Annex I Glossary Editor: A.P.M. Baede (Netherlands) Notes: This glossary defi nes some specifi c terms as the lead authors intend them to be interpreted in the context of this report. Red, italicised words indicate that the term is defi ned in the Glossary.

8.2ka event Following the last post-glacial warming, a rapid Albedo The fraction of solar radiation refl ected by a surface or oscillation with a cooling lasting about 400 years occurred object, often expressed as a percentage. -covered surfaces have about 8.2 ka. This event is also referred to as the 8.2kyr event. a high albedo, the surface albedo of soils ranges from high to low, and vegetation-covered surfaces and have a low albedo. The Abrupt The nonlinearity of the climate system ’s planetary albedo varies mainly through varying cloudiness, may lead to abrupt climate change, sometimes called rapid climate snow, ice, leaf area and land cover changes. change, abrupt events or even surprises. The term abrupt often refers to scales faster than the typical time scale of the responsible Albedo feedback A climate feedback involving changes in the forcing. However, not all abrupt climate changes need be externally Earth’s albedo. It usually refers to changes in the , which forced. Some possible abrupt events that have been proposed has an albedo much larger (~0.8) than the average planetary albedo include a dramatic reorganisation of the thermohaline circulation, (~0.3). In a warming climate, it is anticipated that the cryosphere rapid deglaciation and massive melting of permafrost or increases in would shrink, the Earth’s overall albedo would decrease and more soil respiration leading to fast changes in the carbon cycle. Others solar radiation would be absorbed to warm the Earth still further. may be truly unexpected, resulting from a strong, rapidly changing forcing of a nonlinear system. Alkalinity A measure of the capacity of a solution to neutralize acids. Active layer The layer of ground that is subject to annual thawing and freezing in areas underlain by permafrost (Van Everdingen, Altimetry A technique for measuring the height of the sea, lake 1998). or river, land or ice surface with respect to the centre of the Earth within a defi ned terrestrial reference frame. More conventionally, the Adiabatic process An adiabatic process is a process in which no height is with respect to a standard reference ellipsoid approximating external heat is gained or lost by the system. The opposite is called the Earth’s oblateness, and can be measured from by using a diabatic process. or with centimetric precision at present. Altimetry has the advantages of being a geocentric measurement, rather than a Adjustment time See Lifetime; see also Response time. measurement relative to the Earth’s crust as for a tide gauge, and of affording quasi-global coverage. Advection Transport of water or air along with its properties (e.g., temperature, chemical tracers) by the of the fl uid. Regarding Annular modes Preferred patterns of change in atmospheric the general distinction between advection and , the former circulation corresponding to changes in the zonally averaged mid- describes the predominantly horizontal, large-scale of the latitude westerlies. The Northern Annular Mode has a bias to the or , while convection describes the predominantly North Atlantic and has a large correlation with the North Atlantic vertical, locally induced motions. Oscillation. The Southern Annular Mode occurs in the Southern Hemisphere. The variability of the mid-latitude westerlies has also Aerosols A collection of airborne solid or liquid particles, with a been known as zonal fl ow (or wind) vacillation, and defi ned through a typical size between 0.01 and 10 μm that reside in the atmosphere zonal index. For the corresponding circulation indices, see Box 3.4. for at least several hours. Aerosols may be of either natural or anthropogenic origin. Aerosols may infl uence climate in several Anthropogenic Resulting from or produced by human beings. ways: directly through scattering and absorbing radiation, and indirectly by acting as condensation nuclei or modifying Atlantic Multi-decadal Oscillation (AMO) A multi-decadal (65 to the optical properties and lifetime of (see Indirect aerosol 75 year) fl uctuation in the North Atlantic, in which sea surface effect). temperatures showed warm phases during roughly 1860 to 1880 and 1930 to 1960 and cool phases during 1905 to 1925 and 1970 to 1990 Afforestation Planting of new forests on lands that historically with a range of order 0.4°C. have not contained forests. For a discussion of the term forest and related terms such as afforestation, reforestation and deforestation, Atmosphere The gaseous envelope surrounding the Earth. The see the IPCC Special Report on , Land-Use Change dry atmosphere consists almost entirely of nitrogen (78.1% volume and Forestry (IPCC, 2000). See also the report on Defi nitions mixing ratio) and (20.9% volume mixing ratio), together and Methodological Options to Inventory Emissions from Direct with a number of gases, such as argon (0.93% volume mixing Human-induced Degradation of Forests and Devegetation of Other ratio), and radiatively active greenhouse gases such as Vegetation Types (IPCC, 2003). carbon dioxide (0.035% volume mixing ratio) and ozone. In addition, the atmosphere contains the greenhouse gas water vapour, Air A widespread body of air, the approximately homogeneous whose amounts are highly variable but typically around 1% volume properties of which (1) have been established while that air was mixing ratio. The atmosphere also contains clouds and aerosols. situated over a particular region of the Earth’s surface, and (2) undergo specifi c modifi cations while in transit away from the source Atmospheric boundary layer The atmospheric layer adjacent to region (AMS, 2000). the Earth’s surface that is affected by against that boundary

941 Annex I

surface, and possibly by transport of heat and other variables which infl uence its production from cosmic rays (see Cosmogenic across that surface (AMS, 2000). The lowest 10 metres or so of isotopes). the boundary layer, where mechanical generation of turbulence is dominant, is called the surface boundary layer or surface layer. C3 plants Plants that produce a three-carbon compound during photosynthesis, including most trees and agricultural crops such as Atmospheric lifetime See Lifetime. rice, wheat, soybeans, potatoes and vegetables.

Attribution See Detection and attribution. C4 plants Plants that produce a four-carbon compound during photosynthesis, mainly of tropical origin, including grasses and Autotrophic respiration Respiration by photosynthetic organisms the agriculturally important crops maize, sugar cane, millet and (plants). sorghum.

Bayesian method A Bayesian method is a method by which a Carbonaceous aerosol Aerosol consisting predominantly of statistical analysis of an unknown or uncertain quantity is carried organic substances and various forms of black carbon (Charlson and out in two steps. First, a prior probability distribution is formulated Heintzenberg, 1995, p. 401). on the basis of existing knowledge (either by eliciting expert opinion or by using existing data and studies). At this fi rst stage, an element Carbon cycle The term used to describe the fl ow of carbon (in of subjectivity may infl uence the choice, but in many cases, the prior various forms, e.g., as carbon dioxide) through the atmosphere, probability distribution is chosen as neutrally as possible, in order ocean, terrestrial and lithosphere. not to infl uence the fi nal outcome of the analysis. In the second step, newly acquired data are introduced, using a theorem formulated by Carbon dioxide (CO2) A naturally occurring gas, also a by-product and named after the British mathematician Bayes (1702–1761), to of burning fossil fuels from fossil carbon deposits, such as oil, gas update the prior distribution into a posterior distribution. and coal, of burning biomass and of land use changes and other industrial processes. It is the principal anthropogenic greenhouse Biomass The total mass of living organisms in a given area or gas that affects the Earth’s radiative balance. It is the reference gas volume; dead plant material can be included as dead biomass. against which other greenhouse gases are measured and therefore has a Global Warming Potential of 1. Biome A biome is a major and distinct regional element of the biosphere, typically consisting of several ecosystems (e.g. forests, Carbon dioxide (CO2) fertilization The enhancement of the growth rivers, ponds, swamps within a region). Biomes are characterised by of plants as a result of increased atmospheric carbon dioxide (CO2) typical communities of plants and animals. concentration. Depending on their mechanism of photosynthesis, certain types of plants are more sensitive to changes in atmospheric Biosphere (terrestrial and marine) The part of the Earth system CO2 concentration. In particular, C3 plants generally show a larger comprising all ecosystems and living organisms, in the atmosphere, response to CO2 than C4 plants. on land (terrestrial biosphere) or in the oceans (marine biosphere), including derived dead organic matter, such as litter, soil organic CFC See Halocarbons. matter and oceanic detritus. Chaos A dynamical system such as the climate system, governed by Black carbon (BC) Operationally defi ned aerosol species based nonlinear deterministic equations (see Nonlinearity), may exhibit erratic on measurement of light absorption and chemical reactivity and/or or chaotic behaviour in the sense that very small changes in the initial thermal stability; consists of soot, charcoal and/or possible light- state of the system in time lead to large and apparently unpredictable absorbing refractory organic matter (Charlson and Heintzenberg, changes in its temporal evolution. Such chaotic behaviour may limit 1995, p. 401). the predictability of nonlinear dynamical systems.

Blocking An anticyclone that remains nearly stationary Charcoal Material resulting from charring of biomass, usually for a week or more at middle to high latitudes, so that it blocks the retaining some of the microscopic texture typical of plant tissues; normal eastward progression of high- and low-pressure systems. chemically it consists mainly of carbon with a disturbed graphitic structure, with lesser amounts of oxygen and (Charlson Bowen ratio The ratio of sensible to fl uxes from the and Heintzenberg, 1995, p. 402). See Black carbon; Soot. Earth’s surface up into the atmosphere. Values are low (order 0.1) for wet surfaces like the ocean, and greater than 2 for deserts and Chronology Arrangement of events according to dates or of drought regions. occurrence.

Burden The total mass of a gaseous substance of concern in the Clathrate (methane) A partly frozen slushy mix of methane gas atmosphere. and ice, usually found in sediments.

13C Stable isotope of carbon having an atomic weight of Climate Climate in a narrow sense is usually defi ned as the average approximately 13. Measurements of the ratio of 13C/12C in carbon , or more rigorously, as the statistical description in terms of dioxide molecules are used to infer the importance of different the mean and variability of relevant quantities over a period of time carbon cycle and climate processes and the size of the terrestrial ranging from months to thousands or millions of years. The classical carbon reservoir. period for averaging these variables is 30 years, as defi ned by the World Meteorological Organization. The relevant quantities are most 14C Unstable isotope of carbon having an atomic weight of often surface variables such as temperature, and wind. approximately 14, and a half-life of about 5,700 years. It is often Climate in a wider sense is the state, including a statistical description, used for dating purposes going back some 40 kyr. Its variation of the climate system. In various chapters in this report different in time is affected by the magnetic fi elds of the Sun and Earth, averaging periods, such as a period of 20 years, are also used.

942 AAnnexnnex I

Climate change Climate change refers to a change in the state of of the climate in the future, for example, at seasonal, interannual the climate that can be identifi ed (e.g., by using statistical tests) by or long-term time scales. Since the future evolution of the climate changes in the mean and/or the variability of its properties, and that system may be highly sensitive to initial conditions, such predictions persists for an extended period, typically decades or longer. Climate are usually probabilistic in . See also Climate projection; change may be due to natural internal processes or external forcings, Climate scenario; Predictability. or to persistent anthropogenic changes in the composition of the atmosphere or in land use. Note that the Framework Convention on Climate projection A projection of the response of the climate Climate Change (UNFCCC), in its Article 1, defi nes climate change system to emission or concentration scenarios of greenhouse as: ‘a change of climate which is attributed directly or indirectly to gases and aerosols, or radiative forcing scenarios, often based human activity that alters the composition of the global atmosphere upon simulations by climate models. Climate projections are and which is in addition to natural climate variability observed over distinguished from climate predictions in order to emphasize that comparable time periods’. The UNFCCC thus makes a distinction climate projections depend upon the emission/concentration/ between climate change attributable to human activities altering radiative forcing scenario used, which are based on assumptions the atmospheric composition, and climate variability attributable concerning, for example, future socioeconomic and technological to natural causes. See also Climate variability; Detection and developments that may or may not be realised and are therefore Attribution. subject to substantial uncertainty.

Climate change commitment Due to the thermal of the Climate response ocean and slow processes in the biosphere, the cryosphere and See Climate sensitivity. land surfaces, the climate would continue to change even if the atmospheric composition were held fi xed at today’s values. Past Climate scenario A plausible and often simplifi ed representation change in atmospheric composition leads to a committed climate of the future climate, based on an internally consistent set of change, which continues for as long as a radiative imbalance persists climatological relationships that has been constructed for explicit and until all components of the climate system have adjusted to a new use in investigating the potential consequences of anthropogenic state. The further change in temperature after the composition of the climate change, often serving as input to impact models. Climate atmosphere is held constant is referred to as the constant composition projections often serve as the raw material for constructing temperature commitment or simply committed warming or warming climate scenarios, but climate scenarios usually require additional commitment. Climate change commitment includes other future information such as about the observed current climate. A climate changes, for example in the hydrological cycle, in change scenario is the difference between a climate scenario and and climate events, and in change. the current climate.

Climate feedback An interaction mechanism between processes in Climate sensitivity In IPCC reports, equilibrium climate sensitivity the climate system is called a climate feedback when the result of refers to the equilibrium change in the annual mean global surface an initial process triggers changes in a second process that in turn temperature following a doubling of the atmospheric equivalent infl uences the initial one. A positive feedback intensifi es the original carbon dioxide concentration. Due to computational constraints, process, and a negative feedback reduces it. the equilibrium climate sensitivity in a is usually estimated by running an atmospheric general circulation model Climate Feedback Parameter A way to quantify the radiative coupled to a mixed-layer ocean model, because equilibrium climate response of the climate system to a global surface temperature sensitivity is largely determined by atmospheric processes. Effi cient change induced by a radiative forcing (units: W m–2 °C–1). It varies models can be run to equilibrium with a dynamic ocean. as the inverse of the effective climate sensitivity. Formally, the The effective climate sensitivity is a related measure that Climate Feedback Parameter (Λ) is defi ned as: Λ = (ΔQ – ΔF) / circumvents the requirement of equilibrium. It is evaluated from ΔT, where Q is the global mean radiative forcing, T is the global model output for evolving non-equilibrium conditions. It is a mean air surface temperature, F is the heat fl ux into the ocean and Δ measure of the strengths of the climate feedbacks at a particular time represents a change with respect to an unperturbed climate. and may vary with forcing history and climate state. The climate sensitivity parameter (units: °C (W m–2)–1) refers to the equilibrium Climate model (spectrum or hierarchy) A numerical representation change in the annual mean global surface temperature following a of the climate system based on the physical, chemical and biological unit change in radiative forcing. properties of its components, their interactions and feedback The transient climate response is the change in the global surface processes, and accounting for all or some of its known properties. The temperature, averaged over a 20-year period, centred at the time of climate system can be represented by models of varying complexity, atmospheric carbon dioxide doubling, that is, at year 70 in a 1% that is, for any one component or combination of components yr–1 compound carbon dioxide increase experiment with a global a spectrum or hierarchy of models can be identifi ed, differing in coupled climate model. It is a measure of the strength and rapidity of such aspects as the number of spatial dimensions, the extent to the surface temperature response to greenhouse gas forcing. which physical, chemical or biological processes are explicitly represented, or the level at which empirical parametrizations are Climate shift or climate regime shift An abrupt shift or jump involved. Coupled Atmosphere-Ocean General Circulation Models in mean values signalling a change in regime. Most widely used (AOGCMs) provide a representation of the climate system that in conjunction with the 1976/1977 climate shift that seems to is near the most comprehensive end of the spectrum currently correspond to a change in El Niño-Southern Oscillation behavior. available. There is an evolution towards more complex models with interactive and (see Chapter 8). Climate models Climate system The climate system is the highly complex are applied as a research tool to study and simulate the climate, system consisting of fi ve major components: the atmosphere, the and for operational purposes, including monthly, seasonal and hydrosphere, the cryosphere, the land surface and the biosphere, interannual climate predictions. and the interactions between them. The climate system evolves in time under the infl uence of its own internal dynamics and because Climate prediction A climate prediction or climate forecast is the of external forcings such as volcanic eruptions, solar variations and result of an attempt to produce an estimate of the actual evolution

943 Annex I

anthropogenic forcings such as the changing composition of the Emissions from Direct Human-induced Degradation of Forests and atmosphere and land use change. Devegetation of Other Vegetation Types (IPCC, 2003).

Climate variability Climate variability refers to variations in Desertifi cation Land degradation in arid, semi-arid, and dry the mean state and other (such as standard deviations, sub-humid areas resulting from various factors, including climatic the occurrence of extremes, etc.) of the climate on all spatial and variations and human activities. The United Nations Convention to temporal scales beyond that of individual weather events. Variability Combat Desertifi cation defi nes land degradation as a reduction or may be due to natural internal processes within the climate system loss in arid, semi-arid, and dry sub-humid areas, of the biological (internal variability), or to variations in natural or anthropogenic or economic productivity and complexity of -fed cropland, external forcing (external variability). See also Climate change. irrigated cropland, or range, pasture, forest, and woodlands resulting from land uses or from a process or combination of processes, Cloud condensation nuclei (CCN) Airborne particles that serve as including processes arising from human activities and habitation an initial site for the condensation of liquid water, which can lead to patterns, such as (i) soil erosion caused by wind and/or water; (ii) the formation of cloud droplets. See also Aerosols. deterioration of the physical, chemical and biological or economic properties of soil; and (iii) long-term loss of natural vegetation. Cloud feedback A climate feedback involving changes in any of the properties of clouds as a response to other atmospheric changes. Detection and attribution Climate varies continually on all time Understanding cloud feedbacks and determining their magnitude scales. Detection of climate change is the process of demonstrating and sign require an understanding of how a change in climate may that climate has changed in some defi ned statistical sense, without affect the spectrum of cloud types, the cloud fraction and height, providing a reason for that change. Attribution of causes of climate and the radiative properties of clouds, and an estimate of the impact change is the process of establishing the most likely causes for the of these changes on the Earth’s radiation budget. At present, cloud detected change with some defi ned level of confi dence. feedbacks remain the largest source of uncertainty in climate sensitivity estimates. See also Cloud radiative forcing; Radiative Diatoms Silt-sized algae that live in surface waters of lakes, rivers forcing. and oceans and form shells of opal. Their species distribution in ocean cores is often related to past sea surface temperatures. Cloud radiative forcing Cloud radiative forcing is the difference between the all-sky Earth’s radiation budget and the clear-sky Diurnal temperature range The difference between the maximum Earth’s radiation budget (units: W m–2). and minimum temperature during a 24-hour period.

CO2-equivalent See Equivalent carbon dioxide. Dobson unit (DU) A unit to measure the total amount of ozone in a vertical column above the Earth’s surface (total column ozone). The Confi dence The level of confi dence in the correctness of a result number of Dobson units is the thickness in units of 10–5 m that the is expressed in this report, using a standard terminology defi ned in ozone column would occupy if compressed into a layer of uniform Box 1.1. See also Likelihood; Uncertainty. density at a pressure of 1,013 hPa and a temperature of 0°C. One DU corresponds to a column of ozone containing 2.69 × 1,020 Convection Vertical motion driven by buoyancy arising from molecules per square metre. A typical value for the amount of ozone static instability, usually caused by near-surface cooling or increases in a column of the Earth’s atmosphere, although very variable, is in salinity in the case of the ocean and near-surface warming in the 300 DU. case of the atmosphere. At the location of convection, the horizontal scale is approximately the same as the vertical scale, as opposed to Downscaling Downscaling is a method that derives local- to the large contrast between these scales in the general circulation. regional-scale (10 to 100 km) information from larger-scale models The net vertical mass transport is usually much smaller than the or data analyses. Two main methods are distinguished: dynamical upward and downward exchange. downscaling and empirical/statistical downscaling. The dynamical method uses the output of regional climate models, global models Cosmogenic isotopes Rare isotopes that are created when a high- with variable spatial resolution or high-resolution global models. cosmic ray interacts with the nucleus of an atom. They The empirical/statistical methods develop statistical relationships are often used as indications of solar magnetic activity (which can that link the large-scale atmospheric variables with local/regional shield cosmic rays) or as tracers of atmospheric transport, and are climate variables. In all cases, the quality of the downscaled product also called cosmogenic nuclides. depends on the quality of the driving model.

Cryosphere The component of the climate system consisting of all Drought In general terms, drought is a ‘prolonged absence or marked snow, ice and frozen ground (including permafrost) on and beneath defi ciency of precipitation’, a ‘defi ciency that results in water shortage the surface of the Earth and ocean. See also Glacier; Ice sheet. for some activity or for some group’, or a ‘period of abnormally dry weather suffi ciently prolonged for the lack of precipitation to cause Dansgaard-Oeschger events Abrupt warming events followed a serious hydrological imbalance’ (Heim, 2002). Drought has been by gradual cooling. The abrupt warming and gradual cooling is defi ned in a number of ways. Agricultural drought relates to moisture primarily seen in Greenland ice cores and in palaeoclimate records defi cits in the topmost 1 metre or so of soil (the root zone) that from the nearby North Atlantic, while a more general warming affect crops, meteorological drought is mainly a prolonged defi cit followed by a gradual cooling has been observed in other areas as of precipitation, and hydrologic drought is related to below-normal well, at intervals of 1.5 to 7 kyr during glacial times. streamfl ow, lake and groundwater levels. A megadrought is a long- drawn out and pervasive drought, lasting much longer than normal, Deforestation Conversion of forest to non-forest. For a discussion usually a decade or more. For further information, see Box 3.1. of the term forest and related terms such as afforestation, reforestation, and deforestation see the IPCC Special Report on Dynamical system A process or set of processes whose evolution Land Use, Land-Use Change and Forestry (IPCC, 2000). See also in time is governed by a set of deterministic physical laws. The the report on Defi nitions and Methodological Options to Inventory climate system is a dynamical system. See Abrupt climate change; Chaos; Nonlinearity; Predictability. 944 AAnnexnnex I

Ecosystem A system of living organisms interacting with each implies that, globally, the amount of incoming solar radiation on other and their physical environment. The boundaries of what could average must be equal to the sum of the outgoing refl ected solar be called an ecosystem are somewhat arbitrary, depending on the radiation and the outgoing thermal infrared radiation emitted by the focus of interest or study. Thus, the extent of an ecosystem may climate system. A perturbation of this global radiation balance, be it range from very small spatial scales to, ultimately, the entire Earth. anthropogenic or natural, is called radiative forcing.

Effi cacy A measure of how effective a radiative forcing from a Ensemble A group of parallel model simulations used for given anthropogenic or natural mechanism is at changing the climate projections. Variation of the results across the ensemble equilibrium global surface temperature compared to an equivalent members gives an estimate of uncertainty. Ensembles made with radiative forcing from carbon dioxide. A carbon dioxide increase by the same model but different initial conditions only characterise defi nition has an effi cacy of 1.0. the uncertainty associated with internal climate variability, whereas multi-model ensembles including simulations by several Ekman pumping Frictional stress at the surface between two fl uids models also include the impact of model differences. Perturbed- (atmosphere and ocean) or between a fl uid and the adjacent solid parameter ensembles, in which model parameters are varied in a surface (Earth’s surface) forces a circulation. When the resulting systematic manner, aim to produce a more objective estimate of mass transport is converging, mass conservation requires a vertical modelling uncertainty than is possible with traditional multi-model fl ow away from the surface. This is called Ekman pumping. The ensembles. opposite effect, in case of divergence, is called Ekman suction. The effect is important in both the atmosphere and the ocean. Equilibrium and transient climate experiment An equilibrium climate experiment is an experiment in which a climate model Ekman transport The total transport resulting from a balance is allowed to fully adjust to a change in radiative forcing. Such between the Coriolis and the frictional stress due to the action experiments provide information on the difference between the of the wind on the ocean surface. See also Ekman pumping. initial and fi nal states of the model, but not on the time-dependent response. If the forcing is allowed to evolve gradually according El Niño-Southern Oscillation (ENSO) The term El Niño was initially to a prescribed emission scenario, the time-dependent response of used to describe a warm-water current that periodically fl ows along a climate model may be analysed. Such an experiment is called a the coast of Ecuador and Perú, disrupting the local fi shery. It has transient climate experiment. See Climate projection. since become identifi ed with a basin-wide warming of the tropical Pacifi c Ocean east of the dateline. This oceanic event is associated Equilibrium line The boundary between the region on a glacier with a fl uctuation of a global-scale tropical and subtropical surface where there is a net annual loss of ice mass (ablation area) and that pressure pattern called the Southern Oscillation. This coupled where there is a net annual gain (accumulation area). The altitude of atmosphere-ocean phenomenon, with preferred time scales of two this boundary is referred to as equilibrium line altitude. to about seven years, is collectively known as the El Niño-Southern Oscillation (ENSO). It is often measured by the surface pressure Equivalent carbon dioxide (CO2) concentration anomaly difference between Darwin and Tahiti and the sea surface The concentration of carbon dioxide that would cause the same temperatures in the central and eastern equatorial Pacifi c. During an amount of radiative forcing as a given mixture of carbon dioxide ENSO event, the prevailing trade winds weaken, reducing upwelling and other greenhouse gases. and altering ocean currents such that the sea surface temperatures warm, further weakening the trade winds. This event has a great Equivalent carbon dioxide (CO2) emission The amount of carbon impact on the wind, sea surface temperature and precipitation dioxide emission that would cause the same integrated radiative patterns in the tropical Pacifi c. It has climatic effects throughout the forcing, over a given time horizon, as an emitted amount of a well Pacifi c region and in many other parts of the world, through global mixed greenhouse gas or a mixture of well mixed greenhouse gases. teleconnections. The cold phase of ENSO is called La Niña. The equivalent carbon dioxide emission is obtained by multiplying the emission of a well mixed greenhouse gas by its Global Warming Emission scenario A plausible representation of the future Potential for the given time horizon. For a mix of greenhouse gases development of emissions of substances that are potentially it is obtained by summing the equivalent carbon dioxide emissions radiatively active (e.g., greenhouse gases, aerosols), based on a of each gas. Equivalent carbon dioxide emission is a standard and coherent and internally consistent set of assumptions about driving useful metric for comparing emissions of different greenhouse gases forces (such as demographic and socioeconomic development, but does not imply exact equivalence of the corresponding climate technological change) and their key relationships. Concentration change responses (see Section 2.10). scenarios, derived from emission scenarios, are used as input to a climate model to compute climate projections. In IPCC (1992) a set Evapotranspiration The combined process of evaporation from the of emission scenarios was presented which were used as a basis for Earth’s surface and transpiration from vegetation. the climate projections in IPCC (1996). These emission scenarios are referred to as the IS92 scenarios. In the IPCC Special Report on External forcing External forcing refers to a forcing agent outside Emission Scenarios (Nakićenović and Swart, 2000) new emission the climate system causing a change in the climate system. Volcanic scenarios, the so-called SRES scenarios, were published, some of eruptions, solar variations and anthropogenic changes in the which were used, among others, as a basis for the climate projections composition of the atmosphere and land use change are external presented in Chapters 9 to 11 of IPCC (2001) and Chapters 10 and forcings. 11 of this report. For the meaning of some terms related to these scenarios, see SRES scenarios. Extreme weather event An extreme weather event is an event that is rare at a particular place and time of year. Defi nitions of rare Energy balance The difference between the total incoming and vary, but an extreme weather event would normally be as rare as total outgoing energy. If this balance is positive, warming occurs; or rarer than the 10th or 90th percentile of the observed probability if it is negative, cooling occurs. Averaged over the globe and over density function. By defi nition, the characteristics of what is called long time periods, this balance must be zero. Because the climate extreme weather may vary from place to place in an absolute sense. system derives virtually all its energy from the Sun, zero balance Single extreme events cannot be simply and directly attributed to

945 Annex I

anthropogenic climate change, as there is always a fi nite chance the hydrological, cryospheric and atmospheric effects; Earth rotation event in question might have occurred naturally. When a pattern of variations and polar motion; nutation and precession; tectonics extreme weather persists for some time, such as a , it may be and other effects such as post-glacial rebound. The geoid is classed as an extreme climate event, especially if it yields an average global and extends over continents, oceans and ice sheets, and at or total that is itself extreme (e.g., drought or heavy rainfall over a present includes the effect of the permanent tides (zero-frequency season). gravitational effect from the Sun and the Moon). It is the surface of reference for astronomical observations, geodetic levelling, and Faculae Bright patches on the Sun. The area covered by faculae is for ocean, hydrological, glaciological and climate modelling. In greater during periods of high solar activity. practice, there exist various operational defi nitions of the geoid, depending on the way the time-variable effects mentioned above Feedback See Climate feedback. are modelled.

Fingerprint The climate response pattern in space and/or time to a Geostrophic winds or currents A wind or current that is in balance specifi c forcing is commonly referred to as a fi ngerprint. Fingerprints with the horizontal and the , and thus are used to detect the presence of this response in observations and is outside of the infl uence of friction. Thus, the wind or current is are typically estimated using forced climate model simulations. directly parallel to isobars and its is inversely proportional to the spacing of the isobaric contours. Flux adjustment To avoid the problem of coupled Atmosphere- Ocean General Circulation Models (AOGCMs) drifting into some Glacial isostatic adjustment See Post-glacial rebound. unrealistic climate state, adjustment terms can be applied to the atmosphere-ocean fl uxes of heat and moisture (and sometimes the Glacier A mass of land ice that fl ows downhill under gravity surface stresses resulting from the effect of the wind on the ocean (through internal deformation and/or sliding at the base) and is surface) before these fl uxes are imposed on the model ocean and constrained by internal stress and friction at the base and sides. A atmosphere. Because these adjustments are pre-computed and glacier is maintained by accumulation of snow at high altitudes, therefore independent of the coupled model integration, they are balanced by melting at low altitudes or discharge into the sea. See uncorrelated with the anomalies that develop during the integration. Equilibrium line; Mass balance. Chapter 8 of this report concludes that most models used in this report (Fourth Assessment Report AOGCMs) do not use fl ux Global dimming refers to perceived widespread adjustments, and that in general, fewer models use them. reduction of solar radiation received at the surface of the Earth from about the year 1961 to around 1990. Forest A vegetation type dominated by trees. Many defi nitions of the term forest are in use throughout the world, refl ecting wide Global surface temperature The global surface temperature is differences in biogeophysical conditions, social structure and an estimate of the global mean surface air temperature. However, economics. For a discussion of the term forest and related terms for changes over time, only anomalies, as departures from a such as afforestation, reforestation and deforestation see the IPCC , are used, most commonly based on the area-weighted Report on Land Use, Land-Use Change and Forestry (IPCC, 2000). global average of the sea surface temperature anomaly and land See also the Report on Defi nitions and Methodological Options to surface air temperature anomaly. Inventory Emissions from Direct Human-induced Degradation of Forests and Devegetation of Other Vegetation Types (IPCC, 2003). Global Warming Potential (GWP) An index, based upon radiative properties of well-mixed greenhouse gases, measuring the Fossil fuel emissions Emissions of greenhouse gases (in particular radiative forcing of a unit mass of a given well-mixed greenhouse carbon dioxide) resulting from the combustion of fuels from fossil gas in the present-day atmosphere integrated over a chosen time carbon deposits such as oil, gas and coal. horizon, relative to that of carbon dioxide. The GWP represents the combined effect of the differing times these gases remain in the Framework Convention on Climate Change See United Nations atmosphere and their relative effectiveness in absorbing outgoing Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC). thermal infrared radiation. The Kyoto Protocol is based on GWPs from pulse emissions over a 100-year time frame. Free atmosphere The atmospheric layer that is negligibly affected by friction against Greenhouse effect Greenhouse gases effectively absorb thermal the Earth’s surface, and which is above the atmospheric boundary infrared radiation, emitted by the Earth’s surface, by the atmosphere layer. itself due to the same gases, and by clouds. Atmospheric radiation is emitted to all sides, including downward to the Earth’s surface. Frozen ground Soil or rock in which part or all of the pore water is Thus, greenhouse gases trap heat within the surface-troposphere frozen (Van Everdingen, 1998). Frozen ground includes permafrost. system. This is called the greenhouse effect. Thermal infrared Ground that freezes and thaws annually is called seasonally frozen radiation in the troposphere is strongly coupled to the temperature ground. of the atmosphere at the altitude at which it is emitted. In the troposphere, the temperature generally decreases with height. General circulation The large-scale motions of the atmosphere Effectively, infrared radiation emitted to space originates from an and the ocean as a consequence of differential heating on a rotating altitude with a temperature of, on average, –19°C, in balance with Earth, which tend to restore the energy balance of the system the net incoming solar radiation, whereas the Earth’s surface is kept through transport of heat and . at a much higher temperature of, on average, +14°C. An increase in the concentration of greenhouse gases leads to an increased infrared General Circulation Model (GCM) See Climate model. opacity of the atmosphere, and therefore to an effective radiation into space from a higher altitude at a lower temperature. This causes Geoid The equipotential surface (i.e., having the same gravity a radiative forcing that leads to an enhancement of the greenhouse potential at each point) that best fi ts the mean sea level (see relative effect, the so-called enhanced greenhouse effect. sea level) in the absence of astronomical tides; ocean circulations;

946 AAnnexnnex I

Greenhouse gas (GHG) Greenhouse gases are those gaseous resulting in growth of continental ice sheets and mountain glaciers constituents of the atmosphere, both natural and anthropogenic, that (glaciation). absorb and emit radiation at specifi c wavelengths within the spectrum of thermal infrared radiation emitted by the Earth’s surface, the Ice cap A dome shaped ice mass, usually covering a highland area, atmosphere itself, and by clouds. This property causes the greenhouse which is considerably smaller in extent than an ice sheet. effect. Water vapour (H2O), carbon dioxide (CO2), nitrous oxide (N2O), methane (CH4) and ozone (O3) are the primary greenhouse gases in the Ice core A cylinder of ice drilled out of a glacier or ice sheet. Earth’s atmosphere. Moreover, there are a number of entirely human- made greenhouse gases in the atmosphere, such as the halocarbons Ice sheet A mass of land ice that is suffi ciently deep to cover and other chlorine- and bromine-containing substances, dealt with most of the underlying bedrock , so that its shape is under the Montreal Protocol. Beside CO2, N2O and CH4, the Kyoto mainly determined by its dynamics (the fl ow of the ice as it deforms Protocol deals with the greenhouse gases sulphur hexafl uoride (SF6), internally and/or slides at its base). An ice sheet fl ows outward from hydrofl uorocarbons (HFCs) and perfl uorocarbons (PFCs). a high central ice plateau with a small average surface slope. The margins usually slope more steeply, and most ice is discharged Gross Primary Production (GPP) The amount of energy fi xed from through fast-fl owing ice streams or outlet glaciers, in some cases the atmosphere through photosynthesis. into the sea or into ice shelves fl oating on the sea. There are only three large ice sheets in the modern world, one on Greenland and Ground ice A general term referring to all types of ice contained two on Antarctica, the East and West Antarctic Ice Sheets, divided in freezing and seasonally frozen ground and permafrost (Van by the Transantarctic Mountains. During glacial periods there were Everdingen, 1998). others.

Ground temperature The temperature of the ground near the surface Ice shelf A fl oating slab of ice of considerable thickness extending (often within the fi rst 10 cm). It is often called soil temperature. from the coast (usually of great horizontal extent with a level or gently sloping surface), often fi lling embayments in the coastline of Grounding line/zone The junction between a glacier or ice sheet the ice sheets. Nearly all ice shelves are in Antarctica, where most and ice shelf; the place where ice starts to fl oat. of the ice discharged seaward fl ows into ice shelves.

Gyre Basin-scale ocean horizontal circulation pattern with Ice stream A stream of ice fl owing faster than the surrounding ice slow fl ow circulating around the ocean basin, closed by a strong sheet. It can be thought of as a glacier fl owing between walls of and narrow (100–200 km wide) boundary current on the western slower-moving ice instead of rock. side. The subtropical gyres in each ocean are associated with high pressure in the centre of the gyres; the subpolar gyres are associated Indirect aerosol effect Aerosols may lead to an indirect radiative with low pressure. forcing of the climate system through acting as cloud condensation nuclei or modifying the optical properties and lifetime of clouds. Hadley Circulation A direct, thermally driven overturning cell in the Two indirect effects are distinguished: atmosphere consisting of poleward fl ow in the upper troposphere, subsiding air into the subtropical , return fl ow as part of Cloud albedo effect A radiative forcing induced by an increase the trade winds near the surface, and with rising air near the equator in anthropogenic aerosols that cause an initial increase in droplet in the so-called Inter-Tropical Convergence Zone. concentration and a decrease in droplet size for fi xed liquid water content, leading to an increase in cloud albedo. This effect Halocarbons A collective term for the group of partially is also known as the fi rst indirect effect or Twomey effect. halogenated organic species, including the chlorofl uorocarbons (CFCs), hydrochlorofl uorocarbons (HCFCs), hydrofl uorocarbons Cloud lifetime effect A forcing induced by an increase in (HFCs), halons, methyl chloride, methyl bromide, etc. Many of the anthropogenic aerosols that cause a decrease in droplet size, halocarbons have large Global Warming Potentials. The chlorine- reducing the precipitation effi ciency, thereby modifying the and bromine-containing halocarbons are also involved in the liquid water content, cloud thickness and cloud life time. This depletion of the ozone layer. effect is also known as the second indirect effect or Albrecht effect. Halosteric See Sea level change. Apart from these indirect effects, aerosols may have a semi- direct effect. This refers to the absorption of solar radiation HCFC See Halocarbons. by absorbing aerosol, which heats the air and tends to increase the static stability relative to the surface. It may also cause HFC See Halocarbons. evaporation of cloud droplets.

Heterotrophic respiration The conversion of organic matter to Industrial revolution A period of rapid industrial growth with far- carbon dioxide by organisms other than plants. reaching social and economic consequences, beginning in Britain during the second half of the eighteenth century and spreading to Holocene The Holocene geological epoch is the latter of two Europe and later to other countries including the United States. epochs, extending from about 11.6 ka to and including The invention of the steam engine was an important trigger of this the present. development. The industrial revolution marks the beginning of a strong increase in the use of fossil fuels and emission of, in particular, Hydrosphere The component of the climate system comprising fossil carbon dioxide. In this report the terms pre-industrial and liquid surface and subterranean water, such as oceans, seas, rivers, industrial refer, somewhat arbitrarily, to the periods before and after fresh water lakes, underground water, etc. 1750, respectively.

Ice age An ice age or glacial period is characterised by a Infrared radiation See Thermal infrared radiation. long-term reduction in the temperature of the Earth’s climate,

947 Annex I

Insolation The amount of solar radiation reaching the Earth by Last Interglacial (LIG) See Interglacial. latitude and by season. Usually insolation refers to the radiation arriving at the top of the atmosphere. Sometimes it is specifi ed as Latent heat fl ux The fl ux of heat from the Earth’s surface to the referring to the radiation arriving at the Earth’s surface. See also: atmosphere that is associated with evaporation or condensation Total . of water vapour at the surface; a component of the surface energy budget. Interglacials The warm periods between ice age glaciations. The previous interglacial, dated approximately from 129 to 116 ka, is Level of Scientifi c Understanding (LOSU) This is an index on referred to as the Last Interglacial (AMS, 2000) a 5-step scale (high, medium, medium-low, low and very low) designed to characterise the degree of scientifi c understanding of the Internal variability See Climate variability. radiative forcing agents that affect climate change. For each agent, the index represents a subjective judgement about the evidence for Inter-Tropical Convergence Zone (ITCZ) The Inter-Tropical the physical/chemical mechanisms determining the forcing and the Convergence Zone is an equatorial zonal belt of low pressure near consensus surrounding the quantitative estimate and its uncertainty. the equator where the northeast trade winds meet the southeast trade winds. As these winds converge, moist air is forced upward, resulting Lifetime Lifetime is a general term used for various time scales in a band of heavy precipitation. This band moves seasonally. characterising the rate of processes affecting the concentration of trace gases. The following lifetimes may be distinguished: Isostatic or Isostasy Isostasy refers to the way in which the Turnover time (T) (also called global atmospheric lifetime) is the lithosphere and mantle respond visco-elastically to changes in ratio of the mass M of a reservoir (e.g., a gaseous compound in the surface loads. When the loading of the lithosphere and/or the mantle atmosphere) and the total rate of removal S from the reservoir: T = M is changed by alterations in land ice mass, ocean mass, sedimentation, / S. For each removal process, separate turnover times can be defi ned. erosion or mountain building, vertical isostatic adjustment results, In soil carbon biology, this is referred to as Mean Residence Time. in order to balance the new load. Adjustment time or response time (Ta ) is the time scale characterising the decay of an instantaneous pulse input into the Kyoto Protocol The Kyoto Protocol to the United Nations reservoir. The term adjustment time is also used to characterise the Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC) was adopted adjustment of the mass of a reservoir following a step change in in 1997 in Kyoto, Japan, at the Third Session of the Conference the source strength. Half-life or decay constant is used to quantify of the Parties (COP) to the UNFCCC. It contains legally binding a fi rst-order exponential decay process. See response time for a commitments, in addition to those included in the UNFCCC. different defi nition pertinent to climate variations. Countries included in Annex B of the Protocol (most Organisation The term lifetime is sometimes used, for simplicity, as a surrogate for Economic Cooperation and Development countries and countries for adjustment time. with economies in transition) agreed to reduce their anthropogenic In simple cases, where the global removal of the compound is greenhouse gas emissions (carbon dioxide, methane, nitrous oxide, directly proportional to the total mass of the reservoir, the adjustment hydrofl uorocarbons, perfl uorocarbons, and sulphur hexafl uoride) by time equals the turnover time: T = Ta. An example is CFC-11, which at least 5% below 1990 levels in the commitment period 2008 to is removed from the atmosphere only by photochemical processes 2012. The Kyoto Protocol entered into force on 16 February 2005. in the stratosphere. In more complicated cases, where several reservoirs are involved or where the removal is not proportional to Land use and Land use change Land use refers to the total of the total mass, the equality T = Ta no longer holds. Carbon dioxide arrangements, activities and inputs undertaken in a certain land (CO2) is an extreme example. Its turnover time is only about four cover type (a set of human actions). The term land use is also used years because of the rapid exchange between the atmosphere and in the sense of the social and economic purposes for which land is the ocean and terrestrial biota. However, a large part of that CO2 is managed (e.g., grazing, timber extraction and conservation). Land returned to the atmosphere within a few years. Thus, the adjustment use change refers to a change in the use or management of land time of CO2 in the atmosphere is actually determined by the rate by humans, which may lead to a change in land cover. Land cover of removal of carbon from the surface layer of the oceans into its and land use change may have an impact on the surface albedo, deeper layers. Although an approximate value of 100 years may be evapotranspiration, sources and sinks of greenhouse gases, or other given for the adjustment time of CO2 in the atmosphere, the actual properties of the climate system and may thus have a radiative adjustment is faster initially and slower later on. In the case of forcing and/or other impacts on climate, locally or globally. See methane (CH4), the adjustment time is different from the turnover also the IPCC Report on Land Use, Land-Use Change, and Forestry time because the removal is mainly through a chemical reaction with (IPCC, 2000). the hydroxyl radical OH, the concentration of which itself depends on the CH4 concentration. Therefore, the CH4 removal rate S is not La Niña See El Niño-Southern Oscillation. proportional to its total mass M.

Land surface air temperature The surface air temperature as Likelihood The likelihood of an occurrence, an outcome or a measured in well-ventilated screens over land at 1.5 m above the result, where this can be estimated probabilistically, is expressed ground. in this report using a standard terminology, defi ned in Box 1.1. See also Uncertainty; Confi dence. Lapse rate The rate of change of an atmospheric variable, usually temperature, with height. The lapse rate is considered positive when Lithosphere The upper layer of the , both continental the variable decreases with height. and oceanic, which comprises all crustal rocks and the cold, mainly elastic part of the uppermost mantle. Volcanic activity, although part Last Glacial Maximum (LGM) The Last Glacial Maximum refers to of the lithosphere, is not considered as part of the climate system, the time of maximum extent of the ice sheets during the last glaciation, but acts as an external forcing factor. See Isostatic. approximately 21 ka. This period has been widely studied because the radiative forcings and boundary conditions are relatively well known Little Ice Age (LIA) An interval between approximately AD 1400 and because the global cooling during that period is comparable with and 1900 when temperatures in the Northern Hemisphere were the projected warming over the 21st century. generally colder than today’s, especially in Europe. 948 AAnnexnnex I

Mass balance (of glaciers, ice caps or ice sheets) The balance fraction differs from volume mixing ratio, often expressed in ppmv between the mass input to the ice body (accumulation) and the mass etc., by the corrections for non-ideality of gases. This correction is loss (ablation, iceberg calving). Mass balance terms include the signifi cant relative to measurement precision for many greenhouse following: gases. (Schwartz and Warneck, 1995). Specifi c mass balance: net mass loss or gain over a hydrological cycle at a point on the surface of a glacier. A monsoon is a tropical and subtropical seasonal reversal Total mass balance (of the glacier): The specifi c mass balance in both the surface winds and associated precipitation, caused by spatially integrated over the entire glacier area; the total mass a differential heating between a continental-scale land mass and the glacier gains or loses over a hydrological cycle. adjacent ocean. Monsoon occur mainly over land in . Mean specifi c mass balance: The total mass balance per unit area of the glacier. If surface is specifi ed (specifi c surface mass balance, Montreal Protocol The Montreal Protocol on Substances that etc.) then ice fl ow contributions are not considered; otherwise, mass Deplete the Ozone Layer was adopted in Montreal in 1987, and balance includes contributions from ice fl ow and iceberg calving. subsequently adjusted and amended in London (1990), Copenhagen The specifi c surface mass balance is positive in the accumulation (1992), Vienna (1995), Montreal (1997) and Beijing (1999). It area and negative in the ablation area. controls the consumption and production of chlorine- and bromine- containing chemicals that destroy stratospheric ozone, such as Mean sea level See Relative sea level. chlorofl uorocarbons, methyl chloroform, carbon tetrachloride and many others. Medieval Warm Period (MWP) An interval between AD 1000 and 1300 in which some Northern Hemisphere regions were warmer Microwave Sounding Unit (MSU) A -borne microwave than during the Little Ice Age that followed. sounder that estimates the temperature of thick layers of the atmosphere by measuring the thermal emission of oxygen Meridional Overturning Circulation (MOC) Meridional (north- molecules from a complex of emission lines near 60 GHz. A series south) overturning circulation in the ocean quantifi ed by zonal of nine MSUs began making this kind of measurement in late 1978. (east-west) sums of mass transports in depth or density layers. Beginning in mid 1998, a follow-on series of instruments, the In the North Atlantic, away from the subpolar regions, the MOC Advanced Microwave Sounding Units (AMSUs), began operation. (which is in principle an observable quantity) is often identifi ed with the Thermohaline Circulation (THC), which is a conceptual MSU See Microwave Sounding Unit. interpretation. However, it must be borne in mind that the MOC can also include shallower, wind-driven overturning cells such as occur Nonlinearity A process is called nonlinear when there is no simple in the upper ocean in the and subtropics, in which warm proportional relation between cause and effect. The climate system (light) waters moving poleward are transformed to slightly denser contains many such nonlinear processes, resulting in a system with waters and subducted equatorward at deeper levels. a potentially very complex behaviour. Such complexity may lead to abrupt climate change. See also Chaos; Predictability. Metadata Information about meteorological and climatological data concerning how and when they were measured, their quality, North Atlantic Oscillation (NAO) The North Atlantic Oscillation known problems and other characteristics. consists of opposing variations of barometric pressure near Iceland and near the Azores. It therefore corresponds to fl uctuations in Metric A consistent measurement of a characteristic of an object or the strength of the main westerly winds across the Atlantic into activity that is otherwise diffi cult to quantify. Europe, and thus to fl uctuations in the embedded with their associated frontal systems. See NAO Index, Box 3.4. Mitigation A human intervention to reduce the sources or enhance the sinks of greenhouse gases. Northern Annular Mode (NAM) A fl uctuation in the amplitude of a pattern characterised by low surface pressure in the Arctic Mixing ratio See Mole fraction. and strong mid-latitude westerlies. The NAM has links with the northern polar vortex into the stratosphere. Its pattern has a bias to Model hierarchy See Climate model (spectrum or hierarchy). the North Atlantic and has a large correlation with the North Atlantic Oscillation. See NAM Index, Box 3.4. Modes of climate variability Natural variability of the climate system, in particular on seasonal and longer time scales, Ocean acidifi cation A decrease in the pH of sea water due to the predominantly occurs with preferred spatial patterns and time uptake of anthropogenic carbon dioxide. scales, through the dynamical characteristics of the and through interactions with the land and ocean Ocean heat uptake effi ciency This is a measure (W m–2 °C–1) surfaces. Such patterns are often called regimes, modes or of the rate at which heat storage by the global ocean increases as teleconnections. Examples are the North Atlantic Oscillation global surface temperature rises. It is a useful parameter for climate (NAO), the Pacifi c-North American pattern (PNA), the El Niño- change experiments in which the radiative forcing is changing Southern Oscillation (ENSO), the Northern Annular Mode (NAM; monotonically, when it can be compared with the climate sensitivity previously called Arctic Oscillation, AO) and the Southern Annular parameter to gauge the relative importance of climate response and Mode (SAM; previously called the Antarctic Oscillation, AAO). ocean heat uptake in determining the rate of climate change. It can Many of the prominent modes of climate variability are discussed in be estimated from a 1% yr–1 atmospheric carbon dioxide increase section 3.6. See also Patterns of climate variability. experiment as the ratio of the global average top-of-atmosphere net downward radiative fl ux to the transient climate response (see Mole fraction Mole fraction, or mixing ratio, is the ratio of the climate sensitivity). number of moles of a constituent in a given volume to the total number of moles of all constituents in that volume. It is usually Organic aerosol Aerosol particles consisting predominantly of reported for dry air. Typical values for long-lived greenhouse gases organic compounds, mainly carbon, hydrogen, oxygen and lesser are in the order of μmol mol–1 (parts per million: ppm), nmol mol–1 amounts of other elements. (Charlson and Heintzenberg, 1995, p. (parts per billion: ppb), and fmol mol–1 (parts per trillion: ppt). Mole 405). See Carbonaceous aerosol. 949 Annex I

+ Ozone Ozone, the triatomic form of oxygen (O3), is a gaseous pH = –log10(H ). Thus, a pH decrease of 1 unit corresponds atmospheric constituent. In the troposphere, it is created both to a 10-fold increase in the concentration of H+, or acidity. naturally and by photochemical reactions involving gases resulting from human activities (smog). Tropospheric ozone acts as a Photosynthesis The process by which plants take carbon dioxide greenhouse gas. In the stratosphere, it is created by the interaction from the air (or bicarbonate in water) to build carbohydrates, between solar ultraviolet radiation and molecular oxygen (O2). releasing oxygen in the process. There are several pathways of Stratospheric ozone plays a dominant role in the stratospheric photosynthesis with different responses to atmospheric carbon radiative balance. Its concentration is highest in the ozone layer. dioxide concentrations. See Carbon dioxide fertilization; C3 plants; C4 plants. Ozone hole See Ozone layer. Plankton Microorganisms living in the upper layers of aquatic Ozone layer The stratosphere contains a layer in which the systems. A distinction is made between phytoplankton, which concentration of ozone is greatest, the so-called ozone layer. The depend on photosynthesis for their energy supply, and zooplankton, layer extends from about 12 to 40 km above the Earth’s surface. The which feed on phytoplankton. ozone concentration reaches a maximum between about 20 and 25 km. This layer is being depleted by human emissions of chlorine and Pleistocene The earlier of two Quaternary epochs, extending from bromine compounds. Every year, during the Southern Hemisphere the end of the Pliocene, about 1.8 Ma, until the beginning of the , a very strong depletion of the ozone layer takes place over Holocene about 11.6 ka. the antarctic region, caused by anthropogenic chlorine and bromine compounds in combination with the specifi c meteorological Pollen analysis A technique of both relative dating and conditions of that region. This phenomenon is called the ozone hole. environmental reconstruction, consisting of the identifi cation and See Montreal Protocol. counting of pollen types preserved in peat, lake sediments and other deposits. See Proxy. Pacifi c decadal variability Coupled decadal-to-inter-decadal variability of the atmospheric circulation and underlying ocean in Post-glacial rebound The vertical movement of the land and sea the Pacifi c Basin. It is most prominent in the North Pacifi c, where fl oor following the reduction of the load of an ice mass, for example, fl uctuations in the strength of the winter Aleutian Low pressure since the Last Glacial Maximum (21 ka). The rebound is an isostatic system co-vary with North Pacifi c sea surface temperatures, and land movement. are linked to decadal variations in atmospheric circulation, sea surface temperatures and ocean circulation throughout the whole Precipitable water The total amount of atmospheric water vapour Pacifi c Basin. Such fl uctuations have the effect of modulating the El in a vertical column of unit cross-sectional area. It is commonly Niño-Southern Oscillation cycle. Key measures of Pacifi c decadal expressed in terms of the height of the water if completely condensed variability are the North Pacifi c Index (NPI), the Pacifi c Decadal and collected in a vessel of the same unit cross section. Oscillation (PDO) index and the Inter-decadal Pacifi c Oscillation (IPO) index, all defi ned in Box 3.4. Precursors Atmospheric compounds that are not greenhouse gases or aerosols, but that have an effect on greenhouse gas or aerosol Pacifi c-North American (PNA) pattern An atmospheric large-scale concentrations by taking part in physical or chemical processes wave pattern featuring a sequence of tropospheric high- and low- regulating their production or destruction rates. pressure anomalies stretching from the subtropical west Pacifi c to the east coast of North America. See PNA pattern index, Box 3.4. Predictability The extent to which future states of a system may be predicted based on knowledge of current and past states of the Palaeoclimate Climate during periods prior to the development system. of measuring instruments, including historic and geologic time, for Since knowledge of the climate system’s past and current states which only proxy climate records are available. is generally imperfect, as are the models that utilise this knowledge to produce a climate prediction, and since the climate system is Parametrization In climate models, this term refers to the technique inherently nonlinear and chaotic, predictability of the climate of representing processes that cannot be explicitly resolved at the system is inherently limited. Even with arbitrarily accurate models spatial or temporal resolution of the model (sub-grid scale processes) and observations, there may still be limits to the predictability of by relationships between model-resolved larger-scale fl ow and the such a nonlinear system (AMS, 2000) area- or time-averaged effect of such sub-grid scale processes. Pre-industrial See Industrial revolution. Patterns of climate variability See Modes of climate variability. Probability Density Function (PDF) A probability density function Percentile A percentile is a value on a scale of one hundred that is a function that indicates the relative chances of occurrence of indicates the percentage of the data set values that is equal to or different outcomes of a variable. The function integrates to unity below it. The percentile is often used to estimate the extremes of a over the domain for which it is defi ned and has the property that distribution. For example, the 90th (10th) percentile may be used to the integral over a sub-domain equals the probability that the refer to the threshold for the upper (lower) extremes. outcome of the variable lies within that sub-domain. For example, the probability that a temperature anomaly defi ned in a particular Permafrost Ground (soil or rock and included ice and organic way is greater than zero is obtained from its PDF by integrating material) that remains at or below 0°C for at least two consecutive the PDF over all possible temperature anomalies greater than zero. years (Van Everdingen, 1998). Probability density functions that describe two or more variables simultaneously are similarly defi ned. pH pH is a dimensionless measure of the acidity of water (or any solution) given by its concentration of hydrogen Projection A projection is a potential future evolution of a quantity ions (H+). pH is measured on a logarithmic scale where or set of quantities, often computed with the aid of a model.

950 AAnnexnnex I

Projections are distinguished from predictions in order to emphasize Regime A regime is preferred states of the climate system, often that projections involve assumptions concerning, for example, future representing one phase of dominant patterns or modes of climate socioeconomic and technological developments that may or may variability. not be realised, and are therefore subject to substantial uncertainty. See also Climate projection; Climate prediction. Region A region is a territory characterised by specifi c geographical and climatological features. The climate of a region is Proxy A proxy climate indicator is a local record that is affected by regional and local scale forcings like topography, land interpreted, using physical and biophysical principles, to represent use characteristics, lakes, etc., as well as remote infl uences from some combination of climate-related variations back in time. other regions. See Teleconnection. Climate-related data derived in this way are referred to as proxy data. Examples of proxies include pollen analysis, tree ring records, Relative sea level Sea level measured by a tide gauge with respect characteristics of corals and various data derived from ice cores. to the land upon which it is situated. Mean sea level is normally defi ned as the average relative sea level over a period, such as a Quaternary The period of geological time following the Tertiary month or a year, long enough to average out transients such as (65 Ma to 1.8 Ma). Following the current defi nition (which is waves and tides. See Sea level change. under revision at present) the Quaternary extends from 1.8 Ma until the present. It is formed of two epochs, the Pleistocene and the Reservoir A component of the climate system, other than the Holocene. atmosphere, which has the capacity to store, accumulate or release a substance of concern, for example, carbon, a greenhouse gas or Radiative forcing Radiative forcing is the change in the net, a precursor. Oceans, soils and forests are examples of reservoirs downward minus upward, irradiance (expressed in W m–2) at the of carbon. Pool is an equivalent term (note that the defi nition of tropopause due to a change in an external driver of climate change, pool often includes the atmosphere). The absolute quantity of the such as, for example, a change in the concentration of carbon substance of concern held within a reservoir at a specifi ed time is dioxide or the output of the Sun. Radiative forcing is computed with called the stock. all tropospheric properties held fi xed at their unperturbed values, and after allowing for stratospheric temperatures, if perturbed, to Respiration The process whereby living organisms convert readjust to radiative-dynamical equilibrium. Radiative forcing is organic matter to carbon dioxide, releasing energy and consuming called instantaneous if no change in stratospheric temperature is molecular oxygen. accounted for. For the purposes of this report, radiative forcing is further defi ned as the change relative to the year 1750 and, unless Response time The response time or adjustment time is the time otherwise noted, refers to a global and annual average value. needed for the climate system or its components to re-equilibrate to Radiative forcing is not to be confused with cloud radiative forcing, a new state, following a forcing resulting from external and internal a similar terminology for describing an unrelated measure of the processes or feedbacks. It is very different for various components impact of clouds on the irradiance at the top of the atmosphere. of the climate system. The response time of the troposphere is relatively short, from days to weeks, whereas the stratosphere Radiative forcing scenario A plausible representation of the reaches equilibrium on a time scale of typically a few months. Due future development of radiative forcing associated, for example, to their large heat capacity, the oceans have a much longer response with changes in atmospheric composition or land use change, or time: typically decades, but up to centuries or millennia. The with external factors such as variations in solar activity. Radiative response time of the strongly coupled surface-troposphere system forcing scenarios can be used as input into simplifi ed climate models is, therefore, slow compared to that of the stratosphere, and mainly to compute climate projections. determined by the oceans. The biosphere may respond quickly (e.g., to droughts), but also very slowly to imposed changes. See lifetime Rapid climate change See Abrupt climate change. for a different defi nition of response time pertinent to the rate of processes affecting the concentration of trace gases. Reanalysis Reanalyses are atmospheric and oceanic analyses of temperature, wind, current, and other meteorological and Return period The average time between occurrences of a defi ned oceanographic quantities, created by processing past meteorological event (AMS, 2000). and oceanographic data using fi xed state-of-the-art models and data assimilation techniques. Using fi xed Return value The highest (or, alternatively, lowest) value of a data assimilation avoids effects from the changing analysis system given variable, on average occurring once in a given period of time that occurs in operational analyses. Although continuity is improved, (e.g., in 10 years). global reanalyses still suffer from changing coverage and biases in the observing systems. Scenario A plausible and often simplifi ed description of how the future may develop, based on a coherent and internally consistent Reconstruction The use of climate indicators to help determine set of assumptions about driving forces and key relationships. (generally past) . Scenarios may be derived from projections, but are often based on additional information from other sources, sometimes combined Reforestation Planting of forests on lands that have previously with a narrative storyline. See also SRES scenarios; Climate contained forests but that have been converted to some other scenario; Emission scenario. use. For a discussion of the term forest and related terms such as afforestation, reforestation and deforestation, see the IPCC Report Sea ice Any form of ice found at sea that has originated from the on Land Use, Land-Use Change and Forestry (IPCC, 2000). See also freezing of seawater. Sea ice may be discontinuous pieces (ice fl oes) the Report on Defi nitions and Methodological Options to Inventory moved on the ocean surface by wind and currents (pack ice), or a Emissions from Direct Human-induced Degradation of Forests and motionless sheet attached to the coast (land-fast ice). Sea ice less Devegetation of Other Vegetation Types (IPCC, 2003) than one year old is called fi rst-year ice. Multi-year ice is sea ice that has survived at least one summer melt season.

951 Annex I

Sea level change Sea level can change, both globally and locally, Soot Particles formed during the quenching of gases at the outer due to (i) changes in the shape of the ocean basins, (ii) changes edge of fl ames of organic vapours, consisting predominantly of in the total mass of water and (iii) changes in water density. Sea carbon, with lesser amounts of oxygen and hydrogen present as level changes induced by changes in water density are called steric. carboxyl and phenolic groups and exhibiting an imperfect graphitic Density changes induced by temperature changes only are called structure. See Black carbon; Charcoal (Charlson and Heintzenberg, thermosteric, while density changes induced by salinity changes are 1995, p. 406). called halosteric. See also Relative Sea Level; Thermal expansion. Source Any process, activity or mechanism that releases a Sea level equivalent (SLE) The change in global average sea level greenhouse gas, an aerosol or a precursor of a greenhouse gas or that would occur if a given amount of water or ice were added to or aerosol into the atmosphere. removed from the oceans. Southern Annular Mode (SAM) The fl uctuation of a pattern like the Seasonally frozen ground See Frozen ground. Northern Annular Mode, but in the Southern Hemisphere. See SAM Index, Box 3.4. Sea surface temperature (SST) The sea surface temperature is the temperature of the subsurface bulk temperature in the top few Southern Oscillation See El Niño-Southern Oscillation (ENSO). metres of the ocean, measured by ships, buoys and drifters. From ships, measurements of water samples in buckets were mostly Spatial and temporal scales Climate may vary on a large range switched in the 1940s to samples from engine intake water. Satellite of spatial and temporal scales. Spatial scales may range from local measurements of skin temperature (uppermost layer; a fraction of (less than 100,000 km2), through regional (100,000 to 10 million a millimetre thick) in the infrared or the top centimetre or so in the km2) to continental (10 to 100 million km2). Temporal scales may microwave are also used, but must be adjusted to be compatible with range from seasonal to geological (up to hundreds of millions of the bulk temperature. years).

Sensible heat fl ux The fl ux of heat from the Earth’s surface to the SRES scenarios SRES scenarios are emission scenarios developed atmosphere that is not associated with phase changes of water; a by Nakićenović and Swart (2000) and used, among others, as a basis component of the surface energy budget. for some of the climate projections shown in Chapter 10 of this report. The following terms are relevant for a better understanding Sequestration See Uptake. of the structure and use of the set of SRES scenarios:

Signifi cant wave height The average height of the highest one- Scenario family Scenarios that have a similar demographic, third of the wave heights (sea and swell) occurring in a particular societal, economic and technical change storyline. Four scenario time period. families comprise the SRES scenario set: A1, A2, B1 and B2.

Sink Any process, activity or mechanism that removes a Illustrative Scenario A scenario that is illustrative for each of the greenhouse gas, an aerosol or a precursor of a greenhouse gas or six scenario groups refl ected in the Summary for Policymakers aerosol from the atmosphere. of Nakićenović and Swart (2000). They include four revised scenario markers for the scenario groups A1B, A2, B1, B2, Slab-ocean model A simplifi ed presentation in a climate model and two additional scenarios for the A1FI and A1T groups. All of the ocean as a motionless layer of water with a depth of 50 to scenario groups are equally sound. 100 m. Climate models with a slab ocean can only be used for estimating the equilibrium response of climate to a given forcing, Marker Scenario A scenario that was originally posted in not the transient evolution of climate. See Equilibrium and transient draft form on the SRES website to represent a given scenario climate experiment. family. The choice of markers was based on which of the initial quantifi cations best refl ected the storyline, and the features of Snow line The lower limit of permanent snow cover, below which specifi c models. Markers are no more likely than other scenarios, snow does not accumulate. but are considered by the SRES writing team as illustrative of a particular storyline. They are included in revised form in Soil moisture Water stored in or at the land surface and available Nakićenović and Swart (2000). These scenarios received the for evaporation. closest scrutiny of the entire writing team and via the SRES open process. Scenarios were also selected to illustrate the other two Soil temperature See Ground temperature. scenario groups.

Solar activity The Sun exhibits periods of high activity observed in Storyline A narrative description of a scenario (or family numbers of sunspots, as well as radiative output, magnetic activity of scenarios), highlighting the main scenario characteristics, and emission of high-energy particles. These variations take place relationships between key driving forces and the dynamics of on a range of time scales from millions of years to minutes. See their evolution. Solar cycle. Steric See Sea level change. Solar (‘11 year’) cycle A quasi-regular modulation of solar activity with varying amplitude and a period of between 9 and 13 years. Stock See Reservoir.

Solar radiation Electromagnetic radiation emitted by the Sun. surge The temporary increase, at a particular locality, It is also referred to as shortwave radiation. Solar radiation has a in the height of the sea due to extreme meteorological conditions distinctive range of wavelengths (spectrum) determined by the (low atmospheric pressure and/or strong winds). The is temperature of the Sun, peaking in visible wavelengths. See also: defi ned as being the excess above the level expected from the tidal Thermal infrared radiation, Insolation. variation alone at that time and place.

952 AAnnexnnex I

Storm tracks Originally, a term referring to the tracks of individual the name THC has been used synonymously with Meridional cyclonic weather systems, but now often generalised to refer to the Overturning Circulation. regions where the main tracks of extratropical disturbances occur as sequences of low (cyclonic) and high (anticyclonic) pressure Thermokarst The process by which characteristic result systems. from the thawing of ice-rich permafrost or the melting of massive ground ice (Van Everdingen, 1998). Stratosphere The highly stratifi ed region of the atmosphere above the troposphere extending from about 10 km (ranging from 9 km at Thermosteric See Sea level change. high latitudes to 16 km in the tropics on average) to about 50 km altitude. Tide gauge A device at a coastal location (and some deep-sea locations) that continuously measures the level of the sea with respect Subduction Ocean process in which surface waters enter the ocean to the adjacent land. Time averaging of the sea level so recorded interior from the surface mixed layer through Ekman pumping gives the observed secular changes of the relative sea level. and lateral advection. The latter occurs when surface waters are advected to a region where the local surface layer is less dense and Total solar irradiance (TSI) The amount of solar radiation received therefore must slide below the surface layer, usually with no change outside the Earth’s atmosphere on a surface normal to the incident in density. radiation, and at the Earth’s mean distance from the Sun. Reliable measurements of solar radiation can only be made Sunspots Small dark areas on the Sun. The number of sunspots is from space and the precise record extends back only to 1978. The higher during periods of high solar activity, and varies in particular generally accepted value is 1,368 W m−2 with an accuracy of about with the solar cycle. 0.2%. Variations of a few tenths of a percent are common, usually associated with the passage of sunspots across the solar disk. The Surface layer See Atmospheric boundary layer. solar cycle variation of TSI is of the order of 0.1% (AMS, 2000). See also Insolation. Surface temperature See Global surface temperature; Ground temperature; Land surface air temperature; Sea surface Transient climate response See Climate sensitivity. temperature. Tree rings Concentric rings of secondary wood evident in a cross- Teleconnection A connection between climate variations section of the stem of a woody plant. The difference between the over widely separated parts of the world. In physical terms, dense, small-celled late wood of one season and the wide-celled teleconnections are often a consequence of large-scale wave early wood of the following spring enables the age of a tree to be motions, whereby energy is transferred from source regions along estimated, and the ring widths or density can be related to climate preferred paths in the atmosphere. parameters such as temperature and precipitation. See Proxy.

Thermal expansion In connection with sea level, this refers to Trend In this report, the word trend designates a change, generally the increase in volume (and decrease in density) that results from monotonic in time, in the value of a variable. warming water. A warming of the ocean leads to an expansion of the ocean volume and hence an increase in sea level. See Sea level Tropopause The boundary between the troposphere and the change. stratosphere.

Thermal infrared radiation Radiation emitted by the Earth’s surface, Troposphere The lowest part of the atmosphere, from the surface the atmosphere and the clouds. It is also known as terrestrial or to about 10 km in altitude at mid-latitudes (ranging from 9 km at longwave radiation, and is to be distinguished from the near-infrared high latitudes to 16 km in the tropics on average), where clouds radiation that is part of the solar spectrum. Infrared radiation, in and weather phenomena occur. In the troposphere, temperatures general, has a distinctive range of wavelengths (spectrum) longer generally decrease with height. than the wavelength of the red colour in the visible part of the spectrum. The spectrum of thermal infrared radiation is practically Turnover time See Lifetime. distinct from that of shortwave or solar radiation because of the difference in temperature between the Sun and the Earth-atmosphere Uncertainty An expression of the degree to which a value (e.g., system. the future state of the climate system) is unknown. Uncertainty can result from lack of information or from disagreement about what Thermocline The layer of maximum vertical temperature gradient is known or even knowable. It may have many types of sources, in the ocean, lying between the surface ocean and the abyssal ocean. from quantifi able errors in the data to ambiguously defi ned concepts In subtropical regions, its source waters are typically surface waters or terminology, or uncertain projections of human behaviour. at higher latitudes that have subducted and moved equatorward. At Uncertainty can therefore be represented by quantitative measures, high latitudes, it is sometimes absent, replaced by a halocline, which for example, a range of values calculated by various models, or by is a layer of maximum vertical salinity gradient. qualitative statements, for example, refl ecting the judgement of a team of experts (see Moss and Schneider, 2000; Manning et al., Thermohaline circulation (THC) Large-scale circulation in the 2004). See also Likelihood; Confi dence. ocean that transforms low-density upper ocean waters to higher- density intermediate and deep waters and returns those waters back United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC) to the upper ocean. The circulation is asymmetric, with conversion The Convention was adopted on 9 May 1992 in New York and to dense waters in restricted regions at high latitudes and the return signed at the 1992 Earth in Rio de Janeiro by more than 150 to the surface involving slow upwelling and diffusive processes countries and the European Community. Its ultimate objective is the over much larger geographic regions. The THC is driven by high ‘stabilisation of greenhouse gas concentrations in the atmosphere densities at or near the surface, caused by cold temperatures and/or at a level that would prevent dangerous anthropogenic interference high salinities, but despite its suggestive though common name, is with the climate system’. It contains commitments for all Parties. also driven by mechanical forces such as wind and tides. Frequently, Under the Convention, Parties included in Annex I (all OECD 953 Annex I

countries and countries with economies in transition) aim to return REFERENCES greenhouse gas emissions not controlled by the Montreal Protocol to 1990 levels by the year 2000. The convention entered in force in AMS, 2000: AMS Glossary of , 2nd Ed. American March 1994. See Kyoto Protocol. Meteorological Society, Boston, MA,http://amsglossary. allenpress.com/glossary/browse. Uptake The addition of a substance of concern to a reservoir. Charlson, R.J., and J. Heintzenberg (eds.), 1995: Aerosol Forcing The uptake of carbon containing substances, in particular carbon of Climate. John Wiley and Sons Limited, pp. 91–108. dioxide, is often called (carbon) sequestration. Copyright 1995 ©John Wiley and Sons Limited. Reproduced with permission. Urban heat island (UHI) The relative warmth of a city compared Heim, R.R., 2002: A Review of Twentieth-Century Drought Indices with surrounding rural areas, associated with changes in runoff, the Used in the United States. Bull. Am. Meteorol. Soc., 83, concrete jungle effects on heat retention, changes in surface albedo, 1149–1165 changes in and aerosols, and so on. IPCC, 1992: Climate Change 1992: The Supplementary Report to the IPCC Scientifi c Assessment [Houghton, J.T., B.A. Ventilation The exchange of ocean properties with the atmospheric Callander, and S.K. Varney (eds.)]. Cambridge University surface layer such that property concentrations are brought closer to Press, Cambridge, United Kingdom and New York, NY, equilibrium values with the atmosphere (AMS, 2000). USA, 116 pp. IPCC, 1996: Climate Change 1995: The Science of Climate Change. Volume mixing ratio See Mole fraction. Contribution of Working Group I to the Second Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change Walker Circulation Direct thermally driven zonal overturning [Houghton., J.T., et al. (eds.)]. Cambridge University Press, circulation in the atmosphere over the tropical Pacifi c Ocean, with Cambridge, United Kingdom and New York, NY, USA, 572 rising air in the western and sinking air in the eastern Pacifi c. pp. IPCC, 2000: Land Use, Land-Use Change, and Forestry. Special Water mass A volume of ocean water with identifi able properties Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (temperature, salinity, density, chemical tracers) resulting from its [Watson, R.T., et al. (eds.)]. Cambridge University Press, unique formation process. Water are often identifi ed through Cambridge, United Kingdom and New York, NY, USA, 377 a vertical or horizontal extremum of a property such as salinity. pp. IPCC, 2001: Climate Change 2001: The Scientifi c Basis. Younger Dryas A period 12.9 to 11.6 kya, during the deglaciation, Contribution of Working Group I to the Third Assessment characterised by a temporary return to colder conditions in many Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change locations, especially around the North Atlantic. [Houghton, J.T., et al. (eds.)]. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, United Kingdom and New York, NY, USA, 881 pp. IPCC, 2003: Defi nitions and Methodological Options to Inventory Emissions from Direct Human-Induced Degradation of Forests and Devegetation of Other Vegetation Types [Penman, J., et al. (eds.)]. The Institute for Global Environmental Strategies (IGES), Japan , 32 pp. Manning, M., et al., 2004: IPCC Workshop on Describing Scientifi c Uncertainties in Climate Change to Support Analysis of Risk of Options. Workshop Report. Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change, Geneva. Moss, R., and S. Schneider, 2000: Uncertainties in the IPCC TAR: Recommendations to Lead Authors for More Consistent Assessment and Reporting. In: IPCC Supporting Material: Guidance Papers on Cross Cutting Issues in the Third Assessment Report of the IPCC. [Pachauri, R., T. Taniguchi, and K. Tanaka (eds.)]. Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change, Geneva, pp. 33–51. Nakićenović, N., and R. Swart (eds.), 2000: Special Report on Emissions Scenarios. A Special Report of Working Group III of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, United Kingdom and New York, NY, USA, 599 pp. Schwartz, S.E., and P. Warneck, 1995: Units for use in . Pure Appl. Chem., 67, 1377–1406. Van Everdingen, R. (ed.): 1998. Multi-Language Glossary of Permafrost and Related Ground-Ice Terms, revised May 2005. National Snow and Ice Data Center/World Data Center for , Boulder, CO, http://nsidc.org/fgdc/glossary/.

954 Annex II Contributors to the IPCC WGI Fourth Assessment Report

ACHUTARAO, Krishna ARBLASTER, Julie BAUER, Eva Lawrence Livermore National Laboratory National Center for Potsdam Institute for Climate USA and Bureau of Meteotology Research Center Impact Research USA, Australia Germany ADLER, Robert National Aeronautics and ARCHER, David BENESTAD, Rasmus Space Administration University of Chicago Norwegian Meteorological Institute USA USA Norway

ALEXANDER, Lisa ARORA, Vivek BENISTON, Martin Hadley Centre for Climate Prediction Canadian Centre for Climate Modelling University of Geneva and Research, Met Offi ce and Analysis, Environment Canada Switzerland UK, Australia, Ireland Canada BERGER, André ALEXANDERSSON, Hans ARRITT, Raymond Université catholique de Louvain, Swedish Meteorological and Iowa State University Institut d’Astronomie et de Hydrological Institute USA Géophysique G. Lemaitre Sweden Belgium ARTALE, Vincenzo ALLAN, Richard Italian National Agency for BERNTSEN, Terje Environmental Systems Science New Technologies, Energy and Centre for International Climate and Centre, University of Reading the Environment (ENEA) Environmantal Research (CICERO) UK Italy Norway

ALLEN, Myles ARTAXO, Paulo BERRY, Joseph A. Climate Dynamics Group, Atmospheric, Instituto de Fisica, Universidade Carnegie Institute of Washington, Oceanic and Planetary , Department de Sao Paulo Department of Global of Physics, University of Oxford Brazil USA UK AUER, Ingeborg BETTS, Richard A. ALLEY, Richard B. Central Institute for Meteorology Hadley Centre for Climate Prediction Department of Geosciences, and Geodynamics and Research, Met Offi ce Pennsylvania State University Austria UK USA AUSTIN, John BIERCAMP, Joachim ALLISON, Ian National Oceanic and Atmospheric Deutsches Klimarechenzentrum GmbH Australian Antarctic Division and Administration, Geophysical Germany Antarctic Climate and Ecosystems Fluid Dynamics Laboratory Cooperative Research Centre USA BINDOFF, Nathaniel L. Australia Antarctic Climate and Ecosystems BAEDE, Alphonsus Cooperative Research Centre and CSIRO AMBENJE, Peter Royal Netherlands Meteorological Marine and Atmospheric Research Kenya Meteorological Department Institute (KNMI) and Ministry of Housing, Australia Kenya Spatial Planning and the Environment Netherlands BITZ, Cecilia AMMANN, Caspar University of Washington Climate and Global Dynamics Division, BAKER, David USA National Center for Atmospheric Research National Center for Atmospheric Research USA USA BLATTER, Heinz Institute for Atmospheric and ANDRONOVA, Natalia BALDWIN, Mark P. Climate Science, ETH Zurich University of Michigan Northwest Research Associates Switzerland USA USA BODEKER, Greg ANNAN, James BARNOLA, Jean-Marc National Institute of Water and Frontier Research Center for Global Laboratoire de Glaciologie et Atmospheric Research Change, Japan Agency for Marine- Géophysique de l’Environnement New Zealand and Technology France Japan, UK BOJARIU, Roxana BARRY, Roger National Institute of Meteorology ANTONOV, John National Snow and Ice Data and (NIMH) National Oceanic and Center, University of Colorado Romania Atmospheric Administration USA USA, Russian Federation BONAN, Gordon BATES, Nicholas Robert National Center for Atmospheric Research Bermuda Institute of Ocean Sciences USA Bermuda Coordinating lead authors, lead authors, and contributing authors are listed alphabetically by surname. 955 Annex II

BONFILS, Cèline BROMWICH, David CHANG, Edmund K.M. School of Natural Sciences, Byrd Polar Research Center, Stony Brook University, State Univerity of California, Merced The Ohio State University University of New York USA, France USA USA

BONY, Sandrine BROVKIN, Victor CHAO, Ben Laboratoire de Météorologie Dynamique, Potsdam Institute for Climate NASA Goddard Institute for Space Studies Institut Pierre Simon Laplace Impact Research USA France Germany, Russian Federation CHEN, Anthony BOONE, Aaron BROWN, Ross Department of Physics, University CNRS CNRM at Meteo France Environment Canada of the West Indies France, USA Canada Jamaica

BOONPRAGOB, Kansri BUJA, Lawrence CHEN, Zhenlin Department of Biology, Faculty of National Center for Atmospheric Research Dept of International Cooperation, Science, Ramkhamhaeng University USA China Meteorological Administration Thailand China BUSUIOC, Aristita BOUCHER, Olivier National Meteorological Administration CHIDTHAISONG, Amnat Hadley Centre for Climate Prediction Romania The Joint Graduate School of Energy and Research, Met Offi ce and Environment, King Mongkut’s UK, France CADULE, Patricia University of Technology Thonburi Institut Pierre Simon Laplace Thailand BOUSQUET, Philippe France Institut Pierre Simon Laplace, CHRISTENSEN, Jens Hesselbjerg Laboratoire des Sciences du CAI, Wenju Danish Meteorological Institute Climat et de l’Environnement CSIRO Marine and Atmospheric Research Denmark France Australia CHRISTIAN, James BOX, Jason CAMILLONI, Inés Fisheries and Oceans, canada, Candian Ohio State University Universidad de Buenos Aires, Cwentro de Centre for Climate Modelling and Analysis USA Investigaciones del Mar y la Atmósfera Canada Argentina BOYER, Tim CHRISTY, John National Oceanic and CANADELL, Josep University of Alabama in Huntsville Atmospheric Administration Global Carbon Project, CSIRO USA USA Australia CHURCH, John BRACONNOT, Pascale CARRASCO, Jorge CSIRO Marine and Atmospheric Pascale Braconnot Institu Pierre Simon Direccion Meteorologica de Chile Research and Ecosystems Laplace, Laboratoire des Sciences and Centro de Estudios Cientifi cos Cooperative Research Centre du Climat et de l’Environnement Chile Australia France CASSOU, Christophe CIAIS, Philippe BRADY, Esther Centre National de Recherche Scientifi que, Laboratoire des Sciences du National Center for Atmospheric Research Centre Europeen de Recherche et de Climat et de l’Environnement USA Formation Avancee en Calcul Scientifi que France France BRASSEUR, Guy CLARK, Deborah A. Earth and Sun Systems Laboratory, CAYA, Daniel University of Missouri, St. Louis National Center for Atmospheric Research Consortium Ouranos USA USA, Germany Canada CLARKE, Garry BRETHERTON, Christopher CAYAN, Daniel R. Earth and Ocean Sciences, Department of Atmospheric Sciences, Scripps Institution of , University of British Columbia University of Washington University of California, San Diego Canada USA USA CLAUSSEN, Martin BRIFFA, Keith R. CAZENAVE, Anny Potsdam Institute for Climate Climatic Research Unit, School Laboratoire d’Etudes en Géophysique et Impact Research of Environmental Sciences, Océanographie Spatiale (LEGOS), CNES Germany University of East Anglia France UK CLEMENT, Amy CHAMBERS, Don University of Miami, Rosenstiel School BROCCOLI, Anthony J. Center for , The of Marine and Atmospheric Science Rutgers University University of Texas at Austin USA USA USA COGLEY, J. Graham BROCKMANN, Patrick CHANDLER, Mark Department of , Trent University Laboratoire des Sciences du Columbia University and NASA Canada Climat et de l’Environnement Goddard Institute for Space Studies France USA COLE, Julia University of Arizona USA

956 Annex II

COLLIER, Mark DELWORTH, Thomas L. DRANGE, Helge CSIRO Marine and Atmospheric Research Geophysical Fluid Dynamics Nansen Environmental and Australia Laboratory, National Oceanic and Remote Sensing Center, Bjerknes Atmospheric Administration Centre for Climate Research COLLINS, Matthew USA Norway Hadley Centre for Climate Prediction and Research, Met Offi ce DENMAN, Kenneth L. DRIESSCHAERT, Emmanuelle UK Canadian Centre for Climate Modelling Université catholique de Louvain, and Analysis, Environment Canada and Institut d’Astronomie et de COLLINS, William D. Department of Fisheries and Oceans Géophysique G. Lemaitre Climate and Global Dynamics Division, Canada Belgium National Center for Atmospheric Research USA DENTENER, Frank DUFRESNE, Jean-Louis European Commission Joint Research Laboratoire de Météorologie Dynamique, COLMAN, Robert Centre; Institute of Environment and Institut Pierre Simon Laplace Bureau of Meteorology Research Centre Climate Change Unit France Australia EU DUPLESSY, Jean-Claude COMISO, Josefi no DESER, Clara Centre National dela Recerche National Aeronautics and Space National Center for Atmospheric Research Scientifi que, Laboratoire des Sciences Administration, Goddard USA du Climat et de l’Environnement Space Flight Center France USA DETHLOFF, Klaus Alfred Wegener Institute for Polar and DYURGEROV, Mark Institute of Arctic and Alpine Research, CONWAY, Thomas J. Marine Research, Research Unit Potsdam Germany University of Colorado at Boulder National Oceanic and Atmospheric & Department of Geograpy and Administration, Earth System DIANSKY, Nikolay A. Quaternary at Stockholm Research Laboratory Sweden, USA USA Institute of Numerical Mathematics, Russian Academy of Sciences Russian Federation EASTERLING, David COOK, Edward National Oceanic and Atmospheric Lamont-Doherty Earth Observatory DICKINSON, Robert E. Administration, Earth System USA School of Earth and Atmospheric Sciences, Research Laboratory Georgia Institute of Technology USA CORTIJO, Elsa USA Laboratoire des Sciences du Climat et de EBY, Michael l’Environnement, CNRS-CEA-UVSQ DING, Yihui University of Victoria France National Climate Centre, China Canada Meteorological Administration COVEY, Curt China EDWARDS, Neil R. Lawrence Livermore National Laboratory The Open University USA DIRMEYER, Paul UK Center for Ocean-Land-Atmosphere Studies COX, Peter M. USA ELKINS, James W. School of Engineering, Computer Science National Oceanic and Atmospheric and Mathematics, University of Exeter DIX, Martin Administration, Earth System UK CSIRO Research Laboratory Australia USA CROOKS, Simon University of Oxford DIXON, Keith EMERSON, Steven UK National Oceanic and School of Oceanography, Atmospheric Administration University of Washington CUBASCH, Ulrich USA USA Institut für Meteorologie, DLUGOKENCKY, Ed EMORI, Seita Freie Universität Berlin National Institute for Environmental Germany National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration, Earth System Studies and Frontier Research Center for Global Change, Japan Agency for CURRY, Ruth Research Laboratory USA Marine-Earth Science and Technology Woods Hole Oceanographic Institution Japan USA DOKKEN, Trond ETHERIDGE, David DAI, Aiguo Bjerknes Centre for Climate Research Norway CSIRO Marine and Atmospheric Research National Center for Atmospheric Research Australia USA DOTZEK, Nikolai Deutsches Zentrum für Luft und Raumfahrt, EYRING, Veronika DAMERIS, Martin Institut für Physik der Atmosphäre Deutsches Zentrum für Luft und Raumfahrt, German Aerospace Center Germany Institut für Physik der Atmosphäre Germany Germany DOUTRIAUX, Charles DE ELÍA, Ramón Program for Climate Model FAHEY, David W. Ouranos Consortium Diagnosis and Intercomparison National Oceanic and Atmospheric Canada, Argentina USA, France Administration, Earth System Research Laboratory USA

957 Annex II

FASULLO, John FREE, Melissa GAYE, Amadou Thierno National Center for Atmospheric Research Air Resources Laboratory, National Laboratory of , USA Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration ESP/CAD, Dakar University USA Senegal FEDDEMA, Johannes University of Kansas FREI, Allan GELLER, Marvin USA Hunter College, City Stony Brook University University of New York USA FEELY, Richard USA National Oceanic and Atmospheric GENT, Peter Administration, Pacifi c Marine FREI, Christoph National Center for Atmospheric Research Environmental Laboratory Federal Offi ce of Meteorology USA USA and Climatology MeteoSwiss Switzerland GERDES, Rüdiger FEICHTER, Johann Alfred-Wegener-Institute für Max Planck Institute for Meteorology FRICKER, Helen Polar und Meeresforschung Germany Scripps Institution of Oceanography, Germany University of California, San Diego FICHEFET, Thierry USA GILLETT, Nathan P. Université catholique de Louvain, Climatic Research Unit, School Institut d’Astronomie et de FRIEDLINGSTEIN, Pierre of Environmental Sciences, Géophysique G. Lemaitre Institut Pierre Simon Laplace, University of East Anglia Belgium Laboratoire des Sciences du UK Climat et de l’Environnement FITZHARRIS, Blair France, Belgium GIORGI, Filippo Department of Geography, Abdus Salam International Centre University of Otago FU, Congbin for Theoretical Physics New Zealand Start Regional Center for Temperate Italy East Asia, Institute of Atmospheric FLATO, Gregory Physics, Chinese Academy of Science GLEASON, Byron Canadian Centre for Climate Modelling China National Climatic Data Center, National and Analysis, Environment Canada Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration Canada FUJII, Yoshiyuki USA Arctic Environment Research Center, FLEITMANN, Dominik National Institute of Polar Research GLECKLER, Peter Institute of Geological Sciences, Japan Lawrence Livermore National Laboratory Uniersity of Bern USA Switzerland, Germany FUNG, Inez University of California, Berkeley GONG, Sunling FLEMING, James Rodger USA Air Quality Researcch Division, Science & Colby College Technology Branch, Environment Canada USA FURRER, Reinhard Canada Colorado School of Mines FOGT, Ryan USA, Switzerland GONZÁLEZ-DAVÍLA, Melchor Polar Meteorology Group, Byrd Polar University of Las Palmas de Gran Canaria Research Center and Atmospheric FUZZI, Sandro Spain Sciences Program, Department of National Research Council, Institute of geography, The Ohio State University Atmospheric Sciences and Climate GONZÁLEZ-ROUCO, Jesus Fidel USA Italy Universidad Complutense de Madrid Spain FOLLAND, Christopher FYFE, John Hadley Centre for Climate Prediction Canadian Centre for Climate Modelling GOOSSE, Hugues and Research, Met Offi ce and Analysis, Environment Canada Université catholique de Louvain UK Canada Belgium

FOREST, Chris GANOPOLSKI, Andrey GRAHAM, Richard Massachusetts Institute of Technology Potsdam Institute for Climate Hadley Centre, Met Offi ce USA Impact Research UK Germany FORSTER, Piers GREGORY, Jonathan M. School of Earth and Environment, GAO, Xuejie Department of Meteorology, University of University of Leeds Laboratory for Climate Change, Reading and Hadley Centre for Climate UK National Climate Centre, China Prediction and Research, Met Offi ce Meteorological Administration UK FOUKAL, Peter China Heliophysics, Inc. GRIESER, Jürgen USA GARCIA, Hernan Deutscher Wetterdienst, Global National Oceanic and Atmospheric Precipitatioin Climatology Centre FRASER, Paul Administration, National Germany CSIRO Marine and Atmospheric Research Oceanographic Data Center Australia USA GRIGGS, David Hadley Centre for Climate Prediction FRAUENFELD, Oliver GARCÍA-HERRERA, Ricardo and Research, Met Offi ce National Snow and Ice Data Center, Universidad Complutense de Madrid UK University of Colorado at Boulder Spain USA, Austria

958 Annex II

GROISMAN, Pavel HANSEN, James HOCK, Regine University Corporation for Atmospheric Goddard Institute for Space Studies Stockholm University Research at the National Climatic USA Sweden Data Center, National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration HANSSEN-BAUER, Inger HODGES, Kevin USA, Russian Federation Norwegian Meteorological Institute Environmental Systems Science Centre Norway UK GRUBER, Nicolas Institute of and Planetary HARRIS, Charles HOELZLE, Martin Physics, University of California, School of Earth, Ocean and Planetary University of Zürich, Los Angeles and Department of Science, Cardiff University Department of Geography Environmental Sciences, ETH Zurich UK Switzerland USA, Switzerland HARRIS, Glen HOLLAND, Elisabeth GUDGEL, Richard Hadley Centre for Climate Prediction Atmospheric Chemistry Division, National National Oceanic and and Research, Met Offi ce Center for Atmospheric Research (NCAR) Atmospheric Administration UK, New Zealand USA USA HARVEY, Danny HOLLAND, Marika GUDMUNDSSON, G. Hilmar University of Toronto National Center for Atmospheric Research British Antarctic Survey Canada USA UK, Iceland HASUMI, Hiroyasu HOLTSLAG, Albert A. M. GUENTHER, Alex Center for Climate System Wageningen University National Center for Atmospheric Research Research, University of Tokyo Netherlands USA Japan HOSKINS, Brian J. GULEV, Sergey HAUGLUSTAINE, Didier Department of Meteorology, P. P. Shirshov Institute of Oceanography Institut Pierre Simon Laplace, University of Reading Russian Federation Laboratoire des Sciences du Climat et de UK l’Environnement, CEA-CNRS-UVSQ GURNEY, Kevin France HOUSE, Joanna Department of Earth and Atmospheric Quantifying and Understanding the Earth Science, Purdue University HAYWOOD, James System Programme, University of Bristol USA Hadley Centre for Climate Prediction UK and Research, Met Offi ce GUTOWSKI, William UK HU, Aixue Iowa State University National Center for Atmospheric Research USA HEGERL, Gabriele C. USA, China Division of Earth and Ocean Sciences, HAAS, Christian Nicholas School for the Environment HUNKE, Elizabeth Alfred Wegener Institute and Earth Sciences, Duke University Los Alamos National Laboratory Germany USA, Germany USA

HABIBI NOKHANDAN, Majid HEIMANN, Martin HURRELL, James National Center for Climatology Max-Planck-Institut für Biogeochemie National Center for Atmospheric Research Iran Germany, Switzerland USA

HAGEN, Jon Ove HEINZE, Christoph HUYBRECHTS, Philippe University of Oslo University of Bergen, Geophysical Institute Departement Geografi e, Vrije Norway and Bjerknes Centre for Climate Research Universiteir Brussel Norway, Germany Belgium HAIGH, Joanna Imperial College London HELD, Isaac INGRAM, William UK National Oceanic and Atmospheric Hadley Centre for Climate Prediction Administration, Geophysical and Research, Met Offi ce HALL, Alex Fluid Dynamics Laboratory UK Department of Atmospheric and USA Oceanic Sciences, University ISAKSEN, Ketil of California, Los Angeles HENDERSON-SELLERS, Ann Norwegian Meteorological Institute USA World Meteorological Organization Norway Switzerland HALLEGATTE, Stéphane ISHII, Masayoshi Centre International de Recherche sur HENDON, Henry Fronteir Research Center for Global l’Environnement et le Developpement, Bureau of Meteorology Research Centre Change, Japan Agency for Marine- Ecole Nationale des Ponts-et-Chaussées Australia Earth Science and Technology and Centre National de Recherches Japan Meteorologique, Meteo-France HEWITSON, Bruce USA, France Department of Environmental JACOB, Daniel and Geographical Sciences, Department of Earth and Planetary HANAWA, Kimio University of Cape Town Sciences, Harvard University Physical Oceanography Laboratry, South Africa USA, France Department of Geophysics, Graduate School of Science, Tohoku University HINZMAN, Larry JALLOW, Bubu Japan University of Alaska, Fairbanks Department of Water Resources USA The Gambia

959 Annex II

JANSEN, Eystein JUNGCLAUS, Johann H. KHODRI, Myriam University of Bergen, Department Max Planck Institute for Meteorology Institut de Recherche Pour of Earth Sciences and Bjerknes Germany le Developpement Centre for Climate Research France Norway KAGEYAMA, Masa Laboratoire des Sciences du KILADIS, George JANSSON, Peter Climat et de l’Environnement National Oceanic and Department of and France Atmospheric Administration Quaternary Geology, Stockholm University USA Sweden KÅLLBERG, Per European Centre for Medium- KIM, Kuh JENKINS, Adrian Range Weather Forecasts Seoul National University British Antarctic Survey, Natural ECMWF Republic of Korea Environment Research Council UK KÄRCHER, Bernd KIMOTO, Masahide Deutsches Zentrum für Luft und Raumfahrt, Center for Climate System JONES, Andy Institut für Physik der Atmosphäre Research, University of Tokyo Hadley Centre for Climate Prediction Germany Japan and Research, Met Offi ce UK KARL, Thomas R. KING, Brian National Oceanic and Atmospheric National Oceanography JONES, Christopher Administration, National Centre, Southampton Hadley Centre for Climate Prediction Climatic Data Center UK and Research, Met Offi ce USA UK KINNE, Stefan KAROLY, David J. Max-Planck Institute for Meteorology JONES, Colin University of Oklahoma Germany Universite du Quebec a Montreal, Canadian USA, Australia Regional Climate Modelling Network KIRTMAN, Ben Canada KASER, Georg Center for Ocean-Land-Atmosphere Institut für Geographie, Studies, George Mason University JONES, Gareth S. University of Innsbruck USA Hadley Centre for Climate Prediction Austria, Italy and Research, Met Offi ce KITOH, Akio UK KATTSOV, Vladimir First Research Laboratory, Climate Research Voeikov Main Geophysical Observatory Department, Meteorological Research JONES, Julie Russian Federation Institute, Japan Meteorological Agency GKSS Research Centre Japan Germany, UK KATZ, Robert National Center for Atmospheric Research KLEIN, Stephen A. JONES, Philip D. USA Lawrence Livermore National Laboratory Climatic Research Unit, School USA of Environmental Sciences, KAWAMIYA, Michio University of East Anglia Frontier Research Center for Global KLEIN TANK, Albert UK Change, Japan Agency for Marine- Royal Netherlands Meteorological Earth Science and Technology Institute (KNMI) JONES, Richard Japan Netherlands Hadley Centre for Climate Prediction and Research, Met Offi ce KEELING, C. David KNUTSON, Thomas UK Scripps Institution of Oceanography Geophysical Fluid Dynamics USA Laboratory, National Oceanic and JOOS, Fortunat Atmospheric Administration Climate and Environmental Physics, KEELING, Ralph USA Physics Institute, University of Bern Scripps Institution of Oceanography Switzerland USA KNUTTI, Reto Climate and Global Dynamics Division, JOSEY, Simon KENNEDY, John National Center for Atmospheric Research National Oceanography Centre, Hadley Centre, Met Offi ce Switzerland University of Southampton UK UK KOERTZINGER, Arne KENYON, Jesse Leibniz Institut für Meereswissenschaften JOUGHIN, Ian Duke University an der Universitat Kiel and Institut Applied Physics Laboratory, USA fur Ostseeforschung Warnemunde University of Washington Germany USA KETTLEBOROUGH, Jamie British Atmospheric Data Centre, KOIKE, Toshio JOUZEL, Jean Space Science and Technology Department of Civil Engineering, Institut Pierre Simon Laplace, Department, Council for the Central University of Tokyo Laboratoire des Sciences du Climat et de Laboratory of the Research Councils Japan l’Environnement, CEA-CNRS-UVSQ UK France KOLLI, Rupa Kumar KHARIN, Viatcheslar Climatology and Hydrometeorology JOYCE, Terrence Canadian Centre for Climate Modelling Division, Indian Institute of Woods Hole Oceanographic Institution and Analysis, Environment Canada Tropical Meteorology USA Canada India

960 Annex II

KOSTER, Randal LATIF, Mojib LEULIETTE, Eric National Aeronautics and Leibniz Institut für Meereswissenschaften, University of Colorado, Boulder Space Administration IFM-GEOMAR USA USA Germany LEUNG, Ruby KOTTMEIER, Christoph LAU, Ngar-Cheung Pacifi c Northwest National Institut für Meteorologie, und Geophysical Fluid Dynamics Laboratory, National Oceanic and Klimaforschung, Universitat Karlsruhe/ Laboratory, National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration Forschungszentrum Karlsruhe Atmospheric Administration USA Germany USA LEVERMANN, Anders KRIPALANI, Ramesh LAVAL, Katia Potsdam Institute for Climate Indian Institute of Tropical Meteorology Laboratoire de Météorologie Impact Research India Dynamique du CNRS Germany France KRYNYTZKY, Marta LEVINSON, David University of Washington LAVINE, Michael National Oceanic and Atmospheric USA Duke University Administration, National USA Climatic Data Center KUNKEL, Kenneth USA Illinois State Water Survey LAWRENCE, David USA National Center for Atmospheric Research LEVITUS, Sydney USA National Oceanic and KUSHNER, Paul J. Atmospheric Administration Department of Physics, LAWRIMORE, Jay USA University of Toronto National Oceanic and Atmospheric Canada Administration, National LIE, Øyvind Climatic Data Center Bjerknes Centre for Climate Research KWOK, Ron USA Norway Jet Propulsion Laboratory, California Institute of Technology LAXON, Seymour LIEPERT, Beate USA Centre for Polar Observation and Lamont-Doherty Earth Observatory, Modelling, University College London Columbia University KWON, Won-Tae UK USA Climate Research Laboratory, Meteorological Research Institute (METRI), LE BROCQ, Anne LIU, Shiyin Korean Meteorological Administration Centre for Polar Observation and Cold and Arid Regions Environmental Republic of Korea Modelling, University of Bristol and Engineering Research Institute, UK Chinese Academy of Sciences LABEYRIE, Laurent China Laboratoire des Sciences du LE QUÉRÉ, Corrine Climat et de l’Environnement University of East Anglia and LOHMANN, Ulrike France British Antarctic Survey ETH Zürich, Institute for Atmospheric UK, France, Canada and Climate Science LAINE, Alexandre Switzerland Laboratoire des Sciences du LE TREUT, Hervé Climat et de l’Environnement Laboratoire de Météorologie LOUTRE, Marie-France France Dynamique du CNRS Université catholique de Louvain, France Institut d’Astronomie et de LAM, Chiu-Ying Géophysique G. Lemaitre Hong Kong Observatory LEAN, Judith Belgium China Naval Research Laboratory USA LOWE, David C. LAMBECK, Kurt National Institute of Water and Australia National University LECK, Caroline Atmospheric Research Australia Department of Metorology, New Zealand Stockholm University LAMBERT, F. Hugo Sweden LOWE, Jason Atmospheric, Oceanic and Planetary Hadley Centre for Climate Prediction Physics, University of Oxford LEE, Terry C.K. and Research, Met Offi ce UK University of Victoria UK Canada LANZANTE, John LUO, Yong National Oceanic and LEE-TAYLOR, Julia Laboratory for Climate Change, Atmospheric Administration National Center for Atmospheric Research National Climate Centre, China USA USA, UK Meteorological Administration China LAPRISE, René LEFEVRE, Nathalie Deprtement des Sciences de la Terra Institut de Recherche Pour le LUTERBACHER, Jürg et de l’Atmosphere, University Developpement, Laboratoire Institute of Geography, Climatology of Quebec at Montreal d’Oceanographie et de Climatologie and Meteorology, and National Canada France Centre of Competence in Research on Climate, University of Bern LASSEY, Keith LEMKE, Peter Switzerland National Institute of Water and Alfred Wegener Institute for Atmospheric Research Polar and Marine Research New Zealand Germany 961 Annex II

LYNCH, Amanda H. MATSUNO, Taroh MILLOT, Claude School of Geography and Environmental Frontier Research Center for Global Centre National dela Recherche Scientifi que Science, Monash University Change, Japan Agency for Marine- France Australia Earth Science and Technology Japan MILLY, Chris MACAYEAL, Douglas United States Geological Survey University of Chicago MATTHEWS, H. Damon USA USA University of Calgary and Concordia University MITCHELL, John MACCRACKEN, Michael Canada Hadley Centre for Climate Prediction Climate Institute and Research, Met Offi ce USA MATULLA, Christoph UK Environment Canada MAGAÑA RUEDA, Victor Canada, Austria MOKSSIT, Abdalah Centro de Ciencias de la Atmósfera, Direction de la météorologie Nationale Ciudad Universitaria, Universidad MAURITZEN, Cecilie Morocco Nacional Autonomia de Mexico Norwegian Meteorological Institute Mexico Norway MOLINA, Mario Scripps Institution of Oceanography, MALHI, Yadvinder MCAVANEY, Bryant Dept. of Chemistry and Biochemistry, University of Oxford Bureau of Meteorology Research Centre University of California, San Diego UK Australia USA, Mexico

MALANOTTE-RIZZOLI, Paola MCFIGGANS, Gordon MOLINARI, Robert Massachusetts Institute of Technology University of Manchester National Oceanic and Atmospheric USA, Italy UK Administration, Atlantic Oceanographic and Meteorological Laboratory MANNING, Andrew C. MCINNES, Kathleen USA University of East Anglia CSIRO, Marine and Atmospheric UK, New Zealand Chemistry Research MONAHAN, Adam H. Australia School of Earth and Ocean MANNING, Martin Sciences, University of Victoria IPCC WGI TSU, National Oceanic MCPHADEN, Michael Canada and Atmospheric Administration, National Oceanic and Earth System Research Laboratory Atmospheric Administration MONNIN, Eric USA, New Zealand USA Climate and Environmental Physics, Physics Institute, University of Bern MANZINI, Elisa MEARNS, Linda Switzerland National Institute for Geophysics National Center for Atmospheric Research and USA MONTZKA, Steve Italy National Oceanic and MEARS, Carl Atmospheric Administration MARENGO ORSINI, Jose Antonio Remote Sensing Systems USA CPTEC/INPE USA Brazil, Peru MOSLEY-THOMPSON, Ellen MEEHL, Gerald A. Ohio State University MARSH, Robert Climate and Global Dynamics Division, USA National Oceanography Centre, National Center for Atmospheric Research University of Southampton USA MOTE, Philip UK Climate Impacts Group, Joint Institute for MEINSHAUSEN, Malte the Study of the Atmosphere and Oceans MARSHALL, Gareth Potsdam Institute for Climate (JIASO), University of Washington British Antarctic Survey Impact Research USA UK Germany MUHS, Daniel MARTELO, Maria MELLING, Humphrey United States Geological Survey Ministerio del Ambiente y los Rcursos Fisheries and Oceans Canada USA Naturales, Dir. de Hidrologia y Meteorologia Canada Venezuela MULLAN, A. Brett MENÉNDEZ, Claudio Guillermo National Institute of Water and MASARIE , Ken Centro de Investigaciones del Mar y Atmospheric Research National Oceanic and Atmospheric de la Atmósfera, (CONICET-UBA) New Zealand Administration, Earth System Research Argentina Laboratory, Global Monitoring Division MÜLLER, Simon A. USA MENON, Surabi Climate and Environmental Physics, Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratory Physics Institute, University of Bern MASSON-DELMOTTE, Valérie USA Switzerland Laboratoire des Sciences du Climat et de l’Environnement MESCHERSKAYA, Anna V. MURPHY, James M. France Russian Federation Hadley Centre for Climate Prediction and Research, Met Offi ce MATSUMOTO, Katsumi MILLER, John B. UK University of Minnesota, Twin Cities National Oceanic and USA Atmospheric Administration USA

962 Annex II

MUSCHELER, Raimund OHMURA, Atsumu PARKER, David Goddard Earth Sciences and Technology Swiss Federal Institute of Technology Hadley Centre for Climate Prediction Center, University of Maryland & Switzerland and Research, Met Offi ce NASA/Goddard Space Flight Center, UK Climate & Radiation Branch OKI, Taikan USA Institute of Industrial Science, PARRENIN, Frédéric The University of Tokyo Laboratoire de Glaciologie et MYHRE, Gunnar Japan Géophysique de l’Environnement Department of Geosciences, France University of Oslo OLAGO, Daniel Norway Department of Geology, PAVLOVA, Tatyana University of Nairobi Voeikov Main Geophysical Observatory NAKAJIMA, Teruyuki Kenya Russian Federation Center for Climate System Research, University of Tokyo ONO, Tsuneo PAYNE, Antony Japan Hokkaido National Fisheries Research University of Bristol Institute, Fisheries Research Agency UK NAKAMURA, Hisashi Japan Department of Earth, Planetary PELTIER, W. Richard Science, University of Tokyo OPPENHEIMER, Michael Department of Physics, Japan Princeton University University of Toronto USA Canada NAWRATH, Susanne Potsdam Institute for Climate ORAM, David PENG, Tsung-Hung Impact Research University of East Anglia Atlantic Oceanographic and Meteorological Germany UK Laboratory, National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration NEREM, R. Steven ORR, James C. USA University of Colorado at Boulder Marine Environment Laboratories, USA International Atomic Energy Agency PENNER, Joyce E. Monaco, USA Department of Atmospheric, Oceanic, and NEW, Mark Space Sciences, University of Michigan Centre for the Environment, OSBORN, Tim USA University of Oxford University of East Anglia UK UK PETERSON, Thomas National Oceanic and Atmospheric NGANGA, John O’SHAUGHNESSY, Kath Administration, National University of Nairobi National Institute of Water and Climatic Data Center Kenya Atmospheric Research USA New Zealand NICHOLLS, Neville PETOUKHOV, Vladimir Monash University OTTO-BLIESNER, Bette Potsdam Institute for Climate Australia Climate and Global Dynamics Division, Impact Research National Center for Atmospheric Research Germany NODA, Akira USA Meteorological Research Institute, PEYLIN, Philippe Japan Meteorological Agency OVERPECK, Jonathan Laboratoire des Modélisation du Japan Institute for the Study of Climat et de l’Environnement Earth, University of Arizona France NOJIRI, Yukihiro USA Secretariat of Council for Science and PFISTER, Christian Technology Policy, Cabinet Offi ce PAASCHE, Øyvind University of Bern Japan Bjerknes Centre for Climate Research Switzerland Norway NOKHANDAN, Majid Habibi PHILLIPS, Thomas Iranian Meteorological Organization PAHLOW, Markus Program for Climate Model Diagnosis Iran Dalhousie University, Bedford and Intercomparison, Lawrence Institute of Oceanography Livermore National Laboratory NORRIS, Joel Canada USA Scripps Institution of Oceanography USA PAL, Jeremy S. PIERCE, David Loyola Marymount University, Scripps Institution of Oceanography NOZAWA, Toru The Abdus Salam International USA National Institute for Centre for Theoretical Physics Japan USA, Italy PIPER, Stephen Scripps Institution of Oceanography OERLEMANS, Johannes PALMER, Timothy USA Institute for Marine and Atmospheric European Centre for Medium- Research, Utrecht University Range Weather Forecasting PITMAN, Andrew Netherlands ECMWF, UK Department of Physical Geography, Macquarie University OGALLO, Laban PANT, Govind Ballabh Australia IGAD Climate Prediction and Indian Institute of Tropical Meteorology Application Centre India PLANTON, Serge Kenya Météo-France France

963 Annex II

PLATTNER, Gian-Kasper RÄISÄNEN, Jouni REN, Jiawen Climate and Environmental Physics, Department of Physical Sciences, Cold and Arid Regions Environmental Physics Institute, University of Bern University of Helsinki and Engineering Research Institute, Switzerland Finland Chinese Academy of Sciences China PLUMMER, David RAMACHANDRAN, Srikanthan Environment Canada Space & Atmospheric Sciences Division, RENSSEN, Hans Canada Physical Research Laboratory Faculty of Earth and Life Sciences, India Vrije Universiteit Amsterdam POLLACK, Henry Netherlands University of Michigan RAMANATHAN, Veerabhadran USA Scripps Institution of Oceanography RENWICK, James A. USA National Institute of Water and PONATER, Michael Atmospheric Research Deutsches Zentrum für Luft und Raumfahrt, RAMANKUTTY, Navin New Zealand Institut für Physik der Atmosphäre University of Wisconsin, Madison Germany USA, India RIEBESELL, Ulf Leibniz Institute for Marine , Scott RAMASWAMY, Venkatachalam Sciences, IFM-GEOMAR Bureau of Meteorology Research Centre National Oceanic and Atmospheric Germany Australia Administration, Geophysical Fluid Dynamics Laboratory RIGNOT, Eric PRATHER, Michael USA Jet Propulsion Laboratory Earth System Science Department, USA University of California at Irvine RAMESH, Rengaswamy USA Physical Research Laboratory RIGOR, Ignatius India Polar Science Center, Applied Physics PRINN, Ronald Laboratory, University of Washington Department of Earth, Atmospheric RANDALL, David A. USA and Planetary Sciences, Massachusetts Department of Atmospheric Science, Institute of Technology Colorado State University RIND, David USA, New Zealand USA National Aeronautics and Space Administration, Goddard PROSHUTINSKY, Andrey RAPER, Sarah C.B. Institute for Space Studies Woods Hole Oceanographic Institution Manchester Metropolitan University USA USA UK RINKE, Annette PROWSE, Terry RAUP, Bruce H. Alfred Wegener Institute for Environment Canada, University of Victoria National Snow and Ice Data Polar and Marine Research Canada Center, University of Colorado Germany USA QIN, Dahe RINTOUL, Stephen Co-Chair, IPCC WGI, China RAUPACH, Michael CSIRO, Marine and Atmospheric Meteorological Administration CSIRO Research and Antarctic Climate and China Australia Ecosystems Cooperative Research Centre Australia QIU, Bo RAYMOND, Charles University of Hawaii University of Washington, Department RIXEN, Michel USA of Earth and Space Sciences University of Liege and NATO USA Undersea Research Center QUAAS, Johannes NATO, Belgium Max Planck Institute for Meteorology RAYNAUD, Dominique Germany Laboratoire de Glaciologie et RIZZOLI, Paola Géophysique de l’Environnement Massachusetts Institute of Technology QUADFASEL, Detlef France USA, Italy Institut für Meereskunde, Centre for Marine and Atmospheric Sciences Hamburg RAYNER, Peter ROBERTS, Malcolm Germany Institut Pierre Simon Laplace, Hadley Centre for Climate Prediction Laboratoire des Sciences du and Research, Met Offi ce RAGA, Graciela Climat et de l’Environnement UK Centro de Ciencias de la Atmósfera, France Universidad Nacional Autonoma de Mexico ROBERTSON, Franklin R. Mexico, Argentina REHDER, Gregor National Aeronautics and Leibniz Institut für Meereswissenschaften Space Administration RAHIMZADEH, Fatemeh an der Universitat Kiel and Institut USA Atmospheric Science & Meteorological fur Ostseeforschung Warnemunde Research Center (ASMERC), I.R. of Iran Germany ROBINSON, David Meteorological Organization (IRIMO) Rutgers University Iran REID, George USA National Oceanic and RAHMSTORF, Stefan Atmospheric Administration RÖDENBECK, Christian Potsdam Institute for Climate USA Max Planck Institute for Impact Research Jena Germany Germany

964 Annex II

ROECKNER, Erich SCHERRER, Simon Christian SHEPHERD, J. Marshall Max Planck Institute for Meteorology Federal Offi ce of Meteorology University of Georgia, Germany and Climatology MeteoSwiss Department of Geography Switzerland USA ROSATI, Anthony National Oceanic and SCHMIDT, Gavin SHEPHERD, Theodore G. Atmospheric Administration National Aeronautics and Space University of Toronto USA Administration, Goddard Canada Institute for Space Studies ROSENLOF, Karen USA, UK SHERWOOD, Steven National Oceanic and Yale University Atmospheric Administration SCHMITTNER, Andreas USA USA College of Oceanic and Atmospheric Sciences, Oregon State University SHUKLA, Jagadish ROTHROCK, David USA, Germany Center for Ocean-Land-Atmosphere University of Washington Studies, George Mason University USA SCHNEIDER, Birgit USA Leibniz Institut für Meereswissenschaften ROTSTAYN, Leon Germany SHUM, C.K. CSIRO Marine and Atmospheric Research Geodetic Science, School of Earth Australia SCHOTT, Friedrich Sciences, The Ohio State University Leibniz Institut für Meereswissenschaften, USA ROULET, Nigel IFM-GEOMAR McGill University Germany SIEGMUND, Peter Canada Royal Netherlands Meteorological SCHULTZ , Martin G. Institute (KNMI) RUMMUKAINEN, Markku Max Planck Institute for Meteorology Netherlands Rossby Centre, Swedish Meteorological Germany and Hydrological Institute SILVA DIAS, Pedro Leite da Sweden, Finland SCHULZ, Michael Universidade de Sao Paulo Institut Pierre Simon Laplace, Brazil RUSSELL, Gary L. Laboratoire des Sciences du Climat et de National Aeronautics and Space l’Environnement, CEA-CNRS-UVSQ SIMMONDS, Ian Administration, Goddard France, Germany University of Melbourne Institute for Space Studies Australia USA SCHWARTZ, Stephen E. Brookhaven National Laboratory SIMMONS, Adrian RUSTICUCCI, Matilde USA European Centre for Medium- Departamento de Ciencias de la Range Weather Forecasts Atmósfera y los Océanos, FCEN, SCHWARZKOPF, Dan ECMWF, UK Universidad de Buenos Aires National Oceanic and Argentina Atmospheric Administration SIROCKO, Frank USA University of Mainz SABINE, Christopher Germany National Oceanic and Atmospheric SCINOCCA, John Administration, Pacifi c Marine Canadian Centre for Climate Modelling SLATER, Andrew G. Environmental Laboratory and Analysis, Environment Canada Cooperative Institute for Research USA Canada in Environmental Sciences, University of Colorado, Boulder SAHAGIAN, Dork SEIDOV, Dan USA, Australia Lehigh University Pennsylvania State University USA USA SLINGO, Julia National Centre for Atmospheric SALAS Y MÉLIA, David SEMAZZI, Fred H. Science, University of Reading Météo-France, Centre National de North Carolina State University UK Recherches Météorologiques USA France SMITH, Doug SENIOR, Catherine Hadley Centre for Climate Prediction SANTER, Ben D. Hadley Centre for Climate Prediction and Research, Met Offi ce Program for Climate Model Diagnosis and Research, Met Offi ce UK and Intercomparison, Lawrence UK Livermore National Laboratory SMITH, Sharon USA SEXTON, David Geological Survey of Canada, Hadley Centre for Climate Prediction Natural Resources Canada SARR, Abdoulaye and Research, Met Offi ce Canada Service Météorologique, DMN Sénégal UK Senegal SODEN, Brian SHEA, Dennis University of Miami, Rosentiel School SAUSEN, Robert National Center for Atmospheric Research for Marine and Atmospheric Science Deutsches Zentrum für Luft und Raumfahrt, USA USA Institut für Physik der Atmosphäre Germany SHEPHERD, Andrew SOKOLOV, Andrei School of Geosciences, The Massachusetts Institute of Technology SCHÄR, Christoph University of Ediburgh USA, Russian Federation ETH Zürich, Institute for Atmospheric UK and Climate Science Switzerland 965 Annex II

SOLANKI, Sami K. STOCKER, Thomas F. TEBALDI, Claudia Max Planck Institute for Climate and Environmental Physics, National Center for Atmospheric Research Solar System Research Physics Institute, University of Bern USA Germany, Switzerland Switzerland TENG, Haiyan SOLOMINA, Olga STONE, Daíthí A. National Center for Atmospheric Research Institute of Geography RAS University of Oxford USA, China Russian Federation UK, Canada TENNANT, Warren SOLOMON, Susan STOTT, Lowell D. South African Weather Service Co-Chair, IPCC WGI, National Oceanic Department of Earth Sciences, South Africa and Atmospheric Administration, University of Southern California Earth System Research Laboratory USA TERRAY, Laurent USA Eoropean Centre for Research and Advanced STOTT, Peter A. Training in Scientifi c Computation SOMERVILLE, Richard Hadley Centre for Climate Prediction France Scripps Institution of Oceanography, and Research, Met Offi ce University of California, San Diego UK TETT, Simon USA Hadley Centre for Climate Prediction STOUFFER, Ronald J. and Research, Met Offi ce SOMOT, Samuel National Oceanic and Atmospheric UK Météo-France, Centre National de Administration, Geophysical Recherches Météorologiques Fluid Dynamics Laboratory TEXTOR, Christiane France USA Laboratoire des Sciences du Climat et de l’Environnement SONG, Yuhe STUBER, Nicola France, Germany Jet Propulsion Laboratory Department of Meteorology, USA University of Reading THOMAS, Robert H. UK, Germany EG&G Technical Services, Inc. and SPAHNI, Renato Centro de Estudios Cientifi cos (CECS) Climate and Environmental Physics, SUDO, Kengo USA, Chile Physics Institute, University of Bern Nagoya University Switzerland Japan THOMPSON, Lonnie Ohio State University SRINIVASAN, Jayaraman SUGA, Toshio USA Centre for Atmospheric and Oceanic Tohoku University Sciences, Indian Institute of Science Japan THORNCROFT, Chris India Department of Earth and Atmospheric SUMI, Akimasa Science, University at Albany, SUNY STAINFORTH, David Center for Climate System USA, UK Atmospheric, Oceanic and Research, University of Tokyo Planetary Physics, Department of Japan THORNE, Peter Physics, University of Oxford Hadley Centre for Climate Prediction UK SUPPIAH, Ramasamy and Research, Met Offi ce CSIRO UK STAMMER, Detlef Australia Institut fuer Meereskunde Zentrum TIAN, Yuhong fuer Meeres und Klimaforschung SWEENEY, Colm Georgia Institute of Technology Universitaet Hamburg Princeton University USA, China Germany USA TRENBERTH, Kevin E. STANIFORTH, Andrew TADROSS, Mark Climate Analysis Section, National Hadley Centre for Climate Prediction Climate Systems Analysis Group, Center for Atmospheric Research and Research, Met Offi ce University of Cape Town USA UK South Africa TSELIOUDIS, George STARK, Sheila TAKEMURA, Toshihiko National Aeronautics and Space Hadley Centre for Climate Prediction Research Institute for Applied Administration, Goddard Institute for and Research, Met Offi ce Mechanics, Kyushu University Space Studies, Columbia University UK Japan USA, Greece

STEFFEN, Will TALLEY, Lynne D. TSIMPLIS, Michael Australian National University Scripps Institution of Oceanography, National Oceanography Centre, Australia University of California, San Diego University of Southampton USA UK, Greece STENCHIKOV, Georgiy Rutgers, The State University of New Jersey TAMISIEA, Mark UNNIKRISHNAN, Alakkat S. USA Harvard-Smithsonian Center National Institute of Oceanography for India STERN, William USA National Oceanic and UPPALA, Sakari Atmospheric Administration TAYLOR, Karl E. European Centre for Medium- USA Program for Climate Model Diagnosis Range Weather Forecasts and Intercomparison, Lawrence ECMWF STEVENSON, David Livermore National Laboratory University of Edinburgh USA UK 966 Annex II

VAN DE WAL, Roderik Sylvester Willo WARREN, Stephen WILES, Gregory Institute for Marine and Atmospheric University of Washington The College of Wooster Research, Utrecht University USA USA Netherlands WASHINGTON, Richard WILLEBRAND, Jürgen VAN DORLAND, Robert UK, South Africa Leibniz Institut für Meereswissenschaften Royal Netherlands Meteorological an der Universität Kiel Institute (KNMI) WATTERSON, Ian G. Germany Netherlands CSIRO Marine and Atmospheric Research Australia WILLIS, Josh VAN NOIJE, Twan Jet Propulsion Laboratory Royal Netherlands Meteorological WEAVER, Andrew J. USA Institute (KNMI) School of Earth and Ocean Netherlands Sciences, University of Victoria WOFSY, Steven C. Canada Division of Engineering and Applied VAUGHAN, David Science, Harvard University British Antarctic Survey WEBB, Mark USA UK Hadley Centre for Climate Prediction and Research, Met Offi ce WONG, A.P.S. VILLALBA, Ricardo UK School of Oceanography, Departmento de Dendrocronología e University of Washington Historia Ambiental, Instituto Argentino WEISHEIMER, Antje USA, Australia de Novologia, Glaciologia y Ciencias European Centre for Medium- Ambientales (IANIGLA - CRICYT) Range Weather Forecasting and WONG, Takmeng Argentina Free University, Berlin National Aeronautics and Space ECMWF, Germany Administration, Langley Research Center VOLODIN, Evgeny M. USA Institute of Numerical Mathematics WEISS, Ray of Russian Academy of Sciences Scripps Institution of Oceanography, WOOD, Richard A. Russian Federation University of California, San Diego Hadley Centre for Climate Prediction USA and Research, Met Offi ce VOSE, Russell UK National Oceanic and Atmospheric WHEELER, Matthew Administration, National Bureau of Meteorology Research Centre WOODWORTH, Philip Climatic Data Center Australia Proudman Oceanographic Laboratory USA UK WHETTON, Penny WAELBROECK, Claire CSIRO Marine and Atmospheric Research WORBY, Anthony Institut Pierre Simon Laplace, Australia Australian Antarctic Division and Laboratoire des Sciences du Climat Antarctic Climate and Ecosystems et de l’Environnement, CNRS WHORF, Tim Cooperative Research Centre France Scripps Institution of Oceanography, Australia University of California, San Diego WALSH, John USA WRATT, David University of Alaska National Climate Centre, National Institute USA WIDMANN, Martin of Water and Atmospheric Research GKSS Research Centre, Geesthacht New Zealand WANG, Bin and School of Geography, Earth National Key Laboratory of Numerical and Envrionmental Sciences, WUERTZ, David Modeling for Atmospheric Sciences University of Birmingham National Oceanic and Atmospheric and Geophysical Fluid Dynamics, Germany, UK Administration, National institute of Atmospheric Physics, Climatic Data Center Chinese Academy of Sciences WIELICKI, Bruce USA China National Aeronautics and Space Administration, Langley Research Center WYMAN, Bruce L. WANG, Bin USA Geophysical Fluid Dynamics University of Hawaii Laboratory, National Oceanic and USA WIGLEY, Tom M.L. Atmospheric Administration National Center for Atmospheric Research USA WANG, Minghuai USA Department of Atmospheric, Oceanic, and XU, Li Space Sciences, University of Michigan WILBY, Rob Department of Atmospheric, Oceanic, and USA Environment Agency of England and Wales Space Sciences, University of Michigan UK USA, China WANG, Ray Georgia Institute of Technology WILD, Martin YAMADA, Tomomi USA ETH Zürich, Institute for Atmospheric Japanese Society of Snow and Ice and Climate Sciencce Japan WANNINKHOF, Rik Switzerland Atlantic Oceanographic and Meteorological YASHAYAEV, Igor Laboratory, National Oceanic and WILD, Oliver Maritimes Region of the Department Atmospheric Administration Frontier Research Center for Global of Fisheries and Oceans USA Change, Japan Agency for Marine- Canada Earth Science and Technology Japan, UK YASUDA, Ichiro University of Tokyo Japan 967 Annex II

YOSHIMURA, Jun Meteorological Research Institute Japan

YU, Rucong China Meteorological Administration China

YUKIMOTO, Seiji Meteorological Research Institute Japan

ZACHOS, James University of California, Santa Cruz USA

ZHAI, Panmao National Climate Center, China Meteorological Administration China

ZHANG, De’er National Climate Center, China Meteorological Administration China

ZHANG, Tingjun National Snow and Ice Data Center, CIRES, University of Colorado at Boulder USA, China

ZHANG, Xiaoye Chinese Academy of Meteorological Sciences, Centre for Atmophere Watch & Services China

ZHANG, Xuebin Climate Research Division, Environment Canada Canada

ZHAO, Lin Cold and Arid Regions Environmental and Engineering Research Institute, Chinese Academy of Science China

ZHAO, Zong-Ci National Climate Center, China Meteorological Administration China

ZHENGTENG, Guo Institute of Geology and Geophysics, Chinese Academy of Science China

ZHOU, Liming Georgia Institute of Technology USA, China

ZORITA, Eduardo Helmholtz Zentrum Geesthacht Germany, Spain

ZWIERS, Francis Canadian Centre for Climate Modelling and Analysis, Environment Canada Canada

968 Annex III Reviewers of the IPCC WGI Fourth Assessment Report

Algeria MOISE, Aurel Belgium Bureau of Meteorology Research Centre AMAR, Matari BERGER, André IHFR, Oran NICHOLLS, Neville Université catholique de Louvain, Monash University Institut d’Astronomie et de MATARI, Amar Géophysique G. Lemaitre IHFR, Oran PITMAN, Andrew Department of Physical Geography, DE BACKER, Hugo Macquarie University Royal Meteorological Institute Australia RAUPACH, Michael GOOSSE, Hugues CAI, Wenju CSIRO Université catholique de Louvain CSIRO Marine and Atmospheric Research RINTOUL, Stephen JANSSENS, Ivan A. CHURCH, John CSIRO, Marine and Atmospheric University of Antwerp CSIRO Marine and Atmospheric Research and Antarctic Climate and Research and Ecosystems Ecosystems Cooperative Research Centre LOUTRE, Marie-France Cooperative Research Centre Université catholique de Louvain, RODERICK, Michael Institut d’Astronomie et de COLMAN, Robert Australian National University Géophysique G. Lemaitre Bureau of Meteorology Research Centre ROTSTAYN, Leon VAN LIPZIG, Nicole ENTING, Ian CSIRO Marine and Atmospheric Research Katholieke Universiteit Leuven University of Melbourne SIEMS, Steven GIFFORD, Roger Monash University Benin CSIRO Plant Industry SIMMONDS, Ian BOKO, Michel HIRST, Anthony University of Melbourne Universite de Bourgogne CSIRO Marine and Atmospheric Research TREWIN, Blair GUENDEHOU, G. H. Sabin HOBBINS, Michael National Climate Centre, Benin Centre for Scientifi c Australian National University Bureau of Meteorology and Technical Review

HOWARD, William VAN OMMEN, Tas VISSIN, Expédit Wilfrid Antarctic Climate and Ecosystems Australian Antarctic Division LECREDE/DGAT/FLASH/ Cooperative Research Centre Université d’Abomey-Calavi WALSH, Kevin HUNTER, John School of Earth Sciences, YABI, Ibouraïma Antarctic Climate and Ecosystems University of Melbourne Laboratoire de Climatologie/DGAT/UAC Cooperative Research Centre WATKINS, Andrew JONES, Roger National Cliamte Centre, Brazil CSIRO Marine and Atmospheric Research Bureau of Meteorology CARDIA SIMÕES, Jefferson KININMONTH, William WHEELER, Matthew Departamento de Geografi a, Instituto Bureau of Meteorology Research Centre de Geociências, Universidade LYNCH, Amanda H. Federal do Rio Grande do Sul School of Geography and Environmental WHITE, Neil Science, Monash University CSIRO Marine and Atmospheric Research GOMES, Marcos S.P. Department of Mechanical MANTON, Michael Research, Pontifi cal Catholic Bureau of Meteorology Research Centre Austria University of Rio de Janeiro

MCAVANEY, Bryant BÖHM, Reinhard MARENGO ORSINI, Jose Antonio Bureau of Meteorology Research Centre Central Institute for Meteorology CPTEC/INPE and Geodynamics MCDOUGALL, Trevor CSIRO Marine and Atmospheric Research KIRCHENGAST, Gottfried Canada University of Graz MCGREGOR, John BELTRAMI, Hugo CSIRO Marine and Atmospheric Research O’NEILL, Brian St. Francis Xavier University IIASA and Brown University MCNEIL, Ben BROWN, Ross University of New South Wales RADUNSKY, Klaus Environment Canada Umweltbundesamt

Expert reviewers are listed by country. Experts from international organizations are listed at the end. 969 Annex III

CAYA, Daniel WANG, Shusen YU, Rucong Consortium Ouranos Canada Centre for Remote Sensing, China Meteorological Administration Natural Resources Canada CHYLEK, Petr ZHAO, Zong-Ci Dalhousie University, Departments WANG, Xiaolan L. National Climate Center, China of Physics and Oceanography Climate Research Branch, Meteorological Administration Meteorological Service of Canada CLARKE, Garry ZHOU, Tianjun Earth and Ocean Sciences, ZWIERS, Francis Institute of Atmospheric Physics, University of British Columbia Canadian Centre for Climate Modelling Chinese Academy of Sciences and Analysis, Environment Canada CLARKE, R. Allyn Bedford Institute of Oceanography Denmark Chile CULLEN, John GLEISNER, Hans Dalhousie University ACEITUNO, Patricio Atmosphere Space Research Department Geophysics, Division, Danish Met. Institute DERKSEN, Chris Universidad de Chile Climate Research Branch, STENDEL, Martin Meteorological Service of Canada Danish Meteorological Institute China FERNANDES, Richard Canada Centre for Remote Sensing, CAI, Zucong Egypt Natural Resources Canada Institute of , Chinese Academy of Sciences EL-SHAHAWY, Mohamed FORBES, Donald L. Cairo University, Egyptian Natural Resources Canada, CHAN, Johnny Environmemntal Affairs Agency Geological Survey of Canada City University of Hong Kong

FREELAND, Howard DONG, Zhaoqian Estonia Department of Fisheries and Oceans Polar Research Institute of China JAAGUS, Jaak GARRETT, Chris GONG, Dao-Yi University of Tartu University of Victoria College of Resources Science and Technology, Beijing Normal University HARVEY, Danny Fiji University of Toronto GUO, Xueliang Institute of Atmospheric Physics, LAL, Murari ISAAC, George Chinese Academy of Sciences University of the South Pacifi c Environment Canada LAM, Chiu-Ying JAMES, Thomas Hong Kong Observatory Finland Geological Survey of Canada, Natural Resources Canada REN, Guoyu CARTER, Timothy National Climate Center, China Finnish Environment Institute LEWIS, C.F. Michael Meteorological Administration Geological Survey of Canada, KORTELAINEN , Pirkko Natural Resources Canada SHI, Guang-yu Finnish Environment Institute Institute of Atmospheric Physics, MACDONALD, Robie Chinese Academy of Sciences KULMALA, Markku Department of Fisheries and Oceans University of Helsinki SU, Jilan MATTHEWS, H. Damon Lab of Ocean Dynamic Processes and LAAKSONEN, Ari University of Calgary and Satellite Oceanography,Second Institute of University of Kuopio Concordia University Oceanography, State Oceanic Administration MÄKIPÄÄ, Raisa MCINTYRE, Stephen SUN, Junying Finnish Forest Research Institute University of Toronto Centre for Atmosphere Watch and Services, Chinese Academy of RÄISÄNEN, Jouni MCKITRICK, Ross Meteorological Sciences, CMA Department of Physical Sciences, University of Guelph University of Helsinki WANG, Dongxiao PELTIER, Wm. Richard South China Sea Institute of Oceanology, SAVOLAINEN, Ilkka Department of Physics, Chinese Academy of Sciences Technical Research Centre of Finland University of Toronto WANG, Mingxing SAVARD, Martine M. Institute of Atmospheric Physics, France Geological Survey of Canada, Chinese Academy of Sciences Natural Resources Canada BONY, Sandrine XIE, Zhenghui Laboratoire de Météorologie Dynamique, SMITH, Sharon Institute of Atmospheric Physics, Institut Pierre Simon Laplace Geological Survey of Canada, Chinese Academy of Sciences Natural Resources Canada BOUSQUET, Philippe XU, Xiaobin Institut Pierre Simon Laplace, TRISHCHENKO, Alexander P. Chinese Academy of Laboratoire des Sciences du Canada Centre for Remote Sensing, Meteorological Sciences Climat et de l’Environnement Natural Resources Canada 970 Annex III

BRACONNOT, Pascale PLANTON, Serge HELD, Hermann Pascale Braconnot Institu Pierre Simon Météo-France Potsdam Institute for Climate Laplace, Laboratoire des Sciences Impact Research du Climat et de l’Environnement RAMSTEIN, Gilles Laboratoire des Sciences du HOFZUMAHAUS, Andreas CAZENAVE, Anny Climat et de l’Environnement Forschungszentrum Jülich, Institut Laboratoire d’Etudes en Géophysique et für Chemie und Dynamik der Océanographie Spatiale (LEGOS), CNES SCHULZ, Michael Geosphäre II: Troposphäre Institut Pierre Simon Laplace, CLERBAUX, Cathy Laboratoire des Sciences du Climat et de KOPPMANN, Ralf Centre National de Recherche Scientifi que l’Environnement, CEA-CNRS-UVSQ Institut für Chemie und Dynamik der Geosphaere, Institut II: CORTIJO, Elsa SEGUIN, Bernard Troposphaere, Forschungszentrum Laboratoire des Sciences du Climat et de INRA Juelich, Juelich, Germany l’Environnement, CNRS-CEA-UVSQ TEXTOR, Christiane LATIF, Mojib DELECLUSE, Pascale Laboratoire des Sciences du Leibniz Institut für Meereswissenschaften, CEA, CNRS Climat et de l’Environnement IFM-GEOMAR

DÉQUÉ, Michel WAELBROECK, Claire LAWRENCE, Mark Météo-France Institut Pierre Simon Laplace, Max Planck Institute for Chemistry Laboratoire des Sciences du Climat DUFRESNE, Jean-Louis et de l’Environnement, CNRS LELIEVELD, Jos Laboratoire de Météorologie Dynamique, Max Planck Institute for Chemistry Institut Pierre Simon Laplace Germany LEVERMANN, Anders FRIEDLINGSTEIN, Pierre Potsdam Institute for Climate Institut Pierre Simon Laplace, BANGE, Hermann W. Impact Research Laboratoire des Sciences du Leibniz Institut für Meereswissenschaften, Climat et de l’Environnement IFM-GEOMAR LINGNER, Stephan Europäische Akademie Bad GENTHON, Christophe BAUER, Eva Neuenahr-Ahrweiler GmbH Centre National de Recherche Potsdam Institute for Climate Scientifi que, Laboratoire de Glaciologie Impact Research LUCHT, Wolfgang et Géophysique de l’Environnement Potsdam Institute for Climate BECK, Christoph Impact Research GUILYARDI, Eric Global Precipitation Climatology Centre Laboratoire des Sciences du MAROTZKE, Jochem Climat et de l’Environnement BROVKIN, Victor Max Planck Institute for Meteorology Potsdam Institute for Climate GUIOT, Joel Impact Research MATA, Louis Jose CEREGE, Centre National de Center for Development Research, Recherche Scientifi que CHURKINA, Galina University of Bonn Max Planck Institute for Biogeochemistry HAUGLUSTAINE, Didier MEINSHAUSEN, Malte Institut Pierre Simon Laplace, COTRIM DA CUNHA, Leticia Potsdam Institute for Climate Laboratoire des Sciences du Climat et de Max-Planck-Institut für Biogeochemie Impact Research l’Environnement, CEA-CNRS-UVSQ DOTZEK, Nikolai MICHAELOWA, Axel JOUSSAUME, Sylvie Deutsches Zentrum für Luft und Raumfahrt, Hamburg Institute of Centre National de Recherche Scientifi que Institut für Physik der Atmosphäre International Economics

KANDEL, Robert FEICHTER, Johann MÜLLER, Rolf Laboratoire de Météorologie Max Planck Institute for Meteorology Research Centre Jülich Dynamique, Ecole Polytechnique GANOPOLSKI, Andrey RAHMSTORF, Stefan KHODRI, Myriam Potsdam Institute for Climate Potsdam Institute for Climate Institut de Recherche Pour Impact Research Impact Research le Developpement GIORGETTA, Marco A. RHEIN, Monika LABEYRIE, Laurent Max Planck Institute for Meteorology Institute for Environmental Laboratoire des Sciences du Physics, University Bremen Climat et de l’Environnement GRASSL, Hartmut Max Planck Institute for Meteorology SAUSEN, Robert MARTIN, Eric Deutsches Zentrum für Luft und Raumfahrt, Météo-France GREWE, Volker Institut für Physik der Atmosphäre Deutsches Zentrum für Luft und Raumfahrt, MOISSELIN, Jean-Marc Institut für Physik der Atmosphäre SCHOENWIESE, Christian-D. Météo-France University Frankfurt a.M., Institute GRIESER, Jürgen for Atmosphere and Environment PAILLARD, Didier Deutscher Wetterdienst, Global Laboratoire des Sciences du Precipitatioin Climatology Centre SCHOTT, Friedrich Climat et de l’Environnement Leibniz Institut für Meereswissenschaften, HARE, William IFM-GEOMAR PETIT, Michel Potsdam Institute for Climate CGTI Impact Research

971 Annex III

SCHULZ, Michael Italy SANTINELLI, Chiara University of Bremen Consiglio Nazionale delle Ricerche (CNR) ARTALE, Vincenzo SCHÜTZENMEISTER, Falk Italian National Agency for VAN DINGENEN, Rita Technische Universität Dresden, New Technologies, Energy and European Commission, Joint Institut für Soziologie the Environment (ENEA) Research Centre, Institute for Environment and Sustainability STAMMER, Detlef BALDI, Marina Institut fuer Meereskunde Zentrum Consiglio Nazionale delle Ricerche VIGNUDELLI, Stefano fuer Meeres und Klimaforschung (CNR), Inst of Biometeorology Consiglio Nazionale delle Ricerche Universitaet Hamburg (CNR), Istituto di Biofi sica BERGAMASCHI, Peter TEGEN, Ina European Commission, Joint Institute for Tropospheric Research Research Centre, Institute for Japan Environment and Sustainability VÖLKER, Christoph ALEXANDROV, Georgii Alfred Wegener Institute for BRUNETTI, Michele National Institute for Environmental Studies Polar and Marine Research Istituto di Scienze dell’atmosfera e del Clima (ISAC) Consiglio ANNAN, James WEFER, Gerold Nazionale delle Ricerche (CNR) Frontier Research Center for Global University of Bremen, Research Change, Japan Agency for Marine- Center Ocean Margins CAMPOSTRINI, Pierpaolo Earth Science and Technology CORILA WURZLER, Sabine AOKI, Teruo North Rhine-Westphalia State COLOMBO, Tiziano Meteorological Research Institute, Environment Agency Italian Met Service Japan Meteorological Agency

ZENK, Walter CORTI, Susanna AWAJI, Toshiyuki Leibniz Institut für Meereswissenschaften, Istituto di Scienze dell’atmosfera Kyoto University IFM-GEOMAR e del Clima (ISAC) Consiglio Nazionale delle Ricerche (CNR) EMORI, Seita ZOLINA, Olga National Institute for Environmental Meteorologisches Institut DESIATO, Franco Studies and Frontier Research Center der Universität Bonn Agenzia per la protezione dell’ambiente for Global Change, Japan Agency for e per i servizi tecnici (APAT) Marine-Earth Science and Technology ZORITA, Eduardo Helmholtz Zentrum Geesthacht DI SARRA, Alcide HARGREAVES, Julia Italian National Agency for Frontier Research Center for Global New Technologies, Energy and Change, Japan Agency for Marine- Hungary the Environment (ENEA) Earth Science and Technology

ZAGONI, Miklos DRAGONI, Walter HAYASAKA, Tadahiro Budapest University Perugia University Research Institute for Humanity and Nature

ETIOPE, Giuseppe IKEDA, Motoyoshi India Istituto Nazionale di Geofi sica e Hokkaido University Vulcanologia SRIKANTHAN, Ramachandran ITOH, Kiminori Physical Research Laboratory FACCHINI, Maria Cristina Yokohama National University Consiglio Nazionale delle Ricerche (CNR) TULKENS, Philippe KAWAMIYA, Michio The Energy and Research Institute (TERI) GIORGI, Filippo Frontier Research Center for Global Abdus Salam International Centre Change, Japan Agency for Marine- for Theoretical Physics Earth Science and Technology Iran LIONELLO, Piero KIMOTO, Masahide RAHIMZADEH, Fatemeh Univ. of Lecce, Dept.”Scienza dei materiali” Center for Climate System Atmospheric Science & Meteorological Research, University of Tokyo Research Center (ASMERC), I.R. of Iran MARIOTTI, Annarita Meteorological Organization (IRIMO) Italian National Agency for New KITOH, Akio Technologies, Energy and the Environment First Research Laboratory, Climate Research (ENEA) and Earth System Science Department, Meteorological Research Ireland Interdisciplinary Center (ESSIC-USA) Institute, Japan Meteorological Agency

FEALY, Rowan MOSETTI, Renzo KOBAYASHI, Shigeki National University of Ireland, Maynooth OGS TRDL

SWEENEY, John NANNI, Teresa KONDO, Hiroki National University of Ireland, Maynooth Istituto di Scienze dell’atmosfera e Frontier Research Center for Global del Clima (ISAC) Consiglio Change, Japan Agency for Marine- Nazionale delle Ricerche (CNR) Earth Science and Technology

RUTI, Paolo Michele MAKI, Takashi Italian National Agency for New Meteorological Research Institute, Technologies, Energy and the Environment Japan Meteorological Agency

972 Annex III

MAKSYUTOV, Shamil YAMAMOTO, Susumu HAZELEGER, Wilco National Institute for Environmental Graduate School of Environmental Royal Netherlands Meteorological Studies Science, Okayama University Institute (KNMI)

MARUYAMA, Koki YAMANOUCHI, Takashi HOLTSLAG, Albert A. M. CRIEPI National Institute of Polar Research Wageningen University

MATSUNO, Taroh YAMASAKI, Masanori KROON, Dick Frontier Research Center for Global Japan Agency for Marine-Earth Vrije Universiteit, Amsterdam Change, Japan Agency for Marine- Science and Technology Earth Science and Technology SIEGMUND, Peter YAMAZAKI, Koji Royal Netherlands Meteorological MIKAMI, Masao Graduate School of Environmental Institute (KNMI) Meteorological Research Institute, Science, Hokkaido University Japan Meteorological Agency STERL, Andreas YOKOYAMA, Yusuke Royal Netherlands Meteorological MIKAMI, Takehiko Department of Earth and Planetary Institute (KNMI) Tokyo Metropolitan University Sciences, University of Tokyo VAN AKEN, Hendrik M. NAKAJIMA, Teruyuki TSUTSUMI, Yukitomo Royal Netherlands Institute for Center for Climate System Meteorological Research Institute, Sea Research (NIOZ) Research, University of Tokyo Japan Meteorological Agency VAN DE WAL, Roderik Sylvester Willo NAKAWO, Masayoshi Institute for Marine and Atmospheric Research Institute for Humanity and Republic of Korea Research, Utrecht University Nature KIM, Kyung-Ryul VAN DEN HURK, Bart NODA, Akira Seoul National University, School of Royal Netherlands Meteorological Meteorological Research Institute, Earth and Environmental Services Institute (KNMI) Japan Meteorological Agency VAN NOIJE, Twan OHATO, Tetsuo Mexico Royal Netherlands Meteorological JAMSTEC Institute (KNMI) LLUCH-BELDA, Daniel ONO, Tsuneo Centro Interdisciplinario de VAN VELTHOVEN, Peter Hokkaido National Fisheries Research Ciencias Marinas del IPN Royal Netherlands Meteorological Institute, Fisheries Research Agency Institute (KNMI)

SASAKI, Hidetaka Mozambique VANDENBERGHE, Jef Meteorological Research Institute, Vrije Universiteit, Inst. of Earth Sciences Japan Meteorological Agency QUEFACE, Antonio Joaquim Physics Department, Eduardo VEEFKIND, Pepijn SATO, Yasuo Mondlane University Royal Netherlands Meteorological Meteorological Research Institute, Institute (KNMI) Japan Meteorological Agency Netherlands, VELDERS, Guus J.M. SEKIYA, Akira Antilles and Aruba Netherlands Environmental National Institute of Advanced Industrial Assessment Agency (MNP) Science and Technology (AIST) MARTIS, Albert Climate Research Center, Meteorological SHINODA, Masato Service Netherlands, Antilles & Aruba New Zealand Tottori University, Arid Land Research Center ALLOWAY, Brent Netherlands Institute of Geological and Nuclear Sciences SUGA, Toshio Tohoku University BAEDE, Alphonsus BARRETT, Peter Royal Netherlands Meteorological Antarctic Research Centre, Victoria SUGI, Masato Institute (KNMI) and Ministry of Housing, University of Wellington Meteorological Research Institute, Spatial Planning and the Environment Japan Meteorological Agency BODEKER, Greg BURGERS, Gerrit National Institute of Water and TOKIOKA, Tatsushi Royal Netherlands Meteorological Atmospheric Research Frontier Research Center for Global Institute (KNMI) Change, Japan Agency for Marine- BOWEN, Melissa Earth Science and Technology DE BRUIN, Henk National Institute of Water and Meteorology and Air Quality Atmospheric Research TOKUHASHI, Kazuaki Group, Wageningen University National Institute of Advanced Industrial CRAMPTON, James Science and Technology (AIST) DE WIT, Florens Institute of Geological and Nuclear Sciences

TSUSHIMA, Yoko DILLINGH, Douwe GRAY, Vincent Japan Agency for Marine-Earth National Institute for Coastal and Climate Consultant Science and Technology Marine Management / RIKZ LASSEY, Keith UCHIYAMA, Akihiro HAARSMA, Reindert National Institute of Water and Meteorological Research Institute, Royal Netherlands Meteorological Atmospheric Research Japan Meteorological Agency Institute (KNMI) 973 Annex III

LAW, Cliff Romania KJELLSTRÖM, Erik National Institute of Water and Swedish Meteorological and Atmospheric Research BOJARIU, Roxana Hydrological Institute National Institute of Meteorology MACLAREN, Piers and Hydrology (NIMH) LECK, Caroline NZ Forest Research Institute Department of Metorology, BORONEANT, Constanta-Emilia Stockholm University MULLAN, A. Brett National Meteorological Administration National Institute of Water and RUMM AINEN, Markku Atmospheric Research BUSUIOC, Aristita Rossby Centre, Swedish Meteorological National Meteorological Administration and Hydrological Institute NODDER, Scott National Institute of Water and MARES, Constantin Atmospheric Research Romanian Academy, Geodynamics Institute Switzerland

RENWICK, James A. MARES, Ileana APPENZELLER, Christof National Institute of Water and Romanian Academy of Technical Studies Federal Offi ce of Meteorology Atmospheric Research and Climatology MeteoSwiss SALINGER, M. James Russian Federation BLUNIER, Thomas National Institute of Water and Climate and Environmental Atmospheric Research MELESHKO, Valentin Physics, University of Bern Voeykov Main Geophysical Observatory SHULMEISTER, James BRÖNNIMANN, Stefan University of Canterbury ETH Zürich Slovakia WILLIAMS, Paul W. CASTY, Carlo Auckland University LAPIN, Milan Climate and Environmental Physics Slovak National Climate Program WRATT, David CHERUBINI, Paolo National Climate Centre, National Institute Swiss Federal Research Institute WSL of Water and Atmospheric Research Spain ESPER, Jan AGUILAR, Enric Swiss Federal Research Institute WSL Norway Climate Change Research Group, Universitat Rovira i Virgili de Tarragona FREI, Christoph BENESTAD, Rasmus Federal Offi ce of Meteorology Norwegian Meteorological Institute BLADÉ, Ileana and Climatology MeteoSwiss Department of Astronomy and FUGLESTVEDT, Jan Meteorology. University of Barcelona GHOSH, Sucharita Centre for International Climate and Swiss Federal Research Institute WSL Environmantal Research (CICERO) BRUNET, Manola University Rovira i Virgili HAEBERLI, Wilfried GODAL, Odd Geography Department, Department of Economics, CALVO COSTA , Eva University of Zürich University of Bergen Institut de Ciències del Mar JOOS, Fortunat HANSSEN-BAUER, Inger GARCÍA-HERRERA, Ricardo Climate and Environmental Physics, Norwegian Meteorological Institute Universidad Complutense de Madrid Physics Institute, University of Bern

ISAKSEN, Ketil GONZÁLEZ-ROUCO, Jesus Fidel KNUTTI, Reto Norwegian Meteorological Institute Universidad Complutense de Madrid Climate and Global Dynamics Division, National Center for Atmospheric Research JOHANNESSEN, Ola M. LAVIN, Alicia M. Nansen Environmental and Instituto Espanol de Oceanografi a LUTERBACHER, Jürg Remote Sensing Center Institute of Geography, Climatology MARTIN-VIDE, Javier and Meteorology, and National KRISTJÁNSSON , Jón Egill Physical Geography of the Centre of Competence in Research University of Oslo University of Barcelona on Climate, University of Bern

NESJE, Atle MONTOYA, Marisa MARCOLLI, Claudia Department of Earth Science, Dpto. Astrofi sica y Fisica de la ETH Zürich, Institute for University of Bergen Atmosfera, Facultad de Ciencias Fisicas, Atmosphere and Climate Universidad Complutense de Madrid PAASCHE, Øyvind PETER, Thomas Bjerknes Centre for Climate Research PELEJERO, Carles ETH Zürich Institut de Ciències del Mar, CMIMA-CSIC PHILIPONA, Rolf Peru RIBERA, Pedro Observatory Davos Universidad Pablo de Olavide GAMBOA, Nadia PLATTNER, Gian-Kasper Pontifi cia Universidad Carolica del Pero Climate and Environmental Physics, Sweden Physics Institute, University of Bern

HOLMLUND, Per RAIBLE, C. Christoph Stockholm University Climate and Environmental Physics, University of Bern 974 Annex III

REBETEZ, Martine BODAS-SALCEDO, Alejandro HAIGH, Joanna Swiss Federal Research Institute WSL Hadley Centre for Climate Prediction Imperial College London and Research, Met Offi ce ROSSI, Michel J. HARANGOZO, Steve Ecole Polytechnique Fédérale de BOUCHER, Olivier British Antarctic Survey Lausanne, Laboratoire de Pollution Hadley Centre for Climate Prediction Atmosphérique et Sol and Research, Met Offi ce HAWKINS, Stephen J. The Marine Biological ROZANOV, Eugene BROWN, Simon Association of the UK IAC ETHZ and PMOD/WRC Hadley Centre for Climate Prediction and Research, Met Offi ce HIGHWOOD, Eleanor SCHÄR, Christoph University of Reading ETH Zürich, Institute for Atmospheric BRYDEN, Harry and Climate Science University of Southampton HINDMARSH, Richard British Antarctic Survey SIDDALL, Mark CAESAR, John Climate and Environmental Hadley Centre for Climate Prediction HOSKINS, Brian J. Physics, University of Bern and Research, Met Offi ce Department of Meteorology, University of Reading SPAHNI, Renato CARSLAW, Kenneth Climate and Environmental Physics, University of Leeds HOUSE, Joanna Physics Institute, University of Bern Quantifying and Understanding the Earth COLLINS, Matthew System Programme, University of Bristol STAEHELIN, Johannes Hadley Centre for Climate Prediction ETH Zürich and Research, Met Offi ce INGRAM, William Hadley Centre for Climate Prediction STOCKER, Thomas F. COLLINS, William and Research, Met Offi ce Climate and Environmental Physics, Hadley Centre for Climate Prediction Physics Institute, University of Bern and Research, Met Offi ce JOHNS, Timothy Hadley Centre for Climate Prediction WANNER, Heinz CONNOLLEY, William and Research, Met Offi ce National Centre of Competence in British Antarctic Survey Research on Climate, University of Bern JONES, Christopher COURTNEY, Richard S. Hadley Centre for Climate Prediction WILD, Martin European Science and Environment Forum and Research, Met Offi ce ETH Zürich, Institute for Atmospheric and Climate Sciencce CRUCIFIX, Michel JONES, Gareth S. Hadley Centre for Climate Prediction Hadley Centre for Climate Prediction and Research, Met Offi ce and Research, Met Offi ce Thailand FALLOON, Pete JONES, Philip D. GARIVAIT, Savitri Hadley Centre for Climate Prediction Climatic Research Unit, School The Joint Graduate School of Energy and Research, Met Offi ce of Environmental Sciences, and Environment, King Mongkut’s University of East Anglia University of Technology Thonburi FOLLAND, Christopher Hadley Centre for Climate Prediction JOSEY, Simon LIMMEECHOKCHAI, Bundit and Research, Met Offi ce National Oceanography Centre, Sirindhorn International Institute of University of Southampton Technology, Thammasat Univ. FORSTER, Piers School of Earth and Environment, KING, John University of Leeds British Antarctic Survey Togo FOWLER, Hayley LE QUÉRÉ, Corrine AJAVON, Ayite-Lo N. Newcastle University University of East Anglia and Atmospheric Chemistry Laboratory British Antarctic Survey GEDNEY, Nicola Hadley Centre for Climate Prediction LEE, David UK and Research, Met Offi ce Manchester Metropolitan University

ALEXANDER, Lisa GILLETT, Nathan P. LOWE, Jason Hadley Centre for Climate Prediction Climatic Research Unit, School Hadley Centre for Climate Prediction and Research, Met Offi ce of Environmental Sciences, and Research, Met Offi ce University of East Anglia ALLAN, Richard MARSH, Robert Environmental Systems Science GRAY, Lesley National Oceanography Centre, Centre, University of Reading Reading University University of Southampton

BANKS, Helene GREGORY, Jonathan M. MARTIN, Gill Hadley Centre for Climate Prediction Department of Meteorology, University of Hadley Centre for Climate Prediction and Research, Met Offi ce Reading and Hadley Centre for Climate and Research, Met Offi ce Prediction and Research, Met Offi ce BETTS, Richard A. MCCARTHY, Mark Hadley Centre for Climate Prediction GRIGGS, David Hadley Centre for Climate Prediction and Research, Met Offi ce Hadley Centre for Climate Prediction and Research, Met Offi ce and Research, Met Offi ce

975 Annex III

MCDONALD, Ruth STARK, Sheila ANDERSON, David M. Hadley Centre for Climate Prediction Hadley Centre for Climate Prediction National Center for Atmospheric and Research, Met Offi ce and Research, Met Offi ce Research,

MITCHELL, John STEPHENSON, David ANDERSON, Theodore Hadley Centre for Climate Prediction Department of Meteorology, University of Washington and Research, Met Offi ce University of Reading STONE, Daíthí A. ANDERSON, Wilmer MURPHY, James University of Oxford University of Wisconsin, Madison, Hadley Centre for Climate Prediction Physics Department and Research, Met Offi ce STOTT, Peter A. Hadley Centre for Climate Prediction ANTHES, Richard NICHOLLS, Robert and Research, Met Offi ce University Corporation for School of Civil Engineering and the Atmospheric Research Environment, University of Southampton THORNE, Peter Hadley Centre for Climate Prediction ARRITT, Raymond PARKER, David and Research, Met Offi ce Iowa State University Hadley Centre for Climate Prediction and Research, Met Offi ce TSIMPLIS, Michael AVERYT, Kristen National Oceanography Centre, IPCC WGI TSU, National Oceanic PRENTICE, Iain Colin University of Southampton and Atmospheric Administration, Quantifying and Understanding the Earth Earth System Research Laboratory System Programme, Department of TURNER, John Earth Sciences, University of Bristol British Antarctic Survey BAER, Paul Stanford University, Center for RAPER, Sarah VAUGHAN, David and Policy Manchester Metropolitan University British Antarctic Survey BAKER, Marcia RAYNER, Nick VELLINGA, Michael University of Washington Hadley Centre for Climate Prediction Hadley Centre for Climate Prediction and Research, Met Offi ce and Research, Met Offi ce BARRY, Roger National Snow and Ice Data REISINGER, Andy WASDELL, David Center, University of Colorado IPCC Synthesis Report TSU Meridian Programme BATES, Timothy RIDLEY, Jeff WILLIAMS, Keith National Oceanic and Hadley Centre for Climate Prediction Hadley Centre for Climate Prediction Atmospheric Administration and Research, Met Offi ce and Research, Met Offi ce BAUGHCUM, Steven ROBERTS, C. Neil WOLFF, Eric Boeing Company University of Plymouth, British Antarctic Survey School of Geography BENTLEY, Charles R. WOOD, Richard A. University of Wisconsin, Madison RODGER, Alan Hadley Centre for Climate Prediction British Antarctic Survey and Research, Met Offi ce BERNSTEIN, Lenny International Petroleum Industry ROSCOE, Howard WOODWORTH, Philip Envirionmental Conservation Association British Antarctic Survey Proudman Oceanographic Laboratory & L.S. Bernstein & Associates, LLC

ROUGIER, Jonathan WU, Peili BOND, Tami Durham University Hadley Centre for Climate Prediction University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign and Research, Met Offi ce ROWELL, Dave BROCCOLI, Anthony J. Hadley Centre for Climate Prediction Rutgers University and Research, Met Offi ce Uruguay BROMWICH, David SENIOR, Catherine BIDEGAIN, Mario Byrd Polar Research Center, Hadley Centre for Climate Prediction Universidad de la Republica The Ohio State University and Research, Met Offi ce BROOKS, Harold SEXTON, David USA National Oceanic and Atmospheric Hadley Centre for Climate Prediction Administration, National Severe and Research, Met Offi ce ALEXANDER, Becky Laboratory University of Washington SHINE, Keith BRYAN, Frank University of Reading ALEXANDER, Michael National Center for Atmospheric Research National Oceanic and Atmospheric SLINGO, Julia Administration, Climate Diagnostics CAMERON-SMITH, Philip National Centre for Atmospheric Brach, Pysical Science Division, Lawrence Livermore National Laboratory Science, University of Reading Earth System Research Lab CHIN, Mian SMITH, Leonard A. ALLEY, Richard B. National Aeronautics and Space London School of Economics Department of Geosciences, Administration, Goddard Pennsylvania State University Space Flight Center SROKOSZ, Meric National Oceanography Centre

976 Annex III

CHRISTY, John EASTERLING, David GORNITZ, Vivien University of Alabama in Huntsville National Oceanic and Atmospheric National Aeronautics and Space Administration, Earth System Administration, Goddard Institute for CLEMENS, Steven Research Laboratory Space Studies, Columbia University Brown University EMANUEL, Kerry A. GROISMAN, Pavel COFFEY, Michael Massachusetts Institute of Technology University Corporation for Atmospheric National Center for Atmospheric Research Research at the National Climatic EVANS, Wayne F.J. Data Center, National Oceanic and COLLINS, William D. North West Research Associates Atmospheric Administration Climate and Global Dynamics Division, National Center for Atmospheric Research FAHEY, David W. GRUBER, Nicolas National Oceanic and Atmospheric Institute of Geophysics and Planetary CROWLEY, Thomas Administration, Earth System Physics, University of California, Duke University Research Laboratory Los Angeles and Department of Environmental Sciences, ETH Zurich CUNNOLD, Derek FEELY, Richard School of Earth and Atmospheric Sciences, National Oceanic and Atmospheric GURWICK, Noel Georgia Institute of Technology Administration, Pacifi c Marine Carnegie Institution of Washington, Environmental Laboratory Department of Global Ecology DAI, Aiguo National Center for Atmospheric Research FEINGOLD, Graham HAKKARINEN, Chuck National Oceanic and Electric Power Research Institute, retired DANIEL, John S. Atmospheric Administration National Oceanic and Atmospheric HALLEGATTE, Stéphane Administration, Earth System FELDMAN, Howard Centre International de Recherche sur Research Laboratory American Petroleum Institute l’Environnement et le Developpement, Ecole Nationale des Ponts-et-Chaussées DANILIN, Mikhail FEYNMAN, Joan and Centre National de Recherches The Boeing Company Jet Propulsion Laboratory, California Meteorologique, Meteo-France Institute of Technology D’ARRIGO, Rosanne HALLETT, John Lamont Doherty Earth Observatory FITZPATRICK, Melanie Desert Research Institute University of Washington DAVIES, Roger HAMILL, Patrick Jet Propulsion Laboratory, California FOGT, Ryan San Jose State University Institute of Technology Polar Meteorology Group, Byrd Polar Research Center and Atmospheric HARTMANN, Dennis DEL GENIO, Anthony Sciences Program, Department of University of Washington National Aeronautics and Space geography, The Ohio State University Administration, Goddard HAYHOE, Katharine Institute for Space Studies FREE, Melissa Texas Tech University Air Resources Laboratory, National DIAZ, Henry Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration HEGERL, Gabriele National Oceanic and Atmospheric Division of Earth and Ocean Sciences, Administration, Climate Diagnostics FU, Qiang Nicholas School for the Environment Brach, Pysical Science Division, Department of Atmospheric Sciences, and Earth Sciences, Duke University Earth System Research Lab University of Washington HELD, Isaac DICKINSON, Robert E. GALLO, Kevin National Oceanic and Atmospheric School of Earth and Atmospheric Sciences, National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration, Geophysical Georgia Institute of Technology Administration, NESDIS Fluid Dynamics Laboratory

DIXON, Keith GARCIA, Hernan HEMMING, Sidney National Oceanic and National Oceanic and Atmospheric Lamont Doherty Earth Observatory, Atmospheric Administration Administration, National Columbia University Oceanographic Data Center DONNER, Leo HOULTON, Benjamin Geophysical Fluid Dynamics GASSÓ, Santiago Stanford Unviersity, Dept. of Biological Laboratory, National Oceanic and University of Maryland, Baltimore Sciences; Carnegie Institution of Atmospheric Administration County and NASA Washington, Dept. of Global Ecology

DOUGLAS, Bruce GENT, Peter HU, Aixue International Hurricane Research Center National Center for Atmospheric Research National Center for Atmospheric Research

DOUGLASS, Anne GERHARD, Lee C. HUGHES, Dan National Aeronautics and Space Thomasson Partner Associates Hughes and Associates Administration, Goddard Space Flight Center GHAN, Steven ICHOKU, Charles Pacifi c Northwest National Laboratory Science Systems & Applications, DUTTON, Ellsworth Inc. (SSAI), NASA-GSFC National Oceanic and Atmospheric GNANADESIKAN, Anand Administration, Earth System Research National Oceanic and Atmospheric JACOB, Daniel Laboratory, Global Monitoring Division Administration, Geophysical Department of Earth and Planetary Fluid Dynamics Laboratory Sciences, Harvard University

977 Annex III

JACOBSON, Mark LUNCH, Claire MOLINARI, Robert Stanford University Stanford University, Carnegie National Oceanic and Atmospheric Institution of Washington Administration, Atlantic Oceanographic JIN, Menglin and Meteorological Laboratory Department of Atmospheric and LUPO, Anthony Oceanic Sciences, University of University of Missouri, Columbia MOTE, Philip Maryland, College Park Climate Impacts Group, Joint Institute for MACCRACKEN, Michael the Study of the Atmosphere and Oceans JOYCE, Terrence Climate Institute (JIASO), University of Washington Woods Hole Oceanographic Institution MAGI, Brian MURPHY, Daniel KARL, Thomas R. University of Washington National Oceanic and Atmospheric National Oceanic and Atmospheric MAHLMAN, Jerry Administration, Earth System Administration, National National Center for Atmospheric Research Research Laboratory Climatic Data Center MAHOWALD, Natalie MUSCHELER, Raimund KAROLY, David J. National Center for Atmospheric Research Goddard Earth Sciences and Technology University of Oklahoma Center, University of Maryland & MANN, Michael NASA/Goddard Space Flight Center, KAUFMAN, Yoram Pennsylvania State University Climate & Radiation Branch National Aeronautics and Space Administration, Goddard MANNING, Martin NEELIN, J. David Space Flight Center IPCC WGI TSU, National Oceanic University of California, Los Angeles and Atmospheric Administration, KELLER, Klaus Earth System Research Laboratory NELSON, Frederick Pennsylvania State University Department of Geography, MARQUIS, Melinda University of Delaware KHESHGI, Haroon IPCC WGI TSU, National Oceanic ExxonMobil Research and and Atmospheric Administration, NEREM, R. Steven Engineering Company Earth System Research Laboratory University of Colorado at Boulder

KNUTSON, Thomas MARTIN, Scot NOLIN, Anne Geophysical Fluid Dynamics Harvard University Oregon State University Laboratory, National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration MASSIE, Steven NORRIS, Joel National Center for Atmospheric Research Scripps Institution of Oceanography KO, Malcolm National Aeronautics and Space MASTRANDREA, Michael OPPENHEIMER, Michael Administration, Langley Research Center Stanford University Princeton University

KOUTNIK, Michelle MATSUMOTO, Katsumi OTTO-BLIESNER, Bette University of Washington University of Minnesota, Twin Cities Climate and Global Dynamics Division, National Center for Atmospheric Research KUETER, Jeffrey MATSUOKA, Kenichi Marshall Institue University of Washington OVERPECK, Jonathan Institute for the Study of Planet LACIS, Andrew MAURICE, Lourdes Earth, University of Arizona National Aeronautics and Space Federal Aviation Administration Administration, Goddard OWENS, John Institute for Space Studies MICHAELS, Patrick 3M University of Virginia LASZLO, Istvan PATT, Anthony National Oceanic and MILLER, Charles Boston University Atmospheric Administration Jet Propulsion Laboratory, California Institute of Technology PENNER, Joyce E. LEULIETTE, Eric Department of Atmospheric, Oceanic, and University of Colorado, Boulder MILLER, Laury Space Sciences, University of Michigan National Oceanic and Atmospheric LEVY, Robert Administration, Lab for Satellite Altimetry PETERS, Halton Science Systems & Applications, Carnegie Institution of Washington, Inc. (SSAI), NASA-GSFC MILLER, Ron Department of Global Ecology National Aeronautics and Space LEWITT, Martin Administration, Goddard PRINN, Ronald Institute for Space Studies Department of Earth, Atmospheric LI, Zhanqing and Planetary Sciences, Massachusetts University of Maryland, MILLET, Dylan Institute of Technology Department of Atmospheric and Harvard University Oceanic Science and ESSIC PROFETA, Timothy H. MILLY, Chris Nicholas Institute of Environmental LIU, Yangang United States Geological Survey Policy Solutions, D e University Brookhaven National Laboratory MINNIS, Patrick RAMANATHAN, Veerabhadran LOVEJOY, Edward R. National Aeronautics and Space Scripps Institution of Oceanography National Oceanic and Administration, Langley Research Center Atmospheric Administration

978 Annex III

RAMASWAMY, Venkatachalam SIEVERING, Herman WEBB, Robert National Oceanic and Atmospheric University of Colorado National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration, Geophysical - Boulder and Denver Administration, Earth System Fluid Dynamics Laboratory Research Laboratory SODEN, Brian RANDERSON, James University of Miami, Rosentiel School WEISS, Ray University of California, Irvine for Marine and Atmospheric Science Scripps Institution of Oceanography, University of California, San Diego RAVISHANKARA, A. R. SOLOMON, Susan National Oceanic and Co-Chair, IPCC WGI, National Oceanic WELTON, Ellsworth Atmospheric Administration and Atmospheric Administration, National Aeronautics and Space Earth System Research Laboratory Administration, Goddard RIGNOT, Eric Space Flight Center Jet Propulsion Laboratory SOULEN, Richard WIELICKI, Bruce RIND, David STEFFAN, Konrad National Aeronautics and Space National Aeronautics and Space University of Colorado Administration, Langley Research Center Administration, Goddard Institute for Space Studies STEIG, Eric WILES, Gregory University of Washington The College of Wooster RITSON, David Stanford University STEVENS, Bjorn WINTON, Michael UCLA Department of Atmospheric Geophysical Fluid Dynamics ROBOCK, Alan & Oceanic Sciences Laboratory, National Oceanic and Rutgers University Atmospheric Administration STONE, Peter RUSSO, Felicita Massachusetts Institute of Technology WOODHOUSE, Connie UMBC/JCET National Climatic Data Center STOUFFER, Ronald J. SABINE, Christopher National Oceanic and Atmospheric YU, Hongbin National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration, Geophysical National Aeronautics and Space Administration, Pacifi c Marine Fluid Dynamics Laboratory Administration, Goddard Environmental Laboratory Space Flight Center TAKLE, Eugene SCHIMEL, David Iowa State University YU, Jin-Yi National Center for Atmospheric Research University of California, Irvine TAMISIEA, Mark SCHMIDT, Gavin Harvard-Smithsonian Center ZENDER, Charles National Aeronautics and Space for Astrophysics University of California, Irvine Administration, Goddard Institute for Space Studies TERRY, Joyce ZHAO, Xuepeng Woods Hole Oceanographic Institution ESSIC/UMCP & National Oceanic SCHWARTZ, Stephen E. and Atmospheric Administration Brookhaven National Laboratory THOMPSON, Anne Pennsylvania State University, SCHWING, Franklin Department of Meteorology International Organizations National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration Fisheries THOMPSON, David PALMER, Timothy Service, SWFSC/ERD Department of Atmospheric Science, European Centre for Medium- Colorado State University Range Weather Forecasting SEIDEL, Dian National Oceanic and Atmospheric THOMPSON, LuAnne RIXEN, Michel Administration, Air Resources Laboratory University of Washington University of Liege and NATO Undersea Research Center SEINFELD, John THOMPSON, Robert California Institute of Technology United States Geological Survey SIMMONS, Adrian European Centre for Medium- SETH, Anji TRENBERTH, Kevin E. Range Weather Forecasts University of Connecticut, Climate Analysis Section, National Department of Geography Center for Atmospheric Research

SEVERINGHAUS, Jeffrey VINNIKOV, Konstantin Scripps Institution of Oceanography, University of Maryland University of California, San Diego VONDER HAAR, Thomas SHERWOOD, Steven Colorado State University Yale University WAITZ, Ian SHINDELL, Drew Massachusetts Institute of Technology National Aeronautics and Space Administration, Goddard WANG, James S. Institute for Space Studies Environmental Defense

SHUKLA, Jagadish Center for Ocean-Land-Atmosphere Studies, George Mason University

979

Annex IV Acronyms & Regional Abbreviations

Acronyms

µmol micromole ASOS Automated Surface Observation Systems Atlantic Stratocumulus Transition 20C3M 20th Century Climate in Coupled Models ASTEX Experiment AABW Antarctic Bottom Water ATCM Atmospheric Transport and Chemical Model AAIW Antarctic Intermediate Water ATSR Along Track Scanning Radiometer AAO Antarctic Oscillation AVHRR Advanced Very High Resolution Radiometer AATSR Advanced Along Track Scanning Radiometer BATS Bermuda Atlantic Time-series Study ACC Antarctic Circumpolar Current BC black carbon Atmospheric Composition Change: a ACCENT European Network BCC Beijing Climate Center Accumulated Energy or Aerosol ACE BCCR Bjerknes Centre for Climate Research Characterization Experiment BIOME 6000 Global Palaeovegetation Mapping project ACRIM Active Cavity Radiometer Irradiance Monitor BMRC Bureau of Meteorology Research Centre Active Cavity Radiometer Irradiance Monitor ACRIMSAT Satellite Coupled Carbon Cycle Climate Model C4MIP Intercomparison Project ACW Antarctic circumpolar wave CaCO calcium carbonate ADEC Aeolian Dust Experiment on Climate 3 Climate Anomaly Monitoring System CAMS ADNET Asian Dust Network (NOAA) AeroCom Aerosol Model Intercomparison CAPE Convective Available

AERONET Aerosol RObotic NETwork CCl4 carbon tetrachloride Advanced Global Atmospheric Gases AGAGE CCM Chemistry-Climate Model Experiment Canadian Centre for Climate Modelling and CCCma AGCM Atmospheric General Circulation Model Analysis AGWP Absolute Global Warming Potential CCN cloud condensation nuclei

Assessments of Impacts and Adaptations to CCSR Centre for Climate System Research AIACC Climate Change in Multiple Regions and Sectors CDIAC Carbon Dioxide Information Analysis Center

AIC aviation-induced cloudiness CDW Circumpolar Deep Water ALAS Autonomous LAgrangian Current Explorer Clouds and the Earth’s CERES System ALE Atmospheric Lifetime Experiment Centre Europeen de Recherche et de CERFACS AMIP Atmospheric Model Intercomparison Project Formation Avancee en Calcul Scientifi c CF perfl uoromethane AMO Atlantic Multi-decadal Oscillation 4

AMSU Advanced Microwave Sounding Unit CFC chlorofl uorocarbon CFCl CFC-11 AO Arctic Oscillation 3 Atmosphere-Ocean General Circulation CH I di-iodomethane (methylene iodide) AOGCM 2 2 Model CH2O formaldehyde Atmospheric Particulate Environment APEX Change Studies CH3CCl3 methyl chloroform AR4 Fourth Assessment Report CH3COOH acetic acid ARM Atmospheric Radiation Measurement CH4 methane 981 Annex IV

Chesapeake Lighthouse and Aircraft CLAMS DTR diurnal temperature range Measurements for DU Dobson unit Europe-South America Network for Climate CLARIS Change Assessment and Impact Studies EARLINET European Aerosol Research Lidar Network Climate: Long-range Investigation, Mapping, CLIMAP and Prediction EBM Energy Balance Model Climate Variability and Predictability European Centre for Medium Range Weather CLIVAR ECMWF Programme Forecasts CMAP CPC Merged Analysis of Precipitation ECS equilibrium climate sensitivity Climate Monitoring and Diagnostics Emission Database for Global Atmospheric CMDL EDGAR Laboratory (NOAA) Research Earth System Model of Intermediate CMIP Coupled Model Intercomparison Project EMIC Complexity Centre National de Recherches CNRM Météorologiques ENSO El Niño-Southern Oscillation CO carbon monoxide EOF Empirical Orthogonal Function EOS Earth Observing System CO2 carbon dioxide European Programme for Ice Coring in CO 2– carbonate EPICA 3 Antarctica COADS Comprehensive Ocean-Atmosphere Data Set ERA-15 ECMWF 15-year reanalysis Coupled Ocean-Atmosphere Response COARE Experiment ERA-40 ECMWF 40-year reanalysis Centennial in-situ Observation-Based ERBE Earth Radiation Budget Experiment COBE-SST Estimates of SSTs ERBS Earth Radiation Budget Satellite COWL Cold Ocean-Warm Land ERS European Remote Sensing satellite CPC Climate Prediction Center (NOAA) ESRL Earth System Research Library (NOAA) Regional Climate Change Scenarios for CREAS European Station for Time-series in the South America ESTOC Ocean Central Research Institute of Electric Power CRIEPI Industry EUROCS EUROpean Cloud Systems CRU/Hadley Centre gridded land-surface air CRUTEM2v FACE Free Air CO Enrichment temperature version 2v 2 CRU/Hadley Centre gridded land-surface air FAO Food and Agriculture Organization (UN) CRUTEM3 temperature version 3 FAR First Assessment Report Commonwealth Scientifi c and Industrial CSIRO Research Organization FRCGC Frontier Research Center for Global Change CTM Chemical Transport Model FRSGC Frontier Research System for Global Change Development of a European Multimodel GAGE Global Atmospheric Gases Experiment DEMETER Ensemble System for Seasonal to Interannual Prediction GARP Global Atmospheric Research Program DIC dissolved inorganic carbon GATE GARP Atlantic Tropical Experiment

DJF December, January, February GAW Global Atmosphere Watch

DLR Deutsches Zentrum für Luft- und Raumfahrt GCM General Circulation Model

DMS dimethyl sulphide GCOS Global Climate Observing System

D-O Dansgaard-Oeschger GCSS GEWEX Cloud System Study

DOC dissolved organic carbon GEIA Global Emissions Inventory Activity Determination d’Orbite et DORIS GEOS Goddard Earth Observing System Radiopositionnement Intégrés par Satellite GEWEX Global Energy and Water Cycle Experiment DSOW Denmark Strait Overfl ow Water GFDL Geophysical Fluid Dynamics Laboratory DSP Dynamical Seasonal Prediction

982 Annex IV

– GHCN Global Historical Climatology Network HCO3 bicarbonate GHG greenhouse gas HFC hydrofl uorocarbon

GIA glacial isostatic adjustment HIRS High Resolution Infrared Radiation Sounder

GIN Sea Greenland-Iceland-Norwegian Sea HLM High Latitude Mode

GISP2 Greenland Ice Sheet Project 2 HNO3 nitric acid

GISS Goddard Institute for Space Studies HO2 hydroperoxyl radical Global Land Atmosphere Coupling GLACE HONO nitrous acid Experiment HOT Hawaii Ocean Time-Series GLAMAP Glacial Ocean Mapping hPa hectopascal GLAS Geoscience Laser Altimeter System HYDE HistorY Database of the Environment GLODAP Global Ocean Data Analysis Project IABP International Arctic Buoy Programme GLOSS Global Sea Level Observing System ICESat Ice, Cloud and land Elevation Satellite GMD Global Monitoring Division (NOAA) International Comprehensive Ocean- ICOADS GOME Global Ozone Monitoring Experiment Atmosphere Data Set Imperial College of Science, Technology and GPCC Global Precipitation Climatology Centre ICSTM Medicine GPCP Global Precipitation Climatology Project International Geosphere-Biosphere IGBP GPS Global Positioning System Programme IGBP Data and Information System GRACE Gravity Recovery and Climate Experiment IGBP-DIS Integrated Global Archive GRIP Greenland Ice Core Project IGRA International Meteorological Organization GSA Great Salinity Anomaly IMO Indian Ocean Experiment Gt gigatonne (109 tonnes) INDOEX Interferometric Synthetic Aperture Radar GWE Global Weather Experiment InSAR iodine monoxide GWP Global Warming Potential IO IOCI Indian Ocean Climate Initiative H2 molecular hydrogen Hadley Centre Atmospheric Temperature IOD Indian Ocean Dipole HadAT data set IOZM Indian Ocean Zonal Mode Hadley Centre Atmospheric Temperature data HadAT2 set Version 2 IPAB International Programme for Antarctic Buoys Hadley Centre/CRU gridded surface HadCRUT2v IPO Inter-decadal Pacifi c Oscillation temperature data set version 2v IPSL Institut Pierre Simon Laplace Hadley Centre/CRU gridded surface HadCRUT3 temperature data set version 3 IS92 IPCC Scenarios 1992 Hadley Centre Sea Ice and Sea Surface International Satellite Cloud Climatology HadISST ISCCP Temperature data set Project Hadley Centre Marine Air Temperature data HadMAT set ITCZ Inter-Tropical Convergence Zone Hadley Centre Radiosonde Temperature data JAMSTEC Japan Marine Science and Technology Center HadRT set JJA June, July, August Hadley Centre Radiosonde Temperature data HadRT2 set JMA Japan Meteorological Agency

HadSLP2 Hadley Centre MSLP data set version 2 ka thousand years ago

HadSST2 Hadley Centre SST data set version 2 KMA Korea Meteorological Administration

HALOE Halogen Occultation Experiment KNMI Royal Netherlands Meteorological Institute

HCFC hydrochlorofl uorocarbon kyr thousand years 983 Annex IV

National Key Laboratory of Numerical MODIS Moderate Resolution Imaging Spectrometer LASG Modeling for Atmospheric Sciences and Geophysical Fluid Dynamics mol mole Large-Scale Biosphere-Atmosphere LBA MONEX Monsoon Experiment Experiment in Amazonia Measurements of Pollution in the MOPITT LBC lateral boundary condition Troposphere LBL line-by-line Measurement of Ozone by Airbus In-service MOZAIC Aircraft LGM Last Glacial Maximum MPI Max Planck Institute LIG Last Interglacial MPIC Max Planck Institute for Chemistry LKS Lanzante-Klein-Seidel MPLNET Micro-Pulse Lidar Network LLGHG long-lived greenhouse gas MRI Meteorological Research Institute of JMA LLJ Low-Level Jet MSLP mean sea level pressure LLNL Lawrence Livermore National Laboratory MSU Microwave Sounding Unit LMD Laboratoire de Météorologie Dynamique Myr million years LOA Laboratoire d’Optique Atmospherique

N2 molecular nitrogen LOSU level of scientifi c understanding

N2O nitrous oxide Laboratoire des Sciences du Climat et de LSCE l’Environnement N2O5 dinitrogen pentoxide LSM land surface model NADW North Atlantic Deep Water

LSW Labrador Sea Water NAH North Atlantic subtropical high

LW longwave NAM Northern Annular Mode

LWP liquid water path NAMS North American Monsoon System

Ma million years ago NAO North Atlantic Oscillation MAM March, April, May North American Regional Climate Change NARCCAP Assessment Program Multiproxy Approach for the Reconstruction MARGO National Aeronautics and Space of the Glacial Ocean surface NASA Administration mb millibar NCAR National Center for Atmospheric Research MDI Michelson Doppler Imager NCDC National Climatic Data Center European geostationary meteorological Meteosat National Centers for Environmental satellite NCEP Prediction MFR Maximum Feasible Reduction NEAQS New England Air Quality Study MHT meridional heat transport NEP net ecosystem production MINOS Mediterranean Intensive Oxidants Study National Environmental Satellite, Data and NESDIS MIP Model Intercomparison Project Information Service Megacity Impacts on Regional and Global NGRIP North Greenland Ice Core Project MIRAGE Environments NH Northern Hemisphere MISO Monsoon Intra-Seasonal Oscillation

NH3 ammonia MISR Multi-angle Imaging Spectro-Radiometer + NH4 ammonium ion MJO Madden-Julian Oscillation NIES National Institute for Environmental Studies MLS Microwave Limb Sounder National Institute of Water and Atmospheric NIWA MMD Multi-Model Data set (at PCMDI) Research

MOC Meridional Overturning Circulation NMAT Nighttime Marine Air Temperature

984 Annex IV

Physikalisch-Meteorologisches NMHC non-methane hydrocarbon PMOD Observatorium Davos NMVOC non-methane volatile organic compound PNA Pacifi c-North American pattern NO nitric oxide PNNL Pacifi c Northwest National Laboratory NO nitrogen dioxide 2 PNV potential natural vegetation NO nitrate radical 3 POA primary organic aerosol National Oceanic and Atmospheric NOAA Administration POC particulate organic carbon reactive nitrogen oxides (the sum of NO and Polarization and Directionality of the Earth’s NOx POLDER NO2) Refl ectance NPI North Pacifi c Index POM particulate organic matter

NPIW North Pacifi c Intermediate Water ppb parts per billion

NPP net primary productivity ppm parts per million

NRA NCEP/NCAR reanalysis PR Precipitation Radar Precipitation Reconstruction over Land NVAP NASA Water Vapor Project PREC/L (PREC/L) O(1D) oxygen radical in the 1D excited state Prediction of Climate Variations on Seasonal PROVOST to Interannual Time Scales O2 molecular oxygen PRP Partial Radiative Perturbation O3 ozone OASIS Ocean Atmosphere Sea Ice Soil PSA Pacifi c-South American pattern

OCTS Ocean Colour and Temperature Scanner PSC polar stratospheric cloud

ODS ozone-depleting substances PSMSL Permanent Service for Mean Sea Level Organisation for Economic Co-operation and PSU Pennsylvania State University OECD Development psu Practical Salinity Unit OGCM Ocean General Circulation Model QBO Quasi-Biennial Oscillation OH hydroxyl radical Radiosonde Atmospheric Temperature RATPAC OIO iodine dioxide Products for Assessing Climate

OLR outgoing longwave radiation RCM Regional Climate Model

OMI Ozone Monitoring Instrument REA Reliability Ensemble Average

OPAC Optical Parameters of Aerosols and Clouds REML restricted maximum likelihood Program for Climate Model Diagnosis and RF radiative forcing PCMDI Intercomparison RFI Radiative Forcing Index pCO partial pressure of CO 2 2 RH relative humidity PDF probability density function RMS root-mean square PDI Power Dissipation Index RSL relative sea level PDO Pacifi c Decadal Oscillation RSS Remote Sensing Systems PDSI Palmer Drought Severity Index Radiative-Transfer Model Intercomparison RTMIP PET potential evapotranspiration Project

PETM Palaeocene-Eocene Thermal Maximum SACZ South Atlantic Convergence Zone

PFC perfl uorocarbon SAFARI Southern African Regional Science Initiative Stratospheric Aerosol and Gas Experiment petagram (1015 grams) Pg SAGE or Centre for Sustainability and the Global Paleoclimate Modelling Intercomparison Environment PMIP Project Southern Annular Mode or Stratospheric SAM Aerosol Measurement 985 Annex IV

SAMS South American Monsoon System STAtistical and Regional dynamical STARDEX Downscaling of EXtremes for European SAMW Subantarctic Mode Water regions Second Assessment Report or Synthetic STE stratosphere-troposphere exchange SAR Aperture Radar STMW Subtropical Mode Water SARB Surface and Atmosphere Radiation Budget SUNY State University of New York SARR Space Absolute Radiometric Reference Sv Sverdrup (106 m3 s–1) SAT surface air temperature SW shortwave SCA snow-covered area SWE snow water equivalent SCanning Imaging Absorption SpectroMeter SCIAMACHY SWH signifi cant wave height for Atmospheric CHartographY T/P TOPEX/Poseidon SCM Simple Climate Model T12 HIRS channel 12 SeaWiFs Sea-Viewing Wide Field-of-View Sensor T2 MSU channel 2

SF6 sulphur hexafl uoride T2LT MSU lower-troposphere channel SH Southern Hemisphere T3 MSU channel 3 SIO Scripps Institution of Oceanography T4 MSU channel 4 SIS Small Island States TAR Third Assessment Report SLE sea level equivalent Tropospheric Aerosol Radiative Forcing TARFOX SLP sea level pressure Experiment

SMB surface mass balance TBO Tropospheric Biennial Oscillation

SMM Solar Maximum Mission TCR transient climate response Scanning Multichannel Microwave TEAP Technology and Economic Assessment Panel SMMR Radiometer TGBM Tide Gauge Bench Mark SO Southern Oscillation Task Group on Data and Scenario Support for TGICA Impact and Climate Analysis (IPCC) SO2 sulphur dioxide THC Thermohaline Circulation SO4 sulphate SOA secondary organic aerosol THIR Temperature Humidity Infrared Radiometer

SOHO Solar Heliospheric Observatory TIM Total Solar Irradiance Monitor

SOI Southern Oscillation Index TIROS Television InfraRed Observation Satellite

SOM soil organic matter TMI TRMM microwave imager

SON September, October, November TOA top of the atmosphere

SORCE Solar Radiation and Climate Experiment TOGA Tropical Ocean Global Atmosphere Stratospheric Processes and their Role in TOM top of the model SPARC Climate TOMS Total Ozone Mapping Spectrometer SPCZ South Pacifi c Convergence Zone TOPEX TOPography EXperiment SPM Summary for Policymakers TOVS TIROS Operational Vertical Sounder SRALT Satellite radar altimetry Atmospheric Tracer Transport Model TransCom 3 SRES Special Report on Emission Scenarios Intercomparison Project

SSM/I Special Sensor Microwave/Imager TRMM Tropical Rainfall Measuring Mission

SST sea surface temperature TSI total solar irradiance UAH University of Alabama in Huntsville

986 Annex IV

UARS Upper Atmosphere Research Satellite Regional Abbreviations used in Chapter 11

UCDW Upper Circumpolar Deep Water

UCI University of California at Irvine ALA Alaska

UEA University of East Anglia AMZ Amazonia

UHI Urban Heat Island ANT Antarctic

UIO University of Oslo ARC Arctic

UKMO United Kingdom Meteorological Offi ce CAM Central America

ULAQ University of L’Aquila CAR Caribbean

UMD University of Maryland CAS Central Asia

UMI University of Michigan CGI East Canada, Greenland and Iceland

UNEP United Nations Environment Programme CNA Central North America United Nations Framework Convention on EAF East Africa UNFCCC Climate Change EAS East Asia USHCN US Historical Climatology Network ENA Eastern North America UTC Coordinated Universal Time IND Indian Ocean UTRH upper-tropospheric relative humidity MED Mediterrranean Basin UV ultraviolet NAS Northern Asia UVic University of Victoria NAU North Australia Variability of Irradiance and Gravity VIRGO Oscillations NEU Northern Europe

VIRS Visible Infrared Scanner NPA North Pacifi c Ocean

VOC volatile organic compound SAF South Africa

VOS Voluntary Observing Ships SAH Sahara Variable-Resolution General Circulation VRGCM SAS South Asia Model SAU South Australia W watt SEA Southeast Asia WAIS West Antarctic Ice Sheet SEM Southern Europe and Mediterranean WCRP World Climate Research Programme SPA South Pacifi c Ocean WDCGG World Data Centre for Greenhouse Gases SSA Southern South America WGI IPCC Working Group I TIB WGII IPCC Working Group II TNE Tropical Northeast Atlantic WGIII IPCC Working Group III WAF West Africa WGMS World Glacier Monitoring Service WNA Western North America WMDW Western Mediterranean Deep Water

WMO World Meteorological Organization

WOCE World Ocean Circulation Experiment

WRE Wigley, Richels and Edmonds (1996)

WWR World Weather Records

ZIA 0°C isotherm altitude

aerosol optical depth τaer

987