CEU eTD Collection

In partialfulfillment of the requirements for A Case Study of the Bayang and Ejagham Ethnicities of Chieftaincy, Development and Democratization: Department of Sociology and Social Anthropology Social and ofDepartment Sociology Central European University European Central Professor: Prem Kumar Rajaram Southwest Cameroon Southwest Mbu Arrey Ogem Arrey Mbu Professor: Andreas Dafinger Andreas Professor: Social Anthropology Budapest, Hungary Budapest, Submitted to Submitted Supervisors: 2013 By the degree of Master of of Arts Master degree the

Pascal

in in

Sociology and

CEU eTD Collection t of terms neo other and chieftaincy over claims conflicting through manifested as local strategizing political understand need the to articulates study this Theoretically, development for regional and nationalin dominance politics. state the elites and Both of origin. areas themselvesfor appointment within the centralized bureaucracy as representatives of their increasingl are self as elites 1990s, of the transition face democratic the of the socio lineages. Thesesubsequent expansion of families slave and ‘natives’ between distinctions historical understa of hiswith its implications junctions’ perspective ‘critical Kalb’s Don on largely Drawing Cameroon. of polities Ejagham and Bayang segmentary conflicting the investigate to seeks study claimsThis over chieftaincy titles among the - political context of Cameroon which is based on patronage. Within this context and in in Within and is context onpatronage. based political this which of Cameroon context nding power he macro y using ethnicchieftaincy associations strategically and titles to position - sociopolitical context of ethnic society, nepotism and neopatrimonialism and nepotism society, of ethnic context sociopolitical . The study shows that these conflicts are intertwined with deeply rooted rooted deeply with intertwined are conflicts these that shows The study

Abstract distinctions ha distinctions ,

tend to appropriate the discourse of bringing of discourse the appropriate to tend i

ve ,

been exacerbated by the larger larger by the exacerbated been tory andlocality as a way of despite inter despite - serving political entrepreneurs serving entrepreneurs political - traditional titles in in titles traditional - marriages and the

CEU eTD Collection have been they throughout my studies my throughout they been have myfamily from entire and encouragement moral the support acknowledge I Finally, their at departme the all indebted lecturers my amto I also be of thisI work. I like. in offering commitment interest, indebted my to Professorssupervisors, cooperationfrommany individuals must some I of c whom Inorder transform to mydream in

miss them a lot as this work come work this as lot a them miss going to efforts efforts equally appreciate them for for them equally appreciate to impart on impart to

must confess that I that confess must

me knowledge that will help help will that knowledge me

me of advice pieces

to reality, I received immeasurable assistance and and assistance immeasurable received I reality, to will will I and experiences lot fromlearnedintellectual a their their kindness, their Acknowledgements .

Andreas Dafinger and Prem Andreas Dafinger ii s

to an end. an to

friendliness and support for the realization for realization the and support friendliness nt of sociology and how they think they how build acareer.

ommend. I am I ommend. particularly

KumarRajaram for their

the work shouldlook Anthr opology for

who who CEU eTD Collection

Fig5: Fig. 3Ejagham Chiefs the with Senior Cameroon Sothern British of Map 4: Fig Fig Map 3: Of Manyu Fig2: Region Map OfWith Southwest Its Six Administrative Regions Ten Showing Cameroon of Map Fig1: Division

...... List o List f Figures iii ......

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Divisional and Divisional Officer ...... 7

Divisions ...... 9 ...... 14 10 29

CEU eTD Collection - PAP NGO NCAS NA- NAAS MTN LDC KNDP - KPP - KNC IMF GDP ESAP ENS DO CNU- CPDM CDC- GCE - CAMTEL BLCC AAC-

-

Divisional Officer Divisional - - Native Authorities - - - Peoples Action Party Action Peoples - In Superieur normale Ecole - Kamerun Peoples’Party Kamerun Liberal Democratic Party Liberal Democratic Gross Domestic Product Domestic Gross Cameroon Development Cooperation Certifi General AllAnglophone Congress -

Multinational mobile Telecommunication mobile Multinational - - Cameroon National Union National Cameroon - Kamerun National Congress National Kamerun - N Enhanced StructuralAdjustment programme - Native AreasNative Authority ternational Monetary Fund Monetary ternational

Kamerun National Democratic Party Democratic Kamerun National

Bakweri Land Claims Committee Claims Land Bakweri on Governmental Organization Governmental on Cameroon Peoples Democratic Movement Peoples Democratic Cameroon National Telecommunication National

Court Areas Court cate of Education of cate

List of Abbreviations Figures and

s

and Internet Services Internet and

iv

provider inprovider Cameroon

CEU eTD Collection UN- - SCNC - SCHC SWELA SDF SDO United - -

Senior Divisional Officer Divisional Senior Social Democratic Front Social Democratic Southern Cameroon National Congress National Cameroon Southern Southern Cameroon House of Chiefs - South West Elite Association Elite West South

Nations

v

CEU eTD Collection 3 Socio Chapter 2Chapter Chiin efs the colonial incontext and postcolChionial Cameroon 1 Chapter List of Abbreviations and Figures Figures of List Acknowledgements Ab 3.3 3.3 Postcolonial3.2 regulation of chieftancy as a vechicle of governmentality 3.1 Introduction3.0 Conclusion 2.3 Chiefs2.2 and the postcolonialstate 2.1 Introduction2.0 Lay1.7 out Context 1.6 of study analysis Data 1.5 Methodological1.4 approach Significance1.3 framework Theoretical 1.2 Statement1.1 of the problem Introduction1.0 stract Conclusion Cameroon. Southwest of Bayangs and Ejaghams the among Chieftancy encounter colonial the and Chiefs

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...... - political organisation of chieftaincy of organisation political

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...... Contents vi

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ii 3 6 1 7 6 4 1 1

i

CEU eTD Collection Bibliography 5Chapter Summary and...... Conclusion Poli and Development 4Chiefs, Chapter 4.5 4.5 and Resistance agency 4.4 SWELA,4.3 development and the state associations Elite 4.2 4.1 Introduction4.0 Conclusion Chiefs and the discourse of development ......

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55 46 61 57 44 41 41 58 41

CEU eTD Collection being is chieftaincy of institution the how demonstrate to and capital social symbolic micro both the capture in an for need is the there intermarriages, and as expansion such lineages among and changes within to associated be might stools chieftaincy over competition and conflicts accentuated the While 1.1 among others? Chief, Senator Prof, Chief, Chief as in such titles reflected as titles neotraditional for rush this why question, ascription and promising kith their and ‘development’. This kins, me has ask prompted the to com tradition, modernity and culturalmarrying capital thereby symbolic for chiefship including titles neotraditional taking increasingly are alike politicians ofManyu Divisionin Southwest Cameroon. Laymen, civilservants, academics and and counter by claims manifested as chieftaincy of institution in the conflicts exacerbate to came however ascript was strictly throne the to accession Bayart, Mope, an 1997, 1985) 1998, Warnier, 1979, (Nkwi, Fisiy, 1976, 1993, 1995, post comp between contention of bone the and 2005) (Nyamnjoh, resilient remained has institution the chieftaincy, of institution the of requiem the sang long have theorists modernisation Although 1.0 Statement of problem the Introduction - independent Cameroonian political context, chiefs were considered as ‘vote banks’ as ‘vote considered chiefs were context, political Cameroonian independent In the immediate immediate the In throne. the over claims conflicting to leading thereby parties etiting - depthhistorical cum anthropologi - claims among lineages in both majority and minority Bayang Bayang minority and majority both in lineages among claims

-

and macro

- level mechanisms responsible for this jockeying for for jockeying this for responsible mechanisms level Chapter 1 cal study of the dynamics of this conflict so as to to as so conflict this of dynamics the of study cal ive. The pro The ive. 1

- democracy turmoil bining achievement and and achievement bining and Ejagham clans

of the 1990s the 1990s of /Chief .Dr, d CEU eTD Collection • • • • • even and parties political F reasons. main by informed is research this for Region in Southwest the Division Manyu of The choice puppets mat and accesssymbolic for to quest their segmentary ?2011) (Pemunta, societies’ secret of membership on depends longer no Ejaghams the and Bayang will: research this Specifically, and titles neotraditional alike men lay and elites are Why is: thesis this informing pol in present the renegotiated Nyamnjoh,2004, 2005, Geschiere,Nyamnjoh,2004, 2005, 2004, EyohKuba Nkwi 1999; and 2006, Lentz and Socpa chieftaincyin havemostlyfocused Cameroon on centralised societies 2008, (Fokwang, Regionin the unlike chiefta Movement People’s Cameroon ruling the are following national with parties political main (PAP) Party Action formed Peoples i the of societies in segmentary the accentuated more are conflicts ncy Find out ifFind out chiefs these have any in agency their dealings the with state and chiefs how out Find Explore h h Find out for reasons the Explore .

(CPDM) and the opposition the and (CPDM) societies of Southwest Cameroon. irst and foremost, and irst ow democratization ow ow this acquisition of titles by elites lead elites by titles of acquisition this ow centralised socie

promising their ethnic groups ‘

the

existing

elites this rush for neo for rush this itically polarized context. The central research question question research The central context. itically polarized

unlike other regions other unlike

neither have a regional n a regional have neither

parties ties of of ties are has their home villages and region. and villages home in their erial resources

Social Democratic Front (SDF) party. (SDF) Front Democratic Social maneuvering the postcolonial bureaucratic state in state bureaucratic postcolonial the maneuvering transformed theinstitutiontransformed in of chieftaincy the

(Liberal Democratic Party, Democratic (Liberal

2 Cameroon.

- traditional titles when ‘status among the the among ‘status when titles traditional

development’? of Cameroon

s Lastly, studies of theinstitution of making claims to the throne and throne the to claims making

to “development”? or national following. national or

there feware there indigenous

LDC, and the newly newly the and LDC,

or they are just are they or

Democratic

Southwest Southwest Secondly, Secondly,

The

two two two two

to to

CEU eTD Collection the position nati the at be neotraditionalcan titles chieftaincyand other domains institutional ca has Wolf what and dependency, and power of relations external and internal the time, through relations the group), politics national and necessity the t for calls This neopatrimoniliasm. macro in the politics and ethnicity the Northwest and Southwest region Southwest the within processes historical power. as understanding awaylocality of and history of implications its with perspective junctions' Kalb's I my'critical will frame largely methodologically, around and research Theoretically 1.2 Cameroon. macro and regional with intersection their and processes al historic local and between political intersection Cameroon Southwest of polities segmentray Ejagham and Bayang the among strategising political and a relatio establish to attempting by insights useful brings therefore study ethnographic ethnicity.This of politics the and of democratisation context 1997; Konings Nkwi, 2006, NyamnjohYenshu 2006; 1999; within 1997) and Nyamnjoh, the Theoretical framework Theoretical

In line with this theoretical perspective, I argue that an analysis of local political and and local political of an analysis that argue I perspective, theoretical this line with In . onallevel and as astrategy amonglocal political entrepreneurs strategically to

m This will be achieved through local level ethnography that captures the level captures local that ethnography be achievedThis through will selves for appointment as appointment for selves : ” - sociopolitical events within the centralised state architecture in architecture state centralised the within events sociopolitical the connections in space (and in and out of a place/in and out a of out and place/in of a out in and (and space in connections the (Kalb preface). 2005: and Tak, implies This that

must be understood within the largermust extra be within understood the lled “the interstitial relations” between apparently separate separate apparently between interstitial relations” “the lled - sociopolitical context of Cameroon whichis based on

an exchange for exchange an 3

o see local politics as intertwined in regional in intertwined regional as localseeo politics under and within the within and stood stood

’development’ nship between neotraditional titles titles between neotraditional nship in the light of neopatrimonialism neopatrimonialism of light in the

larger Anglophone regions of

from the state - local context of of local context

this quest forthis quest .

CEU eTD Collection new socio to and adaptability hasinstitution While this adaptiveness dynamism, remarkable displayed demonstrating that for long chiefdoms. requiemsfor sang have modernization critics and who their theorists repression of structures overwhelming most face ofthe the Theoretically,by presenting chiefs and theinstitution of chieftaincy as act 1.3 Geschiere, 2004). EnglundKuba and2006;Lentz NyamnjohEyoh 2004; 1999; Nyamnjoh, and 2005, w the in ethnicity of reconceptualisation the with dealing literature broader from the insights as as well Mamdani’s belly”, the of “politics of concept Bayart’s evenimpossible or unthinkable ( are others while possible behaviours making some of action, shapesfield social the that amode of power power, structural finally and, (4) act, settings others where or environment o power, organizational or tactical (3) action, shape social to power the or interactional, (2) potency personal as (1) describes power 1999) inspheresstruggle andlegitimation ofviolence). (fields), power Wolf (symbolic (1990, function as social relations of power bybecoming objects of stru resources Valued (capitals). resources valued in power 1) ways: distinctive but analytical, in three power analyzes Bourdieu circumstances’’. changing historically under constraints imposing by desires, and beliefs of shaping the through domination to compliance secure ‘‘the to as capacity defines Stevenpower Lukes (2005) (Wolf, 1999). 1990, power Fou Pierre Bourdieu’s theory of power and and power of theory Bourdieu’s Pierre by complemented be will framework larger This Significance cault’s (1979) notion of power and governmentality as well as Wolf’s broader notion of notionbroader Wolf’s of and notion well as as cault’s power governmentality of (1979)

ake of the democratic transition of the 1990s in Africa (Shack,1979, in (Shack,1979, Africa 1990s of the transition democratic the of ake - economic and political developments, I argue that chiefdoms chiefdoms argue that I developments, political and economic 1990: 586- 1990: 7, Wolf, 1999: 5). Also important Wolf, are Fran Also7, 5). 1999: 4 r the ability to shape instrumentally the the instrumentally shape to ability the r

(1996) “institutionalized despotism” (1996) , this project , ggle 2) power in specific in specific power 2) ggle

seeks to challenge challenge seeks to ive agents even in in even agents ive internal internal ç ois ois CEU eTD Collection as well as ofagency. power conceptualisation broad offers a that perspective analytical an for local calls beyond the forces larger in struggles of local political The entanglement domains”. institutional separate apparently betwee relations” interstitial “the has Wolf called what and and dependency, power of relations external internal and the time, through relations the of agroup), out and a place/in junctions” “a critical Herman (2005) Tak and Kalb Don socialshapeideas their and reactions to andthe game situations Relying politics. to of on inentangled multiple spaces simultaneous therefore are including politicians actors Social ethnoscapes. by global spaces of subversion the of because vogue” the longer no is regional/national] or [local urban or rural either a because problematic conceptualization[s]…are phenomenon”. social suchargue that mask a contingency distinctions andin‘‘suggest and the pattern c (2012:1) Bosire and Pemunta instance, For deplored. been have categories methodological Spatial dichotomies such as rural la in struggles local of political the entanglement demonstrate seeks to therefore This research capital. symbolic and financial both require often labour and land over control where villages home at also and opportunities maximizing of way a as symbols ethnicfor cultural by in elites new quest the the agents become active have and chiefs rger political struggles and strategies within Cameroon’s centralized state bureaucracy. bureaucracy. state centralized Cameroon’s within strategies and struggles political rger

- perspective Specifically, they demonstrate ‘‘that …geographic, spatio …geographic, ‘‘that demonstrate they Specifically, one that explores the connections in space (and in and out ininof (and out and space explores connections the that one - urban, local/national/regional as distinctive analytical and and analytical distinctive as local/national/regional urban, , , Pemunta maintain andBosire (2012:1) this that ly -

local, regional and national and these locations locations these and national regional and local, 5

at the centre of bureaucratic and state power, power, state and of bureaucratic centre the at ll have spaces become hybrid: “ become hybrid: rootedness in in rootedness haracter of haracter -

temporal temporal calls for for calls n CEU eTD Collection individual in individual administrati heads, roots. historical has that elites Anglophone among struggles political larger as well as today themselves find ac into take to had I chieftaincy, of context politi national larger the as within well as region(local) as awhole in Southwest the and in particular region Mamfe the within MarcusFischer and 1986) The adoption of amulti helped individuals Knowledgeable sessions, discussion informal interviews, observations, as such sources information analysis for although data framework is the general explanations. This 1994:45) andand andthe Edwards generation of Talbot, differences (see possible commonalities processes, and patterns themes, of identification the involve will analysis Data 1.5 study. the in interested was whoever with sessions discussion informal had also in sources), (documentary literature of secondary through acombination was generated Data state. Cameroonian postcolonial bureaucratic from the ‘development’ attract to is perceived this quest how moderni both marrying thereby titles chieftaincy for competing are who individuals of motivations the reveal help to as so data qualitative of analysis eventual and collection the on placed was Emphasis interpretive. is approach methodological The overall 1.4 Data Data Methodological approach analysis - depth interviewsdepth with 25 individuals between April 20

The sample for this study included a wide range of stakeholders: quarter quarter stakeholders: of range awide included study this for The sample

ve officials, chiefs, in both rural and urban areas. Altogether, I conducted conducted I Altogether, areas. urban and rural both in chiefs, officials, ve - locale ethnographic approach locale ethnographic

- depth individual interviews, and info enabled me to examine the relationship of chiefs relationship examinethe me to enabled to elitesboth

cal context of Cameroon (macro) of Cameroon context cal in identifying count the national political context in which chiefs chiefs which in context political national the count 6

other potential respondents. respondents. potential other

(see among others, (see rmal discussion sessions. . To understand the local the understand . To th

and May 5 May and ty and tradition and and tradition and ty

Clifford (1997,

from specific th

2013. I I 2013. CEU eTD Collection is It Division. the of part northern the is Nigeria, borders also which Akwaya, Nigeria. borders and lowland of up made largely is Central Mamfe of west and south located Eyumojock, as villages, Central Mamfe with subdivisions administrative four is made upof agriculture. It to being converted is itincreasingly rainforest, isbounded to th ‘’Grassfields’’ higher by the is framed that Basin Manyu The Region. Southwest make the up two Anglophone regions of Cameroon. Manyuis one of thesix administrative Divisions that present of Manyu Division 1.6 of study. context the set to it appropriate consider now I qualitatively. willbe analyzed etc) documents, hilly andmost one ofenclaved the regionsin and underdeveloped Cameroon. Context of study Fig REGIONS TEN MAP OF 1: CAMEROON SHOWING

the most densely populated. In the east of the Division is Upper Bayang. Bayang. is Upper Division the of east In densely the most populated. the e East by the Northwest Region by Northwest the e East

- day

Southwest Region where the study took place is one of the the of one is place took study the where Region Southwest 7 - - including and its surrounding Mamfe town the other Anglophone Region. Coveredby

CEU eTD Collection a chiefs and roots colonial has Chieftaincy communities. acephalous they are coastline, Cameroon’s on Region and in Southwest the groups coastal Like Subdivision. in Eyumojock majority the the are The Ejaghams Bayangs. the are 2011c:171) virtue of their trans institutions political and economic identities fluid more of reification colonial ho is Manyu . The. in ethnic dominant Central Mamfe group and Bayang Upper Subdivisions me to myriad ethnicities who overlap in their territories and and in territories their overlap who myriadme ethnicities to - borderlocation on Cameroon the

and have historic connections to the outside w outside the to connections historic have and ”

8 (Evans,nd). They also share common common share also They (Evans,nd). re relatively weak in authority when in when weak authority relatively re - (Pemunta, (Pemunta, frontiers” Nigeria are products of the products ‘‘are ‘‘ orld by socio other other -

CEU eTD Collection n.d) Evans, descent levels, higherexist at usuallyclans through importan most and basic is the village ‘the out, 4 (nd: Evans As others’. of action of field social the structure to unable are ‘they 2011b)Pemunta (2011a, in to reference Grassf Western of the entities political centralized the to compared - but but these fluid more are have fixedand no authority political .

the fight againstfight the - 9 village groups defined by defined village groups perceived common t unit of neotraditional government. neotraditional of unit t

female circumcision to note that that note to circumcision female ields region. This led This region. ields ’’ ( cf cf Ruel, 1969 in in Ruel, 1969

- Ties may may Ties 5) points points 5)

CEU eTD Collection DIVISIONS

FIG 2: MAP OF SOUTHWEST REGION WITH ITS SIX ADMINISTRATIVE REGION SIX WITH ITS MAPFIG OF 2: SOUTHWEST Pemunta(2011a). Source:

10

CEU eTD Collection socio andhas been area this the has populated region Grassfields from the 2011a 2008, (Pemunta region Grassfields Western from the migrants influx of unprecedented witnessed has Region Southwest the administration, colonial German the by Fako Mount of esp times, colonial 1967 of War Biafran the during area the into came also refugees Nigerian trade. slave transatlantic the during middlemen were Ejaghams the and Bayangs The times. colonial been character has unceasingly The area , 2011b, Pemunta and Njiki, 2010). Today, most of the migrant population especially populationmostmigrant of especially Today, the and 2011b,2010). , Pemunta Njiki, ecially with the establishment of plantation agriculture on the fertile slopes slopes fertile the on agriculture plantation of establishment the with ecially FIG 3: MAPFIG 3: OF DIVISION MANYU Source: Pemunta (2011a) Pemunta Source: ized bymobile including actors itinerant traders since 11

- - politically politically 70. Since 70.

CEU eTD Collection broth memberslineage or These pit conflicts usually claims over chieftaincy titles among Bayang and Ejaghamlineages in Southwest Cameroon. counter and claims of conflicts accentuated the investigate to seeks study This exploratory 1.7 reunification since Anglophones of marginalization perceived the of because country the of region Francophone from the independence and secession wants that group pressure localAnglophone a (SCNC), Congress National Cameroon ofpolitical the Southern including activities the disturbances all for responsible being of accused and scapegoated are plantations colonial in the workers as storm by region the took who Westerners North light, same the In lobby. Anglophone the hisministryhis to and within co juicy posts politiciansformer such Simon PM, as AchidiAchu- (1992 inKNDP West byvarioushisincluding party Ngu Foncha and and JohnNorth the 1960s development ‘of the South West to the advantage of the North retarded and associated ‘the resources of development transfer perceived the over angry housing According and transport. Konings to and Nyamnjoh- (1997:212 in trade, economy gion’s re of Westerners the North ‘entrepreneurial’ of the domination perceived decry the often Elites Association Southwest ofbanner the the under elites Southwest Fromperspective, this in Cameroon. neopatrimonialism of state heart the at is lens of ethnoterri from the area the of ‘development’ the to seen as athreat and suspicion with treated are They Region. Northwest the from is founder whose Cameroon opposition the of members are home own their contentious. Ethnicelites often point out that thesemigrants who are Lay out

in 1961.

- ethnics whe ethnics 12 SDF ers at each other’s throat. Although a a Although throat. other’s each at ers

reas, he had risen to the top thanks to to thanks top the to risen had he reas, party 1996) who allegedly1996) gave all top -

the main opposition party in in mainthe opposition party West region by politicians politicians by region West

dominating the dominating 213), SWELAis which torilisation m in m in - CEU eTD Collection conclusion the is which Ej and Bayang the of chiefs andininstitution the vote rigging. four examines electioneering and campaigns Chapter the for appropr the inby state the place put of governmentality mechanism is a chieftaincy of regulation administrative the argue that I Cameroon. Southwest on emphasizes with aparticular inCameroon chieftaincy of organization sociopolitical the examines party the mechanism, this actors by the colonial and postcolonial administrationin Cameroon as wellas how, through two Chapter study. this achieve of aims the to hasbeen adopted methodology research A qualitative development. bringing in offramed theyare terms usuallystrategy, mechanism positioning and political of

presents presents the institution of chieftaincy and the co attempts answers to mainthe to res answers attempts - state has whittled the powers of chiefs. On its part, chapter thr chapter its part, On of chiefs. powers the has whittled state a

gham regions in regions gham

13

the democratisation process while chapter five five while chapter process democratisation the earch questions. questions. earch - optation of chiefs as political iation of chiefs chiefs of iation ee CEU eTD Collection T 2.0 Cameroon . agenda appropriated colonial political stage chance the on abetter stand over claims conflicting represent claim to inter personal own forniches themselvespoliticalbyhangingthe CPDM onto ruling co his chapter demonstrates that demonstrates his chapter opted by the German, British and French and colonial British administrations German, bythe opted Introduction

They played a preponderant role in the countdown to independence in Southern Southern in independence to countdown the in role preponderant a played They state Cameroonian

(today’s Northwest and Southwest Regions). Southwest and Northwest (today’s

Chi by postcolonial the

efs . ests usually framed as bringing as framed usually ests

This quest

in in colonialthe postcol and

chieftaincy throne chieftaincy and

for dominance in local and r and local in dominance for the chiefs have been coopte been have chiefs the

state Cameroonian The chiefs were first first The chiefs were purposes. various their for elites Chapter 2 s

as individuals strategise to outdo each other and each to other outdo to strategise individuals as and and 14

to Chi

gain

‘

development onial context Cameroon in in the realisation of the state’s political political state’s the of in realisation the

access to resources suchland as resources to access

Today, c Today, d by the state: egional politics egional ’

to theirto people arving out new out carving hiefs are

party

and elites colonial and post -

has partly le partly has and and

whom they they whom are b are

for their their for .

eing d to d to -

CEU eTD Collection R the of Regions Southwest and Northwest the today began their political Nigeria. to attached C Northern in 1922. mandates Nations of League it of percent 20 with themselves Cameroon East into two Cameroon partitioned France allfor Nations of League the of recommendations with the when colony h Batanga Bimbia and Kings of Douala, with the treaties and signed negotiated Nachtigal Dr.Gustav Otto Chancellor German the 1884, in that backdrop Cameroon h Victoria Queen chiefs, Douala with reached treaties numerous Despite 2.1 dquarters first in Douala and later, Buea. later, and in Douala first eadquarters Chiefs and the colonial en culminating

a British protectorate British a ameroons and Southern Cameroons Southern and ameroons Fig SOUTHERN MAP OF 3: CAMEROON BRITISH Anglo .

The French took 80 percent of the territory while the British, contended contended British, the while territory the of percent 80 took French The -

French allied forces pushedforces out allied French

T into Kamerun becoming a German protectorate with an administrative administrative withan protectorate German a becoming Kamerun into evolution under different political traditions. he two a two he counter djacent territories djacent

in agreement March a4 1916 and was swept off guard swept and was

-

Brit The British later portioned out their mandate into into mandate their out portioned later British The ish French and Cameroon 15

I n 1916, -

of British andFrench Cameroon initially administered separately but later but separately administered initially

the Germans the von epublic of Cameroon.

Cameroon became a Franco a became Cameroon Bismar

by the Germans the by

“ but enemy property”, enemy c

. In line line In . of battle Mora the at k t

both territories became two became two both territories

hrough h hrough Southern Cameroons is is Cameroons Southern

then then esitated in declaring esitated . It was against this It .

called West and West called is representative is representative

Britain and

therefore - British British

CEU eTD Collection (International Crisis Group, 2010). their authority in return for tribute payments and the formal acknowledgement of the latter’s sovereignity traditional ruler of a tribal group within the district within tribalthe traditional group ruler a of cartography L in Source: 2 1 lo perceived of wide range of implementation the for French the of a creation chiefs were Cameroon, in Southeast (Geschiere, 2003). ameroon House of Chiefs and political developments in the region. the in developments political and origins of Chiefs of Southern House the Cameroon

Traditional and religious leaders alike in the north actually negotiated with the German administration to maintain In what follows and except otherwise stated, the on I draw account heavily incisive from Chem-Langhée’s(1983) German predecessors German their ike - cal political organisation and organisation political cal bamenda http://ntemfacofege.wordpress.com/2011/09/20/southern -

begins/ under the tutelage of district heads who at times happened to be the recognised be recognised the to happened times at who heads district of tutelage the under

Like the German predecessors, the French used metropolitan legislation, legislation, metropolitan used French the predecessors, German the Like .

“ coercive measures” explaining why they lacked leverage in the in the leverage lacked they why explaining measures” coercive

,

both colonial masters both colonial “ do not constitute an independent an constitute not do 16 1 , 2

(Chem

existing existing relied the on - Langhée,1983:656) - cameroons

core of authority” authority” of core - palaver

administrative administrative .

Similarly, - drama - a CEU eTD Collection Division which was to be administered directly because because directly be administered was to which Division (NCAs) under the Geschiere2000, in Noorduyn, 1982 2005:Ibid). “ authoritybecause theyhad bonds noblood with anyformally lines established royal or nativelaws- and 2005:69 (Noorduyn, customs Germans from the inherited Bamenda and (Mamfe) Ossidenge Kumba, Victoria, of Divisions four throu appendix I rule. indirect of favour The Cameroon Southern in decisions indigenous in say final the have to authorities traditional of determination the as well su of western determination and desire the in events Nigeria, rule, political indirect of policy British the territory, their of paradigm administrative German factor other Cameroons, Cameroon after WorldWar I. in politics voice give chiefs the and to represent emergence eventually It authorities. traditional replacing leaders modern in colony strengthenindigenous systems the authority affairs to tended superimposed because they were installedinbecauseinno chieftainship communities which they were ever existed’’(Mback ppor

lack oflogistics gh the Chiefs under the banner of Native Administration.To facilitate this process, the the this process, facilitate Administration.To Native of banner the under gh Chiefs the t of traditional rulers in their in rulers traditional of t

were split into several administrative sub administrative several into split were to the Northern Province of Nigeria leading to the establishment of indirect rule rule indirect of establishment the to leading Nigeria of Province Northern the to s Cameroon Southern the of “ neo

auspices of Native Authorities of Native auspices - traditional’’ chiefs and rules based on their perceived interpretation of based perceived ontheir traditional’’ and rules chiefs - particularly European staff European particularly s n early 1917, British Southern C Southern British 1917, n early

that underpinned that

Apart from the precolonial political administration of Southern Southern of administration political precolonial from the Apart (Chem

struggle -

Langhé House of Chiefs ofHouse

with the British over larger political concerns as as larger political concerns over with the British 17 the establishment of the SCHC included the the included SCHC the of establishment the e ,1983).

- 70). Many70). - The

-

led to the abandonment of direct rulein units generally called Native Cou Native called units generally but for the Kaka the for but -

prior to the British takeover of takeover British the to prior - non of system

(SCHC) “ the ameroon became an administrive became administrive an ameroon -

educated elites to harness the harness the to elites educated new chiefs lacked legitimate new legitimate lacked chiefs

people were too primitive to to primitive too were people laid the foundation of the the of foundation the laid - a political outfit meant to to meant outfit political a - Ntem area of Bamenda intereference in native in native intereference

and resistance to rt Areas rt West West

CEU eTD Collection I Chiefs. of House Cameroon Southern a demanded later as they leaders traditional Cameroon’s Southern to was salutory of Chiefs, House Northern of the existence the chiefs, and appoint dismiss to government the authorized imposition, of act an as because Constitution by this sparked controversy the Despite authority. no traditional or little with administration by colonial as the chiefs recognised plausibl part integral an was Cameroon Ch effecon Januaryt took and 1947. reality Chiefs.Cameroon of House enthusiasm We the of capital social In a 1949, members”( as 2 Co others Court, of the President the as recognized a Langhé “ (NAA Authorities chiefs smaller and council themselves govern Cameroon when Sir John Macpherson, the new Governor of Nigeria asked for a new new a for asked Nigeria of Governor new the Macpherson, John Sir when Cameroon n early 1949, the western the n 1949, early performed the executive and judicial functions of Native Administration”(Chem Native of functions judicial and executive the performed - Fons were the only Native Authorities of their individual NCAs. individual their of Authorities Native only the were Fons iefs in the Central Legislature Central the in iefs s ). The Courts comprised of village heads in the villageheads comprised of Courts The ). e y the case because Igbo Chiefs were warrant Chiefs warrant Chiefs were Igbo because case y the ,1983:658). In the precolonial fondoms of Nso, Kom, Bali Nyonga and Bum the four Kom,and Bum Bali the Nyonga Nso, fondoms In the of precolonial ,1983:658).

major re

Chem alongside constitutional changes in Nigeria coalesced to produce the Southern produce Southern the to coalesced Nigeria in changes constitutional alongside (NA s - ) and they administered justice in particular Native Authority Areas Authority Native in particular justice administered they and ) Langhé ’’ - organisation took place due to the British desire to coopt andharness the to the British desire place to due organisation took ). Chiefs or Fons usually aided usually Fons or Chiefs ). 1969:546 (Gardenier, e - , stern educated crop crop stern educated of elites which theyhad produced.This educat Ibid

The proposed Richard’s Constitution of March 1949, became a March 1949, Constitution of Richard’s proposed The (a )

. - were to be represented in the Central legislature. in Central the be represented to were

fon) within the within fon) ed elites waded into constitution into the elitesed waded . Only Chiefs of the Eastern Region of which Southern Southern which of Region Eastern the of Chiefs Only .

Among others, it proposed for the representation of of representation the for it proposed Among others, 18 ir jurisdictions were coopted as coopted were jurisdictions ir - Presidents, and the rest were simply simply were and rest the Presidents,

ve Divisions Divisions ve administrati four - individuals and appointed

On al

e debate

Chief Chief

by an advisory advisory an by s

was usually usually was in Southern Southern in

This was was This

Native Native it -

CEU eTD Collection implement the policies of the local adminsitration. local the of policies the implement local to issues and handle to retained were and Councils Courts Village afederation,the into reforms culminating subsequent Despite sytem. adminsitrative Authority Native the of repudiation as the well as Authorities Native administration British the and by elites represented modernity - 1976:41 indepen and distinct formseparate a to reunified idea that the Reunification, and framework, Nigerian the within not or whether entity political and administrative single a form to unified be Cameroons Southern and Northern that idea the Unification, it in state independent an into develop and from Nigeria separate Cameroons” with Nigeri region become autonomous an it to for and Nigeria of Region Eastern from the Cameroon autonomy o or for the separation called they also demands, contradictory economic, social and educational development ofSouthern Cameroon. Among their series of Nations United the called on Administration. of Native system entire the and leaders traditional of the challenge “ administ colonial understan to made were rulers traditional Regionmade 27Chiefs, 6administrative officers upof and 37observers. reso a where 1949 early in Victoria in Council Provincial Cameroon’s new the of meeting a chaired Chief educated constitution. m of Nigeria Provinces and regions all regard, this In Constitution. Richard’s the aside setting thereby Constitution unprogressive and illiterat and unprogressive 45). This the deep divisions within demonstrates and theirbetween the clash ranks a, Secession a,

In reaction to this development, Chief MangaWilliams ration.This irked the educated elites educated the irked ration.This - lution was adopted in favour of a separate Southern Cameroon’s Cameroon’s Southern separate of a infavour adopted lution was et to brainstorm andputforward proposalsfor theenvisaged meaning that the “ the that meaning e Chiefs [to stymy] Chiefs e the progress of the country”. Thisled to the

all sections of the former German Kamerun German former of the sections all

(UN) to institute administrative d their subordinate status vis subordinate status d their 19 Southern Cameroons” or “

who charged tha charged who dent political entity (Chem entity political dent

and by tradition represented reforms and to t the British were using were British the t - - a semi Western à all of of all

- protectorate be be protectorate vis the British British the vis

However, the the However, s own right, right, own s oversee the the oversee f Southern f Southern - L “ anghé British British

They They e -

,

CEU eTD Collection effect. to that adopted motion was unilaterally of a House Chiefs and the es the for case made the advocates and Assemby of House Cameroon Southern mudsledgingeven tactics. using concerns larger political on focused remained former the up, set administrative in organs. those commoners elected with authority and share power their had to legislating in engaged still were who those since T KPP. the of detriment the at voted were candidates KNC all as 1954 of elections Council Native and Federal the during was replicated scenerio same The British. the against apoint scored the to Thanks aQuasi became seat one but all won they leaders, traditional of the support 19 the in victory KNC’s the on region a separate of status Cameroon’s Southern pegged Colonies for State of Secretary British Se Dr.EML Endeley. Dr.EML fo to merged opinion of shades political co Chiefs were from chieflyfamilies. ofof officials,council 6came only dominated13elected Councils.Out Federal the traditional nom were candidates elected Coincidentally, turnout. voter low despite representatives, Cameroons Southern the electing in cooperated both Assembly, of House Eastern his development transformedmost traditionalleaders into mere executors of general policy paration,

Thereafter, both parties fiercely competed in woeing traditional authorities traditional inwoeing competed fiercely parties both Thereafter,

Secession, support of the traditional authorities, one crop of western - - opted by western the opted Federal Territory –anFederal Territory outcome that eventuated With the involvement of local elites and the weakening of the native native the of weakening the and elites local of involvement the With

Thereafter, Paul M. Kale formed the Kamerun People’s Party (KPP). Party Kamerun the People’s formed Kale Paul M. Thereafter, in the central administrative apparatus, but for their comfortable majority majority for comfortable but their apparatus, administrative in central the

Unification, and Reunification and Unification,

October 26, 1954 marked the inaugural meetingmarkedinaugural the the 1954of 26, October - educated elites into the nationalist movement. nationalist into the elites educated 53 general elections. It came to pass that thanks to the the to thanks pass that to came It elections. general 53 rm the Kamerun National Congress (KNC) under under (KNC) Congress National Kamerun the rm 20 .

In the 1951 general elections to the elections theto 1951general In . Thereafter, Southern Cameroon Cameroon Southern Thereafter,

in to separation from Nigeria. from Nigeria. separation to -

educated leaders had leaders had educated - tablishment of of tablishment

Autonomy or -

The two two The at times times at inees inees

The The

CEU eTD Collection safegu to accession Biya’s affairs. regional local and dominate to sought elites bureaucratic Ahmadou under apparatus state postcolonial of the consolidation the that intimates Fokwang Jude 2.2 identity. inof apolitical now were search Chiefs the Chiefs and C Western in the change the of areflection as of Chiefs House Cameroon Cameroon. of Republic 1 the matters, exacerbate western was he whether leader, traditional other any of authority the B and was commoner educated an under Chem Bongfen concomit was who of th patronage the finally emerged in 1960 with limitrather Chiefs of House The politics. Cameroon in Southern say final have to leaders was educated an advisory role C aH for space created Nigeria for proposals Constitutional The 1957 were mostly commoners. inAssembly who the representatives elected mere of jealoused were and masses of the obedience the enjoyed Fons rulers, As traditional ameroons. However, the House of Chiefs was limited to legislative proposals and policies and proposals legislative to limited was Chiefs of House the However, ameroons. Ch afut respectively afut ard stabilityard national andjust as his unity Ahidjo predecessor and the colonial powers, iefs and the postcolonial state Ahidjo’s autho ameroon. - L - anghé

e Commissioner of the Southern C Southern the of Commissioner e since the House of Assembly under the tutelage of the new,western of the the under tutelage Assembly of House the since tantly Speaker of the House of A of House the of Speaker tantly

power, he made alliances with old traditional elites to to elites traditional old with alliances made he power, of mantle the In May Ahmadou Ahidjo 1972, unilaterally disbanded the House of -

e were illiterates and yet, would not yield would not yet, to and illiterates were importance of in order and

Although retained, the House of Chiefs was renamed as the West West the as was renamed of Chiefs House the Although retained, ritarian regime led to side the led to regime ritarian ( 1983:

October 1961F October 673) suggests673) that the aim of placing of the House Chiefs

because

ed and largely symbolic powers.

“ powerful traditional ederal Constitution gave birth to the Federal Federal the to birth gave Constitution ederal 21 ameroons Execu ameroons ssembly and not a tr a not and ssembly lining of c of lining ouse of Chiefs of the Southern the Southern of Chiefs of ouse

chiefs hiefs as the emergingnew

name from Southern to fromname to Southern At the nascent stage of of stage nascent the At tive Council, J.O Field Field J.O Council, tive - -

educated or not”. or educated the Fon o Fon the It was placed under under was placed It aditional leader. aditional leader. f Nso, Kom Kom Nso, f

To To - -

CEU eTD Collection concede that like other Africans, Cam Africans, like other that concede polit with together rights political former of denial subsequent the choice, real any possibilities...without sources of power. sources the saw and push This ). 2005:72 leaders”(Noorduyn, State the of legitimacy the challenge made protesters problems, rescinded aid see or reforms political and economic demonstration non thisparticipate[...] through time (2005:71) playedfactors a supporti window time that during rate growth economic timing and outcome” politica widespread the for responsible partly pl that downturn economic the although that view under end the following situation international the and 1990s T (Noorduyn, 2005:71). Southerners appointing simultaneously and groups Kirdi authorities traditional from the North d’etat country the of north the in particularly taken

in 1984 was

caused by caused a concantenation reading, it was reading, by Bratton and Van der Walle der by and Van Bratton c hiefs reclaiming hiefs s’’.With the government sweating government the s’’.With made him to recruit new partners within the ranks of the of the ranks the within new partners recruit himmade to .

In this regard, began graduallythe government of the diminishing powers

ical diffusion from other countries that led to protests”. He goes on to to on goes He protests”. led to that countries from other ical diffusion

- of the ensue the of towards democratisation and democratisation towards Despite their eroded popularity, they have how have they popularity, eroded their Despite particularly Fulbe leaders from leaders Fulbe from th particularly he democratic influenza and pro the influenza he democratic ve, but essentially secondary roles”. secondary essentially but ve,

rather decades ing protests.

the growing frustrationthe growing regular about participation

of had done had of factors. These factors. included of the

long - eroonian voters exercised the the exercised voters eroonian electoral outlets such as strikes, riots, and and riots, strikes, as such outlets electoral

- (1998:131 22 l protest, l protest,

lost Cameroon was also able to maintain a positive positive a maintain to able also was Cameroon . Nevertheless, events such as a botched coup coup botched a as such events Nevertheless, .

of the Cold War. A comparative analysis analysis Aof War. Cold comparative the (3.2 percent). (3.2 political space by aligning with significant significant with by aligning space political

under donor pressureunder donor good governance good agued Africa from Africa midagued the , ‘ “ 146 and not finding solutions to existing findingnot solutionsand to it cannot explain the explain cannot it e N

) supports the supports cf 2005) Noorduyn orth byorth members appointing of to to top positionsin the North - democracy moveme the of nt

Additionally, Additionally, According to Noorduyn’sAccording to

chronic reforms newly educated elites educated newly ever

to eitherinstitute ‘ familiar to urge

economic crisis crisis economic [whole]

“ culminated in culminated succeeded succeeded ‘ international international - 1980s

extent, extent,

was was in in

CEU eTD Collection their domains” their [administration] elites] their ethnic group administration. the or subjects their support to in whether adilemma caught often are administration the of in eyes the order” and peace public threaten adm institutions into t first collectors tax and organisers labour as role their dec A July 1977Presidential discourse of bringing about “ ( hegemonic project the on relied blurred andentrepreneurs political state on, there From wilderness. political into Chiefs the sending cent - state a unitary of birth the and 1972 May in structure federal the of abolition the came Then integration. and the party, national i power, consolidate to bid In a favouritism and patronage on based largelyis dominance” political regional maintaining being caught up inbeinga up caught Pemuntagroup andcharacterise ) :48 (2010 Njiki sta the pitting conflict the of analysis ethnographic ralization of power was the abolition of the House of Chiefs in West Cameroon, thereby thereby Cameroon, West in of Chiefs House the of abolition was the power of ralization inist

simultaneously engage in both resistance and consent”. In likemanner, In and consent”. resistance both in engage simultaneously ration:

state and party to further both their individualistic ambitions and their their and ambitions individualistic their both further to party and state

the United RepublicCameroon. of (Jua, 1995:43). (Jua, “ in the execution of government directives and recoverying state taxes within within taxes state recoverying and directives government of execution in the intermediaries between intermediaries

Cameroon NationalUnion and the state. In th and state. the - 1997:5 Eyoh also see

“ o o third degree c double jeopardydouble situation’ ree No.77/245 development”

n 1966, Ahidjo dissolved all political parties to form a single to parties allpolitical dissolved Ahidjo n 1966, Article 29 of the de the of Article 29 - politicians, businessmen and civil servants civil and businessmen politicians, eir dilemma of shifting allegiances: allegiances: shifting of dilemma eir hiefs hiefs

. the administration and the people, helping the (Fokwang,- 2003:88

that replicated the colonial typology of c colonial the typology replicated that

. 23 10, Fokwang 2003:96) 10,

and spelt out the (CNU) in the name of ensuring national unity national ensuringinname unity of the (CNU) ’

the chiefs and to a large extent elites alarge extent to chiefs and the whenever they have to mediate between between mediate to have they whenever te of Cameroon and the Bakweri ethnic ethnic and Bakweri the of Cameroon te

(Geschiere, 1993) cree prescribes sanctions f sanctions cree prescribes One unfettered effect, apart from the from apart the effect, unfettered One 89) ir

role as auxill role

- - (non since the political system system political the since party dichotomy became became dichotomy party

often couched in the in the couched often

classified c classified cooperation). Chiefs “ [chiefsthey and

or or i aries of the of the aries increasingly increasingly

“ Fokwang hieftancy hieftancy hiefs acts that that acts

In their their In

and and - as as

CEU eTD Collection t to leading rulers, traditional manipulated and abused have controversially state Cameroonian Group Crisis International The CPD ruling behi weight their Most felt. impact of them throwed make their to newfor strategies calling politics regional and national in role their and powers their whittled law Chieftancy 2010:7). (International Crisis Group, auxilliaries administrative them made which deal colonial having despite rule his opposed they because respectively o deposition fields’’. farming their had destroyed who grazers Fulani who was arbitarily jailed in 1997 for siding with his system water borne pipe their appropriating was and over taken had that aparastatal bills to pay water leavinghis asfor palace allegedly punishment hissupportingsubjects when they refused to th put literally Order Prefectoral c which in examples two cites 7) (2003:9 onflicting landscape of modern landscape conflicting and traditional the of authority Cameroon, in Southwest chiefs resolution. argues asin However, to reference diminishing with Pemunta(2010) conflict role falla free witnessing conflicts local of resolution the in instrumental institutionin of chieftancy the eyes the public. of times, other at and factions politics in contention of bone a become now have they machinery, administrative the arm of as an perceived contention and policisation eventual he

The cooptation of the c the of cooptation The M f the traditional leaders of Maroua and Ngaoundere in f and Ngaoundereleaders 1959andMaroua 1963 of the traditional

and even made its made even and (Jua 1 (Jua 995:43 - most often, on the side of the CPDM

due to political manipulation from the centre leading to their their to leading centre the from manipulation political to due

against opposition inFokwang, 2003).

C (2010) points out that both the colonial and postcolonial the both colonialand postcolonial pointsthat out (2010) e Fon of Nso under house arrest as he was banned from from banned as he was arrest house under e Fon of Nso hairman hiefs as administrative auxill administrative as hiefs of theinstitution of chieftancy -

Paul Biya Paul 24 hiefs have been caught in this in caught been have hiefs

parties. Thishas demeaned them as well as the -

espec Another case involved the Fon of Fungom Fungom of Fon the involved case Another

While some traditional leaders have While been leaders some traditional -

ially land disputes, their credibility is is credibility their disputes, land ially “ subjects Fon ofFons”. been been

This resonates with Ahidjo’s Ahidjo’s with resonates This - at times in dispu in times at

offered a continuation of the the of a continuation offered “ in their confrontation with confrontation with in their i aries through the 1977 the 1977 through aries

in the Hitterto 1990s.

dilemma. A dilemma. tes between between tes nd the nd the

CEU eTD Collection (International Crisis Group, 2010:12) (InternationalCrisis Group, practice” democratic facde of a behind rule authoritarian restored and reforms on backtracked reforms democratic acto political opposition and society civil encouraged regimes authoritarian for backing international in shortfall the and Wall collapsed Berlin the In 1989, today”. on rumble which of many legitimacy, chief’s t for labour forced used ofetn and raised, taxes claim to [ who those of disposal the at resources and capital material and symbolic new “ International Crisis Group opposition the with or us, with either are you subversion: party ruling the of conflation where the context advantagesincumbency of ethno within party the to makes allegaince where poverty in acontext exacerbated hasbeen This 2010:17). Group, Crisis into their advantage”(International arrangement this at turning adept proven context local traditionalleadership, depending on 3 as employment party The of chie appropriation traditional arbitration. for modern court to matters the to take individuals some as chiefs the of powers the of diminishing the to led has systems

Politics is give and take and you can only give where you stand” you where give only you can and take and give is Politics Anonymous Chief x interview of April, 20th 2013. - - state anecessit state state ap state

traditional authority, reminis authority, traditional paratus “ auxilli . Although the Yaounde regime grudgingly accepted democratisation, it democratisation, accepted grudgingly regime Yaounde the Although . yfor the chiefs survivalas especiallyare keenin oncashing onthe “ is aries” apart, the party the apart, aries”

at the heart of how the ruling [ the how of heart the at

(2010:3) rightly notes, the rearrangement of rearrangement notes, the rightly(2010:3)

. fs through the through fs

cent to the colonial era when era colonial the to cent Among ot - regional enclaves

25 - state state heir private profit sparked off disputes over heir over disputes profit sparked off private - re was the her effects - state makes dissensio state . As under colonialism, the chiefshave “ ir employment as as employment ir

- re creates, :

“ - CPDM A goat eats where it isit where eats tethered”, A goat there is no third space. third no is there moulds rs across Africa to demand to Africa across rs 3 . . inThis more is case the

]

“ chiefs kept a portionchiefs kept of party functions”. party emergence of chiefs as as chiefs of emergence “

n to be equated with be equated n to auxilliaries” into the the into auxilliaries” local politics local or co or - opts now now could lay

(pseudo

and the the and As the the As

prefer prefer Their Their

- a ] )

CEU eTD Collection where one is sure to reap” to sure is one where the with ruling party Committee of the ruling CPDM party as compensation for his partisa agro-an of MIDENO development) forran the 1996Municipal elections but lost and was humiliated by hissubjects. He is Board Chairman 4 - 2003:113 supported subjects the party political which of regardless subjects, all of father politics party was above ’fon’ the because with commoners positions political for opposed the participation of chiefs pointed out that it wa win fail to and offices elected for commoners losedisgraced and would state the with side to known were they as particularly politics multiparty in chiefs participation of overt the towards outcry a general “ while well the office. beings human were they that state Fo and Some role. neutral play a chiefs or partisan be should such as FonAn dispensationin Cameroon a and positions intermediate kindof anew actors political the to political entrepreneurs old

between civil society civil between A case point in is Fon Ganyonga who, out of personal interests framed as community interest (bringing

the public and the opposition expected chiefs to mediate the incessant st incessant the mediate to chiefs expected opposition the and public the n Gayonga Chiefs further claimed legitimacy as as legitimacy claimed further Chiefs - being of their subjects 114) .

-state on grounds that of Bali appropriating the discourse ofhuman rights -industrial outfit Universitya and Lecturer. Hewas however co -

meaning they are unsure ofwhen the opposition will takeover of th power. e reigns actors

the esteem and respect of their subjects should they compete with with compete they should subjects of their respect and esteem the . re still continuing regarding the role of chiefs in the new political political new in the chiefs of role the regarding continuing still re Specifically, the debate revolved around whether or not, chiefs chiefs not, or whether around revolved debate the Specifically,

and thestate

(cf 1993:151). Geshiere -

to attract development from the state from the development attract to

and

“ “ national politicalscene’ one could not bit the finger thatfeeds him’’ and onethat must ’’sow . Ardent traditionalistsmai

are thus entitled to political participation and political political and political participation to entitled thus are ’’,

this was this “ 26 natural rulers’ natural 4 . As As .

however, Jude Fokwang

with several several with erupted Fierce debates nship. The chiefs variously justified siding their s

“ ’ uncommonfor fons compete to

and the no the and ’

despite popular demandsfor not not ntained that chiefs would chiefs ntained that to to

mounted the rostrum to be the case. There was There be case. the gwafor maintains, . On the other hand, hand, other the On . tion that they sought -

opted the Central into III ”

of Mankon

those who who those (Fokwang - he was he was ruggle

be be

CEU eTD Collection 6 5 this take I control and - argue which I regulation through its dictates to subordinated and are state of the subjects they since are process in democratisation the arbiters hasb power Sin - join state the to poverty and circumstances development to th ac the for chiefs colonialand the postcolonial state the both by chieftancy of institution the of appropriation double the examined also has have they that demonstrated and Cameroon Southern the of evolution political in the chiefs of role the has captured This chapter real or supposed the Republic, 15traditional chiefs were nominated by the were se ever first Cameroon’s of composition the In senators. as some from co has apart party The ruling Paramount chief of the Bafaws, who are all co all are who Bafaws, of the chief Paramount 2.3 Conclusio 2.3

Prominent among these These include Fon Ganyonga, Angwafor III of Mankon who is first vice national President, Nfon V.E Mukete, c e

the state is the state the “ voted’’ by municipal councillors and 30 percent elected directly by the president of of president the by directly elected percent 30 and councillors municipal by voted’’ issue issue collective collective their when agency of void not also are they but , een whittled. Their subaltern Their whittled. een n up in the next chapter next the in up

hievement of theirhievement of agenda political affiliation the to ruling CPDM party e local population. The chiefs chiefs The local population. e

senators is the all powerful Sultan Mbombo Njoya of Foumban. main employer (Pemunta and Fonmboh and (Pemunta employer main

and elites - opting prominent chiefs into its ranks its into chiefs prominent opting s . opted members of the political bureau of the ruling party. ruling ofthe bureau political ofthe members -opted

positions make them unable to act as independent act asmake themunablepositions to

always been political actors in their own right. It It right. own their in actors political been always . party bureaucratic adminstration as auxilliaries. as auxilliaries. adminstration bureaucratic party 27 Both parties, alongside eliteshave relied on the 6 .

self ha ve been forced by prevailing by prevailing forced been ve -

interest in the name of bringing bringing of name in the interest

, 2010), and 2010), the , is a vechicle of governmenatlity governmenatlity of vechicle is a President on the basis of the of basis the on President nate in 70percent nate which interests is threatened interests

5 , also, appointed y

are poor, their their poor, are

ir .

CEU eTD Collection Metiege, 2012) Ordinary reprimand ( 7 head are societies for the under classified intimates He organisation. political of terms in communities f neatly not do communities s sy authority of basis societies acephalous and centralised between Politicalanthropologists such as Fortes Meyer moribund the of inwake the state the and society civil between arbiters independent subo acephalous the in or country the of North the in and Cameroon of Highland Western the of Fondoms the in h chiefs while auxilliaries, as administrative argues that It Region. Southwest the on emphasises particular with Cameroon in chieftancy of and organisation political social examines theThis chapter 3.0

As auxill As Introduction rdinated and appropriated by the state which has made it impossible for them to act as act them to for impossible it made which has state by the appropriated and rdinated i aries of the administration, several sanctions await per

democr .

ave differential powers depending on whether the society is centralised such as as such centralised is society the whether on depending powers differential ave

d) Reprimandd) with suspension of allowances fo

societies of theforest zoneincluding a ed by a centralised authority, usually called a Fon with an administrative administrative an Fon with a called usually authority, centralised by a ed tisation process in Cameroon process tisation tem mer or latter because latter they mer or Soci s .

However, o- it into this standard dichotomy of centralised and acephalous acephalous and centralised of dichotomy standard this into it

political of organisation chieftaincy

Joseph Nzalie Ebi Joseph Nzalie Chapter 3 28

( 7 so called called so .

ceived recalcitrant chiefs (a) C (a) chiefs recalcitrant ceived and Evans and

r take take not more than three months; and ‘

myriad myriad - non (2008) argues that Cameroonian Cameroonian argues that (2008) Southwest Cameroon, they are are they Cameroon, Southwest - Pritchard headed communities’) headed

that they could either be be either could they that forms. Highly centralised

( all to order to all 1940) distinguished ( e) Deposition e)

( stalled and and stalled b) Warning b)

on the the on

(see (see

( c) c) CEU eTD Collection in today various Ejagham various today During the pre 3.1 (see Fortes and Ev Fortes (see leader political a is who chief the in not and functionary ritual a of person the in is Authority priest or councilpriest or of elders,’’ hierarchicalclan structure - loose a upon based organisation political of traditional pattern segmentary authorities, coastline Cameroon’s of societies segmentary The 2013a,Pemunta, 2013b, Pemunta and Mbu- pa all over monopoly claims which state the of behalf on land the of custodians are they context, state postcolonial the In ownership. of right no has he but him, to turns land needs whoever and subjects his for custody in land the c authority andland persons, goods - over living. the of those and ancestors the of worlds the between intermediary Max, 19964:46 the of officials - all organisation. Fondoms chiefdoms”. or Paramount w as machinery ommunication with the dead the with ommunication

Pemunta embracing authority persons over and property. Chieftancy among Ejaghamsthe and Bayangs Southwest of Cameroon.

, administrative machineries, and constituted judicial institutions.What obtains is a a is obtains institutions.What judicial constituted and machineries, administrative

, Pemunta,2011, 2008) The leader - se organs and his ( subordinates andse organs colonial and colonial period, Ejagham society was a centralized kingdom but but kingdom centralized a was society Ejagham period, colonial and colonial ell as judicial institutions. judicial as ell in- 2008:17 Ebi, ans - Pritchard,1955:5, Neville,1971:18, Pritchard,1955:5, Elias, 1956:14

communities are dec are communities

wields executive, legislative and judicial powers. judicial and legislative executive, wields

. o . The exercise

with specific roles assigned to each member of the council. of the member each to assigned roles specific with (Gluckman,1964:46, Fisiy,1992:221(Gluckman,1964:46, 18)

. He is both a temporal and spirit and temporal a both is He .

These are characterised by hierarchical systems of systems so by hierarchical characterised These are under the leadership of a C a leadership of the under

“ They are organised into Sultanates, Lamidates and and Lamidates Sultanates, into organised are They Arrey, 2013) which is sacred and serves as a medium of of medium as a is serves and sacred which f political power is bestowed upon a local chief chief local a upon bestowed is power f political entralized, segmentary polities segmentary entralized, 29 rcels ofland Fisiy- 1992:212

are characterised by lack of lack by characterised are Nor do they the they do Nor .

(see Pemunta and Njiki, 2010 and Njiki, Pemunta (see 213, hief. Following Pemunta Following hief.

y have strong centralised centralised strong y have Weeramanting, ). He holds holds He in 2008). Ebi, ual ruler, chief priest, priest, chief ruler, ual in Ebi,- 2008:17

He designates the the designates He (Bonchuck, 1997 (Bonchuck,

He has overall overall has He - non and knit

“ leaders with with leaders

1997:14, 18) cial . ,

CEU eTD Collection 8 (Gaventa 6). 2003: The culturalfrom shiftmaterial and symbolic to aformsis of capital to taste’ through themselves distinguish as classes hierarchy, and form of domination economic ‘pro as this relations, power in societal role a central plays capital Cultural 17). 2006: (Navarro another from to arena one and transferred becan accumulated imp bemay equally of capital forms These here. is 16) instructive 2006: Navarro in cited 1986: symbolic (Bourdieu or may cultural be capital social, that to assets material and wri read capital social have must one state, from the resources development grab to believinginto that led people has the changing times might here that be suggested It became vacant. l various between conflict long succession yeara six speeches is in characteristics public. It these of changing particularly times, readtoday’smodernskills,specifically to demandsthe administration ability penmanship li be also must He community. in the problems solving in wisdom and tact both and demonstrate intelligent be must community, the of elders the especially everyone, for i Ntuifam next become the to him succeed and to among themselves someone choose Upon vacant. becomes stool rest is throne (2011), in turn.in ndividual,

In most lineages, it is supposed to be rotatory so that members of each of the founding lineages could become chief chief become could lineages founding of the of each members so that be rotatory to supposed it is lineages, most In

– chieftaincy

and the means by which it is created or transferred from other forms of capital – capital forms of from other transferred or isit created by which means the and

Pemunta te. r icted to sons of the soil,not

Pierre Bourdieu’s concept of ‘capital’, which he extends beyond the notion of of notion beyond the he whichextends of ‘capital’, concept Pierre Bourdieu’s

among the Ejaghams and the Bayangs the and Ejaghams the among

(2011:76 the death of an c an of death the

- 82) intimates,82) must be moral of good show standing, respect

nsung, members of slavefamilies, whenever the 30 hief, members of the founding clans decide to membersfounding decide clans to hief, the of ineages in Otu village when the throne throne the when village Otu in ineages

is hereditary and accession to the to accession and hereditary is - non a for means the vides - particularly the ability to to ability the particularly

literacy, that led to that literacy, ortant, and and ortant, terate as terate 8 . T hat hat

CEU eTD Collection optation of the c aux an as administration modern the with collaboration close in works he and him installs usually representative his or Officer Divisional The administration. modern Ch prospective the enthronement, subsequent and initiation his Before Ntui, a retired civil as servant Chief bringing Otu of “an the conflict to end.” Moses Ojong Ntuifam installed subsequently The administration other. with each collaborate caboth which 2006 during May in a conference publicreconciliation through truce uneasy an broker to able was Ossing of Arrey Ntuifam Chiefs, of Chief the however, witch enemies and or outdo poison multiplied using to and threats societies and rites cleansing secret in as participation such functions village various boycotted loser camp The May 2006. electi of the conduct the oversaw Officer Divisional and Divisional The Seniour Mgbe. society, secret village the of kingmakers and elders ten among the rather but electorate as the population entire the the this, of basis the On literate. not is he however not did elites The external successful. was declared Ita Ayamba Ojong and Mr. conducted were elections in past, the Unlike above. mentioned traditi and modernity between conflict of contestation, instance clear This a is be educated. should leadership new the that wanted hand, other the on Modernists tradition. with keeping in throne the of rotation wanted Traditionalists throne. the factions upininEmmanuel two cropped village 1992, NyokSeptember the and com village,Following Otu the the deathChief pioneer ofHighness of HisChief Royal vacant. is it whenever crown the to claims lay inequal of causes hides the what extent large tremendously their diminished craft. Ekpe was turned apart, the administration failed to reconcile both factions. Of late late Of factions. both reconcile to failed administration the apart, turned was Ekpe craft. hief ons and Chiefonsin Ntuivictorious and OjongMoses emergedsix withvotes s

into the postcolonial admini

prestige and status. Chiefs often find themselves in landscapes landscapes infind themselves Chiefs often status. prestige and y protested that the elections be repeated, not with not be repeated, elections the that y protested 31 ity thereby giving advantage to the educated to educated the to advantage giving ity thereby strative set up set strative on. They invoked the qualities qualities the invoked They on. deem him fit for the task since since task the for him fit deem , Pemunta , ief is presented to the to presented is ief

mps pledged to mps to pledged iliary

notes . The co . peted for for peted

has has - CEU eTD Collection conflict as the well as powers of their erasure the showing partly Chief traditional the usually as to “administrative referred Chiefs is assistedby the Regent Chief,especially whenheis a civil servant. These Regent Chiefs are pre early and modern administratio national the to isanswerable directly and Njumepah Obhassi asinstitutionssuch social Ekpeh, through law order administers and He dead. living the and the between isintermediary He an (divinities). Ajomthe Etek invillag the Nkwi Ndephenju) (Nne heads family/lineage various the (Abhonatui), (nju council village the with collaboration in rules Chief The 3 Fig. 2008,(Pemunta ) 2011:80 system governing traditional the in office highest he the holds since invillage all the societies into secret the initiated isChief subsequently andof lon interest no conflicts of lawinvokein resolution modern the to individuals tend some institutions as of conflicting

Ejagham C - hiefs with the Seniour Divisional and Divisional Officer colonial days, they served as tax collectors for the administration. At times, he he times, At for administration. the collectors as tax served they days, colonial .

ger tradition, as was the case in the past. The prospective The prospective in past. the case was the as tradition, ger ”, “Government Chiefs” and the Chiefhimself as 32

(copy right, Pemunta, 2011) Pemunta, right, (copy - Essere), the quarter heads quarter the Essere), n. In the colonial colonial the In n.

- Njom, and and Njom, e and with with and e

CEU eTD Collection 9 Geschiere Peter line with state of the agents makes them approach and disciplinary status financial subordina are communities, in their leaders As Officer Divisional Seniour urban area. or in arural quarter avillage or to analogous Decentralisation and Administration Territorial of Ministry the ofleastat twoa D withinSub third class chiefdoms a a of jurisdiction into chiefdoms responsibilitie 1977 of 77/245 July No 15, particularly decree statute, I institutio of network dense a intermediary of the through ofhis people customs lores and of the custodian the however “structure hardly can He high office. his authority despite nor respect special any commands neither he within so status markas distinctive of a their bycapture marriage to right have exclusive still where Chiefs of Cameroon region Grassfield inWestern the unlike The Chief, systems. authority modern traditional and between 3.2 3.2

n Cameroon, the institution of chieftancy of institution the n Cameroon,

Available Available Division Postcolonial http://nanjecreativethinking.blogspot.hu/2012/

the possiblefield action of 1984:428 others”(Foucault, of and is set up by a Prime Ministerial Order Ministerial by Prime a up is set and te in their Electoral Districts in Electoral their te s as well as thebenefits and categories of chiefs

first area of of The area chiefdoms. class Secondand Third First, categories: three

regulation of chieftancy as a vechicle of governmentality vechicleof as a of chieftancy regulation

class chiefdom

nsincluding andObhassi Ekpe (1996), I (1996), (DECREE No 77/245(DECREE ofJuly 1977) 15,

Metiege

argue that the that classificationargue of chiefsshows differential encompasses at least two second class chiefdoms within within chiefdoms class second least two at encompasses

(2012) “ despite its highly hybrid character itshybrid highly despite and their ciety, isciety, an equal among equals 33 08/chieftaincy

concedes that concedes ivision

. A second class chiefdom is comprised is comprised chiefdom class A second . means of appointment, responsibilities, responsibilities, appointment, of means -

njom. I whichlays duties and down the t lies under the jurisdiction of the of jurisdiction the under lies t

-law and is set up by a decision from upby is and a decision set -

organizing . A Third . they play po play they .

in in . The decree classifies classifies decree The Pemunta -chiefdoms 9

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. In words,. other Similarlyi and litical roles, but but roles, litical

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2011) -in.html . He is is He .

n

CEU eTD Collection Prince andAyuk, Hamilton PA 2007) that testified from eyewitnesses geriatric Furthermore, e family. royal th to link no with background questionable a had Enonchong that out point and Mbi Tanyi lineage to Besongabang the trace Traditionalists lineage. peons no with potentate be should family heir’s future the people, Besongabang the of customs the to according family whereas slave from came a latter the unlike former the respondents, various to According stool. Besongabang the of heir rightful the be to supposed was who chieftaincyprotracted late pitted conflict Enonchong Chief Dr. and Chief as Tambe Tanyi to conflict orchestrating thereby candidates pa other and Maka. including the Cameroon Southern of societies segmentary the (Geschiere, 1996:322). all ch course, votes...of fixing of the channel, by an as alternative could serve they apoliticalmore role: had once suddenly by government, the in land’ in wealth.While the chiefs are co are chiefs the wealth.While their to access gaining of mechanism as a of chieftancy structures the into ’sons’ successful nouveau riches the by bought be can which titles” wealth of forms new regions these from elites or migrants successful To powers. of their most retained have chiefs Regions, West and amongpower chiefs. ’ . In the new constellatio new the In . - usually who find with those favour the rulingfor party the chieftancystool - and population of the encadrement the for politics, party of turmoil the passing rts of Cameroon, corrupt administrators often interfer in designating ineligible ineligible in designating interfer often administrators corrupt Cameroon, of rts Tanyi Tambe’s family was the rightful heir to the Besongabang throne Besongabang the to heir rightful the was family Tambe’s Tanyi , the c the , ’’.

Geschiere

It is clear that s isIt that clear These chiefs have thus have chiefs These hief’s moral authority authority moral hief’s

Ntenako, Nchang, Ossing and Mamfe (close n (close Mamfe and Ossing Nchang, Ntenako, . -

opting opting Several examples abound. examples Several n inushered by multipartism, notes that notes iefs appointed were st were iefs appointed . The several i several The . are latter the new elites, the tate imperatives led to renais ledthe imperatives to tate

in the densely populated areas indensely populated the 34 “

is vital for legitimising their success and their their and success their legitimising for vital is created all sorts of titles, “ of all titles, sorts created nternecine court battles fought between between battlesfought court nternecine .This is a mechanism of incorporating incorporating of mechanism is a .This

aunch followers of Biya’s party of Biya’s aunchfollowers For more than four decades, a decades, four more than For

“ t he chiefs appointed and paid andhe paid chiefs appointed “ manipulating their rights rights their manipulating

In the Southwest region region Southwest the In sance

pseudo of the Northwest Northwest the of

of chieftancyin eighbors) all all eighbors) - traditional traditional

(see also also (see ’’ CEU eTD Collection Quarter head/Kingmaker of the Mbianyor faction to designate an appropriate candidate from from candidate an appropriate designate to faction Mbianyor of the head/Kingmaker Quarter forthcoming Mbianyors the to was related that Ntenako in anyone was if there know, to sought SDO the When contrary. the not and Ntenako in family a to married got that village, from Nchang genealogy Mbianyor’s it was rather that, opinion of the were testified those However, Ntenako. village, neighbouring from a hailed grandfather Mbianyor’s that claimed it was when erupted Disagreement positively”. people the assisting were they because chiefs became individuals that agreed factions Both before. achief produced village the compose quar ten Nchang.The lower and upper between system it was arotatory that and 1875 factio the imposed]on because disappointed meeting fact a chaired theDecember then 2006, Environment and Forestry, ClarksonMbianyor and Tanyi Tarkang Eyong. an educationist, In Mamfe. of throne chieftaincy the over conflict of case further A Enonchong was a developmentalist and a philanthropist. a and developmentalist a was Enonchong because change tradition need the to suggested people Some princesses. princes and of his chieftancy title, he declared himself chiefhis and are passing children as around contestation the Despite . his to advantage capital symbolic and social his used and therefore Cameroon of echelon in upper the connected well and magnate financial luminary, corruption in chieftaincy institutions in Supreme Court infavour of Enonchong shows themeddling the by of the overturned administrationconstantly being and courts lower of decisions with parties contesting two the

The protracted decades long Nchang chieftaincy crisis pits fromer Minister of of Minister fromer pits crisis chieftaincy long Nchang decades The protracted . The Eyong faction made the point that it was because of the failure of the of the failure it wasof because the that made point the faction The Eyong . - finding mission to seekfindinglastingmission a solution participants but left to the to dispute, the “ had to be produce ahad chief to given to if anhad opportunity not of them one ns”. Both factions were unanimous that Nchang had its first chief in chief first its had Nchang that unanimous factions were Both ns”. Seniour Divi Seniour “ an apparently tailor apparently an sional Officer (SDO) of Manyu Venant Oloume

Cameroon. Chief Dr. Enonchong was a legal legal a was Enonchong Dr. Chief Cameroon. 35 - made administrative decision [was being being [was decision made administrative is that of Nchangvillage in the outskirts

, no ,

direct answer was was answer direct ian ters that that ters

society who who

CEU eTD Collection 10 inhe Whilewas hisfor by march release. women aprotest following and was only released him. install to yet is administration the Chief, contender, fo the Although years. 36 for of Limbe, ruled had father His in 1995. father his of dead the following crown the over take to rule hereditary the following Dikoumbe. Ngambi Robert SDO, Jean hadIn by DavidLongonjemade 1998, of II, been signed Batoke Chief by a prefectoral order the provision decree of no77/245 of July 1977, 15, to contrary was inhis designation culminated which talks consultation the that was offered June appointing 15, Molive Molungu Mr. Third Otto as Class ChiefThe of reason Batoke. Officer Divisional H In 2004, the then Minister of TerritorialAdministratio political scene histhe to stage comeback with which to as apolitical tool he crown wanted the that it be might suggested portfolio, ministerial hislost Whileisit Mbianyor making surprisingthat started histhe thrown claims onlyhe to when N also (see Nchanglower respectively and from andelders Heads two upper Quarter of is achief designating comprised for responsible college the informants, to According inducements. material other money and with cajoled have been head to Quarter said the accused They stool. run for chieftaincy the to his Quarter

then interveneamidou Yaya byinstructinghadin to chieftancy dispute the then a http://www.postnewsline.com/2006/12/nchang_chieftai.html(accessed - Robert Mengue Meka then SDO for Fako. He was later on destituted by former Fako by Fako former destituted on later Fako. for wasHe SDO then Mengue Meka Robert rmer DO for Limbe Central, Simon Achuo Atem, designated Otto Molive, a Molive, Otto designated Atem, Achuo Simon Limbefor Central, DO rmer

for Fako, Bernard Okalia Bilai, to prefectoral repeal to Okalia Bilai, Bernard Fako, for

Batoke, a village inhabited by about 6000 inhabitants on the West 6000inhabitants Coast onthe a villageinhabitedby about Batoke,

Respondents were unanimous were Respondents ana 2006) 36 10

recognise chieftaincy.” .

one day. one

Lon

n and Decentralisation, Marafa Marafa n and Decentralisation, May, 20,2013). gonje wasjailed for seven days

that Lononje was designated was designated Lononje that

order No 185/2003 order of

Seniour Seniour

“ to to

CEU eTD Collection http://www.postnewsline.com/2004/08/strongadministr.html(accessed 11 people. his of benefit origin of area of his development the to commitment his personal of because installed nevertheless was but - people Batanga the Ruler of Paramount Chiefs Conference Southwest of the Vice President for NdianDivision formerMbile,Member- of (2002 Parliament Nangiya Norbert Chief of enthronement the is example One changes. social undergoing ofinstitution chie that the be can stated however It (Mangaal. et Batoke 2004) name the to changed later Germans but the coast, the along fishermen and hunters the of some with meeting and his founder offather Batoke named the it was Mokoto grand that alleges Otto throne. the of hold took village the in man oldest the then was who Longonje chief, become could people that only old it was believed time, the at because and years old 20 barely was father own his when died Mbua but Ngoto, Mbua his uncle, to was reverted when ChiefAccording to his Malomba Otto, Mokoto, father grand passed away, the throne Chief. regent a been have to alleged is Longonje Lucas father His slave. a as him bought Divis Meme in Barombi from came father grand his because anative not and a stranger is Longonje is that supporters Moliwe’s of The argument without any consultation.” Field Community in even the not maternity, in the “Chief made Moliwe was Otto detention, Administration Drags Batoke Chieftaincy D - especially th

He was unilaterally was He

rough the provision of human and material resources for the the for resources material and human of provision the rough

ispute. Available his clan his

“ designated by the chief "catchers" and custodians custodians and "catchers" by chief the designated 37 11 . He had no hereditary claims to the throne, throne, the to claims hereditary no had He . .

as ion

chief of his village village his of chief

ftaincy in the Southwest region is is region Southwest the in ftaincy as a paddle carver and Otto’s father Otto’s and carver apaddle as

22 May, 2013). 2007), an educator and an the 2007), educator

(meaning talking)

Lipenja I, but alsobut Lipenja I, after after

CEU eTD Collection members of the p the of members Immigration Board andof Refugee and Canada 14 id=&docid=440ed6e619&skip=0 13 12 Region southwest the from generally tie genealogical acquired through Communityinhabitants. membership well as the as and rights duties associa its and territory agiven over rights to anis entitlement not power political time, same by community. the sanctioned is socially functions but complementary Their distinct, population. the over power overall has them of none but population, the of strata different Governance th of commitments “ that intmates he when football political as manipulation subsequent their and chiefs the the subordinationof forthcomingmoreis about Mbach Charles (2000:98) Nach its authority to subject are who that intimated and between state civil society. intermediaries cre throne the fro abdication whose Mekongo, Sampson from Chief over take to tradition Batanga of the whereas, each family holds and enjoys and enjoys holds family each whereas, (Ebi 2008:) The dependence of the chiefs on the state makes it impossible for them to act as independent independent as act to them for impossible it makes state the on chiefs the of dependence The http://www.refworld.org/cgibin/texis/vtx/rwmain?page=country&category=&publisher=IRBC&type See also also See Available http://www.irb http://www.postnewsline.com/2009/02/mbile

.The chief landcontrols only unappropriated hemanages which in council by chiefs ated a vacuum” ated

“

in terms of politics, the current regime in Cameroo in regime current the politics, of terms in arty in power arty e candidates are influential in ascending to or o to in ascending influential are e candidates -cisr.gc.ca/en/.(accessed

brings together the spiritual leaders the spiritual brings fromheads together various groups and of

(accessed May, 5th 2013). (Tah, 2009) (Tah, in witness expert an as ” - the rulingCPDM .

Once land land appointed, traditionalchiefs appointed, 12

5th May,5th 2013). . s

in their own name own their in

“ 38 as against political allegiance to the sovereign” -crowned

th ,” Similarly, in a Correspondance sent to sent in aCorrespondance Similarly, in keeping with that party's charter party's that with keeping in e Research Directorate of Can Directorate e Research

-paramount Wokoko vMolyko Wokoko . Ebi . - ccupying the throne’’ the ccupying ru

(2008) cites chief(2008) Endeley ler n needs traditionalchiefs -ofbatanga.html “ automatically become become automatically

who stated “ stated who ted with it are it are with ted the political political the

ada, it is is it ada, =&coi=CMR&r

. At the

13 that that , 14 m .

CEU eTD Collection about development from the postcolonialstate. to acede t individuals to educated for chieftancy is also fundamentalundergoing internal changes as evidenced by the preference and actors society between civil arbitrators impartial headed’ a the of independent that argued has chapter This 3.3 administration the authority of the ch than the under rather officials placed administrative now are under inland sphere urban the parcels Most of 2008). Ebi, also (see the community property of the common taking over lands thereby and national as such state categories hasated cre land state as the chiefs over postc The Fonmboh and pitted has which themselves today and system tenure land the of ahallmark systems: modern and authority colonial fields traditional, of power and landscape the Development Corporation Cameroon the lands to ceded over Committee Claims Land and Bakweri the Cameroon lands’’. communal of parcels appropriate authorisation any prior without even tribe the of members

Conclusion conflict conflict

’ In their In and can therefore not serve as as serve not therefore can and administration by the subordinated are chiefs ) olonial state, Pemunta and Fonmboh and Pemunta state, olonial lies in, and sh and in, lies 2010:38,

ethnographic .

iefs, although chiefs still maintain control over rural lands rural over control maintain still chiefs although iefs,

see also see

’’ Fonmboh and Pemunta (CDC), ould be understood agai understood be ould in which most local communities local most in which

study of the confli

Pemunta, 2013a, 2013b 2013a, Pemunta, he throne so that they can use their social capital to bring bring to capital social their use can they that so throne he most local communities local most 39

(2010) maintain(2010) has whittled theof power cting claims between the government of of government the between claims cting

the state in Cameroon. The institution of of institution The Cameroon. in state the nst the backdrop of the backdrop nst uthority system (centralised or “ or (centralised system uthority ,

(2010) point out that the that out point (2010) Pemunta Pemunta

including the Bakweri

again and Mbu and st the state (Pemunta (Pemunta state the st “

the conflicting conflicting the - as the eyes of Arrey,

roots of roots 2013).

- non find find

CEU eTD Collection deve area. of the development to the commitment his of personal because Batanga Chief the of become Paramount but to social adopted isThis a happening against villagesin which theyfind themselves today andtherefore theyhave no claim the to crow the gr on individuals are excluded lineages founding among chieftaincy of institution the of nature rotatory the Despite intermarriages through as been have that those and soil the of sons perceived between interaction social affects trade legacy slave the a of hierarchies, of The existence lopment of their villages.

change and have allowed have and change

and generates conflictingclaims over theinstitution ofchieftaincy

The

Lipenja I backdrop when groups like some the people Lipenja of

next chapter examines the role of chiefs of role the examines chapter next ounds that their parents arenot originalinhabitants of the

Chief Norbert Nangiya Mbile not only to lead them, them, lead to only not Mbile Nangiya Norbert Chief 40 similated into various ethnic groups groups variousinto ethnic similated

and elites

, , in the the in

some some have have n. n. . CEU eTD Collection creates structures such as schools mostly on paper while elites and villagers are usually the the usually are villagers and while elites paper on mostly such schools as structures creates de and rule divi t or development Product(GDP). Domestic and Gross budget national the to regions thos development tool political The 4.1 title neopatrimonial front of the state as conflicts everyindividual position better to attempts himselfin orchestrated has actually in apparatus Cameroon. state centralised appointments for self in a involved actually are they origin, of areas their for projects development attract bid to ina people their of representatives as themselves present elites and chiefs while that argues chapter in Cameroon.The process democratisation polit multiparty of context the within development in agents political as This chapter examines the role of chiefs chiefs of role the examines This chapter 4.0

Chiefs and the discourse of development and of the discourse Chiefs Introduction

e that do not get little or nothing or little get not do e that postcolonial Cameroonian state has traditionally used development resources as a .While

governmentality of

tactics

he discourse of development is and has and is development of discourse he for appointment in the name of bringing about development about bringing of name the in appointment for and therefore access to both economic and symbolic capital symbolic and both economic to access and therefore

and by using home area associations home by area and using regions that find favour with the reg the with favour find that regions

by by the state Chiefs, Development and Politics and Development Chiefs, . O which has orchestrated under has orchestrated which .

ftent and elites This is independent of the contribution of various various of contribution the of independent is This The quest for neopatrimonial titles such as chiefship Chapter 4

i 41 mes

,

- - some of whom hold neopatrimonial titles neopatrimonial hold whom of some s respondents argued that argued that therespondents government

erving process of positioning themselves positioning themselves of erving process ime get .

been been

more development resources development more a mechanism for for mechanism a as used -

The promise of of promise The and unbalanced unbalanced and

ics ics by taking a a taking by

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CEU eTD Collection development should thisbackdrop.beagainst seen some simply: did you (Will You) support me? votes electoral for return in offered are vot their use others while preferences policy communicate to voters some allows government the constituents, its of Pemunta, 2012: Pemunta, postcolonial notAfrica do only but power, exercise are also for out their personal gains ‘‘la duventre’’ politique patronage price’’ right for the votes their surrender to willing and side such to responsive be highly know to politicians whom citizens of groups small mater direct on based are relationships politician 10) (2007:1) develop economic which discourage society practic ritual to the doling out ofmoney and othermaterial induce Pemunta underdevelopment and resistance to changein the ritual practice offemale circumcision, patronage of basis the on them attributes employer against be understood ones in a clientelist political system political clientelist a in

t saddled with the responsibility of responsibility with the saddled imes

which is which ,

- (2012: he maintains that maintains he

based, ( used Pemunta and Fonmboh, 2010) e should be understood withinbe should understood e

) observes that that observes 235) Ibid instead of material inducements material of instead

or characterised by patronage and political clientelism, bribery and corruption corruption and bribery clientelism, political and by patronage characterised es as a med a as es

voter ) . The chief’s involvement in partisan politics in the name of bringing bringing of name the in politics partisan in involvement chief’s The . the backdrop of the fact that the party the that fact of the backdrop the - - party linkage. party “ a neopatrimonial system in which those in positions of power in in power of in positions those in which system neopatrimonial a “ B ium of exchange ium of y creating an interest in the continuous poverty and dependency dependency and poverty incontinuous the interest an y creating

“ in most African countries including countries African most in the NGO social exchangefor change” paradigm , “ transform

”. Extrapolating from Stokes from Stokes Extrapolating government”. by ment where the criterion of distribution that the patron uses is is uses patron the that distribution of criterion the where This is what Jean what is This

A combination of threats, cajolery a cajolery threats, of combination A , but , .

42 ” In his analysis o analysis his In “ . themacro politicalcontext of Cameroonian . He further concedes that material inducements inducements material that concedes further He

AccordingWilkinson and Kitschelt to ing ialinducements targeted individuals to and also This tendency of exchanging appoi exchanging of tendency This

these structures intor structures these ments ments

jealo - . Fran They refer to sly controls all resources all controls usly to practitioners practitioners to ç ois ois - f the entanglement between between entanglement f the state is state Bayart (2006) describes (2006) Bayart Cameroon

not only this eality. nd persuasion are are persuasion nd for

arrangement

an end to the the to end an

This should the largest largest the , ‘‘citizen - payments payments - refering refering n

tments (2007:

”(cf ”(cf and and

a as as s -

CEU eTD Collection http://www.cameroonpostline.com/Content.aspx?ModuleID=1&ItemID=9985 them” aspellattack will or awful something voted otherwise, if they that swearing women, but media these to according Fons, obligedCouncillors to take an oath that theywill vote only the CPDM.Accordingl “ byPrime former Minister congratulated reportedly indaughters government. projects development in street way a two take, njang Achu Achidi Simon 16 http://www.cameroonpostline.com/Content.aspx?ModuleID=1&ItemID=9988(accessed 15 ( people h appointed senator, Southwest Region quoting back 2003) comes”(Koningsand Nyamnjoh, Head when the oftime thoroughly State’s as: such statements political politely called development called projects)politely and for votes working hard to bring victory” to in bringthe ruling victory” party hard to to working Chris Mbunwe.(2013).“Yang fires back at Fru Ndi”. Chris Mbunwe. ’’Biya hassigned a contract with Bali people ui”(in pidjin english meaning english pidjin ui”(in 16 15 . ”

former prime minister prime former . Another former prime minister, and presently senator of the ruling party, of CPDM the senator and presently minister, former prime Another . , Peter Mafany Musonge Mafany Peter ,

e declared to his people that his people to e declared -

from the Northwest Region has oftentimes has Region Northwest the from usually the appointment and subsequent maintenance of their sons and and sons their of maintenance subsequent and appointment the usually

which people vote and vote support t which people Press reports maintain that were theNorthwest the Fons of

“

Biya has scratched our back our has scratched Biya reports,

and presently one of the appointed the of one presently and

“ politics is like a thrift and loan society”. loan and a thrift like is politics

exposed their navels to be touched by not only men, men, only not by touched be to navels their ‘‘exposed 43 . Similarly, w Similarly,

-sena “ Biya has signed a contract with Bali with Bali acontract hassigned Biya the 2013senatorial elections. the , Si , political support is of is support political tor Gahyongha” available available Gahyongha” tor

mon Achidi Achu for allegedly for Achu Achidi mon and he ruling he hen chief Dr Gahyongha was was Gahyongha Dr chief hen

we shall certainly scratch the scratch the shallwe certainly

stated that:

party

May 2013).30th, senators from the the from senators

in exchange for ten reflected in reflected ten

It is give and “ Politic na na Politic The Fons Fons The y, some some y,

available CEU eTD Collection Rowlands and Nyamnjoh of the Northwest Region, Region Southwest of the polities segmentary diffuse, more the and comparativ In their 4.2 the isfragmentary, power since showing issues national and gional re on positions certain by taking dominance state’s the resist able to also are they time, same the At advantage. own their to development bringing o fragmentary.In always politic to open therefore and state of the dictates the to subservient although that argues This chapter “ ha political parties fact, of Asmatter a state. the to constituents and regional ethnic present elites these while associationsrepresentatives, as theirelectoral dominance political inter despite region their of being and government central the on depend elites mobility, social upward as as well accumulation and personal patronage party the where Cameroon In interests”. local with identified remain to willingness their as as well population rural aparticular represent exist to that adults ‘‘ that concede further i the and them bring with they the resources dependshome area on foridentity their regional defining a in role significant a play will [they] which to extent affairs...the external over influence respect the on depends regions ethnicised elite ethnicised Elite associations al manipulation by the state by the manipulation al ncentives that encourage them to mobilise local political support political local mobilise to them encourage that ncentives

associations e analysis of the role of el , the state appropriates the support of elite associations and their their and associations of elite support the appropriates state the ,

[t] ther words, chiefs the words, ther characterise their allegiance as allegiance their characterise chiefs the like o some extent, this depends

(1998:320) argue that (1998:320)

as the p the as y

are also capable of resistance and agency. and capable also of resistance are they acquire in local politics for their knowledge of and of and for knowledge their inlocal politics they acquire

- in the name of development of name the in elite feuds. To maintain their positions their maintain To feuds. elite political in local movers rime 44 ite

are also able to turn the state’s discourse of of discourse state’s the turn able also to are

a ssociations in the Grassfields the in ssociations “ the influence the

on the number of educated, literate educated, on number the of , power, following Foucaultis ve been virtually replaced by by beenve replaced virtually

elites exert in theirhome ‘ party’ status and access and access status party’ - state is the source of of is source the state

meant for the well the for meant

of economic and and of economic

‘ Ch i ’’. efdoms’ efdoms’

They They

that -

CEU eTD Collection party mechanism of barring them from political participation because football political of form a as networks tribal local of manipulation the to led This influence”(Ibid). interest self political 17 be political apolitical. took claimingto upor despite connotations sprouted disen ‘‘strangers” pre to was rivals political undermining strategy of abases as regional power by associations. parallel creating/sponsoring local associations 1990s, of the tornado democratic the of wake In the decry aspace to as wellmedium as as auseful association discriminationidentity duein to french a predominantly speaking and Cameroon t use association characteri special the and describes local development, for resources gain to access to necessary of reflection resources’’( state to elite andit. ethnic andwith Chiefs privileges and associated conserving hostage process power the taking multipartydemocratisation politicsaimed at the to an antidote belonging was of ethnic rise the that stated be might It movement. opposition coherent ideologically any of emergence

Governor Peter Oben Ashu went as far as establishing and implementing residence permits for settlers as a as settlers for permits residence implementing and establishing as far as went Ashu Oben Peter Governor s were instrumental in this process as they fanned ethnicity instrumentalinflames of s they were thisthe as process

franchised well in advance of in advance well franchised

“ . capital political and due to the unpopularity of a single stics of ethnic/regional politics in the articulation of state power state of articulation in the politics ethnic/regional of stics s, Nyamnjoh and Rowlands maintain,Rowlands Nyamnjohs, and - are oftentimes chased away from voting stations or outrightly outrightly or stations voting from away chased oftentimes are and were help groups “ the virtues of vertical integration, providing the contacts and self contacts the providing integration, vertical of virtues the Nyamnjoh and Rowlands, 1998:321). Nyamnjoh and Rowlands, 1998:321). Ethnic a are of elites associations

took political connotations took

The government reacted government The

any electoral contest electoral any -

party state that has lost considerable direct local local direct considerable haslost that state party 45 According to Geschiere (2004), the creation of of creation the Geschiere (2004), to According

often espouseAnglophone politicsand

like against like

of their perceivedof their supportfor the opposition SDF asmechanisms of representi

marginalisation. marginalisation. 17 .

Various

opposition

initially framed as framed initially

” home

. Most Grassfields Grassfields Most .

political parties, parties, political

They included included They and perceived perceived and

association - empt the empt the ng local local ng - help help his his

a s

CEU eTD Collection Grassfie the of status opposition identity Anglophone collective imagined or in areal promoting than outfit aregional through leverage and political p accessmore to elites perceived Southwest resources, development implication by and power state of distribution the in Region Northwest the by slighted been have to marginal Angloph Its regional, rather tha bananas, palm region the despite government the In 4.3 Cameroon in ethnicity LAAKAM motivating factor for its creation was the underrepresentation of Southwest elites of Southwest underrepresentation the its was for creation factor motivating ‘ perceived against as abulwark coast the of associations elites ethnic myriad together Law No.90 S was associations such of One trigger . . . continent of of daughter - urban for legitimacy external hegem external

origin” (Page et al.origin” et (Page 2010:345) SW

de ELA, development and the state and the development ELA, ones as a homogeneous community homogeneous as a ones isation” cades the 1990s of

-

153 the soil’ – soil’ the (Bamileke), s and tea, butfacing serious problems of underdevelopment and enclavement.

as an apolitical, cultural association. It association. as an cultural apolitical, ony’ (Nyamnjoh and R and (Nyamnjoh [ed]

n ethnic definition was meant definition was n ethnic politics based elites thereby focusing attention on autochthon –a ‘son autochthon on attention focusing thereby or elites based as well as the SouthWest Elites Association (SWELA) Association Elites SouthWest the wellas as from the Northwest Region and from Anglo from and Region Northwest the from [ acting of capable

a politics of belonging’ Essingam , . It was It . r being the source of much of Cameroon’s resources Cameroon’s of much of source being the WELA created ural homeural areas ld ncreasing obsession with “autochthony” throughout the the throughout “autochthony” with obsession .‘[I]ncreasing - based SDF based

owlands, 1998:327, see2006). Nkwi, also 1998:327, owlands, bringing together the Betis and theBulus

therefore

and vo and 46

party. party.

and registered on 7th August 1991 inAugust line with 1991 registered on7th and

(

ting

associations became a source of asource became associations G expressly formed to counter the national national the counter to formed expressly where all suffered the same level of same the suffered where all eschiere and Gugler,1998:

] “

to distance itself from the views of the the of views the from itself distance to in the perceived interests of their place place of their interests in perceived the

was an umbrella association bringing bringing association umbrella an was - Bami settlers Bami . 309)

Often believed believed Often - . - oil, timber, timber, oil,

the ruling the ruling ‘‘political ‘‘political .

ower ower One One

in in

CEU eTD Collection ‘ framework] a nationalists aim regionalist, federalist, anglophone:anticentrist and anti and anglophone:anticentrist federalist, regionalist, suces state the ethnicity, of this policy actually in Constitution theethnicity 1996 enshrined as Region Southwest the of interests party of the as enemies settlers considering self own their for diversity ethnic manipulate aims own its achieve to government the used also latter the SWELA, used government While the ethnicity. appropriated and ethnic constructed elites accessresources, state to in effort their that maintains i with ethnicisation” forlocal development” of exemplars as brandished Co Fish the Kumba, in Construct Rural Cameroon the of creation including the Projects had become detribalised. that appo administrative into andtop daughters positions for the unitarysupport state In 1993So September atmaintain atRowlands (1998:328) th Nyamnjoh its and birth, SWELAhad an unscrupulous’, unscrupulous’, . It was viciously It to . federationthe the state opposed two Anglophone onwhich inted Chief Paramount appoint Buea of responsibility with new to in sub chiefs districts

a smokescreen a smokescreen so as to as so nd the SDF stood and opted rather with rather afederation andfor opted nd SDF stood the ‘ ungrateful’, ungrateful’, s

uthwest chiefs visited Paul Biya in Yaounde and expressed unalloyed inandBiya expressed unalloyed chiefsYaounde visiteduthwest Paul extricate the Southwest [ Southwest the extricate central to the control of resources (Ibid) resources of control the to central

that instead instead that (Nyamnjoh and Rowlands, 1998:329) Rowlands, (Nyamnjoh and “

‘ ergising force of SWELA in extracting government funds government in extracting of SWELAforce ergising en the while simultaneously calling for the appointment of their sons sons their of appointment the for calling simultaneously while domineering’ settler/Grassfielders”. settler/Grassfielders”. domineering’ - operative in Limbe and the Obang Farms in Manyu wer . However, the Biya’s gover Biya’s the However, . led ofthe use poli to -

sfully pitted elite class the pitted sfully particularly as elites likein col the as elites particularly - 47 interests -

state and therefore as working against the the against as working and therefore state with the aim of fostering minority rights minority fostering of aim the with .Thereafter, chief Endeley was subsequently subsequently was Endeley chief .Thereafter, Region -

by fanning the flames of ethnicity and ethnicity and flamesbyfanning of the francophone but not anti not but francophone ]

ticaland traditional elites. Through from the perceived perceived from the . In fact, In fact, nment’s over nment’s

.

Similarly,

against themselvesforagainst in a te a in “ regiona n state [federal [federal state n ‘ - - Nkwi exploitative’, exploitative’, government” emphasis on on emphasis

onial days, days, onial “ lism linked linked lism explicitely explicitely

(2006) (2006)

w as e

CEU eTD Collection Administration and Magistracy(ENAM). His Oroko tribesmen priviledgedhad entry independent of whether they Direct was Ngute Chief Dion when observable was scenerio same favouritism.The Republic, Chief Ephraim Inoni appeared on his final list final his on appeared Inoni Ephraim Chief Republic, the of Presidency the at General Secretary Assistant then the through him to submitted sisters and brothers Peter Supé attributeto 10seats to SWELA p the to contrary instance, For counterparts. provincial of their detriment the at of SWELA be real representatives to the claimed they often since themselves for fighting seenas representi not were former The elites. and provincial infiltration led squabblesinfiltration to between and eventually rupture the Yaounde government elites, between competition with Asvertical is case, the often 2006:121). Nkwi, extent alarge to with poverty struggling masses were the lacand keys significant surrogates to proxies, positions 18 Nyamnjoh power”. in government ability. and merit made were which appointments because points(2006:121) out of explainabl is This resources. state and state the over hegemony and monopoly Some accounts

Theywere not admitted on the basis of the outcome of the competitive examination into the institution but as an act of rieur

Agbor Tabi

(ENS) (Higher Advanced Teacher’s Training College) Training Advanced Teacher’s (Higher (ENS) and Rowlands,1998, Nkwi, 2006). It Nkwi, 2006). and Rowlands,1998,

, then Higher Education Minister instead attributed 68 mostly to his Bayang Bayang his to mostly 68 attributed instead Minister Education Higher then , maintain th maintain In this way, it became fashionable to use ethnic associations to retain the the retain to associations use ethnic to fashionable became it way, this In

from Ma from

each

of the Divi the of at the government was behind the behind was government the at

nyu Division nyu based on one’s relation to the government rather than on on than rather government the to relation one’s on based

“ ...[the] École Normale Normale École the at Region Southwest the in sions

. None of the names on the consensual list list consensual the on names the of None . neopatrimonialistic and clientelistic system in in system clientelistic and neopatrimonialistic 48

subsequently “ ” and funnelled money to them,while them,while to money funnelled and

onja,1993, cf cf onja,1993, Korven (Bayart,1973, 18

(see Nyamjoh and Rowlands, Rowlands, and Nyamjoh (see ng the province but rather as as rather but province the ng backed the appointment of of appointment the backed

creation Yaounde, or of the National School of of School National the of or

- of SWELA based Southwest Southwest based

Chief Chief Prof./ e, Nkwi Nkwi e, osition osition

(se Dr. e

CEU eTD Collection ‘habitus’ or socialised norms or socialisednorms‘habitus’tendencies guidebehaviour or or that and thinking. re constantly Pierr of elites activities and ambition drivesthe often Barango (1983), resources economic and political and contro state the with identify to desire elites’ from political stemming competition women must be part of the ruling class. In class. this ruling of bethe part must women light, the state frames the appointment of an and kinsmen their resources, state have to to access into that thinking by state shaped the been have individuals groups the habitus and might of it be said that ofstructure Cameroon, state bureaucratic cited Inin the guide 316, 2005: 16). 2006: them’ Navarro (Wacquant feel propensities inthink, capacities structured ways, which then to and and act determinant trained or dispositions, lasting in form of in the persons deposited becomes way society f In SWELA. for end the of beginning rschapte andbranches. This act instead transformed theminto political elites andmarked the people” T its destablisation. led to The chief service by gettin area developing the towards was geared t passed oral entrance exams Most the are and ornot. Inspectors, ofthem Divisional today Tax Officers Magistrates and 1998) hanks to this act of tribalism, nepotism and corruption. e Bourdieu’s conceptualization of power as culturally and symbolically created, and created, symbolically and as culturally power of conceptualization e Bourdieu’s . He later boasted to hi to boasted later He .

so that theycould (Nkwi, 2006:133) and(Nkwi, were given 2006:133) the positions national of executives and of advisers ’ s attempt - The The here. important is structure and agency of interplay an through legitimised

“ s acute more are situations uch

to

hijack SWELA because most of them belonged to the CPDM further further CPDM the to belonged of them most because hijack SWELA

eventually hey were includedin ashey SWELA were s Manyu people that s people that unilaterally Manyu attributing ”

, cf, 2006:135). Nkwi, al.1992 et (Chazan help their parents and other relatives and other parents help their act, SWELA became the site of of site the became SWELA act, 49

’’(cf 2006:Ibid). Nkwi, g Manyu sons and daughters and sons Manyu g in impoverished regions because poverty poverty because regions inimpoverished “ custodians of the culture and the and the culture the custodians of

. most most

Habitus is ‘the is ‘the Habitus places to places to into the public into the According to to According “ inter - them them elite elite l

CEU eTD Collection search.com/?q=MTN+&s=web&as=0&rlz=0&babsrc=NT_ss 19 they that localmasses by the of authority with rights have vested been to claim entrepreneurs 2006: historicallongperiod’ (Navarro a over or situations unexpected under changed be can and permanent, or fixed not ‘is Habitus time. over and contexts specific to relation in shift also that but another, to context one from are that patterns to leading process individual than rather social, Member Chief Like Conference. former of the president is So CompanyBayang also Limited.This chief seasoned of Bachuo traditional ruler Chief Tabetando, is Senator example further traditional leadership position appropriateto land any without intervention from the st oiland rubber.Although heseveral employs time and casual part he workers, hashis used com telephony Mayor of and CPDM of the is President section Mukete One Ekalle of Prince his Estate. sons Mukete CAMTEL Board C appointed senator, is Bafaw the of Chief Paramount Mukete, E. Victor Nfon here. in order are examples in reality, whereas frame their presencein government asmeant to bring ab fro individual African, European and Middle Eastern countries. See See countries. Eastern Middle and European African,

MTN

Group is a South Africa South a is Group

of the CPDM party CPDM the of lawyer, he is President and CEO of EurOil in Cameroon, and Director of Fakoship of Fakoship and Director in Cameroon, of EurOil CEO and President is he lawyer,

one of the Districts of ( the the m a particular group/region as ‘ as group/region m aparticular pany. Chief Mukete ispany. Chief Mukete simultaneouslylargest smallholder the of producer palm na tional telecommunications and Internet service provider in Cameroon) service provider Internet and telecommunications tional

they are actually serving their own personal own their serving actually are they Mukete, he is diehard member as well as a as well as member diehard is he Mukete, -based multinational mobile telecommunications company, operating in many . hairman of the Board of Directors CDC of the of Directors Board hairman of the

As Bourdieu rightly points out, the habitus is created through a through is created habitus the points out, Bourdieu rightlyAs

Kumba. The family owns a huge share in the MTN the in share huge a owns family The Kumba.

16). In their interaction with the state, local political local political state, the with interaction In their 16). 50 development’. Local political actorsin turn

(accessed 1, June 2013). out ‘ out development’ to their region(s)

enduring and transferrable and familyand

- Central Committee Committee Central Ntai, http://mixidj.delta- uthwest Chiefsuthwest

, Chairman of of Chairman , interests.

a trained ate.

Two Two

and and and and

an an A 19

CEU eTD Collection suggested that through the repeated the through that suggested perceptions, and appre groups, thelocal masses and politicianshave acquired aset of schemes of dispositions, conscious (ibid: concentration’ 170). unconsciously, anyreproduced pursuit any‘without deliberate of coherence… without of very perceptions our structu and practices shape and current that structures, and events by both shaped past are that dispositions over time: two the between interplayof kind by a created but structures, by determined nor will, free of a result neither is habitus The discussed below(see Fonmboh, also Pemunta 2008, and Fonmboh oppositionsuch as the privitisation of the Cameroon Development Corporation process Wright,2002:472) and Burawoy (see political power its projects of for realisation the by state the being exploited also are they origins, ethnic their exploiting actually are as politicians While elites other. each to reducible not are and domination exploitation relations, case with class the often votefor (seewhen Coleman, ona to presidential candidate deciding - 1990:237 like affiliations, tribal of basis the on vote often individuals since themselves for prominence about developm (Coleman,19 remuneration” for return “in mobility social achieve business goals upward their of prominencein to educational world standing the or asso home area as well origin of regions their use actors political Local neopatrimonialism. of basis the is This wi latter the subordinat themselves made have words, (1990:145) inColeman’s masses, local These represent. claim to ll bring about development as “ as development about bring ll ent”) . ent”) es to local politicians as intermediaries with the state in the hope that that inhope the state the with intermediaries as local politicians es to ciations, ...which tends to orient their practice of politics as based on on based as politics of practice their orient to tends ...which ciations,

They pass for ‘ for pass They ciations these (Bourdieu 1984: 170). In this sense habitus is created and and is created habitus sense In this170). 1984: (Bourdieu these

alongside their money and and money their alongside

and

In

line with Bourdieu’s concept of habitus, it mightit of beBourdieu’s line habitus, with concept constant appointment of individuals from prominent prominent from individuals of appointment constant vote banks’ to the state and achieve political political achieve and state the to banks’ vote intrinsic benefit”. benefit”. intrinsic 51 res and also, importantly, that condition condition that importantly, andres also,

and projects that are likely to face likely to are that projects and 90:146) (“the90:146) promise of

- inclu other achievementssuch as , 2010). , ding the conservation of of conservation the ding

238). As is Asis 238).

bring

ing

as as

CEU eTD Collection to state resources and a particular taste and aparticular resources state to unpalatable such reforms as privitisation votes electoral garner to them in use and turn structures state bureaucratic likely co to In t over time. powers of their erosion the despite population n immediate post in colonial and the Althoughadvantages. unlike whichis theninvested in the game of politicsas a way of accessing social and economic neo the of acquisition as well of ‘capital’, is that by Bourdieu introduced concept important second A formslegitimate, as is proportionate to their position in (Bourdieu, the social structure 1992). maintains, the power of an agent to acc acquisition of chiefta of acquisition the through sanctioned ritually from those apart anybody to inaccessible seen as be politicians Chief Paramount E. Mukete(B Victor positions Their institutions. state bureaucratic for positions in within flamesfanning quest their and ethnicity of as the politicians affects every humanof aspect (Shilling embodiment.” 1993:129). This Critically,(Bourdieu,1992). is is,habitus“located that embodied, body the within the and “structuring structure” and of, actions the of effect the simultaneously is habitus The meaning. them give and ethnicity o longer [ their

so

] cial, cultural or symbolic or cultural cial, ‘

vote banks’, the postcolonial state interaction with, others [ others with, interaction - opt individuals who are representatives of significant social groups into into groups social significant of representatives are who individuals opt i - ncy titles or belonging to a significant ethnic entity. ethnic significant a to belonging or titles ncy - traditional title of chief is a mechanism of creating cultural capital capital cultural creating ofmechanism a is chief of title traditional

simultaneouslyfuture actions and suggesting constraining their

assets politicians .

umulatevarious forms of capital, and define to those . The . (Bourdieu 1986: cited in Navarro 2006: 16). 2006: The in cited Navarro 1986: (Bourdieu se elites are a distinct class of actors with access with access class of adistinct actors are se elites 52

, as the case studies of the traditional rulers and and rulers traditional the of studies case as the , however ]. It is It ]. afaw) and the Bayang Chief Tabetando Chief Bayang the and afaw)

continues use to them mobilise to the and a a and structure” “structured a both - his regard, the state is most most is state the his regard, independent days, chiefs are including

presents local elites elites local presents

or pushor through

As Bourdieu material material

will will as as

CEU eTD Collection for their services, they were allowed to gain concessions from their positions and power for power and from positions their gain concessions to allowed they were services, their for As gratification insystem. colonial the bureaucrates indigenous and intermediaries colonial of role the with resonances has This Africa. in politics power of feature defining a is which system state of the apparatus the through interests and personal immediate of satisfaction it is for the meant as development recompense, about in of bringing terms framed personal self towards geared goal as ofthe politics I captures am’’ eloquently “I grase therefore whichthat goat states tethered the imagery of His totalisation”. “of unwarranted avoid trappings likely the to more is governmentality heg and problematic legitimate, ideologic, is which unlikethat culture helatter, demonstrates the politicsin with its power dealings and specifically itself, society gove Fran bringing of claim “development’’ This can also c in to efforts their rivals political mudsledging their against such use as strategies tend to Anglophone region chance abetter v stand to as so higher jockeyingfor positions constantlyare therefore positions They responsibility. of to or resources to access have differential often they as individuals, structure, social the a part maintaining as aclass therefore and to belong all elites although because my to research important is ’field’ As aconcept, 6). 2003: (Gaventa dispositions, and where they compete for the distribution of different their reproduce d an kinds of express capital people which in arenas institutional and social various the which are ideais ‘fields’, the of in theory important is Bourdieu’s that A concept third apture the most strategic position within th ç rnmentality or the perceptions and methods of a government concerning how it organises how concerning agovernment methods of and perceptions the or rnmentality ois Bayart’s concept of “politics of the belly”. Relying on Foucault’s notion of notion Relying Foucault’s on belly”. of the “politics of concept Bayart’s ois . This definitelyleads to tension and contradictionsas theyindividually is -

à - vis other elites from region/group same from the elites vis other e postcolonial state apparatus. state e postcolonial 53

be understood through the appropriation of - aggrandizemen icular position icular t. In other words, though though words, other In t. emonic, emonic,

and subjectivity

and from the whole whole the from and

within within -

CEU eTD Collection 20 Before be disbanded. should institution the excesses, against of power chiefs the checked mec institutionalised of away withering the to owing that maintains actors “decentralised despotism”, Mamdani vocal another (1996:45) of chiefs opponent as political remaine has As arm of an and allogene. autothone byof concepts the captured in as trapped ethnicity Politics politics. of deracialisation the to led not has transition democratic Inwords, other in process Cameroon. transition byback democratic holding the interests their ri they votes, their get to fail they when and masses rural the control to claim state.They the with encounter their in solidarity” “tribal of fiction the by sustaining villages their into rule indirect transplanted self own their armouryin the game of power politics and controlover their regions or ethnic groups for neo appropriating are who classes ruling between the relationship des of “institutionalized concept Mamdani’s retinues. their chiefs and native authorities, of caprices to whims subjugated and the were who in countryside the living largely were latter peasants the whereas liberties civil law some enjoyed and customary The former “subjects”. “citizens’’ and into societies of African customarymechanism chiefs using the “customarylaw”. in of This led turn to the bifurcation by rule natives over based“indirect” thewas on use of colonialism late allin and apartheid in rule of framework institutional the him, to According Africa. in colonial in place put colonialism of that rule system the and this capture relationship to despotism” “decentralized ethnic or regions specific their in the Southwest Region. Bamile

Worthy of note here is the violence and bloodshed wrecked on settlers, predominantly Anglo predominantly settlers, on wrecked bloodshed and violence the is here note of Worthy ke in settlers) the 1990s by Mukete’s Victor E. Nfon tugs becauseof perceived their for opposition the support - interests. It might be stated tha g ele g

ctions using even

linguistic groups. Mamdani(1996) uses metaphor of the

“symbolic violence “symbolic t 54

the postcoloni 20 al elites and chiefs have ” to maintain the status and status maintain the ” to - mostly white were abomostly were white - traditional titles as part of of part as titles traditional potis hanisms that that hanisms m” reflects -Bami(northerners and

the the d ve ve CEU eTD Collection politicalstrategy of the postcolonial Cameroon thanhighlight themost salient aspects documented byKonings(), government of Cameroon (CDC) subjects of their those firm stand on able to co the Despite a is di the inthere of democracy 1990, since advent the that argues communities and the postcolonial state in various regions of Cameroon local between interaction the with preoccupation of decades thanInmore histhree G Binsbergen, 2003, beenvariously (Quinn,explored Fonmboh, 1980, Pemunta 2008, and Fonmboh, 2010, chiefta of ambivalence The participation. political belonging and politics were use of home, concepts Duringthe this time, 2004). (Geschiere, dominance regional political co chiefs were as the ambivalence polit multiparty and democratisation of wave the consensus’ Furthermore, (Mamdani, chiefta 1996:145). of became ‘determiner the chief state of the the and powers the strengthened systematically desertion adespoticwas chief sanction against ultimate ‘the colonialism, Mamdanimaintains, the chief custodian was the land, of its not and proprietor 4.4 4.4 new kind in Cameroon. in kind new agency and Resistance -

the largest and oldest agro oldest and largest the - optation of Southwest eschiere,1993).

including the privitisation of the Cameroon Development Corporation certain regional and national issues national and regional certain

.

Thenter ensuing of conflict cou claims and Fonmboh d as a political strategy to exclude non to strategy asd apolitical - opted by both the state and local elites in their quest for for quest their in elites local and state the byboth opted

chiefs by and elites the postcolonial party - (2008), Pemunta and Fonmboh (2010). I do nomore Pemunta do I and(2008), Fonmboh (2010).

industrial complex and second employer after the the after employer second and complex industrial to highlight elements of resistance and the prebandal prebandal the and resistance of elements highlight to ics that beganics that in the This 1990s. led to 55 i ian ncy in the colonial and postcolonial era has has era postcolonial and colonial the in ncy

sta te i . The .

ncy has also been affected by the the by affected been also has ncy ’. Colonialism and apartheid that clash with t with clash that re need for political actors of political actors for need re

Bakweri chiefs and elites - natives from local local from natives

- Geschiere (1993:151) claims heir interests or or interests heir

- has been well well been has state , theyare

CEU eTD Collection organised protes accordingly They success. without centuries for retrieve to tried had They administration. colonial British the to as ’Enemy property” over turned later and administration Bakweri. the with innegotiation its minister Tabi, Agbor Peter Professor Chief, and affairs of Commonwealth and aSouthwesterner Ngute, Dion Dr Chief village, aBakweri Bakingili, of Chief and presidency the at General Secretary Assistant then Inoni, Ephraim Chief all own to claims which The state royalties since 1946 unpaid of restitution the for requested consent.They their without sold be not could CDC owne the up gave never they that stating memorandum a signed co they Movements, Anglophone Cameroon the Alongside negotiations. the in say a have the privitisation of the corporation Victoria of Williams Manga Chiefleadership Endeley the S.M.L Paramount of Committee Claims BakweriLand the this, Despite CDC. of the Management co by instead state the rule, and divide its of As strategy of part dominated post to was an affront process elites modern potentialinternational warninginvestors the privitisation Bakweri themagainst process. claims over virulent opposition greeted the government’s of announcement the privitisationin ofJuly the CDC 1994with - opting thei opting

the

like the Cameroon Anglophone Movement Anglophone Cameroon the like - colonial state. colonial

t

CDC the to letters and marches r . Both the chiefs and Bakweri ‘ Bakweri and chiefs the Both . when the lands were leasedlands the were when ‘ traditional’ and traditional’ land

ne identity and colonial heritage by the Francophone the by heritage colonial Anglopho and identity ne

(Limbe) continued their campaign of outright res outright of campaign their continued (Limbe) as native land that as native land that

pieces of pieces insisting that they should have been consulted and should should and consulted been have should they that insisting

‘ modern’elites into theBoard ofDi

land, land, government of Cameroon, the World Bank and and Bank World the Cameroon, of government 56 The World Bank The and the time, same the At .

was expropriated by the German colonial colonial German by the was expropriated further used other Southwest elites Southwest other used further modern’ elites w elites modern’

(Buea) and Paramount ChiefF. Bille fragmented the unity of the Bakweri Bakweri unity the the fragmented of s

pointed out that the priviti rship of their land and that the the that and land their of rship their on unanimous ere then Minister in charge in charge Minister hig (BLCC) istance agai her education her education rectors and rectors

such as

sation sation under under nst nst - -

CEU eTD Collection I serving mission framedservingmission development’. ’bringingabout as S the and ethnicities various that hasargued This chapter 4.5 investors. against campaign scar international an causing internet thereby and the mem letters, through awareness international and national both raised and mobilised USA Committee, Claims Land the and Bakweri Chiefs Conference Southwest the (SWELA), Programme Adjustment framework of the Enhanced privitisation reforms the and within economic e. thron parties competing between conflicts has orchestrated prominence Region Southwest the and ethnicities their for spokesmen and representatives position as abetter stand as to so titles neopatrimonial other and chieftaincy on take they competition, requires prominence political as theirsupport motions constituencies political of and outfits writing these presenting structures state bureaucratic within mobility social of upward ambitions political their achieve as SWELA to such associations in use home area they turn fragmentary, is always dominan retain achieve and them to ’development’ for resources state nternational nternational Conclusion

M

onetary onetary F

und (ESAP).

in theirinteraction with the state and elites are actually out aself on out actually are elites and chiefs Region, outhwest

(IMF)

through ethnic associations such as SWELA However, s However, politics. national and regional in ce Concomittantly in terms of appointments in terms of continued to mount pressure on the government for for government the on pressure mount to continued 57 , the Southwest Elites Association Elites Southwest the ,

In the process of trying to attract attract to of trying process In the

as intermediaries between as intermediaries the . This positioning for This political. positioning

all laying claims to the the to claims laying all , the state

ince power ince power Structural Structural various various oranda . Since Since .

uses uses

by by ir ir -

CEU eTD Collection families, slave and natives real between distinctions term long in rooted partly although (1979) of power as theories as well power of understanding a way as locality Appropriating Don kalb’s tactics. divide its bu the chiefs within whom are of elites someinterests individual the is and preserve it promote hand, one the to used of of autochthon discourse the trig . . . continent the throughout “autochthony” with obsession ‘increasing Africa on issue edited influential their in 309) (1998a: Gugler Josef state. Cameroonian neopatrimonial from the her ethnicgroup of hisinterest or the protect Nyamnjoh, on 2005) thefallacious (Shack, participation belon home, Cameroon title neotraditional other and stools set study This hardeningidentities of a political excluding way as outsider of - non natives from local political participation. political local from natives

Wolf,

within the context of multipartism and democratisation and multipartism of context the within ging and politics a andging politics

1990, 1999 )1990, the studyshows that the confli s

out t out

1979, Englund and Nyamnjoh 2004; Eyoh 1999; Kuba Englund 1999; a and1979, NyamnjohEyoh 2004; o explore the reasons for the escalation of conflicts over chieftaincy chieftaincy over conflicts of escalation the for reasons the explore o

'critical junctions' perspective with its implications of history and and history of implications its with perspective junctions' 'critical yisits On development and doublelyappropriated. equation with reaucratic state apparatus, while on the other, the state uses it in uses state the while other, the apparatus, on state reaucratic re Summary and Conclusion

being increasingly being basis s

among Bayang and Ejaghams lineages in Southwest inlineagesandamong Southwest Ejaghams Bayang Chapter 5 that only natives only that

58 As eloquently captured by Peter Geschiere and Geschiere and by Peter captured As eloquently

This ethnicThis consciousness syndrome

/region

gers abelonging’. politics of

used as a political strategy apolitical as used and bring about cting claims over chieftaincy over claims cting - a son or daughter of the soil can can soil of the daughter or son a

. Where . s /othersfrom pol

development projects projects development ( Bourdieu, Foucault, the the nd Lentz 2006; 2006; nd Lentz concepts of concepts

to exclude to

In reality, led to the the to led

status status itical itical

CEU eTD Collection transition has institution the i the of withering the to led has this Although . Cameroon in system in the for ethnicand dominance regional quest institu the appropriated also have elites and state postcolonial the masters, colonial the Like individuals Prof as refle and tradition modernity between entanglement simultaneous as the well as in politics authorities traditional andmodernity by by tradition state the colonial represented and postcolonial represented unders be should lineages Ejagham over conflict the showsthat further The study suggest to Bakweritends of the case study a such push unpopular through its projects hegemonic and of to agenda themfor the achievement simultaneously state the regions, and groups ethnic their for development bring to meant cons their to development politics regional and structures. state posi to SWELA as such associations Manyu words, other In neopatrimonialism. on based is which of Cameroon context sociopolitical larger in the inter despite essor tion of chieftancy maintain to s privitisation by fragment unity s group elites privitisation cooptation of to using significant

. Th . process ,

particularly chiefs into the postcolonial administrative apparatus as apparatus administrative postcolonial the into chiefs particularly - tribal marriages and therefore the ex the therefore and marriages tribal e

combination between modernity and tradition underpins the co the underpins and tradition modernity between combination To achieve this aim, they position themselves and

in Cameroon. in

remained resilient andremained resilient has survived the cted incted neo elites and chiefs as a classuse neo

by appropriating neo tituents

- traditional titles such as Chief/Senator/Chief.D Chiefs and elites arei . While they often frame their participation in politics as as in politics frame participation their often While they . ‘ tood through the prism of the interplay between between interplay the of prism the through tood tion themselves for appointment within appointment for themselves tion national unity’ and as political ammunitions in the ammunitions political as and unity’ national .

59 -

traditional titles in the name of bringing bringing of name the in titles traditional

the the between thrones chieftaincy game of politics of game pansion of lineagespansion of ncreasingly being used as election election as being used ncreasingly - patrimonial titles and ethnic area area ethnic and titles patrimonial

presently stalled presently

within the

become nstitution of chieftancy,

should be should dominant dominant

centralised state state centralised

‘

bureaucratic bureaucratic forgrounded vote banks’. vote - and Bayang octor optation of democratic democratic in in

/Chief /Chief as the the as local local uses ir ir

CEU eTD Collection pr the in elites and chiefs the of role real of the assessment be an could research of area unexplored but further, Arule. agro CDC of the privitisation puppets neochiefs within the - architecture national and in regional an imbricated overaching While this study particular by democratisation the orchestrated becomes identity of concept the of fluidity tactics rule and divide by using center soc upward towards mai as the state the backdrop, this Against macro the terms of conflictin manifested through as strategising political local understand to need the articulates study this Theoretically, appointment. re or maintenance through positions their conserve to struggle they as agents rigging

they as

through the prism of the conflicting claims over the chieftaincy institution chieftaincy the over claims conflicting the of prism the through

during the the during did they like man one as up d stan to willing are and agency have h - a sociopolitical context of ethnic society, nepotism and neo and nepotism society, of ethnic context sociopolitical the the s called ia - patrimonial state system state patrimonial l mobility tends to use it use to tends mobility l omotion of self g claims over chieftaincy and other neo - industrial complex despite the state’s strategy of divide and and divide of strategy state’s the despite complex industrial attention

process at the local and regional levels local and regional the at - reliant development in the Manyu region. region. Manyu the in development reliant to n source of development resources and the path and path the resources of development source n 60

.

the needthe

This This auseful lense for analysing social s in Africa in general and and general in Africa in

economic resources to retain power at the at power retain to resources economic

has also demonstrated that chiefs are not not chiefs are that demonstrated has also

to see local politic local see to positioning . Ethnicity . - traditional titles in in titles traditional al strategising as as strategising al in in - patrimonialism. patrimonialism. ,

Cameroon in in Cameroon by elites and , despite the the despite , .

changes - CEU eTD Collection Cambridge: Univer Harvard Clifford, On (1988). J. Ethnographic In: Authority. J.Clifford. Predicaments Culture of California- Press.Pp.185 In: and A.Gupta Ferguson.(Eds). J. Anthropological Locations Clifford, J.(1997).’Spatial Travel Practices: Fieldwork, and the D Hard R,Edwards, A, 1994. Talbot. The California- Press.Pp.185 In J. Clifford, Bryman, A. SocialResearchMethods (2000). Association Sociological American Buraway, ‘The M.(1998). Extended Sociological Case Method’. Theory Burgess, (1984). R.G. In the Field Bourdieu, P. Knowledge P.(1966). Berger, Paris. Politiques: J. Bayart, : A.Gupta and A.Gupta : Ferguson.(Eds). J. Anthropological Locations - F., (1985), (1985), F., ( . London, Penguin Book. 1997) ( 1977) .’Spatial Practices: Fieldwork, Travel and the Discipline of Anthropology. Anthropology. of Discipline the and Travel Fieldwork, Practices: .’Spatial The SocialConstruction Ofreality, A Treatise i

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