© 2018 SUZANNE L. KROLL ALL RIGHTS RESERVED A STUDY OF EDWARD S. CURTIS’S THE NORTH AMERICAN INDIAN: A NAVAJO TEXTILE PERSPECTIVE A Thesis Presented to The Graduate Faculty of The University of Akron In Partial Fulfillment Of the Requirements for the Degree Master of Art Suzanne L. Kroll December 2018 A STUDY OF EDWARD S. CURTIS’S THE NORTH AMERICAN INDIAN: A NAVAJO TEXTILE PERSPECTIVE Suzanne L. Kroll Thesis Approved: Accepted: _________________________________ ______________________________ Thesis Advisor Interim School Director Dr. Virginia Gunn Janice Troutman _________________________________ ______________________________ Faculty Reader Interim Dean of College Dr. Sandra Buckland Dr. Linda Subich _________________________________ ______________________________ Faculty Reader Executive Dean of the Graduate School Dr. Teena Jennings-Rentenaar Dr. Chand Midha ______________________________ Date ii ABSTRACT Edward S. Curtis photographed Native American culture for his epic 20-volume work, The North American Indian, published from 1907-1930. Curtis’s work features over 2,000 photographs of Native Americans, rich with artifacts of Native American culture. Study of these photographs containing native artifacts reveals new perspectives on Native American life during the time Curtis took his photographs. This research focuses on Navajo weavings, one of the most popular and recognizable artifacts. Curtis wanted to capture a vanishing race of Native Americans, a popular belief of his time. Analysis of Navajo weavings in these photographs reveals a different viewpoint. Curtis’s beautiful photographs captured a period of transition as the Navajo used their ancient craft of weaving blankets for other Native American cultures to create rugs for a growing Anglo-American market, preparing their culture for the future. iii DEDICATION Education was important to my parents, Mary and Ralph Gresser. Both my mother and father were the only children in their families to obtain a collegiate degree. My mother worked especially hard, working long hours to pay for her degree. Both established life-long relationships and held their alma mater of The Ohio State University in the highest regard throughout their lives. It was their wish for their children to have the experience of higher education. It took me a long time, but the time has arrived. Their presence has been with me every step of the way! To the memory of my parents, I dedicate this work. iv ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS Projects such as this cannot be completed without the help of others. Dr. Teena Jennings-Rentenaar served as my advisor, guiding me through my entire master’s journey, and as part of my committee. Her generosity of time and support were endless during this process. Dr. J’s laughter and insights enriched this experience and I am truly appreciative of the confidence and friendship she offered. I also wish to thank Dr. Sandra Buckland for her contributions as part of my thesis committee. Her objective comments and support were so greatly appreciated. Conversations with Amy Benson and Diane Orender pointed me in the direction of local collections of Native American craft and eventually to Edward Curtis’s epic work. Their support and input opened doors I wouldn’t have considered during this journey. Early in my research I had the privilege to talk with Kathy M’Closkey during a phone conversation about her experiences with the Navajo in researching for her book, Swept under the Rug. Her passion for the Navajo people and their weaving was contagious and I am truly thankful for her great passion. Jackie Gresser, my cousin, took the time to travel with me to Muskegon, Michigan to see the Edward Curtis exhibit of his portfolio photographs found in The North American Indian at the Muskegon Art Museum. The drive was a long one and her company made the trip even more of an adventure filled with fun and good times. v Joyce Suttle has been with me through thick and thin. Her friendship is as a sister. Joyce traveled to Santa Fe with me, helping me to start conversations with people I would not have ordinarily had the gumption to start! Her curiosity encouraged me to ask questions that would have not occurred to me without her presence. Thanks, my friend. The assistance of Dr. Virginia Gunn has been priceless. Her kindness is unparalleled and advise, second to none. I will miss our conversations and treasure the books and other materials she so generously gave to me during her time as my thesis advisor. I was advised by the absolute best. Thank you with all my heart. My husband, Phil, has been by my side through my entire undergraduate and graduate experience, cheering me on. He comforted me and supported my efforts, keeping me focused during times I wasn’t so sure I would make it. Through the graciousness of God, he is my dear one, now and always. vi TABLE OF CONTENTS Page LIST OF FIGURES……………………………………………………………………….x CHAPTER I. INTRODUCTION..…………………………………………………………………….1 II. THE NAVAJO..……………………………………………………………………….6 In Search of the Navajo Perspective………………………………………………7 Foundational Themes of the Navajo……………………………………………..15 Expand and Prosper……………………………………………………...15 Defense and Survival…………………………………………………….17 Adaptability and Incorporation…………………………………………..18 Identity and Continuation………………………………………………..18 Early Reservation Years 1869-1904……………………………………………..19 The Commercialization of Navajo Textiles……………………………………...22 III. EDWARD CURTIS AND THE NORTH AMERICAN INDIAN…………………….30 Making Ends Meet……………………………………………………………….30 Photographic Beginnings………………………………………………………...33 Journey of a Lifetime…………………………………………………………….35 The North American Indian……………………………………………………...38 Challenges in creating The North American Indian……………………………..42 Rebirth of The North American Indian………………………………………….45 vii IV. PHOTOGRAPHY AND NATIVE AMERICANS.………………………………..59 Beginnings of Photography……………………………………………………..59 Native Reaction to Photography…………………………………………………61 Power of Pictures………………………………………………………………...63 A Possible Navajo Perspective on Photography…………………………………66 Curtis’s Photographic Style Versus the Rest…………………………………….70 V. RESEARCH ………………………………………………………………..….…….77 Selecting an Appropriate Research Method.…...………………………………..78 Creating the Research Instrument………………………………..……………....79 The Identification Number……………………………………………….80 List Criteria………………………………………………………………81 Completing the Spreadsheet……………………………………………..81 Evaluating a Textile’s Origins…………………………………………...………83 Determining Navajo Trading Partners………..………………………………….84 Interpreting the Emerging Picture Objectively…………………………………..88 Challenges raised by Curtis’s Decisions…………………………………………88 Research by the Numbers………………………………………………………..89 A Revised Research Approach……………………………………………….….93 Navajo Transitions……………………………………………………………….99 Transitions in Navajo Weaving…….…………………………………………..104 Weaving in Canyon de Chelly………………………………………………….109 Blankets to Rugs………………………………………………………………..111 Transitioning, Not Vanishing…………………………………………………..112 Native American Transitions…………………………………………………...116 VI. CONCLUSION………………………………..…………………………………...121 Suggestions for Future Study………………………………………...…………123 Continuation……..……………………………………………………...………124 viii BIBLIOGRAPHY………………………………………………………………………128 APPENDICES………………………………………………………………………….134 APPENDIX A. RAW DATA, LIST A, VOL. I, IV, XII, AND XVI………….135 ix LIST OF FIGURES Figure Page 4.1 Edward S. Curtis, “Nature’s Mirror - Navaho”.…………………………74 5.1 Comparison of Navajo and Manufactured Textiles……..………….........85 5.2 Indian to Indian Trading System…………………….……….……….….87 5.3 Research by the Numbers Chart….…………………….………………..90 5.4 Edward S. Curtis, “Tobacco Ceremony–Apsaroke”…...………………...94 5.5 Edward S. Curtis, “Heavy Load-Sioux”…………………………………97 5.6 Edward S. Curtis, “Wood Gatherer-Sioux”……………………………...97 5.7 Edward S. Curtis, “Alchise–Apache,” Portfolio …………………….... .98 5.8 Edward S. Curtis, “Alchise–Apache,” Volume I……...….……..……...100 5.9 Edward S. Curtis, “Chief of the Desert-Navaho”…………......………..102 5.10 Edward S. Curtis, “Blanket Maker–Navaho”……………..……….…...103 5.11 Edward S. Curtis, “Navaho Flocks”……………….……………..…….108 5.12 Edward S. Curtis, “Jeditoh–Navaho”………….………..….……….….108 5.13 Edward S. Curtis, “Blanket Weaver-Navaho”….…………………...….110 5.14 Edward S. Curtis, “Hastin Yahze–Navaho……..……………..………..113 5.13 Edward S. Curtis, “Navaho Still Life”……………………….…………114 x CHAPTER I INTRODUCTION During the completion of my coursework for a master’s degree at the University of Akron, I became interested in the historical significance of the textile fiber wool and I wanted to find a way to focus on it as part of my thesis research. I found it interesting that the Navajo people were strongly identified with this fiber for generations. They used the fiber to create a unique craft, the Navajo rug, making them well known throughout the United States and the world. In June 2014, I visited the Navajo Nation to attend a program sponsored by Navajo Lifeway called Sheep is Life. My purpose was to see what the people and the area were like to determine a possible direction for my thesis research. I knew very little about the Navajo even though my husband and I had traveled frequently to our camp site in Arizona about an hour or two south of the Navajo Nation. Through my experience with Sheep is Life, I became acquainted with three strong and proud Navajos. Each presented a different account of their own Navajo story, providing the seeds that would later determine my thesis topic and influence how I would approach my research. Edith Simonson,