Tracing Tectonic Deformation Using the Sedimentary Record: an Overview

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Tracing tectonic deformation using the sedimentary record: an overview

TOM McCANN I & ALINE SAINTOT 2

1Geologisches Institut, Univer~itiit Bonn, NuJ3allee 8, 53115 Bonn, Germany (e-mail: [email protected]) 2 Vr~e Universiteit, Instituut voor Aardwetenschappen, Tektoniek afdeling, De Boelelaan 1085, 1081 HV Amsterdam, The Netherlands

Abstract: Tectonic activity, on a range of scales, is a fundamental control on sedimentary activity. The range of structural deformation within a region extends from the plate tectonic scale, governing, for example, rift initiation, to the basin scale, with the formation of basin- bounding faults. Internal basin configuration is also strongly influenced by tectonic activity. However, the relationship between tectonic activity and sedimentation is a complex one, given the many additional factors which can also influence sedimentary activity, including erosion, sediment transport, source area lithology, groundwater chemistry, range of depositional environments, climate, eustasy, and the relative location of an area and its distality to marine influences. In this paper we provide a selective overview of the issues associated with the interlinked themes of tectonics and sedimentation, examining the main basin types forming in both extensional and compressional plate settings. We then review the various models of sedimentation in the selected basins, both on a local and a basinal scale. Finally, we look to the future - providing a series of possible research areas, almost exclusively multidisciplinary, which would help to improve existing models of interlinked sedimen~tectonics systems.

Sedimentary basins, and the depositional succes- influence the internal structure of the basin, sions within them, provide the most tangible and segmenting it into related but separate depo- accessible records of the lithospheric, geograph- centres (e.g. Jeanne d'Arc Basin, Tankard et al. ical, oceanographic and ecological developments 1989). These intrabasinal structures also influence which occur in a specific area over a specific the development of topography within a basin by period of time. Tectonic activity, on a range of controlling the location of both highs and lows scales, is a major control on sedimentary activity. which respectively act as potential sediment In recent years there has been an increase in the sources and sinks, and help to determine channel number of studies aiming to unravel the links pathways for sediment (e.g. Alexander & Leeder between tectonic events and sedimentary re- 1987; Leeder & Jackson 1993; Anders & Schlische sponse, both on a basin and intrabasinal scale 1994; Burbank & Pinter 1999). The broad pattern (e.g. Blair & Bilodeau 1988; Heller et al. 1988; of faulting within a basin is determined by both Cas & Busby-Spera 1991; Fisher & Smith 1991; the overall geodynamic setting (i.e. divergent, MacDonald 1991; Williams & Dobb 1993; convergent or strike-slip), and by pre-existing Schwans 1995; Cloetingh et al. 1997; Gupta crustal weaknesses which can strongly influence 1997). fault initiation and location. The range of structural deformation within a Sedimentation results from the interaction of region extends from a plate-tectonic scale (e.g. rift the supply of sediment, its reworking and modi- initiation to oceanic-ridge formation) - affecting fication by physical, chemical and biological the changing pattern of the oceans and con- processes and the availability of accommodation tinents, and controlling the size and nature of space, i.e. the space available for potential sedi- large source areas, sediment transport pathways ment accumulation. Many of these factors have a and the locations of sediment depocentres - down tectonic component. For example, sediment to the basin scale, where tectonics control the supply may vary in volume, composition and formation of major basin-bounding faults which grain size, as well as in the mechanism and rate of determine basin form and location. Additionally, delivery. These variations are largely controlled tectonic activity also controls the internal basin by the processes noted above. Similarly, accom- configuration, for example through the develop- modation space is controlled by sea-level varia- ment of smaller intra-basinal faults (both syn- tion, although relative sea-level changes may thetic and antithetic as well as transfer faults) that have a significant tectonic component. From." MCCANN,T. & SAINTOT, A. (eds) Tracing Tectonic Deformation Using the Sedimentary Record. Geological Society, London, Special Publications, 208, 1-28.0305 8719/03/$15.00 9The Geological Society of London 2003. Downloaded from http://sp.lyellcollection.org/ by guest on October 2, 2021

2 T. McCANN & A. SAINTOT

Tectonic activity, therefore, is a very funda- stratigraphic sense) rather than isolated regions. mental control on sedimentation and sediment- Analysis of the sedimentary succession within a ary activity. Similarly, the origin of the basin, therefore, enables us to determine some of sedimentary sequences which are deposited the possible controls on the sedimentary record, within a basin can be related back to the tectonic and at a range of scales ranging from provenance activity which controlled them. The relationship or the examination of sedimentary structures, up between tectonic activity and sedimentation, to the recognition and classification of architec- however, is a complex one, given the large range tural elements and sedimentary sequences, and of factors which can influence sedimentation the reconstruction of depositional environments. within a basin, including: the rate and magnitude Thus, the sedimentary record provides us with a of tectonic activity, the number of faults which unique opportunity to investigate the tectonic are active at any specific time within a basin controls which are of significant interest in basin (including their deformation histories), the rate analysis. and magnitude of sediment production (includ- Our objective in this paper is to provide a ing erosion and sediment transport), the litho- selective review of the linkages between tectonics logical composition of the source area(s), the and sedimentation, and more specifically, studies chemistry of basinal waters, the range of deposi- that have used evidence from the sedimentary tional environments, climate, eustasy, and the record to reconstruct the tectonic history of a location of the depositional area and its distance region. This overview will initially focus on the from marine influences (i.e. continentality). main types of tectonic settings and the sediments Given the inherent variability of all of these that are found in conjunction with them. Subse- factors (together with the fact that many of them quent sections will examine the various models in are interlinked, e.g. climate and erosion), any use, summarizing with an overview of the current basin system is, by default, a complex one. gaps in our knowledge and suggestions for future Therefore, modelling of the evolution of the research areas. basin infill is difficult, since each individual basin will have its own particular tectonosedimentary signature. Additionally, there is the problem of Basin classification differentiating between the various factors which Basin classification schemes vary according to influence the composition and distribution of the the particular needs of the user. For example, sedimentary succession within a basin. schemes which originate in the field of hydro- Changes in our understanding of the inter- carbon exploration (e.g. Kingston et aL 1983a, b) relationship of tectonic activity and sedimenta- are designed to be used in a predictive manner tion have occurred in several disciplines which and tend to be limited to the main basin types play a central role in basin analysis. These (particularly those of interest to the hydrocarbon include plate-tectonic theory (e.g. Cox & Hart exploration industry). In contrast, academic 1986), new geodynamic models, as well as a classification schemes (e.g. Ingersoll & Busby revolution in our understanding of modern 1995) tend to be more complex, since they tend depositional systems, and consequent major towards inclusivity and completeness (Table 1). advances in the sophistication of actualistic In this latter scheme, basin types are broadly depositional models (e.g. Walker & James grouped into those which are formed in divergent 1992; Miall 1997; Reading 1998; Leeder 1999). plate geodynamic settings (including continental Petrological models relating sediment composi- rift basins), those which occur in intraplate tion, especially sand and sandstone, to plate settings (including intracratonic basins, oceanic tectonic settings have also been developed (e.g. islands and dormant ocean basins), those which Dickinson & Suczek 1979; Dickinson 1988; form in convergent plate geodynamic settings Bahlburg & Floyd 1999), and this work has been (including arc-related basins, foreland basins, extended into the fields of sedimentary and trenches), those which are found in geochemistry (e.g. Bhatia 1983; Roser & Korsch transform settings (including transtensional and 1986; Clift et al. 2001) and single grain analysis transpressional tectonics) and a final group (e.g.M. Smith & Gehrels 1994; G6tze & which includes basins located in hybrid settings Zimmerle 2000). New exploration techniques, (Ingersoll & Busby 1995). In our overview of especially seismic and sequence stratigraphy (e.g. basin types, we have chosen to follow the scheme Vail et al. 1977; Brown & Fisher 1979; Wilgus et proposed by Ingersoll & Busby (1995) but have al. 1988; Van Wagoner et al. 1990; Thorne & simplified it by subdividing the basins into broad Swift 1991; Emery & Myers 1996) have led to a geodynamic contexts. Using this approach, it is greater understanding of the importance of clear that there are a number of different pro- viewing basins as broad units (in a chrono- cesses occurring within basins and that these Downloaded from http://sp.lyellcollection.org/ by guest on October 2, 2021

TECTONICS AND SEDIMENTATION

Table 1. Basin classification (modified after character, i.e. which involve some component of Dickinson, 1974, 1976a; Ingersoll, 1988b; Ingersoll & Busby, 1995). rifting) and those from compressional settings. Such a subdivision greatly simplifies the char- Tectonic setting Basin type acterization of the particular tectonic and sedimentary features of each basin type. Divergent Terrestrial rift valleys Intraplate lntracratonic basins Extensional settings Continental platforms Introduction Active ocean basins Oceanic islands, aseismic ridges Basins that form within an extensional tectonic and plateau setting are characterized by the development of Dormant ocean basins depressions, bounded by normal faults, within Convergent Trenches which there is a direct relationship between fault Trench-slope basins activity and sedimentation. In their landmark Fore-arc basins paper, Leeder & Gawthorpe (1987) provided a Intra-arc basins clear outline of the influence of movement along Back-arc basins an individual fault on the resultant sedimentary Retro-arc foreland basins unit. The surface length of individual historical Remnant ocean basins normal-fault ruptures range from 10-15 km Peripheral foreland basins Piggyback basins (Leeder & Gawthorpe 1987), although longer basin-bounding faults (up to 50 kin) occur in Transform Transtensional basins parts of the East African Rift (Ebinger 1989). In Transpressional basins active extensional areas, individual fault dis - Transrotational basins placements are of the order of several metres, Hybrid Intracontinental wrench basins although displacement varies from a maximum Successor basins at the centre of the fault surface to zero at an elliptical tip-line (Fig. 1). Fault displacements vary systematically and there is a clear relationship between the amount of displacement and processes are mainly determined by the geo- the size of the individual fault (Walsh & dynamic context, but are also influenced by the Watterson 1988) (Fig. 2). An exception to this locations of pre-existing weaknesses and intra- rule would be the so-called 'superfaults', which basinal processes (e.g. generation of synthetic are characterized by very large displacements and antithetic faults). We have divided our basins occurring during a single slip event (Spray 1997). into two main groups - those which are formed Fault activity leads to the superimposition of within broadly extensional tectonic settings (and a tectonically-induced gradient, the magnitude of which would include basins found in convergent which is determined by fault displacement, on to plate zones but which exhibit an extensional a pre-existing topographic one. As noted by

Fig. 1. (a) Schematic displacement contour diagram for a simple fault. View is normal to fault surface. (b) Cross-section showing perceptible reverse drag associated with simple fault (after Barnett et al. 1987). Downloaded from http://sp.lyellcollection.org/ by guest on October 2, 2021

4 T. McCANN & A. SAINTOT

100 000

Core data 100 00 -

"T lOOO -

ffl 100 - c- o

10-

",~176176 o 1- "-.. Oilfield 3D seismics %~ *%

0.1-

001 -

0.001 I I I I I I I 0.001 0.01 0.1 1 10 100 1000 10 000 Fault throw (m)

Fig. 2. Comparison of fault displacement measurements on core data and oilfield three-dimensional seismics. Numbers of faults are normalized to cumulative fault density (number of faults per unit length of sample line), and displacements are displayed as fault throw. The core data were corrected to account for the fact that they are from vertical rather than horizontal sample lines. Despite the broad range of fault density, overall the measurements are consistent with a single power-law relationship (dashed line) spanning both core and seismic data, with a slope of c.-0.8 (after Walsh et al. 1991).

Leeder & Gawthorpe (1987) many geomorpho- poraneously along any one fault segment - the logical processes are influenced by gravity, and central parts of normal fault segments are thus the increase in slope produced as a result of characterized by surface fault breaks while tectonic activity tends to directly influence a growth folding dominates the ends of fault variety of sedimentation-related processes (e.g. segments where the fault is blind (Gawthorpe et Alexander & Leeder 1987; Collier et al. 1995; al. 1997). Burbank & Pinter 1999) (Fig. 3). The influence of Normal faults control the creation of fault deformation on surface processes has accommodation space for syntectonic deposition recently been confirmed by geodetic measure- in rift basins (Schlische 1991; Gawthorpe et al. ments which have characterized regional inter- 1994). Thus, the displacement history of a series seismic strain fields in many actively deforming of linked faults would be recorded within the areas (e.g. Norabuena et al. 1998). These synrift stratigraphy. However, because the spatial measurements help to provide a more accurate extent of the fault interaction is determined by picture of the tectonic forcing function at tile scale of the fault segments, synrift sequences regional scales which drive long-term landscape will vary spatially along fault systems (Dawers & development through the combination of Underhill 2000). Thus, high displacement rates tectonic and topographic gradients. near segment centres may promote rift climax As noted above, faults increase their length stratal patterns (cf. Prosser 1993) and facies with time, since fault displacement and length associations, whereas shallow marine conditions are positively related (Walsh & Watterson 1988). may persist at fault tips and in overlap zones Fault segmentation, and the resultant interlink- between unlinked faults (Dawers & Underhill age between various fault segments, howevel; 2000). complicate this relationship. Recent modelling The overall effect of fault displacement on has shown that fault interaction and linkage can sedimentation and related processes (e.g. erosion, lead to temporal variability within an evolving sediment transport) is a cumulative one, and one fault array (Cowie 1998). In addition, the made more complex by the segmented nature of segmented nature of normal fault zones suggests fault activity within fault zones. Thus, while there that two structural styles can occur contem- will be a close relationship between the history of Downloaded from http://sp.lyellcollection.org/ by guest on October 2, 2021

TECTONI CS AND SED IM ENTATION 5

Fig. 3. Block diagram summarizing the major clastic environments present in a continental half graben system with through flowing axial drainage (after Leeder & Gawthorpe, 1987). fault activity and the lithostratigraphic signal of of these models exist (e.g. Lister et al. 1986) the basin infill, the precise history is not always (Fig. 4). Morphologically, rifts may be classified easy to determine. as;

(1) solitary - e.g. Cambrian Tesoffi Rift, Africa; Rift basins (2) rift stars - e.g. triple junctions, Nakuru As noted by Ingersoll & Busby (1995), any model junction, Africa, North Sea area; of continental rifting must consider the various (3) rift chains, where several rifts are aligned end ways in which the lithosphere behaves, including, to end along linear/arcuate belts of rifting - for example, rheological differences within the e.g. East African Rift System, opening of lithosphere, contrasts in the composition and Atlantic Ocean; and structure between the crust and the mantle, the (4) rift clusters, where several subparallel rifts differences between oceanic and continental occur in roughly equant areas - e.g. Basin & crust, pre-existing heterogeneities, and the period Range, Aegean (Seng6r 1995). of time over which strain operates. Two basic models have been proposed for the development Active extension or stretching of continental of rift basins - the pure shear model of lithosphere leads to surface deformation, vol- McKenzie (1978) which involves the develop- canism and high heat flow due to the effects of ment of a symmetrical rift structure flanked by normal faulting and the resultant changes in major boundary faults (with associated anti- crustal and mantle thickness, structure and state thetic and synthetic faults) and that of Wernicke (Ingersoll & Busby 1995). The tectonic environ- (1981) which results in the development of an ment of stretching is controlled by regional plate asymmetrical basin, associated with a deep motions. Extension may occur in a variety of (listric) fault along which associated antithetic geodynamic settings, including continental crust and synthetic structures develop (Fig. 4). adjacent to young oceans, back-arc basins, However, these two should only be seen as end continental interiors and thickened crustal members, and the variety of actual rift basin orogens (Ingersoll & Busby 1995). As defined by forms is much greater. In addition, modifications Seng6r & Burke (1978) rifting may be passive (i.e. Downloaded from http://sp.lyellcollection.org/ by guest on October 2, 2021

6 T. McCANN & A. SAINTOT

Fig. 4. Three end member models for continental extension (after Lister et al. 1986). closed system, where the input of asthenospheric (1) domino faulting, where high-angle normal mass from outside the stretched lithosphere faults extend deep into the upper crust with occurs passively as a response to lithospheric nearly constant dip; thinning) or active (i.e. open system, where (2) listric normal faults, which terminate down- rifting is accompanied by the eruption of wards into subhorizontal detachment faults voluminous volcanics, and the initial rising of of regional extent and fault blocks are highly the asthenosphere is independent of the magni- rotated; and tude of lithospheric extension) (Fig. 5). However, (3) the flexural-rotation (rolling hinge) model, it is more probable that many rifts evolve under a where an initially high-angle normal fault is combination or succession of these two processes progressively rotated to lower dips by (see discussion in Leeder 1995). isostatic uplifting resulting from tectonic The basic structural element of a continental denudation (Lucchitta & Suneson 1993) rift is now thought to be a half graben, com- (Fig. 6). prising a single basin-bounding fault. Surface observations in the Basin and Range area have Beneath these areas of extension, however, there revealed that upper crustal extension is spatially is no upwarping of the Moho as would be very variable, resulting in local tectonic domains anticipated if isostatic compensation of the where the upper one-third to one-half of the extension occurred within the mantle. Thus, it is crust has been removed (Wernicke, 1992). Several possible to find both heterogeneous upper crustal structural models have been proposed for half- strain and uniform deep crustal structure across graben development. These include: extensional domain boundaries resulting from Downloaded from http://sp.lyellcollection.org/ by guest on October 2, 2021

TECTONICS AND SEDIMENTATION 7

1. Closed system, uniform stretching, pure shear subsidence and sediment infill

mantle I .~1 asthenosphericmantle li~ "-~, 2. Closed system, non-uniform stretching, pure shear flank uplift flank uplift

3 Closed system, uniform stretching, pure shear, with decompresswe melt local uplift

4 open system, with advected melt prior to pure shear uplift prior to extension

5 Closed system, simple shear flank uplift ~,,~,,~ ~--~-'~ l~ S,~_-~-"~ s ~,r ,-"...~..~'~,, :--~L'( f,~X.',~1

I "crustal-scale~-~ I ~ent I

Fig. 5. Schematic diagrams to illustrate possible combinations of pure and simple shear, uniform or non- uniform stretching and magma generation. Local (Airy) isostatic compensation assumed throughout (i.e. lithosphere has small elastic thickness). Surface and upper crustal deformation by faulting not shown (after Leeder, 1995).

the effects of intracrustal isostasy (Ingersoll & A rc-related basins Busby 1995). Models of rift basin evolution, Volcanic arcs are generally arcuate or linear incorporating a component of lower crustal flow, bodies, typically exceeding 1000 km in length and proceed from a core-complex mode (involving ranging from 50-250 km in width, which parallel thick crust - c. 50 kin, and high heat flow) to a subduction-zone trenches (see G. A. Smith & wide-rift mode (weaker crust - c. 40 km, and Landis 1995, and references therein for precise high heat flow) to narrow-rift mode (thin crust - terminology of arc complexes). Arc-related c. 30 km, and low heat flow) (Fig. 7). basins are found in a convergent geodynamic Downloaded from http://sp.lyellcollection.org/ by guest on October 2, 2021

8 T. McCANN & A. SAINTOT

Fig. 6. Styles of upper-plate faulting. (a) Domino faulting where initial movement occurs on planar, high-angle, normal faults that subsequently rotate to lower angles with continued extension. The faults do not merge within the detachment zone, and the zone of intersection is brecciated and sheared. (b) Listric faulting where movement occurs on curviplanar faults which flatten with depth and merge with the Fig. 7. Cartoon of the lithosphere in three modes of detachment fault. (c) Rolling-hinge model where an continental extension, emphasizing regions initially high-angle normal fault is progressively undergoing the greatest amount of continental strain. rotated to lower dips by isostatic uplift resulting from Lithosphere represents areas with effective viscosities tectonic and erosional denudation. New high-angle greater than 1021 Pa s. Crustal thicknesses vary from faults are produced when the original faults are too top to bottom, 50 km, 40 km and 30 km respectively. rotated to accommodate extension (after Lucchitta & Modified after Buck (1991) and Ingersoll & Busby Suneson 1993). (1995). context but are all broadly extensional in terms of Intra-arc basins are defined as basins located their tectonic activity. The three main basin types within or including the arc platform, which is the are related to the location of the volcanic arc, typically positive feature formed by the being located on the trench side of the arc (fore- volcanogenic edifices which cap part or all of the arc), behind the arc (back-arc) or within this arc massif. This latter feature is the region structure (intra-arc) (Fig. 8). Fore-arc basins are overlain by crust which has been generated by arc located between the trench axes, which mark the magmatic processes (G. A. Smith & Landis subduction zone, and the parallel magmatic arc 1995). At the time of their formation intra-arc where igneous activity is induced by the inclined basins are spatially distinct from both fore-arc descent of oceanic lithosphere (Dickinson 1995). and back-arc basins (Fig. 8), but they may be just Downloaded from http://sp.lyellcollection.org/ by guest on October 2, 2021

TECTONICS AND SEDIMENTATION 9

Fig. 8. Diagrammatic cross-section through a convergent plate margin, showing location of arc platform relative to fore-arc and back-arc basins. Areas underlain by arc crust include basement to parts of forearc and backarc basins. Arc volcanoes are typically dispersed over a wide zone perpendicular to plate boundary, but most active volcanoes are aligned along a distinct volcanic front (after G. A. Smith & Landis 1995). an evolutionary stage for the development of significant component of volcanic debris in the other basin types (e.g. back-arc basins). Back-arc resultant sediments. basins occur behind volcanic island arcs and are common along continental margins as well Fore-arc basins. Forearc basins are extremely as along convergent plate margins (Marsaglia variable features, ranging in size from 25 to 1995). 125 km wide and between 50 and 500 km long. Because of arc migration, however, a single This variability is a result of the diversity of the site may change between fore-arc, intra-arc, and controlling factors which govern their genesis back-arc settings, for example, the Luzon Central (Dickinson 1995). Basins may be simple or Valley, which, as a result of changes in compound (i.e. multiple fore-arc basins which lie subduction polarity and other processes, has parallel to one another). These latter features are successively occupied all three positions over the comprised of strings of interlinked fore-arc last 40 Ma (Bachman et al. 1983). It may, depocentres which can extend for 20004000 km therefore, be difficult to recognize the precise along modern arc-trench systems. The maximum basin type, i.e. fore-arc, intra-arc or back-arc, thickness of sediment fill within a fore-arc basin based only on their sedimentary and volcano- ranges from 1 to 10 km. genic fill (G. A. Smith & Landis 1995). An Dickinson & Seely (1979) provided a additional complicating factor is the possibility classification of arc-trench systems, similar to of intrusion- or collision-accretion-related that of Dewey (1980), and outlined plate- deformation. Such deformation, and any tectonic controls governing subduction initiation subsequent uplift and erosion, means that the and forearc development. The factors which spatial relationships of volcanogenic materials control forearc basin geometry include: relative to the arc axis and the distinction - from a geodynamic point of view - of fore-arc, intra- (1) initial setting; arc and back-arc positions is not always clear (2) sediment thickness on the subducting plate; (e.g. Lower Palaeozoic Welsh Basin and Lake (3) the rate of sediment supply to trench; District). Thus, basins containing volcanogenic (4) the rate of sediment supply to the fore-arc material may, more generally, be referred to as area; arc-related basins. (5) the rate and orientation of subduction; and Volcanic arcs produce large volumes of clastic (6) the time since initiation of subduction. material that may form much of the arc edifices, in addition to providing a variety of intrusive Subduction environments are extremely variable, and extrusive igneous rocks. Intrusive igneous although Jarrard (1986a) has recognized a rocks are normally in the form of elongate com- number of distinct zones based on a series of posite granitoid batholiths. The extrusives include factors, including arc curvature, the geometry of andesitic and dacitic rocks from stratovolcanoes, the Wadati-Benioff zone, the strain regime of basalts from intraoceanic arcs and silicic ignim- the overriding plate, the convergence rate, brites from collapse calderas in continental- 'absolute' motion (relative to hot spots), slab age, margin arcs. Arc settings, therefore, have a arc age and trench depth. His work demon- Downloaded from http://sp.lyellcollection.org/ by guest on October 2, 2021

10 T. McCANN & A. SAINTOT strated that the strain regime within a subduction age, thickness and crustal type of the subducting environment is probably determined by a lithosphere (G. A. Smith & Landis 1995). Uplift combination of convergence rate, slab age and in the magmatic arc may be associated with slab dip (Ingersoll & Busby 1995). crustal thickening and the thermal and physical Fore-arc basins are bounded by volcano- effects of rising magma. Mechanisms for sub- plutonic assemblages with associated metamor- sidence, however, are poorly understood, largely phic rocks on the arc margin, and on the trench hypothetical, and more complex than can be margin by uplifted subduction complexes explained by thermal-contraction and flexural- composed of varying proportions of deformed loading models typically applied to other basin and partly metamorphosed oceanic crust, sea- types. Six possible mechanisms, acting singly or floor sediments, trench fill, and trench slope in combination, may be responsible, including deposits (Fig. 4). Within the interior of fore-arc plate boundary forces at the subduction zones, basins, either compressional or extensional relative plate motions, variations in astheno- deformation may occur during forearc sediment- spheric flow, regional isostasy, magmatic with- ation leading to the development of syndeposi- drawal and gravitational collapse (G. A. Smith & tional folding, half-graben sub-basins, etc. Landis 1995). Extension can be both normal to the subduction direction, or parallel to it (related to variable Back-arc basins. A back-arc basin is defined by rates of lateral slippage along the arc-trench gap; Ingersoll & Busby (1995) as being either an McCaffrey 1992), although it is only likely within oceanic basin located behind an intraoceanic the fore-arc region within the first 10-20 Ma of magmatic arc, or a continental basin situated initiation of an intraoceanic subduction zone behind a continental-margin arc that lacks (Stern & Bloomer 1992). Subduction obliquity foreland fold-thrust belts. Back-arc basins can lead to strike slip movement (Jarrard 1986b). initiate by crustal extension, firstly producing Deformational contrasts lead to corresponding rifts and then new ocean crust by sea-floor contrasts in the subsidence history of the basin spreading (Karig 1971; Packham & Falvey 1971). axis and in the uplift history of the trench-slope Various active and passive methods have been break, resulting in complex patterns of sediment proposed, but no one theory adequately explains distribution in both time and space. This the formation of all back-arc basins, with complexity means that no single evolutionary different interpretations being proposed for model is applicable to all fore-arc basins different geographic regions (e.g. Carey & (Beaudry & Moore 1985). Sigurdsson 1984). A number of models for back- arc spreading have been proposed. These include Intra-arc basins. Intra-arc basins are thick vol- extensive magma intrusion, mantle convection or canic-volcaniclastic-sedimentary accumulations mantle-wedge flow induced by the subducting that are found along the arc platform, a region slab, and thermal upwelling of a mantle diapir formed of overlapping or superposed volcanoes (see Marsaglia 1995 and therein for references). (Fig. 4). G. A. Smith & Landis (1995) suggest Three other types of back-arc basin are also that there are two end member types for intra-arc recognized, including: basins, namely: (I) non-extensional, which include old ocean (1) volcano bounded, which have poorly defined basins trapped during plate reorganization margins, thin sediment infill, and are not which causes a shift of the subduction zone; associated with arc rifting or the formation (2) back-arc basins which develop on contin- of oceanic crust (e.g. Larue et al. 1991); and ental crust and are transitional with retro-arc (2) fault bounded, which are rapidly subsiding, foreland basins; and arc parallel or arc-transverse basins caused (3) so-called 'boundary' basins, which can be by tectonically-induced subsidence of seg- produced by extension along plate bound- ments of the arc platform (e.g. Busby-Spera aries with strike-slip components (Marsaglia, 1988). 1995).

Hybrid basins with characteristics of both types can also be found. Intracratonic rift basins The structural histories of intra-arc basins Intracratonic basins are saucer-shaped features can vary over time as the arc platforms undergo which are found within continental interiors their complex histories of alternating uplift and away from plate margins, and are floored with subsidence related to angle, obliquity and rate of continental crust and often underlain by failed or subduction, which in turn is partly related to the fossil rifts (Ktein 1995) (Fig. 9). The development Downloaded from http://sp.lyellcollection.org/ by guest on October 2, 2021

TECTONICS AND SEDIMENTATION 11

Fig. 9. Interpreted line drawing of part of the BASIN 9601 profile and its offshore extension PQ2.009.1, showing the main tectonic and stratigraphic features. Of particular interest is the saucer-shaped profile of the N E German Basin (after DEKORP-BASIN Research Group, 1999). of an intracratonic basin involves a combination Mesozoic and Cenozoic of Europe and India of basin-forming processes, including continental (Klein & Hsui 1987). Additionally, the sedi- extension, thermal subsidence over a wide area, mentary sequences within intracratonic basins and later isostatic readjustments. From studies have coeval interregional unconformities and carried out on a number of intracratonic basins similar trends in thickness and volume (Sloss, it is clear that their formation followed similar 1963; Zalan et al. 1990; Klein 1995). The patterns. The processes, in order of occurrence, supercontinent break-up model, however, is not are: accepted by everyone. Some authors suggest that the subsidence histories of the basins are (1) lithospheric stretching; independent, and question the existence of (2) mechanical, fault controlled subsidence; anorogenic granites (which would result in (3) thermal subsidence and contraction; and crustal discontinuities) beneath the basins (e.g. (4) merging of slower thermal subsidence with Bally 1989). Howevel, supercontinent break-up reactivated subsidence due to the isostatically is not an instantaneous process. Instead, it occurs uncompensated excess mass (see Klein 1995 over a long period of geological time, and this for details). can lead to variations within both basin formation times, and subsidence rates and The precise origin of intracratonic basins, how- magnitude across the cratonic area (Klein 1995). ever, is controversial and a variety of different hypotheses have been proposed, including factors which involve an increase in crustal Strike-slip basins density (due to eclogite phase transformation or The variability and complexity of sedimentary thermal modification to the greenschist and basins associated with strike-slip faults are amphibolite facies), or magmatic activity (related almost as great as for all other types of basins to igneous intrusions or partial melting and (Nilsen & Sylvester 1995, 1999a, b). Christie- drainage of melt to mid-ocean ridge volcanism) Blick & Biddle (1985) provided a comprehensive (Klein 1991). Other factors, for example rifting- summary of the structural and stratigraphic related hot-spot activity (e.g. Wilson & development of strike-slip basins, based largely Lyashkevich 1996), the reactivation of pre- on the work of Crowell (1974a, b) (Fig. 10). The existing structures, far field effects, or changes in primary controls on structural patterns within intraplate stress, may also occur. strike-slip basins include: Subsidence analysis studies from North America have shown that the initiation of subsi- (1) the degree of convergence and divergence of dence of the Illinois, Michigan and Williston adjacent blocks; basins, and the initiation of subsidence of latest (2) the magnitude of displacement; Precambrian and earliest Palaeozoic passive (3) the material properties of deformed rocks; margins were coeval with late Precambrian-age and supercontinent break-up (Bond & Kominz (4) the existence of pre-existing structures 1991). A similar relationship between super- (Nilsen & Sylvester 1995, 1999a, b). continental break-up and intracontinental basin formation is also noted from the late Proterozoic The formation of strike-slip basins depends of Australia (Lindsay & Korsch 1989) and the largely on the orientation of the principal direc- Downloaded from http://sp.lyellcollection.org/ by guest on October 2, 2021

12 1". McCANN & A. SAINTOT Ridge Basin was noted. While there are many studies examining the nature of this relationship, there are few which do the same for reverse or thrust faults (see 'Understanding fault activity' below). Instead, displacement on compressional faults tends to be viewed more in terms of the overall geodynamic setting than in terms of its effect on a single fault. However, basins formed in compressional settings will have an abundance of folding and reverse fault activity.

Foreland basin Foreland basin systems are complex, large-scale features that develop in response to tectonic loading of a foreland plate by the emplacement of large fold-thrust sheets on their margins (Jordan 1981; Allen et al. 1986). The increase in thickness as a result of crustal loading leads to a corresponding isostatic adjustment in the crust, resulting in the formation of a down-flexed moat, which is the foreland basin sensu stricto. Subse- quent erosion transfers mass from the thrust belt to the basin, resulting in uplift of the orogenic belt and increased subsidence in the basin area. Thus sediment-driven load subsidence amplifies and modifies the tectonic-driven subsidence (Jordan 1995). The stratigraphic record of a foreland basin, therefore, reflects the controlling mechanisms on basin formation, namely, regional i ~l ~ LdULJT~LIIIIU IJ~UtblL~ subsidence related to flexure of the lithospheric Fig. 10. Map of the Ridge Basin, California, a strike- plate on which the basin is located, and secondary slip controlled fault-bend basin, showing the controls such as local lithology, climate and asymmetrical basin morphology, the variable eustatic sea level (Jordan et al. 1988). depositional facies, the combination of both axial Foreland basins may be broadly subdivided (predominant) and longitudinal fill patterns, and into two types: distribution of sedimentary facies relative to the main basin-bounding faults (after Link 1982; Nilsen & (1) peripheral or collisional foreland basins, McLaughlin 1985). which result from arc-arc, arc-continent, or continent-continent collision; and (2) retro-arc foreland basins, which form on the tion of extension relative to the direction of bulk continental side of the magmatic arc formed shear strain, the overstepping arrangement of during the subduction of oceanic plates discontinuous and discrete fault segments, and (Dickinson 1976). on the bending geometry of the fault (Nilsen & Sylvester 1995). Transtensional (including pull- Distinguishing between the two types of foreland apart) basins form near releasing bends (Crowell basin in the ancient record, however, may be diffi- 1974b), while basins associated with crustal cult, since most orogens undergo several phases rotations about vertical axes, within the rotating of accretion, changes in subduction polarity and blocks (transrotational basins, after Ingersoll, changes in the angle of convergence, all of which 1988) may experience any combination of lead to complications such as strike-slip displace- extension, compression and strike-slip. ment of the basin and source areas, or even the superposition of basins controlled by different tectonic mechanisms (Miall 1995). Changes in Compressional settings the tectonic style over the course of basin evolu- In the Introduction to extensional settings the tion may result in the formation of a hybrid clear relationship between extensional fault basin that is difficult to classify in terms of its activity and sedimentation/geomorphic processes original plate tectonic origin. Downloaded from http://sp.lyellcollection.org/ by guest on October 2, 2021

TECTONICS AND SEDIMENTATION 13

Basin-related magmatism Models of sedimentation in an extensional Magmatic activity within basins and the role and setting (basin scale) extent of mantle involvement in basin formation Extensional basins are formed under tensional has been mentioned in the section on rifting (see stress regimes and their tectonic evolution can be above). Magmatic activity, both in terms of intru- subdivided into the various extensional phases, sion (dykes, sills and plutons), extrusion and namely, pre-rift, synrift, and post-rift. The withdrawal plays an important role in terms of sequential nature of the tectonic activity leads to broad basin dynamics and also in terms of the the production of a correspondingly character- evolution of the basin infill. Evidence of mag- istic sediment sequence which can be related to matic activity provides important information on the different phases of basin formation. The the relationship between heat, magma, pressure characteristic structural asymmetry of many rift and the development of stresses (e.g. using basins exerts a fundamental control on the volcanic alignments dyke/sill orientations as distribution of sedimentary environments and kinematics/palaeostress indicators) within basins lithofacies (e.g. Gibbs 1984; Frostick & Reid (Sundvoll et al. 1992). Periods of active magma- 1987; Leeder & Alexander 1987; Leeder & tism during basin formation are probably due to Gawthorpe 1987; Alexander & Leeder 1990; the combined effect of tectonic stress and heat Schlische & Olsen 1990; Lambiase 1991). This is flux. Subsequent magmatism can modify the particularly true along the basin margins, where stress distribution in a basin and lead to non- transverse drainage systems evolve on the foot- linear transient theological heterogeneity in the wall and hanging-wall uplands, transferring lithosphere, affecting the lithosphere stress trans- clastic sediments toward the basin centre. mission on a regional scale (Ingersoll & Busby Along the basin-bounding fault, the area of 1995). the newly created tectonic uplands is controlled As previously noted, rifting may be 'active' i.e. by the length of the tectonic slope produced where the rifting process necessitates the presence during extension (Leeder et al. 1991). Coarse- of an upwelling convective plume at the base of grained cones, or aprons, of sediment are located the lithosphere prior to crustal extension, or along the length of these boundary faults. Within 'passive' as a result of lithospheric extension, and the resultant sediment sequences, however, there without the need for any magmatic upwelling (cf. may be evidence of progradational-retrograda- Seng6r & Burke, 1978). Frostick & Steel (1993) tional cycles, the nature of which remains have noted that 'active' and 'passive' rifts should controversial. Some workers believe that clastic be distinguishable on the basis of their sedi- wedge progradation occurs during times of mentary history. However, many rifts have minimum tectonic activity along the basin features diagnostic of both types (Ingersoll & margin, and that fine-grained intervals (lacustrine/ Busby 1995) since volcanism is present in many shallow marine) correspond with times of high rifts. Thus, in order to fully understand the evolu- rates of basin subsidence (e.g. Leeder & tionary history of a region it is necessary to under- Gawthorpe 1987; Blair & Bilodeau 1988; Heller stand the precise chronology of the magnaatic, & Paola 1992). These models assume constant topographical, depositional and structural events. sediment supply, where progradation results from reduction in accommodation during times of decreased subsidence. In contrast, Surlyk Models of sedimentation (1990) suggested that sedimentary architecture is The complexity and variability of tectonic controlled by episodicity in footwall-generated settings gives rise to a corresponding complexity sediment discharge into depocentres subjected to and variability within the basin infill of any given continuous deepening. tectonic setting. Prediction of the types of sedimentary sequences which might be produced Models of sedimentation in an extensional in each of the various basin types, therefore, is difficult. This predictive problem is further com- setting (local scale) plicated by firstly the similarity of some of the The sediments which occur in fault-bounded basin types (e.g. intra-arc basin, fore-arc basin), half-graben basins have been widely studied in and, by extension, the types of sedimentary recent years (e.g. Coward et al. 1987). These sequences which will be produced within them; basins develop progressively during extension, and, secondly the particular post-depositional significantly controlling the local geomorph- history of an individual basin (including deform- ology and sediment transfer mechanisms (Leeder ation, diagenesis, strike-slip movement altering & Gawthorpe 1987; Alexander & Leeder 1990). original geographical relationships, etc.). During the development of an extensional basin, Downloaded from http://sp.lyellcollection.org/ by guest on October 2, 2021

14 T. McCANN & A. SAINTOT distinct evolutionary sequences of basin fills may fallout, airborne ash and submarine gravity flows develop. The predominant symmetry of a half- (Klein 1985). The characteristic lithofacies are graben basin is asymmetrical, with a steep variable, reflecting the controls on their distri- footwall slope and a shallower hanging-wall slope bution. Volcanic components, however, are also (Fig. 3). The pattern of sediment distribution present and include lava flows, breccias, within the basin reflects this basic asymmetry, pyroclastic rocks and reworked volcaniclastic with the thickest sediment sequence being de- materials. posited adjacent to the region of maximum fault The sedimentary infill of a strike-slip basin throw. Coarser sediments tend to be concen- may be very complex and variable, depending on trated along the basin margin (e.g. McCann & whether the basins are submarine, lacustrine, Shannon 1993) where the decrease of gradient subaerial or a combination, either spatially or into the basin from the bounding fault causes temporally. Strike-slip basins tend to be asym- rapid deposition and the construction of talus rnetrical, with diverse depositional environments cones, alluvial fans, fan deltas and submarine (with characteristically abrupt facies changes), fans (dependent on the prevailing water depths). and an axial pattern of basin fill (Nilsen & In contrast, the hanging-wall source area has a McLaughlin 1985). Furthermore, the basin fill is broader, gentler slope and the sediments derived from multiple basin margin sources that deposited in this region show a wider distribu- change over time, which may also mean that the tion. Basin centre environments are strongly basin sediments are petrologically diverse. In controlled by climatic influences, with lake or addition, basin fill is characterized by abundant playa systems forming according to the level and synsedimentary slumping and deformation. availability of local fresh water relative to Distinctive aspects of sedimentary basins evaporation. In arid closedbasins, aeolian sand associated with strike-slip faults include: complexes may form. Where extension occurs at, or close to, sea-level then basin flooding may (1) mismatches across basin margins; occur, leading to the formation of a marine gulf (2) longitudinal and lateral basin asymmetry; setting (Leeder & Gawthorpe 1987). (3) episodic rapid subsidence; In arc-related environments the sedimentary (4) abrupt lateral facies changes and local input is characterized by the presence of unconformities; and volcaniclastic detritus, which in some cases (5) marked contrasts in stratigraphy, facies geo- (particularly that of the intra-arc setting) may be metry, and unconformities among different dominant. Furthermore, the complexity of arc- basins in the same region (Nilsen & Sylvester related settings makes it difficult to provide a 1995). single sequence which can be produced as a response to tectonic variables. In forearc areas Models of sedimentation in a compressional the sediment infill comprises mainly interbedded sandstone and shale, with rarer conglomeratic context (basin scale) intervals being restricted to proximal sites near While models for extensional areas are well the basin margins and along the sediment developed, this is not the case for regions where transport paths (e.g. submarine or fluviodeltaic compressional activity is predominant. The main channels). While clastic sediments usually models that exist for compressional settings are predominate, carbonate sedimentation (related those that describe the evolution of foreland to water depth and geographical location) may basin successions (e.g. Beaumont 1981; Jordan also occur. Within intra-arc basins, the majority 1981). The first evidence of an arc-arc or arc- of the sediment is volcaniclastic in origin. These continent collision in the stratigraphic record sediments are produced independent of weather- may be the transfer of sediments, primarily ing processes, and thus the sediment volumes and derived from the fold-thrust belt, into a remnant dispersal distances are larger than those found in ocean basin from a point of collision along other clastic depositional systems. Non-votcani- strike. As the foreland basin develops and fills clastic sediments may be locally significant. with sediment, the main trend is that of shal- Facies associations within the intra-arc setting, lowing and coarsening of the sediment (Fig. 11). however, are not unique to these basins, and thus, DeCelles & Giles (1996) note that a foreland the presence of vent-proximal volcanic rocks and basin system is an elongate region of potential related intrusions within the central facies sediment accommodation (Fig. 12). Within a association is critical to the correct identification foreland basin system four discrete depozones, of intra-arc basin settings (G. A. Smith & Landis comprising wedge top, foredeep, forebulge and 1995). The main sediment types recognized from backbulge areas, may be recognized. As a result back-arc basins are those derived from pelagic of the continuing evolution of the belt and the Downloaded from http://sp.lyellcollection.org/ by guest on October 2, 2021

TECTONICS AND SEDIMENTATION 15

Fig. 11. Composition of basin fill in terms of detrital source petrography: (a) classic inverted stratigraphy, (b) blended composition (after Steidtmann & Schmitt 1988).

Fig. 12. Schematic cross-section depicting a revised concept of a foreland basin system, with the wedge-top, foredeep, forebulge and back-bulge depozones shown at approximately true scale. The foreland basin system is shown in coarse stipple, and the diagonally-ruled area indicates pre-existing miogeoclinal strata, which are incorporated into the fold~hrust belt towards the left of the diagram. A schematic duplex is depicted in the hinterland part of the orogenic wedge, and a frontal triangle zone and progressive deformation (short fanning lines associated with thrust tips) in the wedge-top depozone are also shown. Note the substantial overlap between the front of the orogenic wedge and the foreland basin system (after DeCelles & Giles 1996).

basin itself, these zones are not fixed in either normal to it (Jordan 1995). Variations in basin space or time and the interaction between them geometry and the composition of the strati- can result in an extremely complex sediment graphic fill may thus be interpreted in terms of distribution pattern within any foreland basin the global geodynamic evolution. system. Both subsidence and uplift can cause significant local variations in sediment erosion Models of sedimentation in a compressional and deposition, while the relative sense of thrust movement can have significant influence on context (local scale) sediment transport pathways. Most suture zones The evolution of the basin fill in a foreland basin form by the consumption of an ocean between system in terms of sedimentary environment, suc- irregular continental margins that do not match cession thicknesses and vertical trends, is strongly in shape when they collide. The suturing process, dependent on the degree of compressional therefore, is a diachronous one, such that tectonic activity (Mufioz-Jimenez & Casas-Sainz collision is progressive as the uplift and closure 1997). Generally, foreland basins are initially of the remnant ocean basin proceeds. Sediment marine, due to rapid downflexing (Jordan 1981; transport is both axial to the fold-thrust belt and Flemings & Jordan 1989). At later stages, Downloaded from http://sp.lyellcollection.org/ by guest on October 2, 2021

16 T. McCANN & A. SAINTOT sedimentation rates exceed subsidence rates, to which it is possible to recognize rift episodes giving rise to continental sedimentation (Allen using characteristic sedimentary sequences (e.g. et al. 1986). Variations within the basin fill may Prosser 1993; Gawthorpe et al. 1994; Howell et be partially related to variations in the flexural al. 1996; Ravnas & Steel 1998). The sequence response to loading, differences in the type of stratigraphic models presented in these examples crust underlying the basin, the particular type of depart from the traditional passive margin foreland basin that forms (peripheral or retroarc) sequence in a number of ways, most notably with or the age of the rifted margin underlying the regard to the spatial variability of sequence foreland basin (Miall 1995). These variations architecture (and, by extension, sedimentary will affect the different depozones (see previous architecture). Within rift basins there can be section) in different ways, leading to a degree of significant variations in subsidence, sediment basin segmentation where the subsidence pattern supply, and physiography adjacent to extensional at any single point is distinctive. Depositional rift-basin margins, yet the variability in sequence sequences, therefore, can show a high degree of development in three dimensions has only lateral variation in their sedimentary architecture recently been investigated and is poorly under- making regional correlation difficult. Such stood (e.g. Dart et al. 1994; Gawthorpe et al. problems are only compounded by the structural 1997). Typical two dimensional numerical complexity that can occur in these settings, for models of tectonics and sedimentation do not example, in structurally segmented foreland account for along-strike variations in structural basins, such as thrust-top regions where numer- style and deposition. However, because many ous growth anticlines (related to underlying blind tectonic processes are inherently three dimen- thrusts) are present (de Boer et al. 1991; Butler & sional, to be truly predictive and applicable, Grasso 1993; Krystinik & Blakeney DeJarnett models are required that attempt to address this 1995). This lack of precise correlation can lead to three dimensional nature (Hardy & Gawthorpe problems in trying to establish the true relation- 1998). Such models allow quantification of the ship between the evolution of the fold-thrust belt variability of stratigraphy and a better under- and the foreland basin. standing of how different controls interact in three dimensions to generate spatially complex stratigraphy. Sequence stratigraphic models' An additional point is the relative lack of Analysis of the sedimentary successions within sequence stratigraphic models for other tectonic basins tends to focus on the development of settings. Some models have been created for sequences separated by major interregional un- foreland basin successions, especially those conformities, and which record an almost com- formed in broad ramp-like foredeep-forebulge plete transgressive-regressive cycle. In 1963 Sloss type of settings (e.g. Weimer 1960; Lawton 1986; recognized a series of broad sequences from the Miall 1991; Cant & Stockmal 1993; Deramond cratonic succession of North America. These et al. 1993; Lopez-Blanco 1993; Plint et al. 1993; Sloss sequences, as they came to be known, were Posamentier & Allen 1993; Van Wagoner & subdivided from each other by major tectonic Bertram 1995). For other tectonic settings, events. According to Klein (1995) the sequences however, there is a lack of studies (see below). recognized from the North American Craton are comparable to the classic European geological systems and are unique to intracratonic settings Source area in other regions of the world, including the Much work has been carried out on the pro- Russian Platform, Brazil and Africa. venance of sedimentary rocks in order to Subsequently, the development of the concept differentiate between the various controlling of sequence stratigraphy (e.g. Vail et al. 1977) factors, and to constrain the underlying tectonic concentrated on the subdivision of units into controls on sediment production (e.g. Dickinson sequences which could be interpreted in terms of 1970, 1988; Zuffa 1985; Fontana 1991; Morton particular genetic parameters (i.e. lowstand, et al. 1991; Graham et al. 1993; Garzanti et al. highstand etc.). Sequence stratigraphic concepts 1996; Bahlburg & Floyd 1999). Sediment supply were initially developed in eustasy-driven passive may be strongly asymmetrical (e.g. half-graben margin settings. More recently, there have been and foreland basin systems), and derived from attempts to extend this work both into either a few point sources or where these coalesce continental settings (e.g. Emery & Myers 1996) to approximate a line source. Models predicting and, of particular interest for this work, into sediment distribution within a particular tectonic tectonically active settings. For rift basins, a setting are by necessity simplified versions of number of recent papers have explored the extent complex realities (e.g. Leeder & Gawthorpe 1987; Downloaded from http://sp.lyellcollection.org/ by guest on October 2, 2021

TECTONICS AND SEDIMENTATION 17

Steidtmann & Schmitt 1988) (Fig. 3). More marine sediments relative to non-marine. Indeed, precise evaluation of source-area geology can be eustatic sea-level is the prime control on whether determined by the analysis of specific minerals a retro-arc foreland basin is marine or non- (e.g. G6tze & Zimmerle 2000), or textures within marine, since the thrust-load driven subsidence is lithic fragments (e.g. McPhie et al. 1993). In not sufficient to submerge normal thickness addition, specific heavy minerals (e.g. garnet, continental lithosphere during low eustatic sea zircon), or heavy mineral associations (e.g. level. This is in marked contrast to peripheral rutile-zircon, spinel-zircon) may be used to foreland basins where subsidence commonly identify specific source rocks (e.g. Morton 1987; places the surface of the underlying plate Morton & Hallsworth 1994). Geochemical and beneath sea-level (Jordan 1995). Given the same isotopic whole rock analysis (e.g. Henry et al. amount of tectonic subsidence, retro-arc lbre- 1997) or specific chemical elements (e.g. Roser & land basins may be marine (e.g in the Cretaceous, Korsch 1986) can also be used to determine facts a period of elevated sea levels), or non-marine about the geology of the source region and to (e.g. present day Andes region) (Jordan 1995). provide insight into the relative contributions Similarly, the location of a rifted basin close to of individual source rocks. More specifically, sedi- sea level would allow a very different sediment infill can be analysed to investigate the mentary succession to evolve (e.g. Leeder & geological evolution of the source area, for Gawthorpe 1987). example, the degree of melting of volcanic source rocks (e.g. Najman & Garzanti 2000), pressure-temperature(-time) conditions of meta- From sediments to tectonics morphic source rocks (e.g. von Eynatten et al. From the previous sections it is clear that the 1996), or the proportion of juvenile to differen- very complexity of basin models makes it tiated crustal materials in the source area using difficult to fully ascertain the predominant Sr and Nd isotopes (e.g. Najman et al. 2000). controls on a particular setting. However, it is also very clear that the record contained within the sedimentary infill within a basin is of prime Influence of climate on sedimentation importance in being able to evaluate the tectono- Climate can exercise a very significant control on sedimentary evolution of a region. Approaches sedimentation. For example, in foreland basins to the analysis of the sedimentary infill are varied the climate in which the rising orogen develops is (see previous sections), but all share a common of great importance, both in terms of the goal - to elucidate our understanding of the tectonic style of the orogen and the architecture shared tectonic and sedimentary history of the of the adjacent foreland basin. Areas of high basin under investigation. The following section precipitation (e.g. monsoonal areas) are charac- will outline some problems associated with trying terized by rapid erosional unroofing, leading to to trace tectonic evolution using the sedimentary a corresponding rapid uplift, deep erosion and record, as well as the varied techniques which can the development of a foreland basin overfilled be applied, as well as introducing the various with non-marine sediments. In contrast, an arid studies presented in this volume. environment would lead to less erosion, and so erosional unroofing would not compensate uplift, leading to the preservation of the fold- Basin type and preservation potential thrust belt and an underfilled foreland basin The preservability of tectonostratigraphic assem- (Miall 1995). In addition, if a basin is located blages is an important but seldom-discussed in a tropical/subtropical area where siliciclastic factor in basin analysis and palaeotectonic supply is reduced, then a carbonate template reconstruction. Some modern basin types are can be superimposed on the distribution of common and volumetrically important, whereas depositional environments within the basin (e.g. others are rare and volumetrically minor. In Leeder & Gawthorpe 1987; Burchette 1988). addition, even some common modern basin types are rarely found in the geological record because they are prone to uplift and erosion, Influence of sea-level change and/or deformation and destruction (e.g. rem- Changes in relative sea-level influence the nant ocean, back-arc basin). Their rarity in proportions of sediment deposited in a par- ancient orogenic belts is related to their sucept- ticular basin setting. For example in a foreland ibility to erosion and deformation. Ingersoll & basin setting, where sea-level rise coincided with Busby (1995) have illustrated the typical life span flexure-related subsidence, there would be a of a selection of sedimentary basins versus corresponding increase in the percentages of their post-sedimentation preservation potential Downloaded from http://sp.lyellcollection.org/ by guest on October 2, 2021

18 T. McCANN & A. SAINTOT

(Fig. 13). It is clear that those basins which have to such studies. Christophoul et al. (2003) a relatively high post-sedimentation preservation mapped a region in the foreland basin of the potential (e.g. intracratonic basins, terrestrial rift northern Pyrenees (France) in order to examine valleys) have a better chance for evaluation in the tectono-sedimentary evolution of the thrust terms of their tectonosedimentary characteristics belt. Thrust wedge advance and the than those basins where the sediment fill has a corresponding loading resulted in basin flexure poor preservation potential (e.g. back-arc, and sediment infill. Similar work from the transpressional and inverted basins). Variscan succession of Poland (Lamarche et al. 2003) has demonstrated the complexity of orogenic activity in this region. It has also been Mapping possible to subdivide the various tectonic Detailed mapping of an area generally involves a episodes into pre-, syn- and post-orogenic combined approach using a variety of mapping phases, thus clarifying the tectonic evolution of techniques (structural, sedimentological, mag- this important region. matic) in order to provide a broad picture of the geological evolution of a particular region. Such work also includes the mapping of specific Studying facies changing time and space features, for example, the architecture of in fill v. Tracing the changes in sedimentary facies evolu- time, or the spatial distribution of facies v. time, tion over time and space within an area can can be invaluable for the elucidation of the provide detailed information about the subtle tectonic evolution of a region. Fernfindez- ways in which tectonics and sedimentation Fern/mdez et al. (2003) have used a combination interact in producing complex facies mosaics. of structural and sedimentological mapping to Rieke et al. (2003) have used this approach to investigate the Middle Jurassic to Cretaceous examine the upper Rotliegend succession from history of extension in the Betic Cordillera, northeastern Germany in order to evaluate the Spain. The work of McCann et al. (2003) uses a importance of tectonic activity in terms of basin similar approach, again using structural analysis evolution. Previous models had suggested that and sedimentological investigation but also basin evolution was controlled by a series of incorporating detailed mapping of the magmatic tectonic events. Rieke et al. (2003), however, units in order to examine the Mid-Devonian- clearly demonstrate that basin evolution was early Lower Carboniferous succession on the largely related to thermal subsidence within the southern margin of the Donbas Basin, Ukraine. region, although facies development was This work provides insight into the early phases significantly influenced by climate. On a larger of basin evolution in this complex region and scale, Golonka et al. (2003) have examined the shows the value of a multidisciplinary approach entire Polish Carpathian region, providing a

(.- 0 1000 - - Intracratonic E Successor Fore-arc m tntra-arc F IOO- Retro-arc Foreland (I) c- Remnant Ocean Terrestrial Rift Valleys Backarc Peripheral Foreland

10 ~ Piggyback

~8 Trenches Transtensional Transpressional Transrotational Q.

...1 Low Medium High Post-Sedimentation Preservation Potential

Figure 13. Typical life spans for sedimentary basins versus their post-sedimentation preservation potential. This latter term refers to the average amount of time during which basins will not be uplifted and eroded, or be tectonically destroyed during and subsequent to sedimentation. Sedimentary or volcanic fill may be preserved as accretionary complexes during and after basin destruction (modified after Ingersoll & Busby 1995). Downloaded from http://sp.lyellcollection.org/ by guest on October 2, 2021

TECTONICS AN D SEDIMENTATION 19 series of maps which outline the changing structural and subsidence analysis data in order palaeogeography of this region during latest to investigate the Oligocene-Miocene history of a Triassic-earliest Cretaceous times, a period of basin in northwestern Italy. On a larger scale, pronounced tectonic activity. Artyushkov & Chekhovich (2003) employed subsidence analysis to investigate the evidence of tectonic subsidence in a region where major Grain-dating - exhumation~erosion, eustatic sea-level changes are not recognized. source area Similarly, Nalpas et al. (2003) have analysed Actualistic petrological models relating sediment the geometries of developing compressional composition especially sand and sandstone, to structures, using both mathematical and ana- plate tectonic settings have been developed (e.g. logue models, in terms of differing rates of Dickinson & Suczek, 1979). Cibin et al. (2003) sedimentation. Such work (see below) is of great have used petrography to characterize piggy- importance in terms of broadening our know- back basin fill successions and thereby to ledge base on compressional tectonic settings. examine the evolution of thrusting within the northern Apennines, Italy. Augustsson & Problems and future research directions Bahlburg (2003) use the contrasting geochemical (including Nd and Sin), signatures from the It is clear from the previous sections that there sediment infill within an accretionary wedge are a large number of different tectonic settings sequence to differentiate the signature from the and that the sediment sequences contained source area and that of the basin itself. Von within them can be extremely variable. While Eynatten & Wijbrans (2003) have concentrated there are particular sequences that are charac- on a single mineral approach, in this case the teristic of particular tectonic settings (e.g. the Ar/Ar geochronology of detrital white mica, in broad marine-to-non-marine succession produced the evaluation of the exhumation history of the within peripheral foreland basins), it is not always Central Alps. easy to precisely determine from a particular sediment sequence what the dominant tectonic setting was. Some of these have been outlined Sequence analysis above (e.g. influence of climate or sea-level), but Sequence analysis is an important tool in there are other factors - broadly related to our exploring the broad evolution of a sedimentary lack of understanding of the relationship basin. It enables different facies to be correlated between sedimentation and tectonics - which are and the underlying controls to be determined. more problematic. In an overview of basin Lazauskiene et al. (2003) have used this modelling problems, Cloetingh et al. (1994) approach in the intracratonic Baltic Basin to noted that although the success of any individual investigate the Silurian succession, the period of basin model is often gauged by its ability to maximum basin subsidence in the region, and reproduce the observed sedimentary record, few relate basin development to tectonic activity models deal realistically with sediment transport along the Caledonian thrust front. On a smaller and preservation. A lack of understanding of scale, Derer et al. (2003) have used sequence these factors can lead to false or oversimplified mapping across the Rhine Graben, Germany, to interpretations. It is, therefore, clear that there is investigate the interrelationship of between a great need for additional research, preferably fault activity and sequence formation within the multidisciplinary, in these areas in order to region. Of particular interest is the fact that improve interlinked sediment-tectonics models. fault activity led to basin compartmentalization, leading to the evolution of different sedimentary successions on either side of the Understanding fault activity tectonic divide. Wartenberg et al. (2003) have There is now much better understanding of used sequence analysis to investigate the evolu- normal faulting (e.g. Roberts et al. 1991) and the tion of a fore-arc basin succession within the scaling relationships that operate (e.g. Walsh et developing collisional zone of western al. 1991; Walsh & Watterson 1991, 1992; Dawers Australia. et al. 1993; Dawers & Anders 1995), which provides some basis for the understanding of how faults nucleate, progagate and link together Basin modelling over time. These faults and their displacements Increasingly, basin modelling is used in order to are fundamental building blocks for uplift. test certain ideas concerning the evolution of a However, similarly detailed data on the scaling basin. Carrapa et al. (2003) have integrated and linkage of reverse and thrust faults do not Downloaded from http://sp.lyellcollection.org/ by guest on October 2, 2021

20 T. McCANN & A. SAINTOT exist at present. Studies that fill this gap or define meters, such as plate convergence rate, the dip of strain partitioning in transtensional and the subducted slab and the motion of the arc transpressional settings will help with strain massif relative to the roll-back of the subducted quantification in regions of tectonic activity. Such slab into the asthenosphere. All of these factors research would greatly aid quantification models can influence tectonism within fore-arc basins. In of sediment production, for example in basins addition, syndepositional deformation within evolving in compressional settings. fore-arc basins is varied and not well understood. Fault segmentation and the resultant effect on The deformation may be partly related to the sedimentation patterns is another area which basin fill being underthrust by the subduction requires investigation. Fault segmentation has complex, or associated with backthrusting, been recognized from a variety of settings, both of which processes result in differential including extensional (e.g. Larsen 1988; Peacock subsidence within the area (Dickinson 1995). In & Sanderson 1994; Walsh et al. 1999), compres- intra-arc settings there is little work done by sional (e.g. Aydin 1988) and strike-slip settings sedimentologists, since the active processes (e.g. Peacock 1991). However, the precise within these basins are predominantly volcanic. interaction of the variations in stress generated In active arcs, young volcanic rocks may obscure by either the loss of displacement on individual older stratigraphic units and structures. Where faults or the transfer of displacement between more information exists (based on seismic fault segments, and the effects of these changes evidence), there is a corresponding lack of in displacement both on sediment basin location information of the nature of the sedimentary and sediment transfer patterns, remain to be and volcanic fills. In ancient sequences, the rocks studied. are highly deformed and/or metamorphosed by later tectonic dismemberment or plutonism (G. A. Smith & Landis 1995). Understanding specific basin types Marsaglia (1995) notes that more detailed Some basins are better understood and re- studies of the sedimentary facies architecture of searched than others. This is particularly true of backarc basins is lacking, partly because the rift basins of the graben or half-graben type. depositional environments lack two or three- However, other basin types require much dimensional exposure upon which models could additional research if we are to be able to really be constructed. There is also a lack of studies on understand even the fundamental aspects of particular sub-environments, particularly that of basin evolution in such systems. For example, the the volcanic apron, which, according to Carey & processes leading to crustal extension and sub- Sigurdsson (1984) could be the most diagnostic sidence in strike-slip settings are generally not as feature of back-arc basin sedimentation. In well understood as they are in other tectonic summary, the origin of basins within volcano- settings (Nilsen & Sylvester 1995). Furthermore, plutonic (magmatic) arcs is, in general, poorly the complexity of strike-slip basins can vary understood, largely due to the paucity of studies according to their scale. Existing thermo- that integrate volcanology, sedimentology and mechanical models for their formation as well as basin analysis (Ingersoll 1988). their structural and stratigraphic evolution are generally poorly developed. Similarly, existing models for the development Differential tectonic response of intracratonic basins are largely related to ideas This occurs when parts of the basin are in com- about supercontinent break-up and the resultant pression while other parts are in extension. Thus changes in heat flow. However, many intracratonic the basin infill provides different tectonic basins do not conform to the predicted subsidence signatures, which need to be compared and histories. This, coupled with the fact that these contrasted in order to be able to fully ascertain basins have not been drilled to basement, leads to the overall basin history. A corollary of this is the much speculation but little clarity. increasingly recognized complexity of normal Within arc-related settings, the situation is faults and their movement histories (e.g. even more difficult. G. A. Smith & Landis (1995) Gawthorpe et al. 1997). It is extremely probable note, with some degree of truth, that of all of the that such complexity also exists in compressional basin types considered by most workers involved settings. in basin analysis, intra-arc basins remain the most poorly known. Dickinson (1995), for example, notes that in fore-arc basins little is Basin compartmentalization known about the precise relationship of intra- Basin compartmentalization is where a sedi- basinal structures to relevant subduction para- mentary basin is sub-divided by structural or Downloaded from http://sp.lyellcollection.org/ by guest on October 2, 2021

TECTONICS AND SEDIMENTATION 21 other barriers and where the various subbasins (Leeder 1991) and can be used, in conjunction may produce different tectonosedimentary with other information (for example, catchment signatures. Within trench regions, for example, area size), to calculate the average erosion (Einsele the subduction of interlinked fore-arc basins can et al. 1996) or discharge rates (Kuhlemann et al. lead to buckling of the basin chain, resulting in 2001). While there have been a number of studies segmentation and differential subsidence. This done in this area (see Burbank & Pinter 1999 for relative isolation of the sub-basins has marked details), there is still a lack of understanding of consequences for sedimentation patterns (includ- the controls on sediment budget within a basin. ing facies distribution). Similarly, in back-arc or Burbank & Pinter (1999) also noted that there intra-arc basins sediment transport and deposi- was a need for better numerical models for ero- tion patterns may be influenced by the locations sion, and in particular, models which are sup- of volcanic ridges and variable subsidence of rift ported by real data. Additionally, Schlunegger blocks. et al. (2001) have noted that when dealing with Problems associated with basin compart- ancient settings, errors on budget methods can mentalization can be even more marked when the be very high, and that the results may be pattern is overlain by such secondary factors as contrasting. sea-level variations. A study from northern Spain Sediment transport and post-depositional revealed the presence of a series of unconform- alteration within the basin also have a significant ities which had a very segmented nature (result- influence on the evolution of large-scale basin ing from the boundary between zones of uplift architecture through time, because the basin load and zones of subsidence). This pattern of seg- modifies basin subsidence, and because post- mentation was related to structural activity that depositional compaction and diagenesis of alternated periods of synrotational forced regres- sediment affects accommodation space available sion (carving of surface below the prograding for additional sediment (Schlager 1993). shoreface) and post-rotational transgression (accumulation of shale wedges prior to the next increment of tilting) (Dreyer et al. 1999). In Differentiating between tectonic and effect, the segmentation of these unconformities other controls demonstrated that there was insufficient time This is a very fundamental problem in terms of available for the formation of laterally extensive basin analysis. Sediments are, for the most part, bounding surfaces in the region. preserved in basins, and the resultant succession records information related both to the Phase of basin development depositional mechanisms operating within the basin, and tectonic mechanisms which control Basin evolution follows a general pattern of basin dynamics and determine the larger scale tectonic and sedimentary evolution. For depostional setting within the basin. The example, in rift events we have the production of sedimentary record preserved in a basin is thus a three clear sequences - the pre-rift, synrift and product of the interplay of these complex post-rift successions. Thus, in basin evolutionary variables. Such factors would include sediment models, for each phase of basin evolution (where supply, continentality, sea-level variations and basins are well understood) a characteristic climate (e.g. Lindsay & Korsch 1989; Leeder succession will be produced, and a sediment et al. 1998; Mack & Leeder 1999). Interpretation sequence produced within a syn-rift regime will of any particular basinal succession, therefore, be very different to one produced in the post-rift involves understanding the many different controls thermal subsidence phase. on sedimentation. This can be problematic, however, in settings where different controls pro- Sediment budget within a basin duce similar effects. In arc-related environments, for example, it can be difficult to distinguish Hovius & Leeder (1998) and Leeder (1999) note between the interrelationship between tectonic that, more than any other issue in basin research, activity and eustatic sea-level change, since there is a need to explore the consequences of tectonic deformation may result in significant temporal and spatial changes in water and changes in relative sea level. In such situations, it sediment supply and to intersect time series of is necessary to use as varied an approach to basin these variables with other basin-defining vari- analysis as possible in order to rigorously ables such as basin subsidence rate, sea- and lake- examine the various controls. level change, catchment uplift rate and climate. Sediment budget or mass-balance methods aim The authors would like to thank all of those who at calculating the volumes of eroded sediment submitted their work to this Special Publication. We Downloaded from http://sp.lyellcollection.org/ by guest on October 2, 2021

22 T. McCANN & A. SAINTOT would also like to thank all of the many scientists who geometry in the volume containing a single normal acted as reviewers for the articles within this volume, fault. AAPG Bulletin, 71,925 937. and through their work have helped to make this BEAUDRY, D. & MOORE, G. F. 1985. Seismic volume what it is. We would also like to thank stratigraphy and Cenozoic evolution of west Angharad Hills and Andy Morton from the Geological Sumatra forearc basin. AAPG Bulletin, 69, 742- Society for their help and support in the realization of 759. this project. I. Wolfgramm is thanked for drafting all of BEAUMONT, C. 1981. Foreland basins. Geophysical the diagrams. Journal of the Royal Astronomical Society, 65, 291-329. References BHAT1A, M. R. 1983. Plate tectonics and geochemical composition of sandstones. Journal of Geology, 91, ALEXANDER, J. A. & LEEDER, M. R., 1987. Active 611-627. tectonic control of alluvial architecture. In: BLAIR, T. C. & BILODEAU, W. L. 1988. 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