Human Prehistory of Socorro County, New Mexico Robert H

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Human prehistory of Socorro County, New Mexico Robert H. Weber, 1963, pp. 225-233 in: Socorro Region, Kuellmer, F. J.; [ed.], New Mexico Geological Society 14th Annual Fall Field Conference Guidebook, 204 p.

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HUMAN PREHISTORY OF SOCORRO COUNTY RoeBnr H. Wpspn New Mexico Bureau of Mines and Mineral Resources, New Mexico Institute of Mining and Technology, Socorro,

INTRODUCTION of several now-extinct large mammals. As a conse- quence of their dependence upon game, it may be There has been little formal documentation of the presumed that they were nomadic, roaming over prehistory of Socorro County that indicates the time large areas and remaining in a given camp site for depth of human occupation of the area, the range of only short periods at a time. These "people" are cultures, and local sources of mineral raw indigenous commonly referred to as Paleo-Indians, although materials employed in the fabrication of utilitarian, their skeletal remains are virtually unknown. Pre- artistic, and religious or ceremonial objects. Each of vious work in this area has been directed toward the these elements will be discussed briefly in the para- much more conspicuous manifestations of later cul- graphs that follow, with the realization that there is tures, and the record here of the Early Hunters re- a serious lack of continuity in the established record. mains unreported. Evidence of a putatively earlier Many aspects of the prehistory of this area, particu- culture oriented toward food gathering is still lacking larly at early time levels, are probably applicable to a (Willey, 196o). much larger region in central New Mexico, in part Recognition of the areas utilized by the Early extending eastward into the High Plains. The writ- Hunters is based almost entirely on the recovery of er's personal observations have, however, been largely characteristic lanceolate projectile points used in the cenfered in the area to be covered by the Fourteenth hunt, each form of which has been identified with a Field Conference. F'urtherrnore, summarizations of particular cultural complex (Wormington, t957, the prehistory of eastern, northeastern, and north- 196z). Fortunately, these points also have been cential New Mexico are treated much more fully by found in excavated sites in association with the re- others (Sellards, 1952; Wormington, 1957; Wen- mains of extinct mammals, some of which were dorf, 1954, L1SS, rgsg). undoubtedly slain by them, and in a stratigraphic Site surveys have extended across most of the area, context that indicates cultural succession. A growing but have been only partially reported (Mera, i93!, number of radiocarbon dates has been correlated r94o, Lg43; Lehmer, 1948; Hurt and_McKnight, with specific point types and associated faunal as- 1949; Danson, 1957; Toulouse and Stephenson, semblages, wilh resultant value to the geologist as r96o). Interpretations based on controlled excava- tine-stiatigraphic indicators. Representati_v9 poittts tion are extremely limited, with a resultant lack of of this category from Socorro County are illustrated cultural stratigraphic data. Meanwhile, the undisci- on Plate r. plined shovels of amateur pothunters have relent' Among the earliest of the Early Hunters were lessly gutted many potentially significant sites. those ide-ntified with the use of characteristic fluted ThrEe broad categories are applicable to the cul- Clovis points, a term derived from the occurrence of tural prehistory of the area, based on subsistence pat- these points in the lowest cultural levels in lake terns that are most characteristic of each. These are, deposits at the Blackwater Draw localllY, betweet from early to late, the Early Hunters, at time levels Clbvis and Portales, New Mexico (Sellards, r95z; Gatherers and Hunters of the in the late Pleistocene; Wormington, Sellards applied the terms early and middle Recent; and Puebloan Farmers ry57). Llano C6mplex iid Ltano Man to the ass-emblage prior to the Spanish entrada. These categories are in of artifacts ind the unknown men who made them' general confoimity with those of Wendorf (tqSg). At Blackwater, as elsewhere in the High Plains re- The period of the historic Pueblo and the nomadic gion, and extending westward into southern Arizona, Plains Indians will not be discussed. blovis points are issociated with remains of mammoth. th" hots., bison, camel, and other Pleisto- EARLY HUNTERS cene forms are also present locally in equivalent The earliest recognized occupants of Socorro stratigraphic levels. Clovis points have been re- County were late Pleistocene hunters of big game corer-ed is surface finds in several areas of Socorro indicate associa- whose subsistence was closely tied to the availability County. Those found by the writer 226 Nrw Msxrco Gror,ocrcer, Socrrrv-FounrrrNrn Frclo CoNTERENCE

m nF H #, NBw Mnxrco Gror,ocrcel, Socrcrv-FounrrrNrn Frmo CoNTERENCE tion with diatom-bearing pond, marsh, and stream more from fragments of mammoth tusk in the San- deposits with unassociated remains of the mammoth dia layer prompted Hibben (rqSS) to conclude that and horse at equivalent stratigraphic levels. The the Sandia Culture was established in America at earliest known inhabitants of the present townsite least z5,ooo years ago. A recently announced radio- of Socorro were correlatives of Llano Man. Radio- carbon age of rr,85o t rooo years is the first accept- carbon dates applicable to Clovis points are lacking able date for the Sandia Culture at Sandia Cave, for most of the known sites. Wendorf (1959) gives according to a press release quoting Dr. George Ago- an indicated age of r2,ooo to r3,ooo years for the gino of the University of Wyoming. Llano Complex at Blackwater Draw. An average of Clearly somewhat younger than Clovis points, as four determinations that are in reasonable agree- shown by their higher stratigraphic position in San- ment from the Lehner site in Arizona is r r,34o years, dia Cave and Blackwater Draw, are Folsom points. which may be near the youngest acceptable age for These points, which are still more prominently the Llano Complex (Haynes and Agogino, 196o). fluted and finely chipped than typical Clovis points, Another of the earliest projectile points is the San- are named for the type site at Folsom, New Mexico. dia point, named from a stratified cave site in the Their discovery ir 19z6 in unquestionable associa- Sandia Mountains northeast of Albuquerque, where tion with extinct bison upset prevalent concepts that it was found in the lowest cultural levels (Hibben, man had not arrived in the Americas until after the L94r). Fossil mammals from the Sandia layer in- Pleistocene. The widespread association of Folsom clude horse, bison, camel, mastodon, and mammoth. points with evident kill sites of fossil bison has led Similar points were later found at the Lucy site in to the identification of Folsom Man with a subsis- the Estancia basin, also associated with the bones of tence pattern centered on bison hunting. In the Fol- elephant. The various forms of Sandia points, all of som layer at Sandia Cave, the faunal assemblage in- which have an asymmetric stem and shoulder, have cludes horse, camel, bison, mammoth, and ground been placed by Wormington (ig6z, frg. 5) in a de- sloth. Evidence at Blackwater Draw, and other sites velopmental sequence between simple leaf-shaped in the High Plains, indicated extinction of the forms from Siberia and fluted Clovis points. The elephant, horse, and camel prior to the arrival of two forms known from surface finds in Socorro Folsom Man (Wendorf, 196r, p. 20). Recent exca- Country are comparable with Type r and Type z vations by the Museum of New Mexico at the Black- points from Sandia Cave (Hibben, r94r; Worming- water site disclosed a Folsom point near the bones ton, r957). Stratigraphic and faunal associations for of a mammoth, suggesting a possible later survival the Socorro specimens are unknown. Conflicting of the elephant in that area than had been suspected. ages have been proposed for the Sandia points from Folsom points are widely distributed in Socorro Sandia Cave. Radiocarbon values of zo,ooo years and County in topographic situations that range from

PLATE 1 Representative Early Hunter projectile points from Socorro County. A. Clovis point. An exceptionally large point of the Dent, Colorado t1pe. Broad, shallow flute not clearly visible in photograph. Length, 140 mm. Cray-bufi chalcedony. B. Clovis point. Red-brown jasper. C. Hell Gap point. Red-brown quartzite. D. Folsom(?) point. Form is more closely related to the Folsom tJpe, but chipping style and fluting show closer parallels with Clovis points. Gray flint. E. Folsom point. Red iasPer. F. Folsom point. Pale red iasPer. G. Folsom point. Nearly identical with a point from the Lindenmeier site, Colorado. Mottled pale gray chert. H. Midland point. Brown iasPer. I. Midland point. Brown iasPer. Basalt' f . Sandia point, Type r. K. AIIen point. Yellowish gray chaledony. L. Plainview point. Yellow iasper. M. Scottsbluff point. Buff welded rhyolite tuff. N. Scottsbluff point. Gray siliciEed tufi. O. Cody Complex point. Gray-buft flint. All illustrations are natural size. zzB NBw Mnxrco Gaorocrcer Socrsrv-FounrrBNrn Frsro CoNFERENCE open plains sites to at least the foothill portions of the Early Hunters disappeared from the western mountainous tracts. Inferred stratigraphic associa- scene. tions show a coresponding range including aeolian sands, a brown soil zone, stream terrace deposits, and GATHERERS AND HUNTERS pond or marsh deposits. Although no direct associa- Occupying much of the area formerly utilized by tion with Pleistocene mammals is known in this the Early Hunters, and extending into many areas area, fossil horse remains have been noted in what where evidence of the Early Hunters is lacking, was appear to be a correlative stratigraphic level. Two a group of people more dependent upon the gather- radiocarbon dates are available for Folsom sites in ing of native plants and seeds as a means of subsist- the High Plains. One frorn charred bison bones in a ence. Some hunting was also done, but it was ap- bone bed containing Folsom points at Lubbock, + parently less important to these people and included Texas was dated at 9883 35o years (Sellards, a wide variety of small game. The time of their arri- ry52). A somewhat greater age of ro,78o t )75 val in this area has not been well established but may years was obtained from charcoal from the Folsom have overlapped with the later periods of the Early Ievel at the Lindenmeier site, Colorado (Haynes and Hunters. In the Great Basin country to the west, Agogino, r96o). related cultural patterns have been categorized under A point type distinctly different from the Folsom the term Desert Culture (fennings and Norbeck, point in being stemmed and unfluted, but occurring 1955). From eastern New Mexico eastward, similar at about the same stratigraphic level at the Hell Gap cultures are referred to the Archaic stage (Willey site, Wyon-ring, has been named the Hell Gap point. and Phillips, r958). A radiocarbon age of ro,85o i 55o years from the Local manifestations of the Desert Culture have type site corresponds very closely with the Linden- been described under the term Cochise Culture rneier Folsom date (Agogino, 196r). Hell Gap (Sayles and Antevs , Lg4r ) from numerous sites in points are represented in surface finds from Socorro Cochise County, southeastern Arizona. Three stages County. were recognized in Arizona, with the Sulphur Artifacts in the next higher level above the F'ol- Springs earliest, followed by the Chiricahua, and som iayer Blackwater at Draw show differences from finally the San Pedro. Both the Chiricahua and San Folsom points in form as well as lack Asso- of fluting. Pedro stages have been identified in the artifact as- ciated points with tlie are numerous skeletons of semblages of New Mexico, and both appear to be bison. Sellards (rg5r) has designated the cultural widely represented in Socorro County. assemblage from this level as the Portales Complex. Sites are much more obvious than those of the Arnong the projectile points from the Portales Com- Early Hunters, being marked largely by scattered plex are forms that have been given type names from camp sites with abundant broken rocks, chips, flake other in sites the High Plains regions of several states. knives, hammerstones, manos, milling stones, cmcle Point types include Plainview (Texas), Milnesand ghoppers, scrapers, and hearths. Projectile points are (New Nlexico), Scottsbluff (Nebraska), Eden fairly cornmon locally but in many sites are rare to (Wyoming), and Cody Complex (Wyon'ring). Fos- absent, reflecting a high level of dependence upon sil bison are comnon associates with the projectile food gathering rather than hunting. These pointiare p.oints from these sites, as well as others containing characteristically stemmed or notihed and are com- similar points. With the possible exception of Mil- monly of a size adaptable to the atlatl and dart but nesand points, all other types listed have been identi- not to the bow and arrow. ?ottery is lacking, except fied from surface finds in Socorro County. Two in those sites reoccupied later by pottery-using samples of bone fron the Portales level at Black- people. Similar artifact assemblages have been des-- water Draw gave radiocarbon ages of 63oo i r5o cribed from central New Mexico along the Rio years and 6z3o + 150 years. Wendorf Grande, (appendix I, Rio Puerco, Rio San Jose, and Jemez Creek p. 1 35 ) notes that these two dates appear about rooo (Hibben, r95r; Campbell and Ellis, r95z; Bryan and years too young when compared with other dated Toulouse, ry47; Agogino, rg5z). sites of similar artifact content. Geologic and radio- It is apparent that these pre-Puebloan Gatherers carbon ages for the similar Cody Complex range and Hunters ranged widely over the area that is now from Tooo to gooo years (Wormington, ry57). Socorro County in search of edible plants, seeds, and With the disappearance of the last of the large game animals. Site locations range from river ter- Pleistocene bison from this region, at a time com- races, through open plains, into the mountain foot- monly placed at about Tooo years ago (Forbis , ry56) , hills, canyons, and high ridges and saddles. The Nrw Mpxrco GBorocrcer, Socrrrv-FounrsBNrH Frnro CoNTERENCE 229 lower levels of sheiter caves in southern New Mexico Pueblo V Historic Pueblo contain artifacts and food wastes of people with sim- Pueblo IV r 3oo-16oo a.o. ilar traits, together with primitive corncobs and other Pueblo III 11oo-r 3oo A.D. evidence of the beginnings of agriculture. Cosgrove Pueblo II 9oo-11oo A.D. (rq+l) referred these remains to his Hueco Basket- Pueblo I 7oo-9oo A.D. maker Culture, in allusion to certain trait similarities Basket Maker III 5oo-7oo A.D. with the Anasazi Basketmakers of the San ]uan re- Basket Maker II pre-5oo A.D. gion. The southern boundary of Cosgrove's Hueco Basket-maker region passes a few miles south of So- In his survey of part of western Socorro County, corro. On the basis of later studies, Lehmer (rq+8) Danson (rqSl) combined the two Basket Maker referred this cultural assemblage to the Hueco Phase periods in a single Pre-Pueblo period because of the features the of the Jornada Branch. lack of well-defined Basket Maker in Hueco artifacts listed by Lehmer include basketry, area. matting, cordage (fiber, human hair, cotton), net- Two patterns are indicated in the area during the ting, sandals, atlatls, cane darts, fending sticks, fire Pueblo periods. One, originating to the west, is char- drills and fire boards, and planting sticks. Both corn acterized by brown-ware pottery and architectural and squash were known. There is some faunal evi- features that are part of basic Mogollon traits. The dencelhat the Hueco Phase may have extended back other, representing influence from the San |uan Ana- into late Pleistocene time and lasted perhaps as late sazi arca to the northwest, is characterized by gray- as goo A.D. ware pottery and associated architectural features. A similar pattern is revealed in western New Mex- In later periods, the native culture probably repre- ico where an early Mogollon phase developed from a sented a fusion of these two separate cultural groups. Cochise root at a time near the beginning of the Mogollon developments in the southern portion Christian Era (Martin et al., ry52). of this area have been traced by Lehmer (1948), who Radiocarbon dates applicable to the Gatherers established a sequence of seven phases of the fornada and Hunters include one from the Grants area on Branch of the Mogollon based on superposition, pottery types. amaranth seeds from the San Jose level of 68oo :t tree-ring dates, and intrusive years ago (Agogino and Hester, 1958); one from 4oo 14oo A.D. Reseive on charcoal of 68o years neai 45o8 = San Andres El Paso (Libby, :95); and six from near Santa Ana Pueblo r200 a.D. zr8o * z5o to * years (Ago- ringing from 733o 7oo Three Rivers Dofla Ana gino and Hibben, 1958). 1100 a.D. Capitan Mesilla PUEBLOAN FARMERS goo A.D. The acquisition of agricultural techniques in time Hueco ushered in a new way of life for the people of central New Mexico, as elsewhere in the Pueblo region of The Mesilla, Dofla Ana, and,El Paso phases are the Southwest. The ability to raise and store food southern variants, whereas the Capitan, Three Riv- against future needs permitted the development of ers, and San Andres are northern variants of the ulhge life at fixed dwelling sites, a characteristic |ornada Branch. Both sequences evolved from the feature of the Pueblo Culture. Although gathering basic Hueco phase in separate areas. The total in- and hunting continued to supply many of the food ferred area occupied by the )ornada Branch extended and materiil needs of these people, such activities southward from north of. Catizozo to below Villa were flo longer the primary basis of subsistence. An- Ahumada, Chihuahua, southwest across the Tula- other newly acquired trait was the manufacture of rosa Valley and southeastern fornada del Muerto, pottery, which, changing in style through time, pro- and southeastward across the Sacramento Mountains vides a, extremely useful index to the various periods (Lehmer, ry48, fig. r). Future work may show 1 of Pueblo Culture. Dwellings evolved from rude greater extension to the northwest to the vicinity of cave, and perhaps simple brush or skin, shelters Socorro. to more eliboratt structures showing architectural Mesilla and Capitan phase dwellings in the Jor- nada area consisted of pit houses of several types. -PurPose. Time periods to which reference will be made in Pottery was largely brown ware, with intrusive black- subsequent paragraphs are as follows: on-white wareifrom the Mimbres area to the west' 230 Nrw Mnxrco Gsor,ocrce.r Socrrrv-FounrspNTH Frrro CoNTERENCE

Dofla Ana and Three Rivers sites contain both pit from its occurrence near Socorro, Socorro Black-on- houses, carried over from the earlier phases, and white (Mera, ry35). The span of use of this type adobe-walled surface structures with contiguous was apparently initiated in Pueblo II and continued rooms. The basic Mogollon brown wares were aug- into Pueblo III time (Danson, rgST). The character mented by intrusive types from the west, northwest, of habitation at this time is poorly known, but and north. El Paso and San Andres villages consisted small surface structures with comparatively of adobe-walled pueblos, some with central plazas. few rooms, built of adobe or sometimes flat stones Polychrome pottery came into prominent use, and laid horizontally, occupied, as a rule, indefensible the number and variety of intrusive pottery types in- Iocations in open country" (Mera, rg31, p. zg). creased markedly from sources to the southwest, In northwestern Socorro County, Danson (rqSl) west, northwest, and north. Little is known concern- noted that Pueblo II sites are the most numerous of ing agricultural food crops raised, but it may be all periods, and that they consisted of small family presumed that the corn, beans, and squash raised by dwelling units located near arable land. A shift groups to the north and west were known to the toward large multifamily pueblos occurred during people of the |ornada Branch. Knowledge of corn, Pueblo III time. squash, and cotton are indicated for the Hueco Later black-on-white wares succeeded Socorro phase, and continuity into succeeding phases seems Black-on-white in the Rio Grande area near Socorro, probable. With the close of the El Paso and San spreading rapidly eastward. These wares include Andres phases at about r4oo A.D., the Jornada Branch two types, Casa Colorado and Chupadero Black-on- apparently disappeared as a cultural entity; its ulti- whites (Mera, rg35, p. 29-T), continuing into the mate fate is unknown. Proto-Historic Pueblo period on Chupadera Mesa A pre-Mesilla phase, the San Marcial, was not in- (Toulouse and Stephenson, 196o, p. 4o-4r). Early cluded by Lehmer with the fornada Branch. This Chupadero settlements were formless arrangements phase is poorly known and apparently largely re- of individual buildings of a few rooms. Irregular stricted to an area along the Rio Grande in central plaza-type structures developed later, and both stone Socorro County (Mera, ry)5, rg47). Characteristic and adobe were utilized in construction (Mera, r9)5, southern brown ware is accompanied on San Marcial P.3r). sites by a Basket Maker III-Pueblo I decorated ware, Most villages in western Socorro County were San Marcial Black-on-white, which is presumed to abandoned in Pueblo III time. Two in the vicinity be of northern origin. There is little evidence of the of Magdalena, however, were occupied in the Pueblo character of dwellings and the village structure of IV period, and the eastern of these continued into the San Marcial phase. Excavation of a pit house Pueblo V (Danson, 1957, p. 77-75). Both of these near Gran Quivira National Monument disclosed a villages were unusually large for this area, consisting preponderance of Jornada Brown ware associated of more than zoo rooms for one, and an estimated with small amounts of San Marcial Black-on-white 3oo to 5oo rooms for the other. Coursed masonry and northern gray ware. Fenenga (1956) referred was used in their construction. this site to the Mogollon Culture at a time level cor- Beginning early in the Pueblo IV period, at about relative with Basket Maker III sites in the Rio r 35o A.D., a sequence of glaze-paint wares came into Grande Valley. popular use_ in the middle Rio Grande area, provid- Although brown-ware sites are prevalent in south- ing-a useful series for dating sites and establishing ern Socorro County, it is impossible in the light of trade relations from this time until about r7o5 available information to assign these to specific (Mera, ry33, r94o). Based on a survey of glaze-paint phases of the Jornada Branch. sites, Mera (rg4o, p. 13) concluded that a consider- Concurrent with, and locally continuing after the able part of the area was occupied during the first termination of the fornada Branch, a series of cer- glazeperiod Q35o-r45o)by" .. . afairlynumer- amic and architectural innovations was taking place ous sedentary population." During period z (r45o- in northern and western Socorro County. Basic L49o), a marked reduction in the number of sites southern brown wares in these sites are accompanied took place, but the evidence indicated no extensive by intrusive and locally made black-on-white wares, population loss, rather the enlargement of a few vil- and black-on-red types were being introduced from lages. During periods Sand 4 (r49o-r65o), an expan- the Little Colorado River area to the northwest. One sion in the number of sites again occurred. It should of the characteristic black-on-white types that suc- be noted that the Spanish entrada took place during ceeded San Marcial Black-on-white was a type named period 4. In period 5 j65o-r7oo), a shift in popula- Nrw Msxrco Grorocrcer, Socrnry-FounrrrNrn FIELD CONFERENCE 231

the vicinity tion took place that suggests a-breaking up.of the of Teipana, although it must have been in refers to the pueblo buried larger cent'ers " . . . wlth the idea of attracting less of Socbrro. Mera (194o) as Pilab6. att"ention or perhaps a greater degree of security beneath the modern-tbwn of Socorro which might be afforded by more isolated though RA\A/ MATERIALS localities." less advantageous The Socorro area abounds in a wide variety of in the vicinity of Gran Na- Site survJys Quivira useful minerals and rocks that contributed in no tional Monument and excavations at Pueblo Pardo small measu-re to the material culture of its prehis- and Stephenson (196o, p. to led Toulouse 4o-4r) toric inhabitants. The abundance of high-quality establish a series of six Toci for that area of northeast- stone suitable for the manufacture of chipped imple- Socorro County and adiacent Torrance and Lin- ern .are ments was important not only locally, but also may counties. These foci based on associated coln have been widely traded into outlying areas deficient ceramic types and surface architectural features. The in such material. prehistoric Claunch Focus is character- early-middie High-level terrace and channel gravels along the pottery and irregularly scattered izedby brown-ware Rio Grande at many places contain abundant peb- to three-room house units with no obvious plaza. one- bles and some cobblei of chert, flint, chal- Brownware foci are unknown in this area' iasper, Succeeding cedony, silicified wood, obsidian, quartzite. Arroyo Seco Focus is apparently equivalent to _and The White to smoky and carnelian chalcedony, is the forerunner of later Pu- iasper, the Claunch, but and obsidian were especially desirable constituents foci of the area. Villages consist of well- ebloan of these gravels. Chert, flint, and rare chalcedony rectangular pueblos with a central planned .pla1a. occur in many of the outcrops of Pennsylvanian and middle prehistoric Gran ?he succeeding Quivil, {o- Permian limestone from Magdalena eastward across illustrates fusion of Brownware traits with the cus i Chupadera Mesa. Local gathering grounds and quar- Puebloan pattern in ceramic content and a basic ries are indicated by the profusion of chipping waste square pueblo stiucture with a central plaza. In the and sparse crude blades of the type referred to by late prehistoric Pueblo Colorado Foctts, villag.es con- Bryan (rg5o) as quarry blanks. Conglomerates in the irregular clusters of unit structures with five sist of upper paif of the Baca Formation, and'basal beds t6o-s and associated irregular plazas. The to thirty of the overlying Spears Member of the Datil For- Focus, with the type site at San Gre- historic'salinas mation, show abundant signs of use at a number of de Abo, has a regular building pattern with a gorio localities east of the Rio Grande. Large pebbles and ^plaza. cobbles of excellent and boulders of reddish Spanish expeditions trings iasper The entry of several brown fine-grained quartzite and quartzitic siltstone period to a close in this area late in the prehistoric in these beds were especially attractive to primitive ientury. Chamuscado reached the the sixteenth flint knappers. Outcrops of tabular to iregular masses Piro village at San Marcial in r58r' southernmost of yellow, brown, and red jasper, with minor chal- Piro pueblos were passed along the In all, thirteen ..dory, are noteworthy at many places in the vol- Marcial to north Rio Grande in the str-etch from San canic-rocks of the Chupadera-Socorro-Lemitar (Hallenbeck, t95o,P.44'45). The Chu- of Socorro mountain chain, and in the small volcanic ranges east Gian and Pueblo padera Mesa villages of Quivira of the Rio Grande. These sites exhibit extensive may have first been visited by Europeans in Pardo usage, including local quarrying. One- of these re- r58z (Toulouse and the expedition of Espeio in u"ri-d an exception to the general lack of well- later, the Oflate expedition Stephenson, r96o). Still defined projectile points made on quarry sites by on r.rih.d the pueblo of Qualact at San Marcial yielding leveral fragments of Plainview-Ang-ostura days, then pushed Nlay 26, r 598, remained for several points [Alerander,igt). Welded rhyolite tufi from on [o the pueb]o of Teipana at Socorro, arriving on 'tf," Oriit Formation and basalt from post-Datil flows fune r4. Hallenbeck (r95o, P. 70)- refe_rs-to Teipana were used to a considerable extent for choppers, as the northernmost Piro town, but Mera (r94o) scrapers, and other coarse implements. Less com- records the presence of pottery of this period on sites -or, *rs their use for projectile points, which is diffi- at San Acacia and La |oya, which are within the Piro cult to explain in an area abounding in more tractable area. The name Socorro dates from Oflate's visit, materials-except on the basis of traditions originating when supplies were sent back from Teipana to the in areas wher-e flint, chert, jasper, and chalcedony caravan bf colonists struggling up the fornada del were lacking. Such an interpretation is-reinforced-by Muerto behind the small advanced guard with the apparent preferential use of basalt for certain dis- Oflate. There is still some doubt concerning the site tinctive styles of points. NBw Mrxrco Gnorocrcar Socrcry-Founrrprqrn Frpro CoNTERENCE

White to buff quartzite pebbles and cobbles from eral and rock types listed above. Banded travertine the Santa Fe Group and older conglomerates were used in the manufacture of "finger stones" or "mi- extensively used foihammerstones, inanos, and pol- rage stones" is prevalent in limestone regions of the ishing stones. Sandstones of Permian, Triassic, and area, and in the travertine benches and spring ter- Cretaceous age provided slabs and cobbles for manos, races west and north of Ladron Peak. fet may occur metates, griddles (comales), and abraders. A wide in coal-bearing Cretaceous rocks soufh of the Rio variety of intrusive and volcanic rocks was also used Salado and east of San Antonio. for these purposes. Schists and gneisses from Pre- c_ambri-a1 outcrops, but more commonly from gravels REFERENCES CITED derived from them, were similarly used to i lesser Agogino, G. A-.( r95z) The Santa Ana pre-ceramic site: a report- on a cultural level extent. Elongate rods of phyllite and schist whose in Sandoval County, N. M., Texas Jour.'Sci., v.4, n. r, p.32-37. function is uncertain (variously described as pestles, - (rS9r) A new point type tuom Hell "kiva Cap,Wyoming, bells," etc.) were readily obtainable in closely Am. Antiquity, v. 26, n. 4, p 258-26o. jointed Precambrian rocks in Los Pinos Mountains ---- _. , and Hester, Jim (1958) Comments on the Sarr fose rudiocarbon date, Am. Antiquity, v. 24,n.2,p. r87-r88. and_in gravels of the upper Santa Fe Group ex- that -- _ and Hibben, F. C. (rg58) Centual New Mexico paleo- tend westward therefrom. _Indian-, cultures, Am. Antiquity,'v. 23, n. 4, p. 422-425. Clays suitable for pottery and other ceramic ob- Alexander, H I,=lr (rS6l). The Levi site:'a^Paieo-I'r,di^n rr*p- site in-central Texas, Am. Antiquity, v. 28, n.4, p. jects abound in Pennsylvanian, Permian, Triassic, _ 5ro-528. Bryan, Kirk ( r 9 5o ) Flint quarries-the sorrces of ioois aid, at the Cretaceous, same time, papers and Tertiary sequences, and in Quater- the lactories ol tbe American lndian, of the Peabody Mus., v. 17, nary flood-plain deposits along streams. Firediolors, n. 7. and Toulouse, (ry47) The San in an oxidizing J.F., lr. /ose non- atmosphere, range from white to dark ceramic Culture and its relation to Pueb,loan Culture in New brown and red. Mexico, Am. Antiquitv, v. 8. n. r. o. z6o-28o. p.'H. Pigments of all the common hues also Campbell, f. M., and Eliis, iry5z)'Cochise manilestarions _. are widely in the middle Rio Grande Vailey, Am. Antiquity, v. 17, n. 3, p. distributed. Hematite (red) is common in the Mag- 2t t-221. dalena mining district, and less widespread in the Cosgrove, C. B. (1947) Caves ol the upper Cila and Hueco areas in New Mexico Socorro Mountains, in gravels along the Rio Grande, and Texas, Papers of lhe Peabody Mus., v. 24, and in fossil placers in the Baca Formation. Limonite DrX;;, E. B. (r957) An archeological survey of west-central New (brown to yellow) is also common in the Magdalena ,Llexico and east-central Arizon4 Papers of the Peabody Mus., v.24,n. z. district, in veins in the Chupadera Mountiins, in Fenenga,.Iranklin (1956) Excavations at site LA 2.579, a Mogo- concretions in Pennsylvanian, Permian, and Cre- Ilon village near Grun Quivira, New Mexico (in Wendorf, FrEd, taceous beds, and in lenses of ocherous sand and silt Fox, N-ancy, and Lewis, O. L., eds., Pipeline Archeology: Re- the Santa ports of Salvage Operations in the Southwest on El Paso I,iatural in Fe Group. farosite (yellow) is conspic- Gas Company frojects, tg.5o-r953),' Lab. Anthropology and uous in a mineralized zone in Pennsylvanian lime- Mus. Northern Ariz., p. zz6-43.' stones east of Socorro and is probably common in Forbis, R. G. (1956) Early man'ind fossil bison, Science, v. rz3, p.127328. the Magdalena mining district. Gypsum and lime- Ha_llenbggk, Cleve (r95o) Land oI the Conquistadores, Caldwell, stone (white) abound in the extensive tracts of Ida: The Caxton Printers, Ltd. Paleozoic rocks east of the Rio Grande and in small- Harrington, M. R. (1928) Sandal Cave, a new book oI South- western prehistory, The Masterkey,v. z,n.2, p. er areas to the west. White clays occur in small S-ro. quan- Haynes, Vance, and Agogino, G. A. (196o) Geoiogical signifi- tities at a number of places. Malachite (green) is cance ol a new radiocarbon date lrcm the Lindenmeier"site, common in the northern Magdalena Mountains, Proc. of Denver Mus. of Nat. Hist., n. q. Hibben, F. C. (r94r) Evidences ol eaily occupation in Sandia and less common in the Lemitar Mountains, Ladron Cave, New Mexico', and other sites in the Sandia-Manzano Peak, Pennsylvanian and Permian rocks east of the region, Smithsonian Misc. Coll., v. 99, n. 23. (r9;r) Sites Paleo-lndian'in Rio Grande, and in the Oscura of the the nriddle Rio and San Andres Grande Valley, Am. Antiquity, v. :,7, n. r, p. mountains. 4t-46.'their Azurite (blue) is less widespread but is _ (r95J ) Specimens from Sandia Caie ahd possible especially prominent in the Magdalena mining dis- significance, Science, v. r 22, p. 688-68q. Hurt, W. R.,.a1d McKnight, D. (rS+S) Archeology Specular of the San trict. hematite (black) is abundant in the Augustin Plains, a preliminary repori, Am. Antiqiity, v. 14, n. Magdalena district. Manganese oxide minerals 3.p.172-194. D.,. and.Norbeck, Edward (1955) Great Basin (black) are very widely distributed but are |ennings, f. pre- especially _ hrstory: a review, Am. Antiquity, v. 21, n. t, p. r-tr. abundant in the Chupadera Mountains. Galena Lehmer, D-.]. (ry48) The-loriada Branch oI thi Mogollon, Univ. (black) is common in the Magdalena district, Lemi- Ariz. Bull., v. rg, n. z, Soc. Sci. Bull, n. r7. Libby, W. F, (rgSS) Radiocarbon dating, Chicago: Univ. tar, Oscura, Chi- and San Andres mountains, and in an cago Press ( zd ed. ) . area east of Socorro. Martin, P. S., Rinaldo, f. 8., Bluhm, Elaine, Cutler, H. C., and Grange, Mogollon cultural continuity Ornamental materials include many of the min- _Sqg_qr, Jr. .(tg5z) and change, Fieldiana: Anthropology, v. 4o. Nsw MBxIco Grorocrcm Socrrrv-Foun:rrsNrH Frrro CoNTERENCE 237

prehistory, v. p. zoo'227. Mera, H. P. (rqeq) A proposed revision ol the Rio Grande -glaze Am. Anthropologist, 56, paiint hnthtopology, Tech. Ser. Bull., n. (1955) An altima{ive rec6nstiuction of northern Rio sequinii,'Lab.-( 5. north cen' Crande preiiitory, El Palacio, v. 62, p.-r71'r7). ,Sf S) Cerumic clues to the prehistory of _ northeastern- New Mexico, in tral New M6iico, Lab. Anthropology, Tech' Ser. Bull., n. 8. i , q SS ) The prehistory of (r94o) Popuiation cfianges tle_ltr-o Crande glaze' Panhandie C6i,t. Soc. Field Conference, Guidebook, Southern !n New Mexico. paint area, Lib. Anthropology, Tech. Ser. Bull., n. 9. Sangre de Cristo Mountains, ( rg43 ) An outiine 6f ceramic developments in southern and souih6aiidrn New Mexico, [ab Anthropology, Tech. Ser cado, Ft. Burgwin Research Center, n. r, Mus N. Mex. Press' Bull., n. rr. Willey, G. R. (196r) New \il'orld prehistory, Science, v. rlr, n. Sayles, E. B., and Antevs, !rys! (r9_4r)_Jhe Cochise Culture, 3191,p.73-86. Medallion Papers, n. 24, Gila Pueblo, Globe, Ariz. Sellards, E. H. (i952 ) Eaily Man in Ameica, Austin: Univ. Texas American archeology. Chicago: Univ. Chicago Press. Press. Wormington, H. IvI:' OSSI| Ancient man-in North America, Toulouse, I. H., Ir., and Stephenson, R. L. (r96o) Excavations at Denvei Mus. Nat. Hist, popular ser. n.4 (4th ed.)' Pueblo Pardo,' NIus. N. Mex., Papers in Anthropology,fl. 2. (1962) A survey bf early Amirican prehistory, Am. Wendorf, Fred (rg54) A reconstruttion ol notthern Rio Grande Scientist, v. 50, n. t, p. z3o-242.