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Basin Analysis.Pdf Basin Analysis Introduction Basin Analysis Mechanisms of Basin Formation Basin Classification Basins and Sequence Stratigraphy Summary Introduction Introduction Basin analysis - Study of sedimentary rocks What is a basin? to determine: Repository for sediment Subsidence history Formed by crustal subsidence relative to Stratigraphic architecture surrounding areas Paleogeographic evolution Surrounding areas sometimes uplifted Tools: Many different shapes, sizes and Geology (outcrops, wireline logs, core) mechanisms of formation Geophysics (seismic, gravity, aeromag) Computers (modeling, data analysis) Introduction Introduction Zonation of the Earth – Composition Zonation of the Upper Earth – Crust Rheology Mantle Lithosphere Core Rigid outer shell Crust and upper mantle Asthenosphere Weaker than lithosphere Flows (plastic deformation) 1 Introduction Introduction Zonation of the Upper Earth – Plate motions Rheology Plate-plate interactions can generate Vertical motions (subsidence, uplift) in vertical crustal movements sedimentary basins are primarily in We will examine basins according to their response to deformation of lithosphere positions with respect to plate and asthenosphere boundaries and plate-plate interactions “Wilson Cycle” – opening and closing of ocean basins Mechanisms of Basin Introduction Formation Three types of plate boundaries: Major mechanisms for regional Divergent – plates moving apart subsidence/uplift: Mid-ocean ridges, rifts Isostatic – changes in crustal or Convergent – plates moving towards lithospheric thickness each other Loading – by thrust sheets, volcanic piles, Subduction zones sediment Conservative – plates move parallel to each other Dynamic effects – asthenospheric flow, Strike-slip systems mantle convection, plumes Mechanisms of Basin Mechanisms of Basin Formation Formation Isostatic Processes: Isostatic Processes: Crustal thinning Crustal densification Extensional stretching, erosion during uplift, Density increase due to changing magmatic withdrawal pressure/temperature conditions and/or emplacement of higher density melts into Mantle-Lithosphere Thickening lower density crust Cooling of lithosphere, following cessation of stretching or cessation of heating 2 Mechanisms of Basin Mechanisms of Basin Formation Formation Loading: Loading: Local isostatic compensation of crust and Sedimentary or Volcanic Loading regional lithospheric flexure Tectonic loading Dependent on flexural rigidity of During overthrusting and/or underpulling lithosphere Subcrustal loading Lithospheric flexure during underthrusting of dense lithosphere Mechanisms of Basin Formation Basin Classification Dynamic effects: Many different classification systems Asthenospheric flow have been proposed Descent or delamination of subducted Principal factors: lithosphere Position of the basin in relation to plate Mantle convection margins Plumes Crustal/lithospheric substratum Oceanic, continental crust Type of plate boundary Basin Classification Basin Classification Ingersoll and Busby (1995): 26 Alternate approach (Allen and Allen, different types of basin (see handout) 2005): focus on basin-forming Divided into various settings processes Divergent What causes subsidence? Intraplate Convergent Transform Hybrid 3 Basin Classification This course – hybrid approach: What causes subsidence? What is tectonic setting? We do not have time to cover all types of basins Focus on selected basin types Allen and Allen (2005) Basin Classification Divergent Plate Boundaries Basins can be related to tectonic setting Continental rifting (a) may lead to opening of an ocean Position with respect to plate boundary with a mid-ocean ridge (b, c) Nature of plate boundary “Wilson Cycle” Rift basin evolves into passive margin Allen and Allen, 2005 Basin Classification Basin Classification Rift Basins Rift Basins Elongate, valleys Seismic studies indicate rifts overlie bounded by normal thinned crust faults Few km -> 10s of km Evidence for thermal anomalies at depth: wide Negative Bouguer gravity anomalies Length – up to 1000s of km High heat flow Bimodal volcanic activity Occur in many plate settings, but most common in divergent settings 4 Basin Classification Passive Rifting – regional extension causes rifting, Rift Basins upwelling of hot mantle Active rifting: follows. Mantle upwelling causes crustal thinning Example: Rio Grande (heating) Thinning leads to uplift Uplift leads to tension and rifting Active Rifting – Upwelling of hot mantle leads to uplift Passive rifting: and extension. Regional extension causes failure Example: East African Rift Hot mantle rocks rise and penetrate lithosphere Allen and Allen, 2005 Early Mesozoic Evaporites Basin Classification Rift Basins Evaporites accumulated in Rift fill commonly consists of shallow basins “continental” deposits as Pangaea Fluvial, lacustrine, alluvial fans broke apart during the Evaporites may form if rift valley/basin is Early Mesozoic located in a hot, dry area Water from Invasion of the sea the Tethys Sea Closed drainage basins flowed into the Central Volcanic rocks, and associated intrusions, Atlantic Ocean may be present Basin Classification Basin Classification Continued rifting can lead to Passive Margins formation of oceanic crust – opening of ocean basin E.g., Red Sea “Rift-Drift” transition Rift-drift transition may be marked by a “breakup unconformity” Continental Oceanic Crust Transitional Crust Crust If rift associated with subaerial relief at onset of drifting 5 Scotian Shelf Basin Classification Passive Margins Strongly attenuated continental crust Stretched over distances of 50-500 km Overlain by seaward-thickening sediment prisms Typically shallow-marine deposits Sometimes referred to as “Atlantic-type margins” or “continental rises and Beaumont et al. 1992 – cited in Allen and Allen 2005 terraces” (Boggs) Basin Classification Basin Classification Passive Margins Passive Margins Various subsidence mechanisms: Subsidence variable in space and time Cooling (thermal contraction) following Subsidence rate increases in offshore lithospheric thinning direction Main mechanism Subsidence rate decreases with time for all Phase changes in lower crust/mantle (gabbro parts of the profile to eclogite) Not known if this process can be widespread enough Sediment loading Adds to other effects Subsidence as a Function of Time Time -> Total Subsidence A B Subsidence C A B C 6 Basin Classification Basin Classification Passive Margins Passive Margins Morphology characterized by shelf, slope Slope/rise – material shed from and continental rise continental shelf during lowstands Shelf margin builds out with time (clastic systems) Shelf sediments can be clastic or Aprons/fans deposited along slope/rise carbonate Also pelagic sediments, contourites, etc. Water depth stays relatively constant on shelf Abundant sediment supply Basin Classification Gravity-driven deformation common in drift-phase sediments Listric growth faults, salt tectonics, mud diapirs, etc. 7 Basin Classification Convergent Plate Aulacogens Aulacogen Boundaries “Failed rifts” Occur at high angle Subduction of oceanic plate to continental (d) may lead to closing of margin ocean basin (e) and ultimately to continental Fill: non-marine to collision (f) deep marine Example: Reelfoot Rift (Mississippi valley) Allen and Allen, 2005 Convergent Plate Boundaries Basin Classification Age of oceanic crust affects Arc-related basins angle at which it is subducted Edge of Continent Volcanic Island Arc Forearc Basin Young crust (top) – shallow Backarc Basin angle subduction, Deep-sea Trench compression behind arc Old crust (bottom) – steep angle subduction, “roll- Spreading back”, extension behind arc Center Accretionary complex Basin Classification Basin Classification Arc-related basins Foreland basins Forearc and backarc basins dominated by Thrust belt sediment derived from arc Foreland basin Immature clastics Backarc basin may also have component derived from continent Deep-sea trench has sediments derived from arc and sediments scraped off subducting oceanic crust “Melange” 8 Basin Classification Subsidence Uplift Foreland basins Crustal loading of thrust sheets causes subsidence May face towards or away from continental interior g din loa Ocean-continent or continent-continent st hru collision T Peripheral bulge Rate of subsidence greatest adjacent to thrust loading Peripheral (pro) Retro Foreland Basin Foreland Basin Himalayan peripheral foreland basin Depth to basement (km; outcrop=0) Decelles and Giles, 1996 Retro foreland basins Turcotte and Schubert, 1982 9 Late Cretaceous Basin Classification Foreland basins Generally clastic – high sediment input from adjacent uplifts “Clastic wedges” Date thrusting Carbonates in some settings Marine or non-marine fill Turbidites, pelagic, deltaic, shoreface/shelf, fluvial Basin Classification Foreland basins Basin fill adjacent to thrusting typically gets caught up in deformation Cretaceous Clastics, Alberta 10 Basin Classification Basin Classification Intracratonic Basins Intracratonic Basins “Interior Basins” Semi-circular to ovate downwarps Within continental interiors Otherwise stable cratonic areas Away from plate boundaries Basin Classification Intracratonic Basins Subsidence Uplift Causes of subsidence? Underlying rifts, large-scale fault blocks Cooling after intrusion of dense material Mantle
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