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A Case Study of Mokolodi Nature Reserve, Botswana

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A Case Study of Mokolodi Nature Reserve, Botswana UNDERSTANDING THE EFFECTS OF A PROTECTED AREA ON LIVELIHOODS OF A NEIGHBOURING LOCAL COMMUNITY: A CASE STUDY OF MOKOLODI NATURE RESERVE, BOTSWANA BY LINCOLN MWANIKI NJIRU Submitted in partial fulfilment of the academic requirements for the degree of Master of Environment and Development in the Centre for Environment, Agriculture and Development Faculty of Science and Agriculture University of KwaZulu-Natal Pietermaritzburg 2007 DECLARATION The work contained in this mini-dissertation was carried out in the Centre for Environment, Agriculture and Development, University of KwaZulu-Natal, Pietermaritzburg Campus under the supervision of Dr. Mark Dent. I hereby declare that the work contained here is entirely my own and has not in any form been submitted for the award of any degree or diploma in this or any other university. Where other people‟s work has been used, acknowledgement is duly given in the text. __________________________________ __________________ Lincoln Mwaniki Njiru Date __________________________________ __________________ Dr. Mark Dent Date Supervisor i ABSTRACT Establishment of protected areas continues to be recognized in many parts of the world as one of the most appropriate strategies of conserving biodiversity. As a result, their numbers have continued to increase globally with significant support coming from many national governments and international agencies. Some cases of earlier establishments of protected areas had negative effects on local communities especially where there was displacement and relocation of people, and loss of access to various natural resources important for livelihoods sustenance. In other cases however, protected areas brought positive effects to local communities such as creation of employment opportunities, contribution towards community development and giving the local people the opportunity to actively participate in natural resources management. All these effects have influenced livelihoods of many local communities in several ways. This study focuses on the effects of Mokolodi Nature Reserve on a neighbouring community from the angle of a community that traditionally did not have exclusive access and use of the land that is now the reserve, nor have a claim against it. Effects of the changes that have occurred on the livelihoods of the local people since the establishment of the reserve are looked at, as well as the attitudes and perceptions that people have towards the reserve. Relationships between the reserve management and the local people that have brought changes in the lives of the local people form a key component of this study. Further, ways in which the local people are involved in natural resource management in the area are explored, as well as the reserve‟s contribution towards enhancing better and sustainable livelihoods of the local people The study adopts a qualitative approach, with information being collected by use of structured questionnaires and key informant interviews. The majority of respondents were members of the local community. A few key informants were from outside the community but had associations with the area of study. Data was analyzed and presented in the form of descriptions, tables and graphs. ii Findings show that the reserve has brought changes, some of which have benefited the local community such as provision of job opportunities and creation of environmental awareness among the people. However, according to some respondents, especially the older, such benefits are minimal and only go to a few people. Such respondents hence consider the reserve to be of little or no benefit to the community. Attitudes and perceptions towards the reserve vary amongst respondents, with younger respondents appearing to have more positive attitudes and perceptions towards the reserve. Indications are that the relationship between the reserve management and the local community is not very well developed. The older respondents however appear to be keen on having good relationships with the reserve management established, as opposed to many of the younger respondents whose main concern is employment. Lack of community conservation initiatives in the area is considered a drawback towards increased people‟s participation in resource management in the area. Despite the varied opinions in terms of benefits and non-benefits, the reserve would still be considered to have played an important role in improving the livelihoods of the local people. Indications that some people have an interest in getting involved in various reserve-related activities, is a good opportunity for developing good relationships. This could also possibly change the negative attitudes and perception some people have towards the reserve. With continued interactions and learning of lessons from the past, there are opportunities for the reserve management and the local people to work together and hence find a balance between conservation priorities and local livelihoods. This would also work towards achieving one of the initial goals of the establishment of the reserve, of improving the standards of living of people in the local community. iii ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS I would like to express my appreciation to all the people whose effort and input made it possible for this research to carry on to completion. First, my sincere gratitude goes to my supervisor Dr. Mark Dent for his valuable advice, guidance and encouragement during the entire process of this research. Special thanks go to Bob and Doreen McColough and Peter Dow for the timely and useful insight given on the various aspects of this research. I would also want to thank Ezekiel Mogkosi for the time spent discussing issues regarding this research and to Thato Malongwa, Arabang Andreck and Lenah Mogkethi for spending time with me in the field. To the management of Mokolodi Nature Reserve, thank you for useful documents and information provided and for allowing this research to be undertaken. To my family thank you for believing in me and letting me follow my dream. Above all, thanks and glory be to God for this piece of work. iv TABLE OF CONTENTS DECLARATION……………………………………………………………… i ABSTRACT ……………………………………………………….................... ii ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS ………………………………………………... iv TABLE OF CONTENTS ………………………………………………........ v LIST OF TABLES ……………………………………………….................... ix LIST OF FIGURES ………………………………………………………….. x LIST OF APPENDICES ……………………………………………………. xi LIST OF ACRONYMS ……………………………………………………... xii CHAPTER ONE: INTRODUCTION ……………………………… 1 Background of the study …………………………………………………... 1 Justification for and significance of the study ………………………….... 4 Problem statement …………………………………………………………. 5 Aim of the study …………………………………………………………... 5 Research questions ………………………………………………………… 6 Scope of the study …………………………………………………………. 6 Methodology……………………………………………………………….. 7 Assumptions made in the study …………………………………………… 7 Limitations of the study and how they were addressed …………………… 8 Summary of the chapter……………………………………………………. 9 CHAPTER TWO: LITERATURE REVIEW …………………….. 11 2.1 Protected areas in Africa ………………………………………………….. 11 2.2 Protected areas in Botswana …………………………………………….... 16 2.3 Conservation discourse relevant to protected areas ………………………. 18 2.3.1 Fortress conservation ……………………………………………... 19 2.3.2 Community conservation ................................................................. 20 2.3.2.1 Protected area outreach…..………………………………. 21 v 2.3.2.2 Collaborative management………………………………. 22 2.3.2.3 Community-based conservation…………………………. 23 2.4 Biodiversity conservation and livelihoods of local people ……………….. 24 2.4.1 Benefits of biodiversity conservation to local people ……………. 26 2.4.2 Costs of biodiversity conservation to local people ………………. 27 2.5 Relationships and attitudes with reference to protected areas...…………... 29 2.5.1 Developing relationships between protected areas and local people……………………………………………………………… 30 2.5.2 Attitudes among local people towards protected areas …………… 32 2.6 Summary of the chapter…..……………………………………………….. 35 CHAPTER THREE: BACKGROUND OF THE STUDY AREA....………………………………………………………………. 36 3.1 Overview of Botswana ……………………………………………………. 36 3.2 Overview of Mokolodi ……………………………………………………. 38 3.2.1 Historical context …………………………………………………. 38 3.2.2 Geographical context ……………………………………………… 41 3.2.3 The philosophy behind Mokolodi Nature Reserve ……………….. 44 3.3 Summary of the chapter………………………………………………….... 45 CHAPTER FOUR: METHODOLOGY……………………………. 46 4.1 Preparation of data collection instruments …….………………………….. 46 4.2 Sampling techniques ………………………..……………………………. 48 4.3 The study process ……………………………………………………… 51 4.3.1 Pilot survey………………………………………………………… 51 4.3.2 Data collection……………………………………………………. 52 4.4 Analysis of interviews and questionnaires…………………………………. 54 4.5 Ethical considerations……………………………………………………… 55 4.6 Summary of the chapter……………………………………………………. 55 vi CHAPTER FIVE: PRESENTATION AND ANALYSIS OF RESULTS…………………………………………………………….. 56 5.1 Demographic variables…………………………………………………….. 56 5.2 Changes since the establishment of the reserve……………………………. 57 5.2.1 Local community‟s history and livelihoods………………………... 57 5.2.2 Natural resource use and availability………………………………. 58 5.2.3 Analysis of specific changes……………………………………….. 60 5.3 Local people‟s attitudes and perceptions towards the reserve……………... 61 5.4 Relationship between the reserve management and the local community.... 64 5.4.1 General interactions………………………………………………... 64 5.4.2 Working relationships……………………………………………… 65 5.5 Involvement of the local people
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