Global Carbon Project, CSIRO Research and Ecosystems USA Australia Cooperative Research Centre Australia BOYER, Tim CARRASCO, Jorge National Oceanic and Direccion Meteorologica de Chile CIAIS, Philippe Atmospheric Administration and Centro de Estudios Cientificos Laboratoire des Sciences du USA Chile Climat et de l’Environnement France BRACONNOT, Pascale CASSOU, Christophe Pascale Braconnot Institu Pierre Simon Centre National de Recherche Scientifique, CLARK, Deborah A. Laplace, Laboratoire des Sciences Centre Europeen de Recherche et de University of Missouri, St. Louis du Climat et de l’Environnement Formation Avancee en Calcul Scientifique USA France France CLARKE, Garry BRADY, Esther CAYA, Daniel Earth and Ocean Sciences, National Center for Atmospheric Research Consortium Ouranos University of British Columbia USA Canada Canada
BRASSEUR, Guy CAYAN, Daniel R. CLAUSSEN, Martin Earth and Sun Systems Laboratory, Scripps Institution of Oceanography, Potsdam Institute for Climate National Center for Atmospheric Research University of California, San Diego Impact Research USA, Germany USA Germany
BRETHERTON, Christopher CAZENAVE, Anny CLEMENT, Amy Department of Atmospheric Sciences, Laboratoire d’Etudes en Géophysique et University of Miami, Rosenstiel School University of Washington Océanographie Spatiale (LEGOS), CNES of Marine and Atmospheric Science USA France USA
BRIFFA, Keith R. CHAMBERS, Don COGLEY, J. Graham Climatic Research Unit, School Center for Space Research, The Department of Geography, Trent University of Environmental Sciences, University of Texas at Austin Canada University of East Anglia USA COLE, Julia UK University of Arizona CHANDLER, Mark USA BROCCOLI, Anthony J. Columbia University and NASA Rutgers University Goddard Institute for Space Studies COLLIER, Mark USA USA CSIRO Marine and Atmospheric Research Australia BROCKMANN, Patrick CHANG, Edmund K.M. Laboratoire des Sciences du Stony Brook University, State COLLINS, Matthew Climat et de l’Environnement University of New York Hadley Centre for Climate Prediction France USA and Research, Met Office BROMWICH, David UK Byrd Polar Research Center, CHAO, Ben The Ohio State University NASA Goddard Institute for Space Studies USA USA 956 Annex II
COLLINS, William D. DENMAN, Kenneth L. DRIESSCHAERT, Emmanuelle Climate and Global Dynamics Division, Canadian Centre for Climate Modelling Université catholique de Louvain, National Center for Atmospheric Research and Analysis, Environment Canada and Institut d’Astronomie et de USA Department of Fisheries and Oceans Géophysique G. Lemaitre Canada Belgium COLMAN, Robert Bureau of Meteorology Research Centre DENTENER, Frank DUFRESNE, Jean-Louis Australia European Commission Joint Research Laboratoire de Météorologie Dynamique, Centre; Institute of Environment and Institut Pierre Simon Laplace COMISO, Josefino Sustainability Climate Change Unit France National Aeronautics and Space EU DUPLESSY, Jean-Claude Administration, Goddard Space Flight Center DESER, Clara Centre National dela Recerche USA National Center for Atmospheric Research Scientifique, Laboratoire des Sciences USA du Climat et de l’Environnement CONWAY, Thomas J. France DETHLOFF, Klaus National Oceanic and Atmospheric DYURGEROV, Mark Administration, Earth System Alfred Wegener Institute for Polar and Marine Research, Research Unit Potsdam Institute of Arctic and Alpine Research, Research Laboratory Germany University of Colorado at Boulder USA & Department of Geograpy and DIANSKY, Nikolay A. Quaternary Geology at Stockholm COOK, Edward Institute of Numerical Mathematics, Sweden, USA Lamont-Doherty Earth Observatory Russian Academy of Sciences USA Russian Federation EASTERLING, David National Oceanic and Atmospheric CORTIJO, Elsa DICKINSON, Robert E. Administration, Earth System Laboratoire des Sciences du Climat et de School of Earth and Atmospheric Sciences, Research Laboratory l’Environnement, CNRS-CEA-UVSQ Georgia Institute of Technology USA France USA EBY, Michael COVEY, Curt DING, Yihui University of Victoria Lawrence Livermore National Laboratory National Climate Centre, China Canada USA Meteorological Administration China EDWARDS, Neil R. COX, Peter M. The Open University School of Engineering, Computer Science DIRMEYER, Paul UK and Mathematics, University of Exeter Center for Ocean-Land-Atmosphere Studies UK USA ELKINS, James W. National Oceanic and Atmospheric CROOKS, Simon DIX, Martin Administration, Earth System University of Oxford CSIRO Research Laboratory UK Australia USA EMERSON, Steven CUBASCH, Ulrich DIXON, Keith School of Oceanography, Institut für Meteorologie, National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration University of Washington Freie Universität Berlin USA Germany USA DLUGOKENCKY, Ed EMORI, Seita CURRY, Ruth National Oceanic and Atmospheric National Institute for Environmental Woods Hole Oceanographic Institution Administration, Earth System Studies and Frontier Research Center USA Research Laboratory for Global Change, Japan Agency for USA Marine-Earth Science and Technology DAI, Aiguo Japan National Center for Atmospheric Research DOKKEN, Trond USA Bjerknes Centre for Climate Research ETHERIDGE, David Norway CSIRO Marine and Atmospheric Research DAMERIS, Martin Australia German Aerospace Center DOTZEK, Nikolai Germany Deutsches Zentrum für Luft und Raumfahrt, EYRING, Veronika Institut für Physik der Atmosphäre Deutsches Zentrum für Luft und Raumfahrt, DE ELÍA, Ramón Germany Institut für Physik der Atmosphäre Ouranos Consortium Germany Canada, Argentina DOUTRIAUX, Charles Program for Climate Model FAHEY, David W. DELWORTH, Thomas L. Diagnosis and Intercomparison National Oceanic and Atmospheric Geophysical Fluid Dynamics USA, France Administration, Earth System Laboratory, National Oceanic and Research Laboratory Atmospheric Administration DRANGE, Helge USA USA Nansen Environmental and Remote Sensing Center, Bjerknes FASULLO, John Centre for Climate Research National Center for Atmospheric Research Norway USA
957 Annex II
FEDDEMA, Johannes FREI, Allan GELLER, Marvin University of Kansas Hunter College, City Stony Brook University USA University of New York USA USA FEELY, Richard GENT, Peter National Oceanic and Atmospheric FREI, Christoph National Center for Atmospheric Research Administration, Pacific Marine Federal Office of Meteorology USA Environmental Laboratory and Climatology MeteoSwiss USA Switzerland GERDES, Rüdiger Alfred-Wegener-Institute für FEICHTER, Johann FRICKER, Helen Polar und Meeresforschung Max Planck Institute for Meteorology Scripps Institution of Oceanography, Germany Germany University of California, San Diego USA GILLETT, Nathan P. FICHEFET, Thierry Climatic Research Unit, School Université catholique de Louvain, FRIEDLINGSTEIN, Pierre of Environmental Sciences, Institut d’Astronomie et de Institut Pierre Simon Laplace, University of East Anglia Géophysique G. Lemaitre Laboratoire des Sciences du UK Belgium Climat et de l’Environnement France, Belgium GIORGI, Filippo FITZHARRIS, Blair Abdus Salam International Centre Department of Geography, FU, Congbin for Theoretical Physics University of Otago Start Regional Center for Temperate Italy New Zealand East Asia, Institute of Atmospheric Physics, Chinese Academy of Science GLEASON, Byron FLATO, Gregory China National Climatic Data Center, National Canadian Centre for Climate Modelling Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration and Analysis, Environment Canada FUJII, Yoshiyuki USA Canada Arctic Environment Research Center, National Institute of Polar Research GLECKLER, Peter FLEITMANN, Dominik Japan Lawrence Livermore National Laboratory Institute of Geological Sciences, USA Uniersity of Bern FUNG, Inez Switzerland, Germany University of California, Berkeley GONG, Sunling USA Air Quality Researcch Division, Science & FLEMING, James Rodger Technology Branch, Environment Canada Colby College FURRER, Reinhard Canada USA Colorado School of Mines USA, Switzerland GONZÁLEZ-DAVÍLA, Melchor FOGT, Ryan University of Las Palmas de Gran Canaria Polar Meteorology Group, Byrd Polar FUZZI, Sandro Spain Research Center and Atmospheric National Research Council, Institute of Sciences Program, Department of Atmospheric Sciences and Climate GONZÁLEZ-ROUCO, Jesus Fidel geography, The Ohio State University Italy Universidad Complutense de Madrid USA Spain FYFE, John FOLLAND, Christopher Canadian Centre for Climate Modelling GOOSSE, Hugues Hadley Centre for Climate Prediction and Analysis, Environment Canada Université catholique de Louvain and Research, Met Office Canada Belgium UK GANOPOLSKI, Andrey GRAHAM, Richard FOREST, Chris Potsdam Institute for Climate Hadley Centre, Met Office Massachusetts Institute of Technology Impact Research UK USA Germany GREGORY, Jonathan M. FORSTER, Piers GAO, Xuejie Department of Meteorology, University of School of Earth and Environment, Laboratory for Climate Change, Reading and Hadley Centre for Climate University of Leeds National Climate Centre, China Prediction and Research, Met Office UK Meteorological Administration UK China FOUKAL, Peter GRIESER, Jürgen Heliophysics, Inc. GARCIA, Hernan Deutscher Wetterdienst, Global USA National Oceanic and Atmospheric Precipitatioin Climatology Centre Administration, National Germany FRASER, Paul Oceanographic Data Center CSIRO Marine and Atmospheric Research USA GRIGGS, David Australia Hadley Centre for Climate Prediction GARCÍA-HERRERA, Ricardo and Research, Met Office FRAUENFELD, Oliver Universidad Complutense de Madrid UK National Snow and Ice Data Center, Spain University of Colorado at Boulder GROISMAN, Pavel USA, Austria GAYE, Amadou Thierno University Corporation for Atmospheric Laboratory of Atmospheric Physics, Research at the National Climatic FREE, Melissa ESP/CAD, Dakar University Data Center, National Oceanic and Air Resources Laboratory, National Senegal Atmospheric Administration Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration USA, Russian Federation USA 958 Annex II
GRUBER, Nicolas HARRIS, Charles HOELZLE, Martin Institute of Geophysics and Planetary School of Earth, Ocean and Planetary University of Zürich, Physics, University of California, Science, Cardiff University Department of Geography Los Angeles and Department of UK Switzerland Environmental Sciences, ETH Zurich USA, Switzerland HARRIS, Glen HOLLAND, Elisabeth Hadley Centre for Climate Prediction Atmospheric Chemistry Division, National GUDGEL, Richard and Research, Met Office Center for Atmospheric Research (NCAR) National Oceanic and UK, New Zealand USA Atmospheric Administration USA HARVEY, Danny HOLLAND, Marika University of Toronto National Center for Atmospheric Research GUDMUNDSSON, G. Hilmar Canada USA British Antarctic Survey UK, Iceland HASUMI, Hiroyasu HOLTSLAG, Albert A. M. Center for Climate System Wageningen University GUENTHER, Alex Research, University of Tokyo Netherlands National Center for Atmospheric Research Japan USA HOSKINS, Brian J. HAUGLUSTAINE, Didier Department of Meteorology, GULEV, Sergey Institut Pierre Simon Laplace, University of Reading P. P. Shirshov Institute of Oceanography Laboratoire des Sciences du Climat et de UK Russian Federation l’Environnement, CEA-CNRS-UVSQ France HOUSE, Joanna GURNEY, Kevin Quantifying and Understanding the Earth Department of Earth and Atmospheric HAYWOOD, James System Programme, University of Bristol Science, Purdue University Hadley Centre for Climate Prediction UK USA and Research, Met Office UK HU, Aixue GUTOWSKI, William National Center for Atmospheric Research Iowa State University HEGERL, Gabriele C. USA, China USA Division of Earth and Ocean Sciences, Nicholas School for the Environment HUNKE, Elizabeth HAAS, Christian and Earth Sciences, Duke University Los Alamos National Laboratory Alfred Wegener Institute USA, Germany USA Germany HEIMANN, Martin HURRELL, James HABIBI NOKHANDAN, Majid Max-Planck-Institut für Biogeochemie National Center for Atmospheric Research National Center for Climatology Germany, Switzerland USA Iran HEINZE, Christoph HUYBRECHTS, Philippe HAGEN, Jon Ove University of Bergen, Geophysical Institute Departement Geografie, Vrije University of Oslo and Bjerknes Centre for Climate Research Universiteir Brussel Norway Norway, Germany Belgium
HAIGH, Joanna HELD, Isaac INGRAM, William Imperial College London National Oceanic and Atmospheric Hadley Centre for Climate Prediction UK Administration, Geophysical and Research, Met Office Fluid Dynamics Laboratory UK HALL, Alex USA Department of Atmospheric and ISAKSEN, Ketil Oceanic Sciences, University HENDERSON-SELLERS, Ann Norwegian Meteorological Institute of California, Los Angeles World Meteorological Organization Norway USA Switzerland ISHII, Masayoshi HALLEGATTE, Stéphane HENDON, Henry Fronteir Research Center for Global Centre International de Recherche sur Bureau of Meteorology Research Centre Change, Japan Agency for Marine- l’Environnement et le Developpement, Australia Earth Science and Technology Ecole Nationale des Ponts-et-Chaussées Japan and Centre National de Recherches HEWITSON, Bruce Meteorologique, Meteo-France Department of Environmental JACOB, Daniel USA, France and Geographical Sciences, Department of Earth and Planetary University of Cape Town Sciences, Harvard University HANAWA, Kimio South Africa USA, France Physical Oceanography Laboratry, Department of Geophysics, Graduate HINZMAN, Larry JALLOW, Bubu School of Science, Tohoku University University of Alaska, Fairbanks Department of Water Resources Japan USA The Gambia
HANSEN, James HOCK, Regine JANSEN, Eystein Goddard Institute for Space Studies Stockholm University University of Bergen, Department USA Sweden of Earth Sciences and Bjerknes Centre for Climate Research HANSSEN-BAUER, Inger HODGES, Kevin Norway Norwegian Meteorological Institute Environmental Systems Science Centre Norway UK
959 Annex II
JANSSON, Peter KÅLLBERG, Per KIM, Kuh Department of Physical Geography and European Centre for Medium- Seoul National University Quaternary Geology, Stockholm University Range Weather Forecasts Republic of Korea Sweden ECMWF KIMOTO, Masahide JENKINS, Adrian KÄRCHER, Bernd Center for Climate System British Antarctic Survey, Natural Deutsches Zentrum für Luft und Raumfahrt, Research, University of Tokyo Environment Research Council Institut für Physik der Atmosphäre Japan UK Germany KING, Brian JONES, Andy KARL, Thomas R. National Oceanography Hadley Centre for Climate Prediction National Oceanic and Atmospheric Centre, Southampton and Research, Met Office Administration, National UK UK Climatic Data Center USA KINNE, Stefan JONES, Christopher Max-Planck Institute for Meteorology Hadley Centre for Climate Prediction KAROLY, David J. Germany and Research, Met Office University of Oklahoma UK USA, Australia KIRTMAN, Ben Center for Ocean-Land-Atmosphere JONES, Colin KASER, Georg Studies, George Mason University Universite du Quebec a Montreal, Canadian Institut für Geographie, USA Regional Climate Modelling Network University of Innsbruck Canada Austria, Italy KITOH, Akio First Research Laboratory, Climate Research JONES, Gareth S. KATTSOV, Vladimir Department, Meteorological Research Hadley Centre for Climate Prediction Voeikov Main Geophysical Observatory Institute, Japan Meteorological Agency and Research, Met Office Russian Federation Japan UK KATZ, Robert KLEIN, Stephen A. JONES, Julie National Center for Atmospheric Research Lawrence Livermore National Laboratory GKSS Research Centre USA USA Germany, UK KAWAMIYA, Michio KLEIN TANK, Albert JONES, Philip D. Frontier Research Center for Global Royal Netherlands Meteorological Climatic Research Unit, School Change, Japan Agency for Marine- Institute (KNMI) of Environmental Sciences, Earth Science and Technology Netherlands University of East Anglia Japan UK KNUTSON, Thomas KEELING, C. David Geophysical Fluid Dynamics JONES, Richard Scripps Institution of Oceanography Laboratory, National Oceanic and Hadley Centre for Climate Prediction USA Atmospheric Administration and Research, Met Office USA UK KEELING, Ralph Scripps Institution of Oceanography KNUTTI, Reto JOOS, Fortunat USA Climate and Global Dynamics Division, Climate and Environmental Physics, National Center for Atmospheric Research Physics Institute, University of Bern KENNEDY, John Switzerland Switzerland Hadley Centre, Met Office KOERTZINGER, Arne UK Leibniz Institut für Meereswissenschaften JOSEY, Simon an der Universitat Kiel and Institut National Oceanography Centre, KENYON, Jesse fur Ostseeforschung Warnemunde University of Southampton Duke University Germany UK USA JOUGHIN, Ian KOIKE, Toshio Applied Physics Laboratory, KETTLEBOROUGH, Jamie Department of Civil Engineering, University of Washington British Atmospheric Data Centre, University of Tokyo USA Space Science and Technology Japan Department, Council for the Central JOUZEL, Jean Laboratory of the Research Councils KOLLI, Rupa Kumar Institut Pierre Simon Laplace, UK Climatology and Hydrometeorology Laboratoire des Sciences du Climat et de Division, Indian Institute of l’Environnement, CEA-CNRS-UVSQ KHARIN, Viatcheslar Tropical Meteorology France Canadian Centre for Climate Modelling India and Analysis, Environment Canada JOYCE, Terrence Canada KOSTER, Randal Woods Hole Oceanographic Institution National Aeronautics and USA KHODRI, Myriam Space Administration Institut de Recherche Pour USA JUNGCLAUS, Johann H. le Developpement Max Planck Institute for Meteorology France KOTTMEIER, Christoph Germany Institut für Meteorologie, und KILADIS, George Klimaforschung, Universitat Karlsruhe/ KAGEYAMA, Masa National Oceanic and Forschungszentrum Karlsruhe Laboratoire des Sciences du Atmospheric Administration Germany Climat et de l’Environnement USA France 960 Annex II
KRIPALANI, Ramesh LAVAL, Katia LEVERMANN, Anders Indian Institute of Tropical Meteorology Laboratoire de Météorologie Potsdam Institute for Climate India Dynamique du CNRS Impact Research France Germany KRYNYTZKY, Marta University of Washington LAVINE, Michael LEVINSON, David USA Duke University National Oceanic and Atmospheric USA Administration, National KUNKEL, Kenneth Climatic Data Center Illinois State Water Survey LAWRENCE, David USA USA National Center for Atmospheric Research USA LEVITUS, Sydney KUSHNER, Paul J. National Oceanic and Department of Physics, LAWRIMORE, Jay Atmospheric Administration University of Toronto National Oceanic and Atmospheric USA Canada Administration, National Climatic Data Center LIE, Øyvind KWOK, Ron USA Bjerknes Centre for Climate Research Jet Propulsion Laboratory, California Norway Institute of Technology LAXON, Seymour USA Centre for Polar Observation and LIEPERT, Beate Modelling, University College London Lamont-Doherty Earth Observatory, KWON, Won-Tae UK Columbia University Climate Research Laboratory, USA Meteorological Research Institute (METRI), LE BROCQ, Anne Korean Meteorological Administration Centre for Polar Observation and LIU, Shiyin Republic of Korea Modelling, University of Bristol Cold and Arid Regions Environmental UK and Engineering Research Institute, LABEYRIE, Laurent Chinese Academy of Sciences Laboratoire des Sciences du LE QUÉRÉ, Corrine China Climat et de l’Environnement University of East Anglia and France British Antarctic Survey LOHMANN, Ulrike UK, France, Canada ETH Zürich, Institute for Atmospheric LAINE, Alexandre and Climate Science Laboratoire des Sciences du LE TREUT, Hervé Switzerland Climat et de l’Environnement Laboratoire de Météorologie France Dynamique du CNRS LOUTRE, Marie-France France Université catholique de Louvain, LAM, Chiu-Ying Institut d’Astronomie et de Hong Kong Observatory LEAN, Judith Géophysique G. Lemaitre China Naval Research Laboratory Belgium USA LAMBECK, Kurt LOWE, David C. Australia National University LECK, Caroline National Institute of Water and Australia Department of Metorology, Atmospheric Research Stockholm University New Zealand LAMBERT, F. Hugo Sweden Atmospheric, Oceanic and Planetary LOWE, Jason Physics, University of Oxford LEE, Terry C.K. Hadley Centre for Climate Prediction UK University of Victoria and Research, Met Office Canada UK LANZANTE, John National Oceanic and LEE-TAYLOR, Julia LUO, Yong Atmospheric Administration National Center for Atmospheric Research Laboratory for Climate Change, USA USA, UK National Climate Centre, China Meteorological Administration LAPRISE, René LEFEVRE, Nathalie China Deprtement des Sciences de la Terra Institut de Recherche Pour le et de l’Atmosphere, University Developpement, Laboratoire LUTERBACHER, Jürg of Quebec at Montreal d’Oceanographie et de Climatologie Institute of Geography, Climatology Canada France and Meteorology, and National Centre of Competence in Research LASSEY, Keith LEMKE, Peter on Climate, University of Bern National Institute of Water and Alfred Wegener Institute for Switzerland Atmospheric Research Polar and Marine Research New Zealand Germany LYNCH, Amanda H. School of Geography and Environmental LATIF, Mojib LEULIETTE, Eric Science, Monash University Leibniz Institut für Meereswissenschaften, University of Colorado, Boulder Australia IFM-GEOMAR USA Germany MACAYEAL, Douglas LEUNG, Ruby University of Chicago LAU, Ngar-Cheung Pacific Northwest National USA Geophysical Fluid Dynamics Laboratory, National Oceanic and Laboratory, National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration MACCRACKEN, Michael Atmospheric Administration USA Climate Institute USA USA 961 Annex II
MAGAÑA RUEDA, Victor MAURITZEN, Cecilie MOLINA, Mario Centro de Ciencias de la Atmósfera, Norwegian Meteorological Institute Scripps Institution of Oceanography, Ciudad Universitaria, Universidad Norway Dept. of Chemistry and Biochemistry, Nacional Autonomia de Mexico University of California, San Diego Mexico MCAVANEY, Bryant USA, Mexico Bureau of Meteorology Research Centre MALHI, Yadvinder Australia MOLINARI, Robert University of Oxford National Oceanic and Atmospheric UK MCFIGGANS, Gordon Administration, Atlantic Oceanographic University of Manchester and Meteorological Laboratory MALANOTTE-RIZZOLI, Paola UK USA Massachusetts Institute of Technology USA, Italy MCINNES, Kathleen MONAHAN, Adam H. CSIRO, Marine and Atmospheric School of Earth and Ocean MANNING, Andrew C. Chemistry Research Sciences, University of Victoria University of East Anglia Australia Canada UK, New Zealand MCPHADEN, Michael MONNIN, Eric MANNING, Martin National Oceanic and Climate and Environmental Physics, IPCC WGI TSU, National Oceanic Atmospheric Administration Physics Institute, University of Bern and Atmospheric Administration, USA Switzerland Earth System Research Laboratory USA, New Zealand MEARNS, Linda MONTZKA, Steve National Center for Atmospheric Research National Oceanic and MANZINI, Elisa USA Atmospheric Administration National Institute for Geophysics USA and Volcanology MEARS, Carl Italy Remote Sensing Systems MOSLEY-THOMPSON, Ellen USA Ohio State University MARENGO ORSINI, Jose Antonio USA CPTEC/INPE MEEHL, Gerald A. Brazil, Peru Climate and Global Dynamics Division, MOTE, Philip National Center for Atmospheric Research Climate Impacts Group, Joint Institute for MARSH, Robert USA the Study of the Atmosphere and Oceans National Oceanography Centre, (JIASO), University of Washington University of Southampton MEINSHAUSEN, Malte USA UK Potsdam Institute for Climate Impact Research MUHS, Daniel MARSHALL, Gareth Germany United States Geological Survey British Antarctic Survey USA UK MELLING, Humphrey Fisheries and Oceans Canada MULLAN, A. Brett MARTELO, Maria Canada National Institute of Water and Ministerio del Ambiente y los Rcursos Atmospheric Research Naturales, Dir. de Hidrologia y Meteorologia MENÉNDEZ, Claudio Guillermo New Zealand Venezuela Centro de Investigaciones del Mar y de la Atmósfera, (CONICET-UBA) MÜLLER, Simon A. MASARIE , Ken Argentina Climate and Environmental Physics, National Oceanic and Atmospheric Physics Institute, University of Bern Administration, Earth System Research MENON, Surabi Switzerland Laboratory, Global Monitoring Division Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratory USA USA MURPHY, James M. Hadley Centre for Climate Prediction MASSON-DELMOTTE, Valérie MESCHERSKAYA, Anna V. and Research, Met Office Laboratoire des Sciences du Russian Federation UK Climat et de l’Environnement France MILLER, John B. MUSCHELER, Raimund National Oceanic and Goddard Earth Sciences and Technology MATSUMOTO, Katsumi Atmospheric Administration Center, University of Maryland & University of Minnesota, Twin Cities USA NASA/Goddard Space Flight Center, USA Climate & Radiation Branch MILLOT, Claude USA MATSUNO, Taroh Centre National dela Recherche Scientifique Frontier Research Center for Global France MYHRE, Gunnar Change, Japan Agency for Marine- Department of Geosciences, Earth Science and Technology MILLY, Chris University of Oslo Japan United States Geological Survey Norway USA MATTHEWS, H. Damon NAKAJIMA, Teruyuki University of Calgary and MITCHELL, John Center for Climate System Concordia University Hadley Centre for Climate Prediction Research, University of Tokyo Canada and Research, Met Office Japan UK MATULLA, Christoph NAKAMURA, Hisashi Environment Canada MOKSSIT, Abdalah Department of Earth, Planetary Canada, Austria Direction de la météorologie Nationale Science, University of Tokyo Morocco Japan 962 Annex II
NAWRATH, Susanne ORAM, David PENG, Tsung-Hung Potsdam Institute for Climate University of East Anglia Atlantic Oceanographic and Meteorological Impact Research UK Laboratory, National Oceanic and Germany Atmospheric Administration ORR, James C. USA NEREM, R. Steven Marine Environment Laboratories, University of Colorado at Boulder International Atomic Energy Agency PENNER, Joyce E. USA Monaco, USA Department of Atmospheric, Oceanic, and Space Sciences, University of Michigan NEW, Mark OSBORN, Tim USA Centre for the Environment, University of East Anglia University of Oxford UK PETERSON, Thomas UK National Oceanic and Atmospheric O’SHAUGHNESSY, Kath Administration, National NGANGA, John National Institute of Water and Climatic Data Center University of Nairobi Atmospheric Research USA Kenya New Zealand PETOUKHOV, Vladimir NICHOLLS, Neville OTTO-BLIESNER, Bette Potsdam Institute for Climate Monash University Climate and Global Dynamics Division, Impact Research Australia National Center for Atmospheric Research Germany USA NODA, Akira PEYLIN, Philippe Meteorological Research Institute, OVERPECK, Jonathan Laboratoire des Modélisation du Japan Meteorological Agency Institute for the Study of Planet Climat et de l’Environnement Japan Earth, University of Arizona France USA NOJIRI, Yukihiro PFISTER, Christian Secretariat of Council for Science and PAASCHE, Øyvind University of Bern Technology Policy, Cabinet Office Bjerknes Centre for Climate Research Switzerland Japan Norway PHILLIPS, Thomas NOKHANDAN, Majid Habibi PAHLOW, Markus Program for Climate Model Diagnosis Iranian Meteorological Organization Dalhousie University, Bedford and Intercomparison, Lawrence Iran Institute of Oceanography Livermore National Laboratory Canada USA NORRIS, Joel Scripps Institution of Oceanography PAL, Jeremy S. PIERCE, David USA Loyola Marymount University, Scripps Institution of Oceanography The Abdus Salam International USA NOZAWA, Toru Centre for Theoretical Physics National Institute for Environmental Studies USA, Italy PIPER, Stephen Japan Scripps Institution of Oceanography PALMER, Timothy USA OERLEMANS, Johannes European Centre for Medium- Institute for Marine and Atmospheric Range Weather Forecasting PITMAN, Andrew Research, Utrecht University ECMWF, UK Department of Physical Geography, Netherlands Macquarie University PANT, Govind Ballabh Australia OGALLO, Laban Indian Institute of Tropical Meteorology IGAD Climate Prediction and India PLANTON, Serge Application Centre Météo-France Kenya PARKER, David France Hadley Centre for Climate Prediction OHMURA, Atsumu and Research, Met Office PLATTNER, Gian-Kasper Swiss Federal Institute of Technology UK Climate and Environmental Physics, Switzerland Physics Institute, University of Bern PARRENIN, Frédéric Switzerland OKI, Taikan Laboratoire de Glaciologie et Institute of Industrial Science, Géophysique de l’Environnement PLUMMER, David The University of Tokyo France Environment Canada Japan Canada PAVLOVA, Tatyana OLAGO, Daniel Voeikov Main Geophysical Observatory POLLACK, Henry Department of Geology, Russian Federation University of Michigan University of Nairobi USA Kenya PAYNE, Antony University of Bristol PONATER, Michael ONO, Tsuneo UK Deutsches Zentrum für Luft und Raumfahrt, Hokkaido National Fisheries Research Institut für Physik der Atmosphäre Institute, Fisheries Research Agency PELTIER, W. Richard Germany Japan Department of Physics, University of Toronto POWER, Scott OPPENHEIMER, Michael Canada Bureau of Meteorology Research Centre Princeton University Australia USA
963 Annex II
PRATHER, Michael RAMESH, Rengaswamy RIGOR, Ignatius Earth System Science Department, Physical Research Laboratory Polar Science Center, Applied Physics University of California at Irvine India Laboratory, University of Washington USA USA RANDALL, David A. PRINN, Ronald Department of Atmospheric Science, RIND, David Department of Earth, Atmospheric Colorado State University National Aeronautics and Space and Planetary Sciences, Massachusetts USA Administration, Goddard Institute of Technology Institute for Space Studies USA, New Zealand RAPER, Sarah C.B. USA Manchester Metropolitan University PROSHUTINSKY, Andrey UK RINKE, Annette Woods Hole Oceanographic Institution Alfred Wegener Institute for USA RAUP, Bruce H. Polar and Marine Research National Snow and Ice Data Germany PROWSE, Terry Center, University of Colorado Environment Canada, University of Victoria USA RINTOUL, Stephen Canada CSIRO, Marine and Atmospheric RAUPACH, Michael Research and Antarctic Climate and QIN, Dahe CSIRO Ecosystems Cooperative Research Centre Co-Chair, IPCC WGI, China Australia Australia Meteorological Administration China RAYMOND, Charles RIXEN, Michel University of Washington, Department University of Liege and NATO QIU, Bo of Earth and Space Sciences Undersea Research Center University of Hawaii USA NATO, Belgium USA RAYNAUD, Dominique RIZZOLI, Paola QUAAS, Johannes Laboratoire de Glaciologie et Massachusetts Institute of Technology Max Planck Institute for Meteorology Géophysique de l’Environnement USA, Italy Germany France ROBERTS, Malcolm QUADFASEL, Detlef RAYNER, Peter Hadley Centre for Climate Prediction Institut für Meereskunde, Centre for Marine Institut Pierre Simon Laplace, and Research, Met Office and Atmospheric Sciences Hamburg Laboratoire des Sciences du UK Germany Climat et de l’Environnement France ROBERTSON, Franklin R. RAGA, Graciela National Aeronautics and Centro de Ciencias de la Atmósfera, REHDER, Gregor Space Administration Universidad Nacional Autonoma de Mexico Leibniz Institut für Meereswissenschaften USA Mexico, Argentina an der Universitat Kiel and Institut fur Ostseeforschung Warnemunde ROBINSON, David RAHIMZADEH, Fatemeh Germany Rutgers University Atmospheric Science & Meteorological USA Research Center (ASMERC), I.R. of Iran REID, George Meteorological Organization (IRIMO) National Oceanic and RÖDENBECK, Christian Iran Atmospheric Administration Max Planck Institute for USA Biogeochemistry Jena RAHMSTORF, Stefan Germany Potsdam Institute for Climate REN, Jiawen Impact Research Cold and Arid Regions Environmental ROECKNER, Erich Germany and Engineering Research Institute, Max Planck Institute for Meteorology Chinese Academy of Sciences Germany RÄISÄNEN, Jouni China Department of Physical Sciences, ROSATI, Anthony University of Helsinki RENSSEN, Hans National Oceanic and Finland Faculty of Earth and Life Sciences, Atmospheric Administration Vrije Universiteit Amsterdam USA RAMACHANDRAN, Srikanthan Netherlands Space & Atmospheric Sciences Division, ROSENLOF, Karen Physical Research Laboratory RENWICK, James A. National Oceanic and India National Institute of Water and Atmospheric Administration Atmospheric Research USA RAMANATHAN, Veerabhadran New Zealand Scripps Institution of Oceanography ROTHROCK, David USA RIEBESELL, Ulf University of Washington Leibniz Institute for Marine USA RAMANKUTTY, Navin Sciences, IFM-GEOMAR University of Wisconsin, Madison Germany ROTSTAYN, Leon USA, India CSIRO Marine and Atmospheric Research RIGNOT, Eric Australia RAMASWAMY, Venkatachalam Jet Propulsion Laboratory National Oceanic and Atmospheric USA ROULET, Nigel Administration, Geophysical McGill University Fluid Dynamics Laboratory Canada USA
964 Annex II
RUMMUKAINEN, Markku SCHULTZ , Martin G. SILVA DIAS, Pedro Leite da Rossby Centre, Swedish Meteorological Max Planck Institute for Meteorology Universidade de Sao Paulo and Hydrological Institute Germany Brazil Sweden, Finland SCHULZ, Michael SIMMONDS, Ian RUSSELL, Gary L. Institut Pierre Simon Laplace, University of Melbourne National Aeronautics and Space Laboratoire des Sciences du Climat et de Australia Administration, Goddard l’Environnement, CEA-CNRS-UVSQ Institute for Space Studies France, Germany SIMMONS, Adrian USA European Centre for Medium- SCHWARTZ, Stephen E. Range Weather Forecasts RUSTICUCCI, Matilde Brookhaven National Laboratory ECMWF, UK Departamento de Ciencias de la USA Atmósfera y los Océanos, FCEN, SIROCKO, Frank Universidad de Buenos Aires SCHWARZKOPF, Dan University of Mainz Argentina National Oceanic and Germany Atmospheric Administration SABINE, Christopher USA SLATER, Andrew G. National Oceanic and Atmospheric Cooperative Institute for Research Administration, Pacific Marine SCINOCCA, John in Environmental Sciences, Environmental Laboratory Canadian Centre for Climate Modelling University of Colorado, Boulder USA and Analysis, Environment Canada USA, Australia Canada SAHAGIAN, Dork SLINGO, Julia Lehigh University SEIDOV, Dan National Centre for Atmospheric USA Pennsylvania State University Science, University of Reading USA UK SALAS Y MÉLIA, David Météo-France, Centre National de SEMAZZI, Fred H. SMITH, Doug Recherches Météorologiques North Carolina State University Hadley Centre for Climate Prediction France USA and Research, Met Office SENIOR, Catherine UK SANTER, Ben D. Hadley Centre for Climate Prediction Program for Climate Model Diagnosis and Research, Met Office SMITH, Sharon and Intercomparison, Lawrence UK Geological Survey of Canada, Livermore National Laboratory Natural Resources Canada USA SEXTON, David Canada Hadley Centre for Climate Prediction SARR, Abdoulaye and Research, Met Office SODEN, Brian Service Météorologique, DMN Sénégal UK University of Miami, Rosentiel School Senegal for Marine and Atmospheric Science SHEA, Dennis USA SAUSEN, Robert National Center for Atmospheric Research Deutsches Zentrum für Luft und Raumfahrt, USA SOKOLOV, Andrei Institut für Physik der Atmosphäre Massachusetts Institute of Technology Germany SHEPHERD, Andrew USA, Russian Federation School of Geosciences, The SCHÄR, Christoph University of Ediburgh SOLANKI, Sami K. ETH Zürich, Institute for Atmospheric UK Max Planck Institute for and Climate Science Solar System Research Switzerland SHEPHERD, J. Marshall Germany, Switzerland University of Georgia, SCHERRER, Simon Christian Department of Geography SOLOMINA, Olga Federal Office of Meteorology USA Institute of Geography RAS and Climatology MeteoSwiss Russian Federation Switzerland SHEPHERD, Theodore G. University of Toronto SOLOMON, Susan SCHMIDT, Gavin Canada Co-Chair, IPCC WGI, National Oceanic National Aeronautics and Space and Atmospheric Administration, Administration, Goddard SHERWOOD, Steven Earth System Research Laboratory Institute for Space Studies Yale University USA USA, UK USA SOMERVILLE, Richard SCHMITTNER, Andreas SHUKLA, Jagadish Scripps Institution of Oceanography, College of Oceanic and Atmospheric Center for Ocean-Land-Atmosphere University of California, San Diego Sciences, Oregon State University Studies, George Mason University USA USA, Germany USA SOMOT, Samuel SCHNEIDER, Birgit SHUM, C.K. Météo-France, Centre National de Leibniz Institut für Meereswissenschaften Geodetic Science, School of Earth Recherches Météorologiques Germany Sciences, The Ohio State University France USA SCHOTT, Friedrich SONG, Yuhe Leibniz Institut für Meereswissenschaften, SIEGMUND, Peter Jet Propulsion Laboratory IFM-GEOMAR Royal Netherlands Meteorological USA Germany Institute (KNMI) Netherlands 965 Annex II
SPAHNI, Renato STUBER, Nicola TEXTOR, Christiane Climate and Environmental Physics, Department of Meteorology, Laboratoire des Sciences du Physics Institute, University of Bern University of Reading Climat et de l’Environnement Switzerland UK, Germany France, Germany
SRINIVASAN, Jayaraman SUDO, Kengo THOMAS, Robert H. Centre for Atmospheric and Oceanic Nagoya University EG&G Technical Services, Inc. and Sciences, Indian Institute of Science Japan Centro de Estudios Cientificos (CECS) India USA, Chile SUGA, Toshio STAINFORTH, David Tohoku University THOMPSON, Lonnie Atmospheric, Oceanic and Japan Ohio State University Planetary Physics, Department of USA Physics, University of Oxford SUMI, Akimasa UK Center for Climate System THORNCROFT, Chris Research, University of Tokyo Department of Earth and Atmospheric STAMMER, Detlef Japan Science, University at Albany, SUNY Institut fuer Meereskunde Zentrum USA, UK fuer Meeres und Klimaforschung SUPPIAH, Ramasamy Universitaet Hamburg CSIRO THORNE, Peter Germany Australia Hadley Centre for Climate Prediction and Research, Met Office STANIFORTH, Andrew SWEENEY, Colm UK Hadley Centre for Climate Prediction Princeton University and Research, Met Office USA TIAN, Yuhong UK Georgia Institute of Technology TADROSS, Mark USA, China STARK, Sheila Climate Systems Analysis Group, Hadley Centre for Climate Prediction University of Cape Town TRENBERTH, Kevin E. and Research, Met Office South Africa Climate Analysis Section, National UK Center for Atmospheric Research TAKEMURA, Toshihiko USA STEFFEN, Will Research Institute for Applied Australian National University Mechanics, Kyushu University TSELIOUDIS, George Australia Japan National Aeronautics and Space Administration, Goddard Institute for STENCHIKOV, Georgiy TALLEY, Lynne D. Space Studies, Columbia University Rutgers, The State University of New Jersey Scripps Institution of Oceanography, USA, Greece USA University of California, San Diego USA TSIMPLIS, Michael STERN, William National Oceanography Centre, National Oceanic and TAMISIEA, Mark University of Southampton Atmospheric Administration Harvard-Smithsonian Center UK, Greece USA for Astrophysics USA UNNIKRISHNAN, Alakkat S. STEVENSON, David National Institute of Oceanography University of Edinburgh TAYLOR, Karl E. India UK Program for Climate Model Diagnosis and Intercomparison, Lawrence UPPALA, Sakari STOCKER, Thomas F. Livermore National Laboratory European Centre for Medium- Climate and Environmental Physics, USA Range Weather Forecasts Physics Institute, University of Bern ECMWF Switzerland TEBALDI, Claudia National Center for Atmospheric Research VAN DE WAL, Roderik Sylvester Willo STONE, Daíthí A. USA Institute for Marine and Atmospheric University of Oxford Research, Utrecht University UK, Canada TENG, Haiyan Netherlands National Center for Atmospheric Research STOTT, Lowell D. USA, China VAN DORLAND, Robert Department of Earth Sciences, Royal Netherlands Meteorological University of Southern California TENNANT, Warren Institute (KNMI) USA South African Weather Service Netherlands South Africa STOTT, Peter A. VAN NOIJE, Twan Hadley Centre for Climate Prediction TERRAY, Laurent Royal Netherlands Meteorological and Research, Met Office Eoropean Centre for Research and Advanced Institute (KNMI) UK Training in Scientific Computation Netherlands France STOUFFER, Ronald J. VAUGHAN, David National Oceanic and Atmospheric TETT, Simon British Antarctic Survey Administration, Geophysical Hadley Centre for Climate Prediction UK Fluid Dynamics Laboratory and Research, Met Office USA UK
966 Annex II
VILLALBA, Ricardo WEISHEIMER, Antje WONG, A.P.S. Departmento de Dendrocronología e European Centre for Medium- School of Oceanography, Historia Ambiental, Instituto Argentino Range Weather Forecasting and University of Washington de Novologia, Glaciologia y Ciencias Free University, Berlin USA, Australia Ambientales (IANIGLA - CRICYT) ECMWF, Germany Argentina WONG, Takmeng WEISS, Ray National Aeronautics and Space VOLODIN, Evgeny M. Scripps Institution of Oceanography, Administration, Langley Research Center Institute of Numerical Mathematics University of California, San Diego USA of Russian Academy of Sciences USA Russian Federation WOOD, Richard A. WHEELER, Matthew Hadley Centre for Climate Prediction VOSE, Russell Bureau of Meteorology Research Centre and Research, Met Office National Oceanic and Atmospheric Australia UK Administration, National Climatic Data Center WHETTON, Penny WOODWORTH, Philip USA CSIRO Marine and Atmospheric Research Proudman Oceanographic Laboratory Australia UK WAELBROECK, Claire Institut Pierre Simon Laplace, WHORF, Tim WORBY, Anthony Laboratoire des Sciences du Climat Scripps Institution of Oceanography, Australian Antarctic Division and et de l’Environnement, CNRS University of California, San Diego Antarctic Climate and Ecosystems France USA Cooperative Research Centre Australia WALSH, John WIDMANN, Martin University of Alaska GKSS Research Centre, Geesthacht WRATT, David USA and School of Geography, Earth National Climate Centre, National Institute and Envrionmental Sciences, of Water and Atmospheric Research WANG, Bin University of Birmingham New Zealand National Key Laboratory of Numerical Germany, UK Modeling for Atmospheric Sciences WUERTZ, David and Geophysical Fluid Dynamics, WIELICKI, Bruce National Oceanic and Atmospheric institute of Atmospheric Physics, National Aeronautics and Space Administration, National Chinese Academy of Sciences Administration, Langley Research Center Climatic Data Center China USA USA
WANG, Bin WIGLEY, Tom M.L. WYMAN, Bruce L. University of Hawaii National Center for Atmospheric Research Geophysical Fluid Dynamics USA USA Laboratory, National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration WANG, Minghuai WILBY, Rob USA Department of Atmospheric, Oceanic, and Environment Agency of England and Wales Space Sciences, University of Michigan UK XU, Li USA Department of Atmospheric, Oceanic, and WILD, Martin Space Sciences, University of Michigan WANG, Ray ETH Zürich, Institute for Atmospheric USA, China Georgia Institute of Technology and Climate Sciencce USA Switzerland YAMADA, Tomomi Japanese Society of Snow and Ice WANNINKHOF, Rik WILD, Oliver Japan Atlantic Oceanographic and Meteorological Frontier Research Center for Global Laboratory, National Oceanic and Change, Japan Agency for Marine- YASHAYAEV, Igor Atmospheric Administration Earth Science and Technology Maritimes Region of the Department USA Japan, UK of Fisheries and Oceans Canada WARREN, Stephen WILES, Gregory University of Washington The College of Wooster YASUDA, Ichiro USA USA University of Tokyo WASHINGTON, Richard Japan UK, South Africa WILLEBRAND, Jürgen Leibniz Institut für Meereswissenschaften YOSHIMURA, Jun WATTERSON, Ian G. an der Universität Kiel Meteorological Research Institute CSIRO Marine and Atmospheric Research Germany Japan Australia WILLIS, Josh YU, Rucong WEAVER, Andrew J. Jet Propulsion Laboratory China Meteorological Administration School of Earth and Ocean USA China Sciences, University of Victoria Canada WOFSY, Steven C. YUKIMOTO, Seiji Division of Engineering and Applied Meteorological Research Institute WEBB, Mark Science, Harvard University Japan Hadley Centre for Climate Prediction USA and Research, Met Office ZACHOS, James UK University of California, Santa Cruz USA
967 Annex II
ZHAI, Panmao National Climate Center, China Meteorological Administration China
ZHANG, De’er National Climate Center, China Meteorological Administration China
ZHANG, Tingjun National Snow and Ice Data Center, CIRES, University of Colorado at Boulder USA, China
ZHANG, Xiaoye Chinese Academy of Meteorological Sciences, Centre for Atmophere Watch & Services China
ZHANG, Xuebin Climate Research Division, Environment Canada Canada
ZHAO, Lin Cold and Arid Regions Environmental and Engineering Research Institute, Chinese Academy of Science China
ZHAO, Zong-Ci National Climate Center, China Meteorological Administration China
ZHENGTENG, Guo Institute of Geology and Geophysics, Chinese Academy of Science China
ZHOU, Liming Georgia Institute of Technology USA, China
ZORITA, Eduardo Helmholtz Zentrum Geesthacht Germany, Spain
ZWIERS, Francis Canadian Centre for Climate Modelling and Analysis, Environment Canada Canada
968 Annex III Reviewers of the IPCC WGI Fourth Assessment Report
Algeria MOISE, Aurel Belgium Bureau of Meteorology Research Centre AMAR, Matari BERGER, André IHFR, Oran NICHOLLS, Neville Université catholique de Louvain, Monash University Institut d’Astronomie et de MATARI, Amar Géophysique G. Lemaitre IHFR, Oran PITMAN, Andrew Department of Physical Geography, DE BACKER, Hugo Macquarie University Royal Meteorological Institute Australia RAUPACH, Michael GOOSSE, Hugues CAI, Wenju CSIRO Université catholique de Louvain CSIRO Marine and Atmospheric Research RINTOUL, Stephen JANSSENS, Ivan A. CHURCH, John CSIRO, Marine and Atmospheric University of Antwerp CSIRO Marine and Atmospheric Research and Antarctic Climate and Research and Ecosystems Ecosystems Cooperative Research Centre LOUTRE, Marie-France Cooperative Research Centre Université catholique de Louvain, RODERICK, Michael Institut d’Astronomie et de COLMAN, Robert Australian National University Géophysique G. Lemaitre Bureau of Meteorology Research Centre ROTSTAYN, Leon VAN LIPZIG, Nicole ENTING, Ian CSIRO Marine and Atmospheric Research Katholieke Universiteit Leuven University of Melbourne SIEMS, Steven GIFFORD, Roger Monash University Benin CSIRO Plant Industry SIMMONDS, Ian BOKO, Michel HIRST, Anthony University of Melbourne Universite de Bourgogne CSIRO Marine and Atmospheric Research TREWIN, Blair GUENDEHOU, G. H. Sabin HOBBINS, Michael National Climate Centre, Benin Centre for Scientific Australian National University Bureau of Meteorology and Technical Review
HOWARD, William VAN OMMEN, Tas VISSIN, Expédit Wilfrid Antarctic Climate and Ecosystems Australian Antarctic Division LECREDE/DGAT/FLASH/ Cooperative Research Centre Université d’Abomey-Calavi WALSH, Kevin HUNTER, John School of Earth Sciences, YABI, Ibouraïma Antarctic Climate and Ecosystems University of Melbourne Laboratoire de Climatologie/DGAT/UAC Cooperative Research Centre WATKINS, Andrew JONES, Roger National Cliamte Centre, Brazil CSIRO Marine and Atmospheric Research Bureau of Meteorology CARDIA SIMÕES, Jefferson KININMONTH, William WHEELER, Matthew Departamento de Geografia, Instituto Bureau of Meteorology Research Centre de Geociências, Universidade LYNCH, Amanda H. Federal do Rio Grande do Sul School of Geography and Environmental WHITE, Neil Science, Monash University CSIRO Marine and Atmospheric Research GOMES, Marcos S.P. Department of Mechanical MANTON, Michael Research, Pontifical Catholic Bureau of Meteorology Research Centre Austria University of Rio de Janeiro
MCAVANEY, Bryant BÖHM, Reinhard MARENGO ORSINI, Jose Antonio Bureau of Meteorology Research Centre Central Institute for Meteorology CPTEC/INPE and Geodynamics MCDOUGALL, Trevor CSIRO Marine and Atmospheric Research KIRCHENGAST, Gottfried Canada University of Graz MCGREGOR, John BELTRAMI, Hugo CSIRO Marine and Atmospheric Research O’NEILL, Brian St. Francis Xavier University IIASA and Brown University MCNEIL, Ben BROWN, Ross University of New South Wales RADUNSKY, Klaus Environment Canada Umweltbundesamt
Expert reviewers are listed by country. Experts from international organizations are listed at the end. 969 Annex III
CAYA, Daniel WANG, Shusen YU, Rucong Consortium Ouranos Canada Centre for Remote Sensing, China Meteorological Administration Natural Resources Canada CHYLEK, Petr ZHAO, Zong-Ci Dalhousie University, Departments WANG, Xiaolan L. National Climate Center, China of Physics and Oceanography Climate Research Branch, Meteorological Administration Meteorological Service of Canada CLARKE, Garry ZHOU, Tianjun Earth and Ocean Sciences, ZWIERS, Francis Institute of Atmospheric Physics, University of British Columbia Canadian Centre for Climate Modelling Chinese Academy of Sciences and Analysis, Environment Canada CLARKE, R. Allyn Bedford Institute of Oceanography Denmark Chile CULLEN, John GLEISNER, Hans Dalhousie University ACEITUNO, Patricio Atmosphere Space Research Department Geophysics, Division, Danish Met. Institute DERKSEN, Chris Universidad de Chile Climate Research Branch, STENDEL, Martin Meteorological Service of Canada Danish Meteorological Institute China FERNANDES, Richard Canada Centre for Remote Sensing, CAI, Zucong Egypt Natural Resources Canada Institute of Soil Science, Chinese Academy of Sciences EL-SHAHAWY, Mohamed FORBES, Donald L. Cairo University, Egyptian Natural Resources Canada, CHAN, Johnny Environmemntal Affairs Agency Geological Survey of Canada City University of Hong Kong
FREELAND, Howard DONG, Zhaoqian Estonia Department of Fisheries and Oceans Polar Research Institute of China JAAGUS, Jaak GARRETT, Chris GONG, Dao-Yi University of Tartu University of Victoria College of Resources Science and Technology, Beijing Normal University HARVEY, Danny Fiji University of Toronto GUO, Xueliang Institute of Atmospheric Physics, LAL, Murari ISAAC, George Chinese Academy of Sciences University of the South Pacific Environment Canada LAM, Chiu-Ying JAMES, Thomas Hong Kong Observatory Finland Geological Survey of Canada, Natural Resources Canada REN, Guoyu CARTER, Timothy National Climate Center, China Finnish Environment Institute LEWIS, C.F. Michael Meteorological Administration Geological Survey of Canada, KORTELAINEN , Pirkko Natural Resources Canada SHI, Guang-yu Finnish Environment Institute Institute of Atmospheric Physics, MACDONALD, Robie Chinese Academy of Sciences KULMALA, Markku Department of Fisheries and Oceans University of Helsinki SU, Jilan MATTHEWS, H. Damon Lab of Ocean Dynamic Processes and LAAKSONEN, Ari University of Calgary and Satellite Oceanography,Second Institute of University of Kuopio Concordia University Oceanography, State Oceanic Administration MÄKIPÄÄ, Raisa MCINTYRE, Stephen SUN, Junying Finnish Forest Research Institute University of Toronto Centre for Atmosphere Watch and Services, Chinese Academy of RÄISÄNEN, Jouni MCKITRICK, Ross Meteorological Sciences, CMA Department of Physical Sciences, University of Guelph University of Helsinki WANG, Dongxiao PELTIER, Wm. Richard South China Sea Institute of Oceanology, SAVOLAINEN, Ilkka Department of Physics, Chinese Academy of Sciences Technical Research Centre of Finland University of Toronto WANG, Mingxing SAVARD, Martine M. Institute of Atmospheric Physics, France Geological Survey of Canada, Chinese Academy of Sciences Natural Resources Canada BONY, Sandrine XIE, Zhenghui Laboratoire de Météorologie Dynamique, SMITH, Sharon Institute of Atmospheric Physics, Institut Pierre Simon Laplace Geological Survey of Canada, Chinese Academy of Sciences Natural Resources Canada BOUSQUET, Philippe XU, Xiaobin Institut Pierre Simon Laplace, TRISHCHENKO, Alexander P. Chinese Academy of Laboratoire des Sciences du Canada Centre for Remote Sensing, Meteorological Sciences Climat et de l’Environnement Natural Resources Canada 970 Annex III
BRACONNOT, Pascale PLANTON, Serge HELD, Hermann Pascale Braconnot Institu Pierre Simon Météo-France Potsdam Institute for Climate Laplace, Laboratoire des Sciences Impact Research du Climat et de l’Environnement RAMSTEIN, Gilles Laboratoire des Sciences du HOFZUMAHAUS, Andreas CAZENAVE, Anny Climat et de l’Environnement Forschungszentrum Jülich, Institut Laboratoire d’Etudes en Géophysique et für Chemie und Dynamik der Océanographie Spatiale (LEGOS), CNES SCHULZ, Michael Geosphäre II: Troposphäre Institut Pierre Simon Laplace, CLERBAUX, Cathy Laboratoire des Sciences du Climat et de KOPPMANN, Ralf Centre National de Recherche Scientifique l’Environnement, CEA-CNRS-UVSQ Institut für Chemie und Dynamik der Geosphaere, Institut II: CORTIJO, Elsa SEGUIN, Bernard Troposphaere, Forschungszentrum Laboratoire des Sciences du Climat et de INRA Juelich, Juelich, Germany l’Environnement, CNRS-CEA-UVSQ TEXTOR, Christiane LATIF, Mojib DELECLUSE, Pascale Laboratoire des Sciences du Leibniz Institut für Meereswissenschaften, CEA, CNRS Climat et de l’Environnement IFM-GEOMAR
DÉQUÉ, Michel WAELBROECK, Claire LAWRENCE, Mark Météo-France Institut Pierre Simon Laplace, Max Planck Institute for Chemistry Laboratoire des Sciences du Climat DUFRESNE, Jean-Louis et de l’Environnement, CNRS LELIEVELD, Jos Laboratoire de Météorologie Dynamique, Max Planck Institute for Chemistry Institut Pierre Simon Laplace Germany LEVERMANN, Anders FRIEDLINGSTEIN, Pierre Potsdam Institute for Climate Institut Pierre Simon Laplace, BANGE, Hermann W. Impact Research Laboratoire des Sciences du Leibniz Institut für Meereswissenschaften, Climat et de l’Environnement IFM-GEOMAR LINGNER, Stephan Europäische Akademie Bad GENTHON, Christophe BAUER, Eva Neuenahr-Ahrweiler GmbH Centre National de Recherche Potsdam Institute for Climate Scientifique, Laboratoire de Glaciologie Impact Research LUCHT, Wolfgang et Géophysique de l’Environnement Potsdam Institute for Climate BECK, Christoph Impact Research GUILYARDI, Eric Global Precipitation Climatology Centre Laboratoire des Sciences du MAROTZKE, Jochem Climat et de l’Environnement BROVKIN, Victor Max Planck Institute for Meteorology Potsdam Institute for Climate GUIOT, Joel Impact Research MATA, Louis Jose CEREGE, Centre National de Center for Development Research, Recherche Scientifique CHURKINA, Galina University of Bonn Max Planck Institute for Biogeochemistry HAUGLUSTAINE, Didier MEINSHAUSEN, Malte Institut Pierre Simon Laplace, COTRIM DA CUNHA, Leticia Potsdam Institute for Climate Laboratoire des Sciences du Climat et de Max-Planck-Institut für Biogeochemie Impact Research l’Environnement, CEA-CNRS-UVSQ DOTZEK, Nikolai MICHAELOWA, Axel JOUSSAUME, Sylvie Deutsches Zentrum für Luft und Raumfahrt, Hamburg Institute of Centre National de Recherche Scientifique Institut für Physik der Atmosphäre International Economics
KANDEL, Robert FEICHTER, Johann MÜLLER, Rolf Laboratoire de Météorologie Max Planck Institute for Meteorology Research Centre Jülich Dynamique, Ecole Polytechnique GANOPOLSKI, Andrey RAHMSTORF, Stefan KHODRI, Myriam Potsdam Institute for Climate Potsdam Institute for Climate Institut de Recherche Pour Impact Research Impact Research le Developpement GIORGETTA, Marco A. RHEIN, Monika LABEYRIE, Laurent Max Planck Institute for Meteorology Institute for Environmental Laboratoire des Sciences du Physics, University Bremen Climat et de l’Environnement GRASSL, Hartmut Max Planck Institute for Meteorology SAUSEN, Robert MARTIN, Eric Deutsches Zentrum für Luft und Raumfahrt, Météo-France GREWE, Volker Institut für Physik der Atmosphäre Deutsches Zentrum für Luft und Raumfahrt, MOISSELIN, Jean-Marc Institut für Physik der Atmosphäre SCHOENWIESE, Christian-D. Météo-France University Frankfurt a.M., Institute GRIESER, Jürgen for Atmosphere and Environment PAILLARD, Didier Deutscher Wetterdienst, Global Laboratoire des Sciences du Precipitatioin Climatology Centre SCHOTT, Friedrich Climat et de l’Environnement Leibniz Institut für Meereswissenschaften, HARE, William IFM-GEOMAR PETIT, Michel Potsdam Institute for Climate CGTI Impact Research
971 Annex III
SCHULZ, Michael Italy SANTINELLI, Chiara University of Bremen Consiglio Nazionale delle Ricerche (CNR) ARTALE, Vincenzo SCHÜTZENMEISTER, Falk Italian National Agency for VAN DINGENEN, Rita Technische Universität Dresden, New Technologies, Energy and European Commission, Joint Institut für Soziologie the Environment (ENEA) Research Centre, Institute for Environment and Sustainability STAMMER, Detlef BALDI, Marina Institut fuer Meereskunde Zentrum Consiglio Nazionale delle Ricerche VIGNUDELLI, Stefano fuer Meeres und Klimaforschung (CNR), Inst of Biometeorology Consiglio Nazionale delle Ricerche Universitaet Hamburg (CNR), Istituto di Biofisica BERGAMASCHI, Peter TEGEN, Ina European Commission, Joint Institute for Tropospheric Research Research Centre, Institute for Japan Environment and Sustainability VÖLKER, Christoph ALEXANDROV, Georgii Alfred Wegener Institute for BRUNETTI, Michele National Institute for Environmental Studies Polar and Marine Research Istituto di Scienze dell’atmosfera e del Clima (ISAC) Consiglio ANNAN, James WEFER, Gerold Nazionale delle Ricerche (CNR) Frontier Research Center for Global University of Bremen, Research Change, Japan Agency for Marine- Center Ocean Margins CAMPOSTRINI, Pierpaolo Earth Science and Technology CORILA WURZLER, Sabine AOKI, Teruo North Rhine-Westphalia State COLOMBO, Tiziano Meteorological Research Institute, Environment Agency Italian Met Service Japan Meteorological Agency
ZENK, Walter CORTI, Susanna AWAJI, Toshiyuki Leibniz Institut für Meereswissenschaften, Istituto di Scienze dell’atmosfera Kyoto University IFM-GEOMAR e del Clima (ISAC) Consiglio Nazionale delle Ricerche (CNR) EMORI, Seita ZOLINA, Olga National Institute for Environmental Meteorologisches Institut DESIATO, Franco Studies and Frontier Research Center der Universität Bonn Agenzia per la protezione dell’ambiente for Global Change, Japan Agency for e per i servizi tecnici (APAT) Marine-Earth Science and Technology ZORITA, Eduardo Helmholtz Zentrum Geesthacht DI SARRA, Alcide HARGREAVES, Julia Italian National Agency for Frontier Research Center for Global New Technologies, Energy and Change, Japan Agency for Marine- Hungary the Environment (ENEA) Earth Science and Technology
ZAGONI, Miklos DRAGONI, Walter HAYASAKA, Tadahiro Budapest University Perugia University Research Institute for Humanity and Nature
ETIOPE, Giuseppe IKEDA, Motoyoshi India Istituto Nazionale di Geofisica e Hokkaido University Vulcanologia SRIKANTHAN, Ramachandran ITOH, Kiminori Physical Research Laboratory FACCHINI, Maria Cristina Yokohama National University Consiglio Nazionale delle Ricerche (CNR) TULKENS, Philippe KAWAMIYA, Michio The Energy and Research Institute (TERI) GIORGI, Filippo Frontier Research Center for Global Abdus Salam International Centre Change, Japan Agency for Marine- for Theoretical Physics Earth Science and Technology Iran LIONELLO, Piero KIMOTO, Masahide RAHIMZADEH, Fatemeh Univ. of Lecce, Dept.”Scienza dei materiali” Center for Climate System Atmospheric Science & Meteorological Research, University of Tokyo Research Center (ASMERC), I.R. of Iran MARIOTTI, Annarita Meteorological Organization (IRIMO) Italian National Agency for New KITOH, Akio Technologies, Energy and the Environment First Research Laboratory, Climate Research (ENEA) and Earth System Science Department, Meteorological Research Ireland Interdisciplinary Center (ESSIC-USA) Institute, Japan Meteorological Agency
FEALY, Rowan MOSETTI, Renzo KOBAYASHI, Shigeki National University of Ireland, Maynooth OGS TRDL
SWEENEY, John NANNI, Teresa KONDO, Hiroki National University of Ireland, Maynooth Istituto di Scienze dell’atmosfera e Frontier Research Center for Global del Clima (ISAC) Consiglio Change, Japan Agency for Marine- Nazionale delle Ricerche (CNR) Earth Science and Technology
RUTI, Paolo Michele MAKI, Takashi Italian National Agency for New Meteorological Research Institute, Technologies, Energy and the Environment Japan Meteorological Agency
972 Annex III
MAKSYUTOV, Shamil YAMAMOTO, Susumu HAZELEGER, Wilco National Institute for Environmental Graduate School of Environmental Royal Netherlands Meteorological Studies Science, Okayama University Institute (KNMI)
MARUYAMA, Koki YAMANOUCHI, Takashi HOLTSLAG, Albert A. M. CRIEPI National Institute of Polar Research Wageningen University
MATSUNO, Taroh YAMASAKI, Masanori KROON, Dick Frontier Research Center for Global Japan Agency for Marine-Earth Vrije Universiteit, Amsterdam Change, Japan Agency for Marine- Science and Technology Earth Science and Technology SIEGMUND, Peter YAMAZAKI, Koji Royal Netherlands Meteorological MIKAMI, Masao Graduate School of Environmental Institute (KNMI) Meteorological Research Institute, Science, Hokkaido University Japan Meteorological Agency STERL, Andreas YOKOYAMA, Yusuke Royal Netherlands Meteorological MIKAMI, Takehiko Department of Earth and Planetary Institute (KNMI) Tokyo Metropolitan University Sciences, University of Tokyo VAN AKEN, Hendrik M. NAKAJIMA, Teruyuki TSUTSUMI, Yukitomo Royal Netherlands Institute for Center for Climate System Meteorological Research Institute, Sea Research (NIOZ) Research, University of Tokyo Japan Meteorological Agency VAN DE WAL, Roderik Sylvester Willo NAKAWO, Masayoshi Institute for Marine and Atmospheric Research Institute for Humanity and Republic of Korea Research, Utrecht University Nature KIM, Kyung-Ryul VAN DEN HURK, Bart NODA, Akira Seoul National University, School of Royal Netherlands Meteorological Meteorological Research Institute, Earth and Environmental Services Institute (KNMI) Japan Meteorological Agency VAN NOIJE, Twan OHATO, Tetsuo Mexico Royal Netherlands Meteorological JAMSTEC Institute (KNMI) LLUCH-BELDA, Daniel ONO, Tsuneo Centro Interdisciplinario de VAN VELTHOVEN, Peter Hokkaido National Fisheries Research Ciencias Marinas del IPN Royal Netherlands Meteorological Institute, Fisheries Research Agency Institute (KNMI) SASAKI, Hidetaka Mozambique VANDENBERGHE, Jef Meteorological Research Institute, Vrije Universiteit, Inst. of Earth Sciences Japan Meteorological Agency QUEFACE, Antonio Joaquim Physics Department, Eduardo VEEFKIND, Pepijn SATO, Yasuo Mondlane University Royal Netherlands Meteorological Meteorological Research Institute, Institute (KNMI) Japan Meteorological Agency Netherlands, VELDERS, Guus J.M. SEKIYA, Akira Antilles and Aruba Netherlands Environmental National Institute of Advanced Industrial Assessment Agency (MNP) Science and Technology (AIST) MARTIS, Albert Climate Research Center, Meteorological SHINODA, Masato Service Netherlands, Antilles & Aruba New Zealand Tottori University, Arid Land Research Center ALLOWAY, Brent Netherlands Institute of Geological and Nuclear Sciences SUGA, Toshio Tohoku University BAEDE, Alphonsus BARRETT, Peter Royal Netherlands Meteorological Antarctic Research Centre, Victoria SUGI, Masato Institute (KNMI) and Ministry of Housing, University of Wellington Meteorological Research Institute, Spatial Planning and the Environment Japan Meteorological Agency BODEKER, Greg BURGERS, Gerrit National Institute of Water and TOKIOKA, Tatsushi Royal Netherlands Meteorological Atmospheric Research Frontier Research Center for Global Institute (KNMI) Change, Japan Agency for Marine- BOWEN, Melissa Earth Science and Technology DE BRUIN, Henk National Institute of Water and Meteorology and Air Quality Atmospheric Research TOKUHASHI, Kazuaki Group, Wageningen University National Institute of Advanced Industrial CRAMPTON, James Science and Technology (AIST) DE WIT, Florens Institute of Geological and Nuclear Sciences
TSUSHIMA, Yoko DILLINGH, Douwe GRAY, Vincent Japan Agency for Marine-Earth National Institute for Coastal and Climate Consultant Science and Technology Marine Management / RIKZ LASSEY, Keith UCHIYAMA, Akihiro HAARSMA, Reindert National Institute of Water and Meteorological Research Institute, Royal Netherlands Meteorological Atmospheric Research Japan Meteorological Agency Institute (KNMI) 973 Annex III
LAW, Cliff Romania KJELLSTRÖM, Erik National Institute of Water and Swedish Meteorological and Atmospheric Research BOJARIU, Roxana Hydrological Institute National Institute of Meteorology MACLAREN, Piers and Hydrology (NIMH) LECK, Caroline NZ Forest Research Institute Department of Metorology, BORONEANT, Constanta-Emilia Stockholm University MULLAN, A. Brett National Meteorological Administration National Institute of Water and RUMM AINEN, Markku Atmospheric Research BUSUIOC, Aristita Rossby Centre, Swedish Meteorological National Meteorological Administration and Hydrological Institute NODDER, Scott National Institute of Water and MARES, Constantin Atmospheric Research Romanian Academy, Geodynamics Institute Switzerland
RENWICK, James A. MARES, Ileana APPENZELLER, Christof National Institute of Water and Romanian Academy of Technical Studies Federal Office of Meteorology Atmospheric Research and Climatology MeteoSwiss SALINGER, M. James Russian Federation BLUNIER, Thomas National Institute of Water and Climate and Environmental Atmospheric Research MELESHKO, Valentin Physics, University of Bern Voeykov Main Geophysical Observatory SHULMEISTER, James BRÖNNIMANN, Stefan University of Canterbury ETH Zürich Slovakia WILLIAMS, Paul W. CASTY, Carlo Auckland University LAPIN, Milan Climate and Environmental Physics Slovak National Climate Program WRATT, David CHERUBINI, Paolo National Climate Centre, National Institute Swiss Federal Research Institute WSL of Water and Atmospheric Research Spain ESPER, Jan AGUILAR, Enric Swiss Federal Research Institute WSL Norway Climate Change Research Group, Universitat Rovira i Virgili de Tarragona FREI, Christoph BENESTAD, Rasmus Federal Office of Meteorology Norwegian Meteorological Institute BLADÉ, Ileana and Climatology MeteoSwiss Department of Astronomy and FUGLESTVEDT, Jan Meteorology. University of Barcelona GHOSH, Sucharita Centre for International Climate and Swiss Federal Research Institute WSL Environmantal Research (CICERO) BRUNET, Manola University Rovira i Virgili HAEBERLI, Wilfried GODAL, Odd Geography Department, Department of Economics, CALVO COSTA , Eva University of Zürich University of Bergen Institut de Ciències del Mar JOOS, Fortunat HANSSEN-BAUER, Inger GARCÍA-HERRERA, Ricardo Climate and Environmental Physics, Norwegian Meteorological Institute Universidad Complutense de Madrid Physics Institute, University of Bern
ISAKSEN, Ketil GONZÁLEZ-ROUCO, Jesus Fidel KNUTTI, Reto Norwegian Meteorological Institute Universidad Complutense de Madrid Climate and Global Dynamics Division, National Center for Atmospheric Research JOHANNESSEN, Ola M. LAVIN, Alicia M. Nansen Environmental and Instituto Espanol de Oceanografia LUTERBACHER, Jürg Remote Sensing Center Institute of Geography, Climatology MARTIN-VIDE, Javier and Meteorology, and National KRISTJÁNSSON , Jón Egill Physical Geography of the Centre of Competence in Research University of Oslo University of Barcelona on Climate, University of Bern
NESJE, Atle MONTOYA, Marisa MARCOLLI, Claudia Department of Earth Science, Dpto. Astrofisica y Fisica de la ETH Zürich, Institute for University of Bergen Atmosfera, Facultad de Ciencias Fisicas, Atmosphere and Climate Universidad Complutense de Madrid PAASCHE, Øyvind PETER, Thomas Bjerknes Centre for Climate Research PELEJERO, Carles ETH Zürich Institut de Ciències del Mar, CMIMA-CSIC PHILIPONA, Rolf Peru RIBERA, Pedro Observatory Davos Universidad Pablo de Olavide GAMBOA, Nadia PLATTNER, Gian-Kasper Pontificia Universidad Carolica del Pero Climate and Environmental Physics, Sweden Physics Institute, University of Bern
HOLMLUND, Per RAIBLE, C. Christoph Stockholm University Climate and Environmental Physics, University of Bern 974 Annex III
REBETEZ, Martine BODAS-SALCEDO, Alejandro HAWKINS, Stephen J. Swiss Federal Research Institute WSL Hadley Centre for Climate Prediction The Marine Biological and Research, Met Office Association of the UK ROSSI, Michel J. Ecole Polytechnique Fédérale de BOUCHER, Olivier HIGHWOOD, Eleanor Lausanne, Laboratoire de Pollution Hadley Centre for Climate Prediction University of Reading Atmosphérique et Sol and Research, Met Office HINDMARSH, Richard ROZANOV, Eugene BROWN, Simon British Antarctic Survey IAC ETHZ and PMOD/WRC Hadley Centre for Climate Prediction and Research, Met Office HOSKINS, Brian J. SCHÄR, Christoph Department of Meteorology, ETH Zürich, Institute for Atmospheric BRYDEN, Harry University of Reading and Climate Science University of Southampton HOUSE, Joanna SIDDALL, Mark CAESAR, John Quantifying and Understanding the Earth Climate and Environmental Hadley Centre for Climate Prediction System Programme, University of Bristol Physics, University of Bern and Research, Met Office INGRAM, William SPAHNI, Renato CARSLAW, Kenneth Hadley Centre for Climate Prediction Climate and Environmental Physics, University of Leeds and Research, Met Office Physics Institute, University of Bern COLLINS, Matthew JOHNS, Timothy STAEHELIN, Johannes Hadley Centre for Climate Prediction Hadley Centre for Climate Prediction ETH Zürich and Research, Met Office and Research, Met Office
STOCKER, Thomas F. CONNOLLEY, William JONES, Christopher Climate and Environmental Physics, British Antarctic Survey Hadley Centre for Climate Prediction Physics Institute, University of Bern and Research, Met Office COURTNEY, Richard S. WANNER, Heinz European Science and Environment Forum JONES, Gareth S. National Centre of Competence in Hadley Centre for Climate Prediction Research on Climate, University of Bern CRUCIFIX, Michel and Research, Met Office Hadley Centre for Climate Prediction WILD, Martin and Research, Met Office JONES, Philip D. ETH Zürich, Institute for Atmospheric Climatic Research Unit, School and Climate Sciencce FALLOON, Pete of Environmental Sciences, Hadley Centre for Climate Prediction University of East Anglia and Research, Met Office Thailand JOSEY, Simon FOLLAND, Christopher National Oceanography Centre, GARIVAIT, Savitri Hadley Centre for Climate Prediction University of Southampton The Joint Graduate School of Energy and Research, Met Office and Environment, King Mongkut’s KING, John University of Technology Thonburi FORSTER, Piers British Antarctic Survey School of Earth and Environment, LIMMEECHOKCHAI, Bundit University of Leeds LE QUÉRÉ, Corrine Sirindhorn International Institute of University of East Anglia and Technology, Thammasat Univ. FOWLER, Hayley British Antarctic Survey Newcastle University LEE, David Togo GEDNEY, Nicola Manchester Metropolitan University Hadley Centre for Climate Prediction AJAVON, Ayite-Lo N. and Research, Met Office LOWE, Jason Atmospheric Chemistry Laboratory Hadley Centre for Climate Prediction GILLETT, Nathan P. and Research, Met Office Climatic Research Unit, School UK of Environmental Sciences, MARSH, Robert University of East Anglia National Oceanography Centre, ALEXANDER, Lisa University of Southampton Hadley Centre for Climate Prediction GRAY, Lesley and Research, Met Office Reading University MARTIN, Gill Hadley Centre for Climate Prediction ALLAN, Richard GREGORY, Jonathan M. and Research, Met Office Environmental Systems Science Department of Meteorology, University of Centre, University of Reading Reading and Hadley Centre for Climate MCCARTHY, Mark Prediction and Research, Met Office Hadley Centre for Climate Prediction BANKS, Helene and Research, Met Office Hadley Centre for Climate Prediction GRIGGS, David and Research, Met Office Hadley Centre for Climate Prediction MCDONALD, Ruth and Research, Met Office Hadley Centre for Climate Prediction BETTS, Richard A. and Research, Met Office Hadley Centre for Climate Prediction HAIGH, Joanna and Research, Met Office Imperial College London MITCHELL, John Hadley Centre for Climate Prediction HARANGOZO, Steve and Research, Met Office British Antarctic Survey 975 Annex III
MURPHY, James STONE, Daíthí A. ANDERSON, Wilmer Hadley Centre for Climate Prediction University of Oxford University of Wisconsin, Madison, and Research, Met Office Physics Department STOTT, Peter A. NICHOLLS, Robert Hadley Centre for Climate Prediction ANTHES, Richard School of Civil Engineering and the and Research, Met Office University Corporation for Environment, University of Southampton Atmospheric Research THORNE, Peter PARKER, David Hadley Centre for Climate Prediction ARRITT, Raymond Hadley Centre for Climate Prediction and Research, Met Office Iowa State University and Research, Met Office TSIMPLIS, Michael AVERYT, Kristen PRENTICE, Iain Colin National Oceanography Centre, IPCC WGI TSU, National Oceanic Quantifying and Understanding the Earth University of Southampton and Atmospheric Administration, System Programme, Department of Earth System Research Laboratory Earth Sciences, University of Bristol TURNER, John British Antarctic Survey BAER, Paul RAPER, Sarah Stanford University, Center for Manchester Metropolitan University VAUGHAN, David Environmental Science and Policy British Antarctic Survey RAYNER, Nick BAKER, Marcia Hadley Centre for Climate Prediction VELLINGA, Michael University of Washington and Research, Met Office Hadley Centre for Climate Prediction and Research, Met Office BARRY, Roger REISINGER, Andy National Snow and Ice Data IPCC Synthesis Report TSU WASDELL, David Center, University of Colorado Meridian Programme RIDLEY, Jeff BATES, Timothy Hadley Centre for Climate Prediction WILLIAMS, Keith National Oceanic and and Research, Met Office Hadley Centre for Climate Prediction Atmospheric Administration and Research, Met Office ROBERTS, C. Neil BAUGHCUM, Steven University of Plymouth, WOLFF, Eric Boeing Company School of Geography British Antarctic Survey BENTLEY, Charles R. RODGER, Alan WOOD, Richard A. University of Wisconsin, Madison British Antarctic Survey Hadley Centre for Climate Prediction and Research, Met Office BERNSTEIN, Lenny ROSCOE, Howard International Petroleum Industry British Antarctic Survey WOODWORTH, Philip Envirionmental Conservation Association Proudman Oceanographic Laboratory & L.S. Bernstein & Associates, LLC ROUGIER, Jonathan Durham University WU, Peili BOND, Tami Hadley Centre for Climate Prediction University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign ROWELL, Dave and Research, Met Office Hadley Centre for Climate Prediction BROCCOLI, Anthony J. and Research, Met Office Rutgers University Uruguay SENIOR, Catherine BROMWICH, David Hadley Centre for Climate Prediction BIDEGAIN, Mario Byrd Polar Research Center, and Research, Met Office Universidad de la Republica The Ohio State University
SEXTON, David BROOKS, Harold Hadley Centre for Climate Prediction USA National Oceanic and Atmospheric and Research, Met Office Administration, National Severe ALEXANDER, Becky Storms Laboratory SHINE, Keith University of Washington University of Reading BRYAN, Frank ALEXANDER, Michael National Center for Atmospheric Research SLINGO, Julia National Oceanic and Atmospheric National Centre for Atmospheric Administration, Climate Diagnostics CAMERON-SMITH, Philip Science, University of Reading Brach, Pysical Science Division, Lawrence Livermore National Laboratory Earth System Research Lab SMITH, Leonard A. CHIN, Mian London School of Economics ALLEY, Richard B. National Aeronautics and Space Department of Geosciences, Administration, Goddard SROKOSZ, Meric Pennsylvania State University Space Flight Center National Oceanography Centre ANDERSON, David M. CHRISTY, John STARK, Sheila National Center for Atmospheric University of Alabama in Huntsville Hadley Centre for Climate Prediction Research, Paleoclimatology and Research, Met Office CLEMENS, Steven ANDERSON, Theodore Brown University STEPHENSON, David University of Washington Department of Meteorology, COFFEY, Michael University of Reading National Center for Atmospheric Research
976 Annex III
COLLINS, William D. FAHEY, David W. GRUBER, Nicolas Climate and Global Dynamics Division, National Oceanic and Atmospheric Institute of Geophysics and Planetary National Center for Atmospheric Research Administration, Earth System Physics, University of California, Research Laboratory Los Angeles and Department of CROWLEY, Thomas Environmental Sciences, ETH Zurich Duke University FEELY, Richard National Oceanic and Atmospheric GURWICK, Noel CUNNOLD, Derek Administration, Pacific Marine Carnegie Institution of Washington, School of Earth and Atmospheric Sciences, Environmental Laboratory Department of Global Ecology Georgia Institute of Technology FEINGOLD, Graham HAKKARINEN, Chuck DAI, Aiguo National Oceanic and Electric Power Research Institute, retired National Center for Atmospheric Research Atmospheric Administration HALLEGATTE, Stéphane DANIEL, John S. FELDMAN, Howard Centre International de Recherche sur National Oceanic and Atmospheric American Petroleum Institute l’Environnement et le Developpement, Administration, Earth System Ecole Nationale des Ponts-et-Chaussées Research Laboratory FEYNMAN, Joan and Centre National de Recherches Jet Propulsion Laboratory, California Meteorologique, Meteo-France DANILIN, Mikhail Institute of Technology The Boeing Company HALLETT, John FITZPATRICK, Melanie Desert Research Institute D’ARRIGO, Rosanne University of Washington Lamont Doherty Earth Observatory HAMILL, Patrick FOGT, Ryan San Jose State University DAVIES, Roger Polar Meteorology Group, Byrd Polar Jet Propulsion Laboratory, California Research Center and Atmospheric HARTMANN, Dennis Institute of Technology Sciences Program, Department of University of Washington geography, The Ohio State University DEL GENIO, Anthony HAYHOE, Katharine National Aeronautics and Space FREE, Melissa Texas Tech University Administration, Goddard Air Resources Laboratory, National Institute for Space Studies Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration HEGERL, Gabriele Division of Earth and Ocean Sciences, DIAZ, Henry FU, Qiang Nicholas School for the Environment National Oceanic and Atmospheric Department of Atmospheric Sciences, and Earth Sciences, Duke University Administration, Climate Diagnostics University of Washington Brach, Pysical Science Division, HELD, Isaac Earth System Research Lab GALLO, Kevin National Oceanic and Atmospheric National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration, Geophysical DICKINSON, Robert E. Administration, NESDIS Fluid Dynamics Laboratory School of Earth and Atmospheric Sciences, Georgia Institute of Technology GARCIA, Hernan HEMMING, Sidney National Oceanic and Atmospheric Lamont Doherty Earth Observatory, DIXON, Keith Administration, National Columbia University National Oceanic and Oceanographic Data Center Atmospheric Administration HOULTON, Benjamin GASSÓ, Santiago Stanford Unviersity, Dept. of Biological DONNER, Leo University of Maryland, Baltimore Sciences; Carnegie Institution of Geophysical Fluid Dynamics County and NASA Washington, Dept. of Global Ecology Laboratory, National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration GENT, Peter HU, Aixue National Center for Atmospheric Research National Center for Atmospheric Research DOUGLAS, Bruce International Hurricane Research Center GERHARD, Lee C. HUGHES, Dan Thomasson Partner Associates Hughes and Associates DOUGLASS, Anne National Aeronautics and Space GHAN, Steven ICHOKU, Charles Administration, Goddard Pacific Northwest National Laboratory Science Systems & Applications, Space Flight Center Inc. (SSAI), NASA-GSFC GNANADESIKAN, Anand DUTTON, Ellsworth National Oceanic and Atmospheric JACOB, Daniel National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration, Geophysical Department of Earth and Planetary Administration, Earth System Research Fluid Dynamics Laboratory Sciences, Harvard University Laboratory, Global Monitoring Division GORNITZ, Vivien JACOBSON, Mark EASTERLING, David National Aeronautics and Space Stanford University National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration, Goddard Institute for Administration, Earth System Space Studies, Columbia University JIN, Menglin Research Laboratory Department of Atmospheric and GROISMAN, Pavel Oceanic Sciences, University of EMANUEL, Kerry A. University Corporation for Atmospheric Maryland, College Park Massachusetts Institute of Technology Research at the National Climatic Data Center, National Oceanic and JOYCE, Terrence EVANS, Wayne F.J. Atmospheric Administration Woods Hole Oceanographic Institution North West Research Associates
977 Annex III
KARL, Thomas R. MAHLMAN, Jerry MUSCHELER, Raimund National Oceanic and Atmospheric National Center for Atmospheric Research Goddard Earth Sciences and Technology Administration, National Center, University of Maryland & Climatic Data Center MAHOWALD, Natalie NASA/Goddard Space Flight Center, National Center for Atmospheric Research Climate & Radiation Branch KAROLY, David J. University of Oklahoma MANN, Michael NEELIN, J. David Pennsylvania State University University of California, Los Angeles KAUFMAN, Yoram National Aeronautics and Space MANNING, Martin NELSON, Frederick Administration, Goddard IPCC WGI TSU, National Oceanic Department of Geography, Space Flight Center and Atmospheric Administration, University of Delaware Earth System Research Laboratory KELLER, Klaus NEREM, R. Steven Pennsylvania State University MARQUIS, Melinda University of Colorado at Boulder IPCC WGI TSU, National Oceanic KHESHGI, Haroon and Atmospheric Administration, NOLIN, Anne ExxonMobil Research and Earth System Research Laboratory Oregon State University Engineering Company MARTIN, Scot NORRIS, Joel KNUTSON, Thomas Harvard University Scripps Institution of Oceanography Geophysical Fluid Dynamics Laboratory, National Oceanic and MASSIE, Steven OPPENHEIMER, Michael Atmospheric Administration National Center for Atmospheric Research Princeton University
KO, Malcolm MASTRANDREA, Michael OTTO-BLIESNER, Bette National Aeronautics and Space Stanford University Climate and Global Dynamics Division, Administration, Langley Research Center National Center for Atmospheric Research MATSUMOTO, Katsumi KOUTNIK, Michelle University of Minnesota, Twin Cities OVERPECK, Jonathan University of Washington Institute for the Study of Planet MATSUOKA, Kenichi Earth, University of Arizona KUETER, Jeffrey University of Washington Marshall Institue OWENS, John MAURICE, Lourdes 3M LACIS, Andrew Federal Aviation Administration National Aeronautics and Space PATT, Anthony Administration, Goddard MICHAELS, Patrick Boston University Institute for Space Studies University of Virginia PENNER, Joyce E. LASZLO, Istvan MILLER, Charles Department of Atmospheric, Oceanic, and National Oceanic and Jet Propulsion Laboratory, California Space Sciences, University of Michigan Atmospheric Administration Institute of Technology PETERS, Halton LEULIETTE, Eric MILLER, Laury Carnegie Institution of Washington, University of Colorado, Boulder National Oceanic and Atmospheric Department of Global Ecology Administration, Lab for Satellite Altimetry LEVY, Robert PRINN, Ronald Science Systems & Applications, MILLER, Ron Department of Earth, Atmospheric Inc. (SSAI), NASA-GSFC National Aeronautics and Space and Planetary Sciences, Massachusetts Administration, Goddard Institute of Technology LEWITT, Martin Institute for Space Studies PROFETA, Timothy H. LI, Zhanqing MILLET, Dylan Nicholas Institute of Environmental University of Maryland, Harvard University Policy Solutions, D e University Department of Atmospheric and Oceanic Science and ESSIC MILLY, Chris RAMANATHAN, Veerabhadran United States Geological Survey Scripps Institution of Oceanography LIU, Yangang Brookhaven National Laboratory MINNIS, Patrick RAMASWAMY, Venkatachalam National Aeronautics and Space National Oceanic and Atmospheric LOVEJOY, Edward R. Administration, Langley Research Center Administration, Geophysical National Oceanic and Fluid Dynamics Laboratory Atmospheric Administration MOLINARI, Robert National Oceanic and Atmospheric RANDERSON, James LUNCH, Claire Administration, Atlantic Oceanographic University of California, Irvine Stanford University, Carnegie and Meteorological Laboratory Institution of Washington RAVISHANKARA, A. R. MOTE, Philip National Oceanic and LUPO, Anthony Climate Impacts Group, Joint Institute for Atmospheric Administration University of Missouri, Columbia the Study of the Atmosphere and Oceans (JIASO), University of Washington RIGNOT, Eric MACCRACKEN, Michael Jet Propulsion Laboratory Climate Institute MURPHY, Daniel National Oceanic and Atmospheric MAGI, Brian Administration, Earth System University of Washington Research Laboratory 978 Annex III
RIND, David STEFFAN, Konrad WILES, Gregory National Aeronautics and Space University of Colorado The College of Wooster Administration, Goddard Institute for Space Studies STEIG, Eric WINTON, Michael University of Washington Geophysical Fluid Dynamics RITSON, David Laboratory, National Oceanic and Stanford University STEVENS, Bjorn Atmospheric Administration UCLA Department of Atmospheric ROBOCK, Alan & Oceanic Sciences WOODHOUSE, Connie Rutgers University National Climatic Data Center STONE, Peter RUSSO, Felicita Massachusetts Institute of Technology YU, Hongbin UMBC/JCET National Aeronautics and Space STOUFFER, Ronald J. Administration, Goddard SABINE, Christopher National Oceanic and Atmospheric Space Flight Center National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration, Geophysical Administration, Pacific Marine Fluid Dynamics Laboratory YU, Jin-Yi Environmental Laboratory University of California, Irvine TAKLE, Eugene SCHIMEL, David Iowa State University ZENDER, Charles National Center for Atmospheric Research University of California, Irvine TAMISIEA, Mark SCHMIDT, Gavin Harvard-Smithsonian Center ZHAO, Xuepeng National Aeronautics and Space for Astrophysics ESSIC/UMCP & National Oceanic Administration, Goddard and Atmospheric Administration Institute for Space Studies TERRY, Joyce Woods Hole Oceanographic Institution SCHWARTZ, Stephen E. International Organizations Brookhaven National Laboratory THOMPSON, Anne Pennsylvania State University, PALMER, Timothy SCHWING, Franklin Department of Meteorology European Centre for Medium- National Oceanic and Atmospheric Range Weather Forecasting Administration Fisheries THOMPSON, David Service, SWFSC/ERD Department of Atmospheric Science, RIXEN, Michel Colorado State University University of Liege and NATO SEIDEL, Dian Undersea Research Center National Oceanic and Atmospheric THOMPSON, LuAnne Administration, Air Resources Laboratory University of Washington SIMMONS, Adrian European Centre for Medium- SEINFELD, John THOMPSON, Robert Range Weather Forecasts California Institute of Technology United States Geological Survey
SETH, Anji TRENBERTH, Kevin E. University of Connecticut, Climate Analysis Section, National Department of Geography Center for Atmospheric Research
SEVERINGHAUS, Jeffrey VINNIKOV, Konstantin Scripps Institution of Oceanography, University of Maryland University of California, San Diego VONDER HAAR, Thomas SHERWOOD, Steven Colorado State University Yale University WAITZ, Ian SHINDELL, Drew Massachusetts Institute of Technology National Aeronautics and Space Administration, Goddard WANG, James S. Institute for Space Studies Environmental Defense
SHUKLA, Jagadish WEBB, Robert Center for Ocean-Land-Atmosphere National Oceanic and Atmospheric Studies, George Mason University Administration, Earth System Research Laboratory SIEVERING, Herman University of Colorado WEISS, Ray - Boulder and Denver Scripps Institution of Oceanography, University of California, San Diego SODEN, Brian University of Miami, Rosentiel School WELTON, Ellsworth for Marine and Atmospheric Science National Aeronautics and Space Administration, Goddard SOLOMON, Susan Space Flight Center Co-Chair, IPCC WGI, National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration, WIELICKI, Bruce Earth System Research Laboratory National Aeronautics and Space Administration, Langley Research Center SOULEN, Richard
979
Annex IV Acronyms & Regional Abbreviations
Acronyms
µmol micromole ASOS Automated Surface Observation Systems Atlantic Stratocumulus Transition 20C3M 20th Century Climate in Coupled Models ASTEX Experiment AABW Antarctic Bottom Water ATCM Atmospheric Transport and Chemical Model AAIW Antarctic Intermediate Water ATSR Along Track Scanning Radiometer AAO Antarctic Oscillation AVHRR Advanced Very High Resolution Radiometer AATSR Advanced Along Track Scanning Radiometer BATS Bermuda Atlantic Time-series Study ACC Antarctic Circumpolar Current BC black carbon Atmospheric Composition Change: a ACCENT European Network BCC Beijing Climate Center Accumulated Cyclone Energy or Aerosol ACE BCCR Bjerknes Centre for Climate Research Characterization Experiment BIOME 6000 Global Palaeovegetation Mapping project ACRIM Active Cavity Radiometer Irradiance Monitor BMRC Bureau of Meteorology Research Centre Active Cavity Radiometer Irradiance Monitor ACRIMSAT Satellite Coupled Carbon Cycle Climate Model C4MIP Intercomparison Project ACW Antarctic circumpolar wave CaCO calcium carbonate ADEC Aeolian Dust Experiment on Climate 3 Climate Anomaly Monitoring System CAMS ADNET Asian Dust Network (NOAA) AeroCom Aerosol Model Intercomparison CAPE Convective Available Potential Energy
AERONET Aerosol RObotic NETwork CCl4 carbon tetrachloride Advanced Global Atmospheric Gases AGAGE CCM Chemistry-Climate Model Experiment Canadian Centre for Climate Modelling and CCCma AGCM Atmospheric General Circulation Model Analysis AGWP Absolute Global Warming Potential CCN cloud condensation nuclei
Assessments of Impacts and Adaptations to CCSR Centre for Climate System Research AIACC Climate Change in Multiple Regions and Sectors CDIAC Carbon Dioxide Information Analysis Center
AIC aviation-induced cloudiness CDW Circumpolar Deep Water ALAS Clouds and the Earth’s Radiant Energy Autonomous LAgrangian Current Explorer CERES System ALE Atmospheric Lifetime Experiment Centre Europeen de Recherche et de CERFACS AMIP Atmospheric Model Intercomparison Project Formation Avancee en Calcul Scientific CF AMO Atlantic Multi-decadal Oscillation 4 perfluoromethane
AMSU Advanced Microwave Sounding Unit CFC chlorofluorocarbon CFCl AO Arctic Oscillation 3 CFC-11 Atmosphere-Ocean General Circulation CH I di-iodomethane (methylene iodide) AOGCM 2 2 Model CH2O formaldehyde Atmospheric Particulate Environment APEX Change Studies CH3CCl3 methyl chloroform AR4 Fourth Assessment Report CH3COOH acetic acid ARM Atmospheric Radiation Measurement CH4 methane 981 Annex IV
Chesapeake Lighthouse and Aircraft CLAMS DTR diurnal temperature range Measurements for Satellites DU Dobson unit Europe-South America Network for Climate CLARIS Change Assessment and Impact Studies EARLINET European Aerosol Research Lidar Network Climate: Long-range Investigation, Mapping, CLIMAP EBM and Prediction Energy Balance Model Climate Variability and Predictability European Centre for Medium Range Weather CLIVAR ECMWF Programme Forecasts CMAP CPC Merged Analysis of Precipitation ECS equilibrium climate sensitivity Climate Monitoring and Diagnostics Emission Database for Global Atmospheric CMDL EDGAR Laboratory (NOAA) Research Earth System Model of Intermediate CMIP Coupled Model Intercomparison Project EMIC Complexity Centre National de Recherches CNRM ENSO Météorologiques El Niño-Southern Oscillation CO carbon monoxide EOF Empirical Orthogonal Function EOS Earth Observing System CO2 carbon dioxide European Programme for Ice Coring in CO 2– carbonate EPICA 3 Antarctica COADS Comprehensive Ocean-Atmosphere Data Set ERA-15 ECMWF 15-year reanalysis Coupled Ocean-Atmosphere Response COARE ERA-40 Experiment ECMWF 40-year reanalysis Centennial in-situ Observation-Based ERBE Earth Radiation Budget Experiment COBE-SST Estimates of SSTs ERBS Earth Radiation Budget Satellite COWL Cold Ocean-Warm Land ERS European Remote Sensing satellite CPC Climate Prediction Center (NOAA) ESRL Earth System Research Library (NOAA) Regional Climate Change Scenarios for CREAS European Station for Time-series in the South America ESTOC Ocean Central Research Institute of Electric Power CRIEPI Industry EUROCS EUROpean Cloud Systems CRU/Hadley Centre gridded land-surface air CRUTEM2v FACE Free Air CO Enrichment temperature version 2v 2 CRU/Hadley Centre gridded land-surface air FAO Food and Agriculture Organization (UN) CRUTEM3 temperature version 3 FAR First Assessment Report Commonwealth Scientific and Industrial CSIRO Research Organization FRCGC Frontier Research Center for Global Change CTM Chemical Transport Model FRSGC Frontier Research System for Global Change Development of a European Multimodel GAGE Global Atmospheric Gases Experiment DEMETER Ensemble System for Seasonal to Interannual Prediction GARP Global Atmospheric Research Program DIC dissolved inorganic carbon GATE GARP Atlantic Tropical Experiment
DJF December, January, February GAW Global Atmosphere Watch
DLR Deutsches Zentrum für Luft- und Raumfahrt GCM General Circulation Model
DMS dimethyl sulphide GCOS Global Climate Observing System
D-O Dansgaard-Oeschger GCSS GEWEX Cloud System Study
DOC dissolved organic carbon GEIA Global Emissions Inventory Activity Determination d’Orbite et DORIS GEOS Goddard Earth Observing System Radiopositionnement Intégrés par Satellite GEWEX Global Energy and Water Cycle Experiment DSOW Denmark Strait Overflow Water GFDL Geophysical Fluid Dynamics Laboratory DSP Dynamical Seasonal Prediction
982 Annex IV
– GHCN Global Historical Climatology Network HCO3 bicarbonate GHG greenhouse gas HFC hydrofluorocarbon
GIA glacial isostatic adjustment HIRS High Resolution Infrared Radiation Sounder
GIN Sea Greenland-Iceland-Norwegian Sea HLM High Latitude Mode
GISP2 Greenland Ice Sheet Project 2 HNO3 nitric acid
GISS Goddard Institute for Space Studies HO2 hydroperoxyl radical Global Land Atmosphere Coupling GLACE HONO nitrous acid Experiment HOT Hawaii Ocean Time-Series GLAMAP Glacial Ocean Mapping hPa hectopascal GLAS Geoscience Laser Altimeter System HYDE HistorY Database of the Environment GLODAP Global Ocean Data Analysis Project IABP International Arctic Buoy Programme GLOSS Global Sea Level Observing System ICESat Ice, Cloud and land Elevation Satellite GMD Global Monitoring Division (NOAA) International Comprehensive Ocean- ICOADS GOME Global Ozone Monitoring Experiment Atmosphere Data Set Imperial College of Science, Technology and GPCC Global Precipitation Climatology Centre ICSTM Medicine GPCP Global Precipitation Climatology Project International Geosphere-Biosphere IGBP GPS Global Positioning System Programme IGBP-DIS GRACE Gravity Recovery and Climate Experiment IGBP Data and Information System IGRA GRIP Greenland Ice Core Project Integrated Global Radiosonde Archive IMO GSA Great Salinity Anomaly International Meteorological Organization INDOEX Gt gigatonne (109 tonnes) Indian Ocean Experiment InSAR GWE Global Weather Experiment Interferometric Synthetic Aperture Radar IO GWP Global Warming Potential iodine monoxide IOCI Indian Ocean Climate Initiative H2 molecular hydrogen Hadley Centre Atmospheric Temperature IOD Indian Ocean Dipole HadAT data set IOZM Indian Ocean Zonal Mode Hadley Centre Atmospheric Temperature data HadAT2 set Version 2 IPAB International Programme for Antarctic Buoys Hadley Centre/CRU gridded surface HadCRUT2v IPO Inter-decadal Pacific Oscillation temperature data set version 2v IPSL Institut Pierre Simon Laplace Hadley Centre/CRU gridded surface HadCRUT3 temperature data set version 3 IS92 IPCC Scenarios 1992 Hadley Centre Sea Ice and Sea Surface International Satellite Cloud Climatology HadISST ISCCP Temperature data set Project Hadley Centre Marine Air Temperature data HadMAT ITCZ set Inter-Tropical Convergence Zone Hadley Centre Radiosonde Temperature data JAMSTEC Japan Marine Science and Technology Center HadRT set JJA June, July, August Hadley Centre Radiosonde Temperature data HadRT2 set JMA Japan Meteorological Agency
HadSLP2 Hadley Centre MSLP data set version 2 ka thousand years ago
HadSST2 Hadley Centre SST data set version 2 KMA Korea Meteorological Administration
HALOE Halogen Occultation Experiment KNMI Royal Netherlands Meteorological Institute
HCFC hydrochlorofluorocarbon kyr thousand years 983 Annex IV
National Key Laboratory of Numerical MODIS Moderate Resolution Imaging Spectrometer LASG Modeling for Atmospheric Sciences and Geophysical Fluid Dynamics mol mole Large-Scale Biosphere-Atmosphere LBA MONEX Monsoon Experiment Experiment in Amazonia Measurements of Pollution in the MOPITT LBC lateral boundary condition Troposphere LBL Measurement of Ozone by Airbus In-service line-by-line MOZAIC Aircraft LGM Last Glacial Maximum MPI Max Planck Institute LIG Last Interglacial MPIC Max Planck Institute for Chemistry LKS Lanzante-Klein-Seidel MPLNET Micro-Pulse Lidar Network LLGHG long-lived greenhouse gas MRI Meteorological Research Institute of JMA LLJ Low-Level Jet MSLP mean sea level pressure LLNL Lawrence Livermore National Laboratory MSU Microwave Sounding Unit LMD Laboratoire de Météorologie Dynamique Myr million years LOA Laboratoire d’Optique Atmospherique N2 molecular nitrogen LOSU level of scientific understanding N2O nitrous oxide Laboratoire des Sciences du Climat et de LSCE l’Environnement N2O5 dinitrogen pentoxide LSM land surface model NADW North Atlantic Deep Water
LSW Labrador Sea Water NAH North Atlantic subtropical high
LW longwave NAM Northern Annular Mode
LWP liquid water path NAMS North American Monsoon System
Ma million years ago NAO North Atlantic Oscillation MAM North American Regional Climate Change March, April, May NARCCAP Assessment Program Multiproxy Approach for the Reconstruction MARGO National Aeronautics and Space of the Glacial Ocean surface NASA Administration mb millibar NCAR National Center for Atmospheric Research MDI Michelson Doppler Imager NCDC National Climatic Data Center European geostationary meteorological Meteosat National Centers for Environmental satellite NCEP Prediction MFR Maximum Feasible Reduction NEAQS New England Air Quality Study MHT meridional heat transport NEP net ecosystem production MINOS Mediterranean Intensive Oxidants Study National Environmental Satellite, Data and NESDIS MIP Model Intercomparison Project Information Service Megacity Impacts on Regional and Global NGRIP North Greenland Ice Core Project MIRAGE Environments NH Northern Hemisphere MISO Monsoon Intra-Seasonal Oscillation NH3 ammonia MISR Multi-angle Imaging Spectro-Radiometer + NH4 ammonium ion MJO Madden-Julian Oscillation NIES National Institute for Environmental Studies MLS Microwave Limb Sounder National Institute of Water and Atmospheric NIWA MMD Multi-Model Data set (at PCMDI) Research
MOC Meridional Overturning Circulation NMAT Nighttime Marine Air Temperature
984 Annex IV
Physikalisch-Meteorologisches NMHC non-methane hydrocarbon PMOD Observatorium Davos NMVOC non-methane volatile organic compound PNA Pacific-North American pattern NO nitric oxide PNNL Pacific Northwest National Laboratory NO nitrogen dioxide 2 PNV potential natural vegetation NO nitrate radical 3 POA primary organic aerosol National Oceanic and Atmospheric NOAA Administration POC particulate organic carbon reactive nitrogen oxides (the sum of NO and Polarization and Directionality of the Earth’s NOx POLDER NO2) Reflectance NPI North Pacific Index POM particulate organic matter
NPIW North Pacific Intermediate Water ppb parts per billion
NPP net primary productivity ppm parts per million
NRA NCEP/NCAR reanalysis PR Precipitation Radar Precipitation Reconstruction over Land NVAP NASA Water Vapor Project PREC/L (PREC/L) O(1D) oxygen radical in the 1D excited state Prediction of Climate Variations on Seasonal PROVOST to Interannual Time Scales O2 molecular oxygen PRP Partial Radiative Perturbation O3 ozone PSA OASIS Ocean Atmosphere Sea Ice Soil Pacific-South American pattern PSC OCTS Ocean Colour and Temperature Scanner polar stratospheric cloud PSMSL ODS ozone-depleting substances Permanent Service for Mean Sea Level Organisation for Economic Co-operation and PSU Pennsylvania State University OECD Development psu Practical Salinity Unit OGCM Ocean General Circulation Model QBO Quasi-Biennial Oscillation OH hydroxyl radical Radiosonde Atmospheric Temperature RATPAC OIO iodine dioxide Products for Assessing Climate RCM OLR outgoing longwave radiation Regional Climate Model REA OMI Ozone Monitoring Instrument Reliability Ensemble Average REML OPAC Optical Parameters of Aerosols and Clouds restricted maximum likelihood Program for Climate Model Diagnosis and RF radiative forcing PCMDI Intercomparison RFI Radiative Forcing Index pCO partial pressure of CO 2 2 RH relative humidity PDF probability density function RMS root-mean square PDI Power Dissipation Index RSL relative sea level PDO Pacific Decadal Oscillation RSS Remote Sensing Systems PDSI Palmer Drought Severity Index Radiative-Transfer Model Intercomparison RTMIP PET potential evapotranspiration Project SACZ PETM Palaeocene-Eocene Thermal Maximum South Atlantic Convergence Zone SAFARI PFC perfluorocarbon Southern African Regional Science Initiative Stratospheric Aerosol and Gas Experiment Pg 15 petagram (10 grams) SAGE or Centre for Sustainability and the Global Paleoclimate Modelling Intercomparison Environment PMIP Project Southern Annular Mode or Stratospheric SAM Aerosol Measurement 985 Annex IV
SAMS South American Monsoon System STAtistical and Regional dynamical STARDEX Downscaling of EXtremes for European SAMW Subantarctic Mode Water regions Second Assessment Report or Synthetic STE SAR stratosphere-troposphere exchange Aperture Radar STMW Subtropical Mode Water SARB Surface and Atmosphere Radiation Budget SUNY State University of New York SARR Space Absolute Radiometric Reference Sv Sverdrup (106 m3 s–1) SAT surface air temperature SW shortwave SCA snow-covered area SWE snow water equivalent SCanning Imaging Absorption SpectroMeter SCIAMACHY SWH significant wave height for Atmospheric CHartographY T/P TOPEX/Poseidon SCM Simple Climate Model T12 HIRS channel 12 SeaWiFs Sea-Viewing Wide Field-of-View Sensor T2 MSU channel 2
SF6 sulphur hexafluoride T2LT MSU lower-troposphere channel SH Southern Hemisphere T3 MSU channel 3 SIO Scripps Institution of Oceanography T4 MSU channel 4 SIS Small Island States TAR Third Assessment Report SLE sea level equivalent Tropospheric Aerosol Radiative Forcing TARFOX SLP sea level pressure Experiment
SMB surface mass balance TBO Tropospheric Biennial Oscillation
SMM Solar Maximum Mission TCR transient climate response Scanning Multichannel Microwave TEAP Technology and Economic Assessment Panel SMMR Radiometer TGBM Tide Gauge Bench Mark SO Southern Oscillation Task Group on Data and Scenario Support for TGICA Impact and Climate Analysis (IPCC) SO2 sulphur dioxide THC Thermohaline Circulation SO4 sulphate SOA secondary organic aerosol THIR Temperature Humidity Infrared Radiometer
SOHO Solar Heliospheric Observatory TIM Total Solar Irradiance Monitor
SOI Southern Oscillation Index TIROS Television InfraRed Observation Satellite
SOM soil organic matter TMI TRMM microwave imager
SON September, October, November TOA top of the atmosphere
SORCE Solar Radiation and Climate Experiment TOGA Tropical Ocean Global Atmosphere Stratospheric Processes and their Role in TOM top of the model SPARC Climate TOMS Total Ozone Mapping Spectrometer SPCZ South Pacific Convergence Zone TOPEX TOPography EXperiment SPM Summary for Policymakers TOVS TIROS Operational Vertical Sounder SRALT Satellite radar altimetry Atmospheric Tracer Transport Model TransCom 3 SRES Special Report on Emission Scenarios Intercomparison Project
SSM/I Special Sensor Microwave/Imager TRMM Tropical Rainfall Measuring Mission
SST sea surface temperature TSI total solar irradiance UAH University of Alabama in Huntsville
986 Annex IV
UARS Upper Atmosphere Research Satellite Regional Abbreviations used in Chapter 11
UCDW Upper Circumpolar Deep Water
UCI University of California at Irvine ALA Alaska
UEA University of East Anglia AMZ Amazonia
UHI Urban Heat Island ANT Antarctic
UIO University of Oslo ARC Arctic
UKMO United Kingdom Meteorological Office CAM Central America
ULAQ University of L’Aquila CAR Caribbean
UMD University of Maryland CAS Central Asia
UMI University of Michigan CGI East Canada, Greenland and Iceland
UNEP United Nations Environment Programme CNA Central North America United Nations Framework Convention on EAF East Africa UNFCCC Climate Change EAS East Asia USHCN US Historical Climatology Network ENA Eastern North America UTC Coordinated Universal Time IND Indian Ocean UTRH upper-tropospheric relative humidity MED Mediterrranean Basin UV ultraviolet NAS Northern Asia UVic University of Victoria NAU North Australia Variability of Irradiance and Gravity VIRGO Oscillations NEU Northern Europe
VIRS Visible Infrared Scanner NPA North Pacific Ocean
VOC volatile organic compound SAF South Africa
VOS Voluntary Observing Ships SAH Sahara Variable-Resolution General Circulation VRGCM SAS South Asia Model SAU South Australia W watt SEA Southeast Asia WAIS West Antarctic Ice Sheet SEM Southern Europe and Mediterranean WCRP World Climate Research Programme SPA South Pacific Ocean WDCGG World Data Centre for Greenhouse Gases SSA Southern South America WGI IPCC Working Group I TIB Tibetan Plateau WGII IPCC Working Group II TNE Tropical Northeast Atlantic WGIII IPCC Working Group III WAF West Africa WGMS World Glacier Monitoring Service WNA Western North America WMDW Western Mediterranean Deep Water
WMO World Meteorological Organization
WOCE World Ocean Circulation Experiment
WRE Wigley, Richels and Edmonds (1996)
WWR World Weather Records
ZIA 0°C isotherm altitude
aerosol optical depth taer
987