The CEIC

The National Center on A catalystEVIEW for merging research, policy, and practice. Education in the Inner Cities R

Volume 10 • Number 9 • October 2001 Taking Small Classes One Step Further Reports and Recommendations from a National Invitational Conference Jeremy D. Finn, State University of New York at Buffalo; and Margaret C. Wang, Distinguished Professor and Director, Temple University Center for Research in Human Development and Education

Reduced class sizes in Ameri- that are especially profound for In seeking answers to such can schools are becoming a reality. children at risk. questions, researchers, administra- Through federal, state, and local Nevertheless, CSR as a school- tors, and teachers have recognized initiatives, schools have been hiring reform strategy has raised other that small classes will not solve all more teachers and implementing pressing questions about classroom our schools’ problems or com- smaller classes in the elementary process. How can we apply existing pletely close the achievement gap grades as a strategy for improving research and instructional models among student groups. However, learning, especially in schools serv- to make small classes optimally ef- CSR can be a facilitating condition ing students at risk for failure. fective? What instructional strate- for teaching and learning. Educa- This initiative for class size reduction gies work best in small classes? tors also realize that the shortage of (CSR) has resulted in a substantial What professional development experienced teachers to staff new cohort of teachers and administra- experiences do teachers of small classes, the paucity of information tors with significant experience classes need? about best practices in small classes, and expertise working in small Equally important questions and the need for effective proce- classes. have been raised about how best to dures for evaluating small-class ini- The current CSR movement implement CSR in schools. Given tiatives all call for a more extensive has arisen from public concern limited school resources and space, understanding of the use of CSR in about the quality of education and how do we utilize existing funds school reform. from research that confirms that and facilities to implement small It was in this context of extend- children learn better when they are classes? How can CSR be com- ing what we know about small placed in small classes with effec- bined with other early-intervention classes in order to facilitate class- tive teachers. The results of CSR programs like preschool or remedial room practices effectively that this experiments like Tennessee’s reading to enhance the benefits of national invitational conference Project STAR, Wisconsin’s Project small classes? How can we estab- on furthering our understanding of SAGE, and California’s statewide lish communication and dissemina- CSR was held. Its purposes were program for reducing class size tion networks to inform the public both to facilitate effective imple- in Grades K–3 all indicate that— about the benefits of CSR? How mentation of CSR and to promote both in the short and long run— should districts and states evaluate research on those instructional placement in small classes at an CSR initiatives for optimal program practices that are most effective early age has academic benefits development? in small classes. It built on the

The National Center on Education in the Inner Cities is a unit in the Temple University Center for Research in Human Development and Education, an interdisciplinary center devoted to fostering healthy developmental and educational success of children and families in this nation’s urban communities. Inquiries about the work of the Center should be sent to Information Services, CRHDE, Temple University, 1301 Cecil B. Moore Avenue, Philadelphia, PA 19122-6091. Copyright © 2001 knowledge base shared and devel- incentives, instruction, and profes- beyond schools implementing the oped in a related conference held in sional development that arise from reform. Several points of agreement December 1999, “How Small Classes that implementation. Conference emerged: Help Teachers Do Their Best.” participants also worked intensively • Government support for pro- Both conferences, cosponsored in small groups to discuss the key gram initiation and continuation by the U.S. Department of Educa- themes and to generate next-step should take into account the need tion and the Mid-Atlantic Regional recommendations for advancing re- for funding and implementation Educational Laboratory for Stu- form efforts. strategies that have been proven dent Success (LSS) at the Temple This issue of the CEIC Review to work. University Center for Research provides a synopsis of those rec- • Knowledge about optimal class- in Human Development and Educa- ommendations and summaries of room structures and best practices tion (CRHDE), provided forums the commissioned papers. In doing should be actively incorporated for national dialogue on how to ad- so, the issue contributes to a goal in the organization of new and vance current practices to achieve that conference participants identi- existing programs. school success for the increasingly fied as crucial to the success of CSR • Ongoing, mutually beneficial col- diverse student population in the as a school-reform strategy: dissem- laboration among CSR schools nation’s schools. This conference, ination of research and practical should be fostered to develop convened in Washington, DC on knowledge in an understandable initiatives effectively. November 30 and December 1, form that can facilitate the policy • Administrators should encour- 2000, was particularly timely, given and classroom efforts that lead to age instructional leaders to that the improvement of American student success. advocate and support CSR schools has become a national pri- initiatives in their schools and ority, that resources for CSR are Advancing School Reform Through districts. being allocated more widely, and Class Size Reduction: Next-Step that we have yet to determine how Recommendations PROFESSIONAL DEVELOPMENT to optimize the use of those re- While conference participants The development of teacher sources to improve schools. expressed divergent opinions on expertise and classroom practices At the conference, leading edu- specific next-step strategies, sub- in order to maximize the potential cators, policymakers, and research- stantial consensus emerged through benefits of small classes played an ers in the nation gathered to discuss small work groups. The groups’ important role in work-group dis- ways that schools, states, and the recommendations focused on four cussions. Major recommendations federal government can further the major topical areas: improving or- included the following: CSR reform effort through research ganizational and implementation • Ensure that as funds are allo- and practical application and to ex- support for CSR; professional cated to CSR, they are also tend the progress made at the 1999 development focusing on effective adequately earmarked for staff conference. To those ends, the or- practice in the classroom; strategies development. ganizers of the conference commis- for broader dissemination of the • Relate professional develop- sioned papers from leading scholars knowledge base; and evaluation ment closely to successful CSR and educators that examined three strategies that will inform future models. broad themes: teaching practices in CSR efforts. • Plan professional-development small classes; evaluation of small activities so that the needs of classes; and support of effective ORGANIZATION AND IMPLEMENTATION both beginning and experienced classroom structures and teacher SUPPORT teachers are considered. development. In addition to in-depth In order to use what is known • Focus professional-development discussions of the implications of from research on CSR to develop workshops on classroom-man- findings reported in the commis- and support effective school re- agement issues, including time sioned papers, the conference fea- form based on smaller class sizes, on task, discipline, and record tured a panel in which practitioners and to overcome some of the prac- keeping. shared their experiences and les- tical obstacles to implementing CSR, • Concentrate professional develop- sons learned from implementing work groups discussed what steps ment efforts on the use of those CSR. They focused on issues of would optimize support within and practices that are best suited to

The CEIC REVIEW • October 2001 2 small classes, such as balancing • research on the academic and assessment at the state level. the breadth and depth of content and nonacademic benefits • Support long-term evaluations coverage and building on the of small classes; to extend the scope of available increased sense of community • feasible funding mecha- data. among teachers and pupils in nisms for CSR; • Conduct implementation studies small classes. • regulations accompany- before undertaking large-scale ing state and federal research projects to determine DISSEMINATION OF THE KNOWLEDGE CSR funding and their appropriate research questions BASE interpretations in differ- and important variables for A broader dissemination of the ent locales; improving the accuracy of knowledge base on small classes • ways to deal with the evaluation. was considered as an essential need for additional teach- • Use multiple evaluation indices next-step task in advancing imple- ers and classrooms when to better understand the total ef- mentation of CSR policy at state both are in short supply, fect of CSR, including and local levels. It was concluded • the most efficient ways • teacher satisfaction and that to garner continued and ex- to implement CSR in par- retention rates; panded support for CSR policy, the ticular schools and dis- • student achievement and public needs to be educated about tricts; attendance patterns; the nature of programs to reduce • optimal instructional strat- • student social and emo- class size, the support needed to egies for small classes; tional development; achieve successful implementation, • ways to share experiences • quality of classroom envi- and the improvements in teaching with other teachers and ronment; and and learning that the programs administrators who have • parental involvement and produce. Policymakers, educators, experience with CSR feedback. and administrators should expand initiatives; and • Evaluate how support from the collaborative relationships to keep • methods for evaluating community at both the school all concerned updated about the CSR initiatives in both the and district levels translates into latest research, recommendations, short run and the long run. the success of a CSR initiative. best practices, and successful CSR • Develop strategies for sustaining • Design studies to estimate programs. continuous collaboration and the effectiveness of CSR for Participants proposed specific networking among CSR teachers, English language learners and strategies for expanding delivery of including traditional person-to- students with disabilities. information regarding CSR research person opportunities like work- and practice for school reform, in- shops and conferences and Conclusion cluding the following: virtual opportunities, such as In both general discussion ses- • Disseminate audience-specific videos, videoconferencing, and sions and small work groups, par- information, through both the Internet. ticipants concluded that increased traditional and Internet-based sharing of knowledge is vital to the media, about the benefits of EFFECTIVE EVALUATION progress of CSR reform. Especially CSR, targeting information Conference participants called important is communication of to policymakers, administrators, for further evaluations to inform knowledge between practitioners principals, teachers, and parents. and improve CSR practice. Evalua- and researchers and among practi- • Collaborate more effectively tions of both small- and large-scale tioners working in different small- with national organizations like CSR efforts are needed to show class environments. Improving the Council of Chief State School why small classes work and to de- communication is important for Officers and the American Assoc- termine the conditions under which fostering the sense of community iation of School Administrators they work best. The following steps that is a chief benefit of small to compile and disseminate were identified for making evalua- classes. Communication of results findings on CSR initiatives. tion more effective: showing effective CSR efforts to • Create publications that in- • Encourage efforts to increase policymakers is also crucial to the crease general awareness of funding for CSR data collection success of the reform. z

3 The CEIC REVIEW • October 2001 Life at Draper Elementary School: Class-Size Evaluation Lessons Patrick Harman, SERVE

Since 1996, SERVE has been mathematics support program was the evaluators developed vignettes evaluating the comprehensive school also created. describing what was observed in reform (CSR) initiative at Draper various venues in the school. Elementary School, located in a rural Lesson 2: Understanding School mill town in central North Carolina. and Classroom Processes Through Lesson 3: Understanding Perceptions Their most recent findings indicate Observations from Multiple Perspectives that class size reduction has led to more Much can be learned by observ- Focus groups revealed that parents effective teaching and improved aca- ing programs in action. Observations and teachers often report observing demic performance at the school. In reveal differences between how a similar phenomena. For example, the the past four years, SERVE evaluators program is running and how it is in- teacher focus group conducted at have gained a number of important tended to run. SERVE evaluators ob- the end of the 1996–1997 school lessons on conducting evaluation served classrooms in May 2000 to year highlighted several implementa- research relative to understanding begin determining the typical instruc- tion difficulties as well as many per- the school context, observing the tional strategies employed in small class- ceived benefits of smaller classes. school and classroom processes, size classrooms. Arriving unannounced, Reflecting back on the year, both and evaluating perceptions from the one of three observers spent 15 min- parents and teachers were concerned multiple perspectives of teachers, utes in each classroom recording what about the loss of assistants and spe- parents, and staff. was taking place in terms of grouping, cialty teachers necessitated by the instructional and orientation practices, class-size reduction initiative. On Lesson 1: Understanding the student activities, technology use, the positive side, teachers and par- School Context and assessment techniques. ents noted the positive atmosphere SERVE has provided Draper The most frequently observed in the class, increased communica- Elementary with an annual evaluation instructional strategies were instructional tion between parents and teachers, of the initiative as it relates to student feedback to enhance student learning greater variety of instruction taking achievement and implementation, (15 classrooms), direct instruction with place in classes, and significant im- which entails frequent visits to the the entire class (14 classrooms), and provement in the students’ reading school to assess students, observe independent seatwork (12 classrooms). skills. classrooms, and talk with the teach- In 2000, SERVE began to ex- It is critical that evaluators and ers and principal. SERVE has also amine what happens to a school when researchers continue to examine provided professional development it implements class size reduction. implementation issues and the po- support to the faculty as it relates to In particular, investigators wanted tential benefits of smaller classes. reading-instructional strategies and to understand the types of interactions Studies such as those at Draper are use of student portfolios. that occur in small class-size schools important in building the procedural In 1995–1996, prior to the CSR between students and teachers and knowledge about how smaller classes initiative, Draper ranked 13th among between students as well as the work that will aid other schools in the 14 district elementary schools in purposes of the interactions ob- their efforts to implement CSR ini- the grade 3–5 achievement rankings, served. Over the course of a week tiatives. Over the next few years, and only 61% of the students were in the fall of 2000, four SERVE ob- SERVE will be conducting a series on grade level. After the first year servers spent at least two hours of meetings for district teams inter- of implementation, SERVE staff re- each at Draper observing in the hall- esting in implementing CSR. Meetings ported to the faculty that a majority ways, the cafeteria, classrooms, and will focus on CSR implementation, of their kindergarten students were the media center. Each interaction including classroom space, financial 6 months to a year behind in devel- was coded as instruction-oriented resources, and personnel. SERVE is opment when they entered Draper. (receiving/providing assistance, also establishing a cadre of CSR- Thus, an additional reading program guidance, or information), relationship- experienced teachers and administrators was established for all students, oriented (conversation and praise), to allow opportunities for educator and an after-school tutoring program and management-oriented (discipline teams to attend instructional-strate- was initiated. A one-to-one in-school and order). On the basis of this data, gies workshops in the summer. z

The CEIC REVIEW • October 2001 4 Design for the Evaluation of the Federal Class-Size Reduction Program Mary Ann Millsap and Beth Gamse, Abt Associates Inc.

In spring 2001, Abt Associates program at four levels: state, district, for the past three school years was Inc. began a national evaluation of the school, and classroom/teacher. Re- to be collected, allowing evaluators class-size reduction (CSR) program search questions at the state level to compute the average number for the U.S. Department of Educa- were to explore interaction with other of students per classroom, per tion. The study was to focus on state initiatives, especially for class teacher, and per full complement of implementation and early impact of size reduction. Questions about the teachers at each time point for a federal program, not on class-size state role were to be addressed each grade. Thus, the study would reduction efforts in general. through the site visits, capitalizing show how adding teachers affected Data collection was to include sur- on the diversity across states. the average class size in a grade. veys of representative samples of dis- Questions about district-level imple- Since the federal program aims tricts and schools as well as site visits mentation were to consider sources to improve teaching, the evaluation to six states, two large districts in each and qualifications of new teachers, was to examine changes in instruc- state, and two schools in each dis- types of recruitment activities, types tional practices through classroom trict. The states selected differed by of staff development and training observations and self-reports of ob- such variables as federal CSR alloca- provided for uncertified teachers, served teachers. Evaluators were to tion, existence of state class-size re- ways districts cope with shortfalls ask teachers to compare their re- duction efforts, and geographic region. between CSR allocations and actual duced classes to larger classes in The evaluation was designed to costs to staff smaller classes, and earlier years. Also to be explored investigate four major areas: (a) dis- effects of the CSR program on avail- was the extent to which teachers tribution and uses of federal CSR ability and maintenance of facilities. have been able to enrich curricu- funds; (b) implementation of the Data were to be collected on vari- lum or promote elaborated home- federal program; (c) impact on class ous school-level implementation is- work assignments. District and size; and (d) impact on teaching. sues, including the number of teachers school efforts to support teacher each school hired, the modifications, learning would be documented. Distribution and Uses of Funds if any, schools had to make to add teach- The completed study will pro- Class-size reduction funds are ers, and perceived effects of CSR vide nationally representative find- intended to serve multiple purposes. on the school. Also of interest, as an ings on how federal CSR funds The largest proportion of funds goes influence on implementation, were the were spent and how many teach- to support teacher salaries; smaller level of principals’ discretion over ers were hired with the funds. It proportions are intended to support categorical funding and comparison will furnish comparative results on teacher recruitment and professional of their spending priorities for their the educational backgrounds and development. The evaluators were schools’ budgets to districts’ priorities. experiences of teachers in reduced- particularly interested in documenting Among classroom-level topics size and nonreduced classrooms. the numbers of teachers hired and to be addressed were any instruction- The study will also offer federal- the extent to which districts drew al modifications used to capitalize on level data on issues faced by state upon multiple funding sources for the increased flexibility thought to ac- class-size reduction efforts, such hiring. Other topics of interest in- company reduced class size, teach- as teacher shortages in large, high- cluded the use of CSR funds in dis- ers’ interactions with students and poverty districts. Finally, it will trict decisions about whether and how with one another on instructional is- furnish rich qualitative data on dis- to participate in CSR, the distribu- sues, and the proportion of time fo- trict funding decisions, selection tion of CSR funds to schools, and cused on classroom management and outfitting of schools for CSR, the nature of professional develop- rather than instruction. and changes in teaching practice ment supported with CSR funds. to take advantage of smaller classes. Impact in the Classroom Once disseminated, these findings Program Implementation The evaluators wanted to investi- will be useful to federal policy- This evaluation was to focus pri- gate whether federal CSR funds were makers as they deliberate the re- marily on how districts and schools indeed used to reduce class size and, design and refunding of the CSR have implemented the federal CSR if so, by how much. Information program. z

5 The CEIC REVIEW • October 2001 Evaluating the Effects of Statewide Class-Size Reduction Initiatives: The Need for a Systemic Approach George W. Bohrnstedt, American Institutes for Research; Brian M. Stecher, RAND; and Michael Kirst, Stanford University

One of the most popular pro- organizations and other organiza- either articulated with or interfered grams that the federal government tions, and independent consultants. with other ongoing education re- and a number of states have under- From these discussions, a number forms in the district. The surveys taken to improve student achieve- of principles emerged for the eval- were used to document how CSR ment is class size reduction (CSR). uation of CSR in California that would exacerbated the preexisting space Because CSR is among the most seem appropriate for an evaluation of crunch in schools. The surveys of expensive of the various educational CSR in any state: teachers provided invaluable data on programs, it is important that states whether and how their classroom with CSR initiatives evaluate whether • A single, integrated evaluation is practices changed as a function of the program is having its intended preferable to a set of unrelated being in a reduced classroom. The effects. Although most efforts to small-scale studies. survey data from parents made it pos- reduce class size have occurred at • The study design needs to be sible to determine the degree to which the local or district level, a systemic comprehensive because CSR is parental involvement with the teacher approach to the evaluation of CSR a system-wide intervention. changed as a function of whether is in order regardless of the size and • The evaluation should be both the child was in a reduced classroom level of the intervention. formative and summative. and to determine parents’ general • A longitudinal design is essential. perceptions of the quality of their The Conceptual Model • The evaluation needs to be as children’s education as a result. In order to ensure a compre- rigorous and objective as possible hensive, systemic research design so that the findings will be credible Assessing Achievement Effects for evaluating the effects of CSR in to both supporters and skeptics. Assessing the achievement California, the consortium of orga- effects of CSR in California was nizations contracted to evaluate CSR The Sampling Design complex. First, there was no base- designed a conceptual model to In order to link and aggregate line data, since the CSR was intro- capture the complexity of the sys- the information gathered at different duced in the fall prior to the adoption tem within which CSR was occur- levels of the system, a nested sample of the new state assessment (SAT- ring. This conceptual framework is of 125 representative districts and 9). Second, even if there had been probably general enough to be used 625 schools was obtained. This was baseline data, California’s state data as a starting place for other states followed by a selection of one first- system does not allow linking stu- implementing CSR at multiple grade grade teacher from one half of the dent data over time. Third, not all levels on a statewide basis as was sample schools and one second-grade students were exposed to CSR at done in California. The model exam- teacher from the other half. In addition, the same time; district discretion ines how district and school policies from each of the sampled schools, one, on the implementation led to differ- might have been affected by the two, or three third-grade teachers ences statewide in participation by state’s CSR initiative and how these were selected, depending on the num- grade level, by school, and by year. policies relate to resource alloca- ber of third-grade teachers in the Ninety-nine percent of first-grade tion, other ongoing reforms, paren- school. Finally, a random sample students and 95% of second-grade tal involvement and support for the of parents of third-grade students students participated in CSR in program, and teacher quality and whose teachers had been selected 1997–1998, as opposed to only training. for the teacher sample was drawn. about 70% of third-grade students. The survey provided extremely The combination of natural variation SOME GENERAL PRINCIPLES USED IN useful data on the problems districts in CSR participation and the avail- FORMULATING THE STUDY DESIGN and schools had in implementing CSR ability of achievement data that is Consortium researchers first and on why some chose not to imple- necessary for conducting the evalu- spoke with major stakeholders, in- ment CSR at all grade levels or at all ation made third grade the most ap- cluding state-level policymakers, in the initiative’s first three years. It propriate focus for the evaluation superintendents, teachers, re- also provided data on the ways in study. The schools that reduced class searchers from the consortium’s which the implementation of CSR size in the third grade were different

The CEIC REVIEW • October 2001 6 in terms of their demographic com- approach to the introduction of There are many alternative experi- position from those schools that did CSR in California—one in which mental conditions that could be not reduce their class sizes—an im- evaluators worked with policymakers considered, but the inclusion of portant factor to be taken into ac- in the design and implementation of each condition needs to be weighed count when making comparisons. program—might well have resulted against the practical and political These analyses were repeated in greater ease in inferring program difficulties one would face in trying in both the first two years of the CSR effects. to introduce them. evaluation study in California. Over The main outcome to be moni- the next two years, the consortium A Three-Step Approach Employ- tored would be gains in student will be investigating the cumulative ing an Experimental Design achievement. Were the gains the impact of CSR with a longitudinal The preferred approach for de- same for all students, or did certain “dose-response” analysis that com- termining the effects of a new re- classes of students show greater or pares test scores of consecutive form initiative such as CSR would lesser gains than others? It is also cohorts of fourth graders. CSR does include three steps: important to monitor whether the not apply to the fourth grade, and intervention was implemented as for that reason, systematic changes Step 1: The Implementation Issues planned. Were there systematic dif- in fourth-grade performance can Study ferences in the credentials of teach- serve as an outcome index with The purpose of the implementation ers in the experimental versus the which to measure CSR’s effect on issues study is to determine whether control classrooms and were there learning. there are barriers that would prevent differences in the way teachers in the successful implementation of the smaller classrooms taught com- THREATS TO VALIDITY IN EVALUATING CSR. A sample of districts would pared to those in the larger class- CSR be surveyed to gain information rooms? The use of nonexperimental de- about the difficulty or ease districts signs like those used in California is of various types would have in imple- Step 3: Statewide Implementation fraught with threats to validity. For menting CSR. The state would then The state would then examine example, California introduced a new use these data along with its own data the results from the implementation state test the spring after CSR was on teacher supply and demand to issues study and the field trial and initiated. Since teachers often begin to decide the feasibility of implement- make a decision about whether to teach to the test, the gains observed ing CSR at all levels in the initial implement the program as designed on the new test do not generalize to program. or to make changes to it. Changes measures of the same content area could include a decision to move a when assessed by a different test. Step 2: An Experimental Field Trial disproportionate amount of the re- In California, roughly a third of Once implementation issues are sources to districts with high pro- the students in the first three grades resolved, a field trial would be con- portions of high-risk children or are classified as English Language ducted to determine the effects of to provide incentives to move Learners. Researchers were con- CSR at whatever grade levels the inter- fully credentialed teachers to schools cerned that the SAT-9 might not be vention is planned for and whether with high proportions of at-risk sensitive enough to pick up reading it is helping to close the achievement students. gains for this group of students, but gap. The trial should run for a mini- This study suggests that it would they did not have sufficient funds mum of two years to assess change. be wise to conduct small-scale stud- to add a reading readiness test to The experiment would be more ies before introducing CSR state- determine whether prereading achieve- powerful if one could randomly as- wide. An implementation issues ment gains were occurring for these sign teachers to classrooms as was study combined with a field trial groups of students. done in Tennessee, thereby deter- can be invaluable for states in Numerous reforms have been mining the degree to which teach- developing cost-effective, targeted introduced in California since the in- ers’ years of experience and degree class-size reduction programs. Such troduction of CSR, thereby making level might interact with class size, programs may help to reduce or it difficult to draw firm conclusions the percentage of at-risk children eliminate the unintended conse- about whether gains in achievement in the classroom, and the influ- quences observed in California are due to CSR or to other programs. ence of other variables in their when it implemented its class-size A more rational and thoughtful effects on student achievement. reduction program. z

7 The CEIC REVIEW • October 2001 Balancing Breadth and Depth of Content Coverage: Taking Advantage of the Opportunities Provided by Smaller Classes Lorin W. Anderson, University of South Carolina

An increasing amount of evi- shown in the conceptual distinction for large (and increasing) numbers dence suggests that students in between the specific experiences of students, teachers need to do smaller classes in the early school we have in life (“instances”) and more. years, on average, continue to out- the formation of “instances” into perform their peers in larger classes categories of experience. The pro- Moving from the “How” of Teaching on standardized achievement tests cess of forming categories, known to the “What” of Learning after they return to same-size as conceptualization, is a critically Because most principals are re- classes in later school years. How- important part of the process of sponsible for teacher evaluation and ever, there is wide variation in the understanding. Part of good teach- because most teacher evaluation mean achievement scores of stu- ing involves helping students form instruments are teacher-centered, dents in smaller classes; some con- categories that represent the way most principals have been taught ditions in smaller classes will result others see the world. Whereas the to focus on the teacher during in greater student achievement, number of instances equates with their classroom observations. In while other conditions will not. The breadth of content coverage, the one recent study, this researcher challenge for researchers is to try number of categories as well as worked with 11 principals in a to understand the conditions under their complexity, their abstractness, single school district to help the which reduced class size produces and the relationships among them principals shift their focus from the achievement gains. combine to produce the depth of teachers to the students. A series of Smaller classes provide op- content coverage. monthly seminars was conducted portunities for teachers to engage for the group, followed by individual in practices that improve student Content Coverage and Student work with each principal. During achievement; however, it is what Learning the school visit, the researcher teachers do in and with smaller The distinction between and principal observed a mini- classes that makes the difference, breadth and depth of content mum of two classes using a not simply the presence of smaller coverage is important because it semistructured observation form. classes. Smaller classes allow results in very different types of One such occasion provides a teachers to achieve a greater bal- learning. Breadth of content cov- good example of the distinction ance between breadth and depth erage is more likely to result in between breadth and depth of content of content coverage and enable greater retention of what is be- coverage. teachers to teach better, but not ing learned, but not necessarily A mathematics lesson was necessarily differently. greater understanding. In con- given to a third-grade class of 18 trast, depth of convent coverage students in which the objective was Breadth Versus Depth of Content is more likely to result in greater for students to understand tenths, Coverage transfer of what is being learned, hundredths, and thousandths. Content coverage is typically in part because it leads to greater Understanding was indicated if stu- defined in terms of (a) the number understanding. Because both re- dents could translate a given num- of textbook pages students have tention and transfer are important ber into words, or vice versa. About completed; (b) the number of cur- educational goals, a proper bal- halfway through the lesson, it be- riculum topics that teachers have ance between depth and breadth came apparent that about two thirds taught; or (c) the proportion of of content coverage is highly de- of the students were having great items on an end-of-year achieve- sirable. difficulty. ment test for which students have Given these two distinct goals, Following the observation, the had an opportunity to learn the rel- one might ask “Why not have the principal and researcher discussed evant content. Content coverage is teacher focus on breadth of content the classroom experience. The prin- synonymous with breadth of con- coverage and let the students be re- cipal had noticed a pattern to the tent coverage. sponsible for depth of content cov- students’ wrong answers: For ex- The difference between breadth erage?” Quite clearly, this approach ample, the teacher asked Emily, and depth of content coverage is works well for some students, but “How do you write five tenths?”

The CEIC REVIEW • October 2001 8 and Emily wrote .05 on the board. that were consistent with what they • Smaller classes allow teachers to She later asked another student understood. better monitor the learning of how he would say .038 (written With an exclusive focus on their students. In larger classes, on the board) in words and he said breadth of content coverage, the because teachers cannot monitor thirty-eight hundredths. Similar teacher could have continued on— every student, they tend to rely mistakes were made by other instance after instance. Given a suf- on steering groups to determine students. ficient number of instances and a how things are going, whereas The researcher recognized that variety of activities, the students in smaller classes, it is possible there is a lack of symmetry in the might eventually understand deci- to include a greater proportion whole number–decimal number line: mals. If instead, the focus is on of the students in the teacher’s There is no “oneths.” That is, the depth of content coverage, the steering group. For that reason, tens place is two to the left of the teacher could go “back to the draw- instructional decisions are made decimal point, but the tenths place ing board” to provide the concep- on the basis of a relatively larger is only one to the right of the deci- tual basis that was needed for number of students, and fewer mal point. If the students do not student learning. On the basis of students are likely to be left realize this, they may be reading what students did understand, the behind. Furthermore, the very everything to the right of decimal teacher could help students move nature of monitoring changes. In point according to the “rules” gov- from what they did understand to smaller classes, teachers are erning the places to the left of the what they should understand. decimal point. The principal and Armed with an improved under- more likely to diagnose rather researcher suggested that the standing of the concept of place than simply to identify difficul- teacher start over and help students value, students could deal with new ties in student learning. Building understand the asymmetric nature instances in a more effective way. on what students do know in an of this number line. The teacher attempt to correct what they revamped the lesson, and soon the Opportunities for Teachers in do not know is a far more students were able to answer the Small Classes promising approach to effective questions without a problem. If the key to successful teach- teaching than providing addi- What can we learn from this ing lies in a proper balance between tional details in the hope that example? If we focus on the breadth and depth of content cov- something will click in the teacher—the “how” of teaching— erage, coupled with a shift in em- student’s mind. we see a very common approach to phasis from the “how” of teaching • Smaller classes allow teachers to teaching. The teacher taught the to the “what” of learning, these decrease the time spent on re- children in a whole-class format. It classroom observations suggest the view. If teachers truly know is this “commonness” of teaching following advantages that may be what their students know and do that has led to the conclusion that gained by having small classes: not know, they should be able to teachers do not teach differently in • Smaller classes allow teachers to spend less time on review. smaller classes than they do in shift from management to learn- Teachers should be able to con- larger ones. ing concerns. This shift enables duct reviews on a need-to-know If the focus is on students, how- teachers to be more concerned basis. This decrease in time ever, attention is shifted from the about managing learning and less spent on review can enable “how” of teaching to the “what” of concerned about managing teachers in small classes to bal- learning. In the previous example, learners. The advantage of this ance breadth and depth of con- students were expected to gain an shift from personal concerns tent coverage. Coupled with understanding of tenths, hundredths, to student concerns has been and thousandths. After some period recognized in recent years as a more adequate and accurate di- of initial instruction, it became evi- positive movement along the agnosis of student learning, the dent that there was some concep- continuum of teacher develop- amount of time saved allows tual confusion on the part of the ment. As part of this transition, teachers to stop covering con- majority of students. But this con- they become more able to see tent and begin the process of ceptual confusion did not result in classrooms through their stu- probing the depths of content random responses from the stu- dents’ eyes rather than their coverage needed for many stu- dents; they were giving answers own. dents to learn the material. z

9 The CEIC REVIEW • October 2001 Before and After Class Size Reduction: A Tale of Two Teachers Cathleen Stasz and Brian Stecher, RAND

Research on class size reduction material presented to students? student population is primarily His- (CSR) has focused more on student Are the lessons and assignments panic (53%) and African American achievement than on the mechanisms generally grade appropriate? How (24%). About 86% of Stringfield that may contribute to that achieve- demanding are the assignments? students participate in a free or re- ment. Thus, it is not yet clear how 4. Do the classes run more duced-price lunch program, and small classes lead to higher achieve- smoothly and make better use of about 49% are designated as ELL. ment. This article adds to the con- available school time? Are transitions The average class size in K–3 is 19 versation about why class size seems smoother? Are students less disrup- students. In 1998–1999, Ms. Lane to matter in student learning by tak- tive and more on task? Do teacher’s had a noninstructional aide in her ing a close look at two third-grade management strategies differ? class about 6 hours per week, but teachers in California. 5. Are teachers’ attitudes or the aide also helped tutor individual This in-depth study is drawn views about teaching any different? children in reading. Ms. Lane had from research conducted over the What value do they see in teaching followed the district mathematics past 3 years by using both qualitative in a smaller class? curriculum standards for about 3 and quantitative methods to evalu- years. In her opinion, most of her ate the effects of the CSR initiative A Closeup Study of Two students were unprepared for third- in the state. One strand of this re- Classrooms grade math. search consisted of in-depth case Ms. King’s class was in Van- studies of 16 third-grade teachers guard School, east of Los Angeles. Summary Findings during the 2nd and 3rd years of the The student population is primarily This close-up view of two teach- CSR implementation. In Year 2 of Hispanic (55%) and Caucasian (22%); ers who switched from nonreduced the initiative (1997–1998), 8 of about 44% of students participate to reduced-size classes admittedly these teachers taught in nonreduced in a free or reduced-price lunch pro- covers only a small sample of these classes and 8 taught in reduced-size gram. Sixteen percent of Vanguard’s teachers’ instructional practices. classes. This paper focuses on two students are classified as English To address the questions that guided of these teachers who taught in non- Language Learners (ELL). During this study, several aspects of Ms. reduced third-grade classes of about the first year of the study, it had re- King’s and Ms. Lane’s teaching are 30 students in 1997–1998 but switched duced first and second but not third summarized, and some compari- to reduced third-grade classes of 20 grade. Ms. King’s nonreduced class sons are drawn to previous studies students in 1998–1999 when their had 30 students. Now all K–3 grades of teaching in smaller classes. schools implemented third-grade CSR. have been reduced and average about From previous research and hy- 20 students. In 1998–1999 Ms. King LESSON STRUCTURE AND ACTIVITIES potheses about how a smaller class- had an aide in her classroom for The overall structure of the les- room environment might mediate about 30 minutes a day to help with sons and the activities within them did improvements in student achievement, students reading below grade level. not differ much from Year 1 to Year the following questions were examined: She followed the district math cur- 2, despite the change in class size. 1. Does the change from large riculum framework, which is based Both teachers seemed to increase to small classes alter the organiza- on the state framework, and used the number of activities carried tion or structure of mathematics the state and district frameworks in out within their lessons, especially and language-arts lessons? Do the her language-arts curriculum. At the during mathematics lessons. This types of activities change? end of third grade, she wanted stu- pattern mirrors what was found 2. Do teachers alter specific dents to be able to write in para- in the Year 1 comparison of teach- teaching techniques or practices, graphs and to read and comprehend ers in reduced-size and nonreduced such as providing more individual at grade level. However, she felt that classes: Teachers in reduced classes attention to students or grouping about a third of her students were reported doing more than teachers them differently for purposes of in- not prepared for third-grade work. in larger classes. As in some earlier struction? Do their methods appear Ms. Lane’s class is at Stringfield studies, teachers observed in this effective? School, located in southern Los An- study generally spent more time 3. Is there any difference in geles County. It is a large K–5 school teaching language arts than math- the cognitive level or content of the with just over 1,000 students. The ematics, irrespective of class size.

The CEIC REVIEW • October 2001 10 TEACHING TECHNIQUES stayed fairly closely to the topics Although student achievement There was little overall difference intended for third grade or for earlier data were not available to measure in teaching practices from Year 1 to grades. These findings are similar to actual changes in students’ achieve- Year 2. Ms. Lane’s practices seemed the results of the larger state study ment, the teaching observed in this especially robust from year to year, that showed teachers in nonreduced study did not appear to be very ef- following the “exposition, guided and reduced-size classes covering fective. For example, with regard practice, individual work, summary” the same general topics in mathe- to the two teachers’ lesson man- model. Unlike most teachers who matics and in language arts and for agement, in both sizes of class they participated in the case studies, Ms. similar amounts of time. It is pos- worked at a very slow pace and Lane did not regularly group stu- sible that the similarity in the breadth had unclear goals. These teachers dents for instruction or work with and depth of topic coverage reflects showed little individualization and them on an individual basis. She did the influence of the state curriculum also did not routinely monitor stu- not change her grouping practices guidelines. dents learning, diagnose problems, at all when she worked in a reduced or provide feedback. class, preferring to teach to the CLASSROOM MANAGEMENT For these two teachers, class- whole class irrespective of class A few changes in classroom size reduction did not lead to dra- size. Ms. King, on the other hand, management were evident as teachers matic improvements in teaching. reported using more groups in math- moved from nonreduced to reduced-size Analyses of the case-study teachers ematics when students had difficul- classes. Ms. King’s reduced class, and 2 years of survey data from ties, but this practice did not change in particular, seemed quite different, several hundred third-grade teachers from Year 1 to Year 2. Similarly, her primarily because she did not “quiet” show only a few small differences grouping practices in language arts students all the time. Ms. Lane was in instructional practices between looked similar from year to year. still clearly in control of the action nonreduced and reduced-size class- She typically worked with one group in her classroom, but she also seemed rooms. The few differences noted, of students for most of the time pe- to provide more positive feedback however, are encouraging and should riod, while other groups did indi- to students in her reduced-size class. not be discounted. CSR has posi- vidual seatwork or worked with an In both cases, the amount of time tively affected most teachers’ aide. Overall, these two teachers still and energy devoted to discipline, perceptions: They overwhelmingly favor the whole-class approach over order, and transitions declined with report that smaller classes provide grouping strategies. the small class—a finding that has opportunities for more individual These teachers did not shift to- also been noted in previous work. contact between students and ward more individualized instruction teachers. even after they moved to smaller PERCEPTIONS OF TEACHING AND The findings reported here and classes. Ms. Lane did work with LEARNING in other studies are fairly consistent individual students, but for the ex- Teachers’ expectations regard- with the limited research literature clusive purpose of carrying out the ing CSR were not borne out when on teaching behaviors and class size. district’s benchmark assessments. they actually had smaller classes. Teachers in small classes continued Neither teacher seemed to do an Both anticipated substantial changes, to use teacher-oriented, teacher- especially thorough job of monitor- but they found things were much controlled teaching, although they ing students’ learning during the the same. Neither teacher seemed were more likely to individualize in- lessons except when they adopted a to take advantage of the opportunity struction through one-on-one inter- guided-practice strategy of working to individualize instruction when action with students. This study’s problems one by one. It may be teaching fewer students. It is pos- findings are also consistent with that these teachers’ tendency to sible that their expectations were teach to the whole class made it not met because of their existing research that suggests teaching particularly difficult to switch to attitudes. Both teachers seemed to practice is resistant to change and more individually based instruction emphasize student ability as the pri- that teachers adapt their practices despite the opportunity provided mary determinant of success. Per- slowing and marginally as new by the reduced-size class. It may haps these teachers did not view materials and techniques are intro- also be that these teachers just CSR as an opportunity for them to duced. Teachers may need to be lacked experience individualizing in- change. As a result, they may have trained in instructional techniques struction. adopted a somewhat passive role in that are effective in smaller classes The content of the mathematics the change process and were not and perhaps also in their attitudes lessons did not appear to change actively thinking about what they about what factors may influence significantly for either teacher. They might do differently. student learning. z

11 The CEIC REVIEW • October 2001 Class Size Reduction and Special Education Referrals and Placements Edward Wiley, Thomas Parrish, and George Bohrnstedt, American Institutes for Research

Class size reduction (CSR) is A related concern is the mis- unqualified teachers who are serv- increasingly popular as an educa- placement of students in special ing special education programs; and tional reform, and California is at day classes. Under California’s (e) the assignment of special educa- the vanguard of this effort. In CSR and special education funding tion programs to inappropriate fa- 1996, California initiated a state- provisions, districts may actually cilities. This disparity, however, is wide reform to reduce classes in have a fiscal incentive for such mis- likely to continue to raise ques- Grades K–3 in its public elemen- placements. For example, a school tions about the impact of CSRs on tary schools. One potential out- whose reduced-size classes in special education students and come of the California CSR Grades K–3 are all at the maximum warrants further monitoring of the initiative is a change in the number of 20 students may contain classes effects of CSR on special education of children placed in special educa- with students who have been main- students. tion programs. Some analysts be- streamed. In addition, the school’s lieve that teachers in smaller classes special day classes may already be CSR Evaluation Studies: The may be better able to identify stu- at the target capacity of 12 students. Impact on Special Education dents needing special services When an additional nondisabled K–3 Since the inception of the CSR and that this will bring about an in- pupil is assigned to this school, the reform in California, staff at the crease in special education refer- school has to decide where to put American Institutes for Research rals and placements. Others, that student. He or she could be have conducted yearly evaluation however, feel that smaller classes added to one of the CSR classes, studies of the initiative. As part of would better allow for main- but that would mean losing CSR the Year 2 evaluation, investigators streaming, thereby reducing refer- funds, because class size would sought to answer the following rals and placements. grow to more than 20 students. questions concerning the impact Concerns about the effect of Another option could be for the of CSR on special education: CSR on special education students school to hire an additional teacher, • How have rates of special edu- were expressed in a recently filed which would allow all of these cation referral and identification complaint with the U.S. Department classes to decline substantially and special day class placement of Education Office for Civil Rights in size but would also increase changed in the years since state- against the California Department costs. Moreover, as a final option, wide implementation of the CSR of Education. The complaint al- the school could reassign one of reform? leged that students with disabili- the mainstreamed special educa- • How did the CSR reform affect ties are not allowed to benefit tion students to a special day recruitment and hiring of teach- from CSR to the same extent as class. This reassignment would in- ers with special education cre- their nondisabled peers. One of the crease the number of students in dentials? consequences of the CSR initiative the special day class to 13 but • How was the morale of special is that it is sometimes more conve- would avoid the negative financial education teachers affected by nient to return students with dis- implications of losing a CSR class the CSR reform? abilities to what are called “special or hiring another teacher. • Did teachers holding special day classes” in order to maintain In response to these concerns, education credentials move reduced-class sizes in the general the California Department of Educa- to general education assign- education classes. California CSR tion took steps to alleviate the fol- ments with the introduction of provisions strictly require that there lowing problems: (a) the disparity in CSR? be no more than 20 students in a the resources made available for single general education class, and students who are enrolled in spe- The results reported are based although in the past special day cial day classes; (b) the increased on quantitative analyses of state classes have had a target of 12 overcrowding in special day archival data, survey data collected students, size standards for spe- classes; (c) the misplacement of as part of the study, and an analysis cial day classes are not tightly students in special day classes; of interviews with officials from specified. (d) the increase in the number of a sample of urban districts in

The CEIC REVIEW • October 2001 12 California. Quantitative data from districts encountered for their education students to full-time a number of sources have been special education students when special education classes (i.e., used to describe changes in the implementing CSR, any generaliza- special day classes) rather than identification of students needing tions based on these results must be mainstreaming them. This con- special education services as well made with caution. cern was included in the com- as changes in trends in the distri- plaint filed with the Office of bution of teachers with specialized Research Findings Civil Rights and was raised by credentials. These findings are Some of the most important some interview respondents. primarily based on analyses of findings from the examination of However, statewide data show teacher- and school-level data derived how CSR might have affected spe- no increase in the percentage from the California Basic Educa- cial education and English-learner of students in special day tion Data System as well as stu- students are as follows: classes since CSR was intro- dent-level special education records • Interviewees contacted in six duced. that were provided by the Cali- large districts suggested that • District staff reported that fornia Special Education Man- the number of students who CSR exacerbated an already- agement Information System. are referred for special educa- existing shortage of qualified As part of the work during the tion assessment increased with substitute special education first year of the CSR evaluation, CSR. Factors that may ac- teachers. surveys were administered in count for this increase include • Interviewees reported a decline 1998 to 125 of California’s 1,054 more time for teachers to pro- in the morale of special education district superintendents and to 625 vide individualized attention; teachers with CSR implementation. of California’s school principals. lack of training among teachers • Districts reported that hiring Data from the CSR district and on how to provide individual- teachers qualified to serve principal surveys were used to ad- ized attention to students in special education children dress questions about the ease of smaller classes (and therefore was difficult and that this diffi- hiring teachers with special cre- inappropriate referral for special culty was significantly worsened dentials and about the flow of education assessment); an by CSR. District survey data in- special education teachers to increased focus on school dicate that this situation was general education classes. The accountability concurrent with exacerbated by the flow of interview findings were derived the implementation of CSR; and credentialed special education from a qualitative case study that the CSR-inspired districtwide teachers to general education was conducted with six large adoption of creative programs classes. urban school districts in Cali- for identifying and addressing fornia. Within each district, the the needs of special education The overall policy recom- superintendent and the director for students. mendation that arises from these special education programs were • Although the special education analyses is that the effects of interviewed. referral rate appears to have California’s CSR program on spe- In interpretation of the results increased with CSR, the state- cial education students need to be of the interviews, it is important wide quantitative data suggest more specifically considered. CSR to keep in mind that they reflect that the percentage of students was implemented very quickly a very small sample of districts and actually identified as needing in the state, and that may have respondents. With respect to special education services was brought unintended, negative conse- student demographics and char- unaffected by the reform. quences to the state’s special edu- acteristics of school districts, the • CSR policy imposes a strict cation students. The main lesson six districts do not constitute a class-size limit, whereas the arising from the evaluation of CSR representative sample of all Califor- state’s special education policies reform in California is that attention nia districts; sampled districts were do not. Given that CSR funding should be paid to the many possible purposively chosen to be large, is tied to the class-size restric- outcomes of implementing CSR— urban districts with high percent- tion, some districts, as indicated or of any educational reform— ages of English learners and minor- above, may see a fiscal incentive before choosing a timeline for its ity students. Although the data associated with keeping class implementation and a scope for illustrate some of the problems size down by assigning special enacting it. z

13 The CEIC REVIEW • October 2001 Teaching Reduced-Size Classes: Lessons For Teachers John Zahorik, Alex Molnar, Karen Ehrle, and Anke Halbach, University of Wisconsin–Milwaukee

This study, supported by the North To determine the effect of SAGE instructional characteristics of Central Regional Educational Labo- student–teacher class reduction on reduced class-size teaching are ratory (NCREL), was conducted as student achievement, SAGE classes known. However, what more effec- part of the evaluation of the Student were compared with classes from a tive reduced class-size teachers do in Achievement Guarantee in Education set of comparison schools in SAGE their classrooms in comparison to less (SAGE) program to investigate how participating districts that were simi- effective reduced class-size teach- teachers of reduced-size classes spend lar in terms of race, income, and other ers is not known. The purpose of their newly acquired extra time. factors, but had normal class sizes. the current study was to compare SAGE was established in 1995 Achievement was measured with the teaching behavior used by a group to promote academic achievement the Comprehensive Test of Basic Skills of more effective, reduced class-size, of students in kindergarten through (CTBS) Complete Battery, Terra Nova first-grade SAGE teachers with the third-grade classrooms in selected edition, at each grade level. The re- teaching behavior used by a group Wisconsin schools serving low- sults from 1996–2000 show that at of less effective, reduced class-size, income children. In exchange for the first-grade level, when adjusted first-grade SAGE teachers by the use $2,000 from the Wisconsin Depart- for pretest scores, SAGE students of qualitative research procedures. ment of Public Instruction for each scored significantly higher on post- The teachers for this study were low income student, schools were tests in reading, language arts, mathe- first-grade teachers or teacher teams required to (a) reduce the student– matics, and total score than did who participated in the SAGE pro- teacher ratio within a classroom to first-grade students in comparison gram for a minimum of two years. 15 students per teacher beginning schools. Second-and third-grade Researchers identified teachers or with kindergarten and first grade in test scores show that the achieve- teacher teams who had compara- 1996–1997, adding second grade in ment advantage of SAGE students tively higher than expected achieve- 1997–1998, and then adding third over comparison students was ment gain scores for each of the grade in 1998–1999; (b) establish maintained and, in most cases, in- two years (Group A) and teachers “lighted schoolhouses” open from creased in second and third grade. or teacher teams who had compara- early morning until late in the evening; The main effect of having fewer tively lower than expected achieve- (c) develop a rigorous curriculum; students is that teachers individual- ment gain scores for each of the and (d) create a system of staff de- ize their instruction. The content of two years (Group B). velopment and professional account- instruction is uniform, but the teach- Each teacher was observed a ability. Originally SAGE consisted of ing procedures vary with the student. minimum of 4 times in reading and 30 schools in 21 districts throughout This increased use of individualization math instruction. The observation the state. As a result of two expan- in reduced-size classes is a result of guide focused attention on (a) gen- sions of the program, SAGE classrooms increased knowledge of students; eral aspects of teaching, such as ob- can now be found in 566 schools. less discipline, which makes more jectives, learning activities, teacher A longitudinal evaluation of time available for instruction; and and student behavior, and class or- the SAGE program begun during the greater teacher enthusiasm. The in- ganization; and (b) on teacher first year of program implementa- dividualization that is produced, along behaviors found to be related to tion has focused on two general ar- with an increased use of hands-on reduced class-size teaching from eas: (a) the effects of the program activities that these three elements our previous research such as indi- on student academic achievement also enable, results in deeper and vidualization, discipline, hands-on in reading, language arts, and math- increased content, in more student activities, and instructional time. ematics at the first, second, and self-direction, and ultimately in Three formal interviews were third grade levels; and (b) the class- greater student achievement. conducted with each teacher: an room events resulting from reduc- introductory interview, a reading in- ing class size to a 15:1 student– Effective Reduced Class-Size terview, and a mathematics inter- teacher ratio that may account for Teaching view. Teachers were also asked to any program effects on student As a result of the SAGE evalua- complete a self-report regarding their learning. tion and other research, the general instructional techniques.

The CEIC REVIEW • October 2001 14 The general pattern of teaching measured by standardized tests, over the side and putting the student found to be associated with teach- time the goals and methods of the on center stage is a risk unless it is ing reduced-size classes was evi- Group B teachers may not be harm- done in an unambiguous context of dent in varying degrees in both the ful and may indeed be helpful. If basic skills and knowledge achieve- higher achieving classrooms and the the goals of thinking and problem ment. lower achieving classrooms. All of solving are realized, students will Reducing class size results in the teachers emphasized individual- be well served in the future even more time for instruction, but the ization to some degree. However, though the attainment of basics is teacher’s management methods can Group A classrooms differed from delayed. expand or shrink that time. When Group B classrooms in instructional teachers are overly permissive and orientation, in management, and in Recommendations for Teachers nonassertive in an attempt to imple- individualization. The results of this study, al- ment student self-discipline in their Group B teachers have goals that though tentative because of the lim- family-like small classes, misbehav- emphasize students’ personal devel- ited sample size and the examination ior often emerges and instructional opment and stress methods that of only one grade level, have pos- time is lost. A structured, consistent facilitate independent, experiential sible implications for staff develop- student-management program in learning. These preferences result in ment in reduced class-size schools. which the teacher is decisive, firm, a less central role for the teacher and Improved teaching and learning oc- and fair is needed just as much in less emphasis on the basic skills and curs in most first-grade classrooms a reduced-size class as it is in a concepts of reading and mathematics when class size is reduced to about regular-size class. in comparison to Group A teachers. 15 students. It is not unreasonable To maximize available time, Group B teachers have student man- to speculate that even the teaching teachers also need to carefully orga- agement procedures that are tolerant of less effective teachers improves nize their lessons. Although some and permissive and lesson management as they move from a larger class to fluidity in lessons is desirable, time practices that evolve and develop. a smaller class. The results of this is lost if the teacher’s lessons are These practices are time-consuming study suggest that teachers of re- not clearly organized at the start. and result in less time available to duced-size classes could benefit The teachers need to be sure about devote to academic, goal-directed students’ learning to a much greater what they want students to know instruction in comparison to Group degree if the teachers adopted the or be able to do at the end of the A teachers. Although Group B teach- mindset and methodology of the lesson, to identify and carefully se- ers use individualization in their re- most successful reduced class-size quence learning activities that can duced-size classes, because of their teachers. lead to the achievement of goals, attitude toward the active teaching Reduced class-size teachers need and to assemble the materials and of basics and the limited time avail- to realize that the extra time afforded resources that are to be used. The able for instruction in their class- by having a reduced class size pro- lesson as implemented should pro- rooms, their individualization is less vides them with an opportunity to ceed in a logical order and at a brisk teacher-directed and basics-oriented do everything in their power to im- pace. than that of Group A teachers. prove academic achievement. Per- The type of individualization Group A teachers have more sonal and social goals are important that reduced class-size teachers balanced goals that include attention and need to be part of a balanced ought to use is individualization of to personal development, but they curriculum, but they cannot be per- process. The specific elements of emphasize the goals of basic skills mitted to dominate instruction. If individualization that seem to ac- and concepts. The methods that they they consume the extra time, the count for the success of reduced prefer are those associated with ex- value of reducing class size will be class-size teaching in promoting plicit teaching, such as explaining, diminished. The notion of providing student learning are articulation and modeling, checking, and evaluating. students more freedom and voice in critique. Teachers of reduced-size These goals and methods result in the classroom in choosing activities, classes need to fill their newly ac- more active teaching of the basics identifying content goals, working quired time with constant requests in comparison to Group B teachers. in groups, and engaging in other to students to share their knowledge It should be noted that although self-directed activities that reduced and with constant feedback to stu- the teaching methods of Group B class size permits is appealing. But dents regarding the knowledge that teachers jeopardize achievement as the practice of a teacher moving to is shared. z

15 The CEIC REVIEW • October 2001 The Varieties of Small Classes and Their Outcomes Charles M. Achilles, Eastern Michigan University; and Jeremy D. Finn, State University of New York at Buffalo

This article reviews the research dramatically different from those of define “correct” ways to imple- regarding student outcomes under large classes with small PTRs. ment reduced-size classes to maxi- different class-size reduction (CSR) If the two terms—PTR and mize the positive and enduring arrangements and compares the CS—are not the same, why would effects of small classes in the early evidence on pupil–teacher ratio (PTR) they be used interchangeably? To grades. to that on class size (CS). Is there a say that PTR and CS “vary together” knowledge base from which to draw so they can be substituted for one The Varieties of Small Classes conclusions about these different another is to miss the point of what Varieties in employing class-size classroom organizations? Is there the two terms mean. Height and strategies are more like PTR than evidence on PTR and CS from which weight also vary together but can- CS, and without precise attention to inferences may be drawn about their not be interchanged. the number of students in a class respective influence on pupil learn- Meta-analyses in the late 1970s and study of the instructional pro- ing? What experiences have teach- triggered a modern-day round of in- cesses, it is impossible to determine ers reported when teaching under terest and activity in class-size re- exactly if a reported variety is related these different models? Does re- search and practice. Prime Time in to CS or PTR. Sometimes groups search provide a set of principles Indiana and the DuPont Study in contemplating using CS ideas con- that would explain why the different Tennessee preceded Project STAR, fuse PTR and CS in their discus- models or “varieties” are more or a longitudinal, statewide, random- sions. Evaluation of the Buffalo CSR less effective? ized experiment to determine the revealed a number of instructional Except for a daylong small effects of small classes (about 13– models in use: class in which one teacher is re- 17 pupils per class) on student • New small classes had 20 or sponsible for the students, most va- achievement and development in fewer students taught by one rieties described in the research are primary grades (K–3). The STAR teacher. The classes were cre- not small classes; they are PTR op- study and its large databases made ated and the teachers hired spe- tions. The class size is the number possible later analyses to answer cifically for the CSR project. of students in a class. If 30 students questions regarding long-term re- • Existing small classes had 20 or are in a room with one teacher, the sults from early small-class partici- fewer students taught by one CS is 30; if two teachers are with pation. Students in small (S) classes teacher. These classes existed that class, the CS is 30, but the PTR (13–17 students) performed better before the implementation of is 15:1. If four teachers provide on both norm-referenced tests the CSR project but had enroll- services to the 30-student class, the (NRTs) and criterion-referenced ments greater than 20 students class size is still 30. This persistent tests (CRTs) than did the randomly then. When students were re- confusion between the terms CS assigned students in regular (R) moved from these classes to and PTR and their underlying con- (22–25 students) and regular-with- create new classes, the enroll- cepts robs children of excellence in aide (RA) classes. This was true ments dropped to below 20. education and mocks serious re- for each year from kindergarten • Team-taught classes had two search on CS and its relation to through third grade. full-time teachers sharing re- academic performance. When the Although the research leads to sponsibility for one class of terms are used precisely, research an inescapable conclusion that small students, usually with a rela- on CS and research on PTR can be classes cause improved student per- tively large number of students. compared and contrasted. formance, educators are still trying • Push-in or pull-out classes were Nationally, the difference be- to learn why students excel in small characterized by a teacher rotat- tween the average CS and PTR is classes. Despite our incomplete ing between or among two, about n = 10. In a district in which understanding of classroom pro- three, or more classrooms the PTR is 17:1, most teachers will cesses, Project STAR, Project Chal- throughout the day, usually have class sizes of about 27. This lenge, and analyses of student working with small groups of reasonably large difference aside, outcomes after students left STAR students. A push-in teacher processes in a small class are following third grade have all helped usually worked in a corner of

The CEIC REVIEW • October 2001 16 the classroom, whereas a pull- results from true CSR initiatives are • Organize small classes so they out teacher removed students consistent and positive for student have a typical cross section of from the regular classroom to outcomes (achievement, behavior, students in the school. work with them in the hall or a participation) both in the long term • Phase out “projects” as small- spare room. and in the short term, as well as for class benefits grow. teachers. • Carefully analyze personnel as- Outcomes for the “Varieties” of Based on studies of such pro- signment and use. Small Classes grams as Wisconsin’s SAGE, the Although discussed as a reduced following list summarizes teachers’ Recommendations for Future class-size project, much of Indiana’s comments about working in re- Research on Class Size Prime Time actually manipulated duced-size classrooms: The summary of research sug- PTRs. Prime Time demonstrated • Teachers employ a wider variety gests the following recommendations that class-size benefits could not be of instructional strategies, meth- for future research and evaluation reproduced by using a full-time ods, and learning activities and that will keep clear the fundamental teacher aide, something also shown are more effective with them. distinction between reducing the in STAR. Adding an aide to a class- • Teacher attitudes and morale class size and reducing the pupil– room reduces the PTR but does not are more positive. teacher ratio. lower the actual class size. Prime • Classroom management and • Class size and PTR are not the Time had mixed achievement out- discipline are better. same, so they should not be comes, although surveys of teach- • Students benefit from more indi- confounded and reported as the ers and principals generally provided vidualized instruction. same. positive responses. • Students develop better human • For clarity and precision, re- The California CSR effort was relations and have greater regard search should contain clear hastily implemented in grades K–3 for others. definitions of computation and statewide in 1996. The size of the • Students learn the basic skills determination of the variables so CSR effort did not allow evaluators better and master more subject that CS and PTR are kept to determine the actual class sizes matter. distinct. across the state. Evaluations showed • Students engage in more creative • Research efforts on both CS and slightly more positive student test- and divergent thinking processes. PTR are useful. Research and score outcomes for students in CSR evaluation on both should schools, but early gains were about • Students learn how to function continue, separately. what is obtained in PTR efforts. more effectively as members The real test will be when the stu- and leaders of groups of varying • A concerted effort should be dents who started school in kinder- sizes and purposes. undertaken to educate the garten in small classes take the • Student participation and inter- public, parents, researchers, third-grade test. action improve. policymakers, and the media on the differences between PTR In Wisconsin’s Project SAGE, and CS. there were some “pure” CS ex- How Does Class Size Work? amples of reduced-size classes Research in small classes con- • Some “ideal” CS implementa- and some varieties that manipu- sistently shows that there are tions need to be studied and evalu- lated PTRs without reducing class “correct” ways to implement CSR, ated to establish a substantial sizes. Title I programs often re- which produce positive benefits base of CSR data in which the duce PTRs through adding aides for students: event described is really a and teaching staff to larger classes. • Start the pupil in the small class reduced-size class. Evaluations of Title I have provided when he or she starts school • State and federal agencies must outcomes for that variety of small (Pre-K or K). advocate correct CS implemen- class, but to date, they have not • Avoid PTR-like events, such as tation through staff develop- shown glowing effects. pull-outs. The class should be ment and program guidelines. kept together with the teacher. Agency documents and infor- Class-Size Outcomes • Maintain the small class (15–18 mation on PTR and CS should Although results from varieties to 1) for at least 3 years, or both define and use the terms of small classes are still ambiguous, preferably 4. explicitly. z

17 The CEIC REVIEW • October 2001 Building a Communication/Dissemination Network to Support Class Size Reduction Monica R. Martinez, Institute for Educational Leadership; and Carmen G. Arroyo, Health and Education Research Alliance

Though class size reduction However, if connected nationally, practitioners and between schools (CSR) clearly benefits teaching and they could develop awareness of involved in reform, providing web- learning, so far this reform has not the implications of CSR for fiscal site visitors with applicable knowl- been widely adopted. CSR promot- allocation, school and classroom edge of what works to reform schools. ers agree that more effective dis- management, teacher hiring, and semination of knowledge on small student achievement Successful Changing Attitudes classes’ benefits is needed to ad- models for raising awareness have Well-established attitudes about vance implementation of CSR policy used accessible research analyses, a policy influence the speed, accu- and practice. This paper sketches a focused messages, and varied racy, and degree of approval with framework for developing an infor- methods for engaging constituents. which people react to new informa- mation-dissemination network for tion about it. While such attitudes CSR. Suggestions are given for in- Increasing How-to Knowledge help people notice and process new creasing awareness and practical CSR research, though widely data, they are difficult to change; knowledge of CSR among educa- disseminated through scholarly pub- new knowledge leads less to replac- tors, policymakers, and the wider lications, must be translated into ing old attitudes than simply to community and for changing atti- practical knowledge to show deci- modifying them. Thus, CSR en- tudes toward the reform. It is also sion makers and practitioners how dorsement is likely to depend on argued that a CSR dissemination to reduce class size effectively. The previous knowledge and approval. network must target its audiences complexity of the research makes it Established attitudes can also skew and messages, use technology to difficult to communicate findings in CSR research findings. Contentious organize information, and provide practical formats that can have di- debate about the economic costs personal communication channels. rect and immediate influence. and benefits of reducing class size CSR advocates can capture how- has demonstrated that equivalent Raising Awareness to knowledge by serving as infor- data and analyses can yield different An effective dissemination net- mation brokers for policymakers results that seem dependent on pre- work must increase awareness and and practitioners. Information bro- dispositions for or against CSR. “how-to” knowledge of CSR. While kerage has been practiced effectively Given the established attitudes awareness includes research on in other reform efforts by linking of education-reform critics against CSR effects, policies, and percep- community leaders to the best re- structural changes like CSR and in tions, how-to knowledge provides search and practices through news- favor of classroom changes, CSR specific guidelines for implementing letters, consulting, and national supporters should not argue for CSR practices. Awareness can be conferences that bridge the gap be- structural reform but instead illus- crucial in laying groundwork for tween community leaders and the trate that CSR creates classroom im- wider implementation, but the con- best research and practices. Although provements. Those disseminating siderable research on the reform re- no national brokerage exists for CSR, CSR information broadly should also mains largely unknown among key one urban, CSR-related collabora- consider the often conflicting attitudes stakeholders. tion performs brokerage by bringing toward school reforms and adapt One way to increase awareness together teachers with differing communicative strategies accordingly. of CSR would entail developing a knowledge and experience to share national network of stakeholders, how-to knowledge. Such work could Targeting the Audience uniting researchers, administrators, be extended nationwide by develop- An effective dissemination strat- teachers, and parents to gain aware- ing mechanisms for bringing to- egy for CSR should have goals like ness of existing research and prac- gether constituents with varying those of advertising: to remind, in- tice and to share experiences. Many expertise to develop small-class form, and persuade different audi- state education departments, teacher strategies and guidelines for direct ences through different media. CSR unions, and school districts with implementation. Further, online promoters must thus target information detailed information on CSR efforts discussion groups could be estab- to address the chief pedagogi- and effects are currently isolated. lished between researchers and cal concerns of policymakers

The CEIC REVIEW • October 2001 18 and educators and must expect dif- information helping schools decide connections. This suggests that ferent responses among target groups. how to target CSR efforts at those CSR supporters must create inter- The way information on CSR is com- students could be most useful. Tar- personal media for disseminating in- municated should vary with the au- geted messages must also inform formation. These might include dience. Outreach should differ across decision makers about influences • professional development work- state and local levels, geographic re- of other education policies and of shops and training institutes on gions, and ethnic groups. A primary fiscal and community needs on CSR CSR for teachers; task for CSR advocates is to analyze implementation. Messages aimed at • teacher visitor programs; audiences thoroughly in order to un- school districts, for example, must • conference workshops and derstand their information needs and relate CSR to districts’ master plans presentations on CSR; and preferred methods of communication. and to other reform efforts, showing • policy forums on the benefits of Experience has indicated that how CSR could complement these. reducing class size. dissemination partnerships can help in influencing large and varied target Using Technology Such outreach and support ac- groups. Model partnerships strive to Its many interconnected infor- tivities could supplement technology understand the manifold information mation sources make the World in reaching target groups. Another needs of member organizations and Wide Web an excellent means of important aspect of personalizing to work within existing structures disseminating targeted messages. dissemination should be establishing to reach the greatest number of However, Web information on re- contacts among those interested in constituents. Data from diverse ducing class size is not integrated as CSR through online discussion sources are integrated, and informa- well as that on other policies. The groups. In personalizing messages tion is tailored to specific group variety of nonintegrated online re- about CSR, advocates should also needs. Class-size reform could ben- sources available hampers quick recognize the influence of opinion efit from such audience-sensitive identification of useful knowledge. leaders. Thus, connections should collaboration in gathering and dis- Since people are most capable of be created with national education tributing knowledge. understanding already-integrated in- organizations and trusted local edu- formation, it seems imperative to cation leaders whose authority en- Targeting the Message develop a comprehensive website ables them to effect school and Further, effective messages for CSR, integrating knowledge and community change. The networking about CSR must be targeted to an- organizing it for different audiences, recommended here could help es- swer audiences’ critical questions. so that users can decide what infor- tablish such connections, as could the To consider in aiming messages at mation they need. Research has work of a national outreach director. school administrators and practitio- shown that practitioners are most ners are questions like these: likely to use scholarly information Conclusion • Under what conditions does when it is presented as accessible A carefully designed dissemina- CSR work best to produce stu- literature reviews or guidelines. A tion network could promote broader dent achievement gains? CSR website should develop re- CSR implementation, increasing • How should CSR address teaching search summaries and best-prac- knowledge about the reform while quality through hiring practices, tices guidelines that allow teachers changing attitudes and behaviors of space allocations, and instruc- to build professional development policymakers and practitioners. tional strategies? into daily work. It should also con- Knowledge should be disseminated • For which students does CSR tain tools to help administrators in targeted messages. Existing net- work best? make decisions about implementing working practices model the change- • For which teachers does CSR CSR at various involvement levels. inducing communication strategies best facilitate improvement in And like other effective education that CSR reform needs. To address instructional strategies? websites, the site should be free and various audiences’ information require- provide links to full-text documents. ments through appropriate channels Only after such questions are is daunting, but it is a challenge that specifically answered can effective Personalizing the Dissemination must be met to transform CSR from action be taken. For instance, since Network a limited experiment to a widely it seems that smaller classes work best Decisions to adopt an innovation adopted reform with benefits avail- for low-income and minority students, depend on sustained interpersonal able to all students. z

19 The CEIC REVIEW • October 2001 Professional Development and Support Needs of Class-Size Reduction Teachers Gina M. Pannozzo and Jeremy D. Finn, State University of New York at Buffalo

The movement toward small instruction, assessment of student fied to attain desired objectives; classes has created a great increase progress, and addressing indi- and in demand for new teachers, which vidual learning problems with • be sustained and ongoing within has significantly affected professional approaches not possible in a the real-life context of the class- development (PD) needs. Many class with 30 students. room. teachers being placed in elemen- • Courses on Nontraditional tary classrooms are new to teaching Classroom Organization. The School administrators must be and to their schools. Also, many vet- small-class movement has moti- active in implementing and sustaining eran teachers are transferring from vated districts to establish alter- PD activity in their schools. Princi- other settings to small classrooms. native classroom organizational pals can learn to observe, evaluate, The instructional practices that may models, such as team-taught and provide feedback to teachers so be ingrained from years of experience classes and “push-in” or “pull- they come to be viewed as partners in those settings are not always cur- out” classes as alternatives to in what happens in the classroom. rent “best practice.” Programs for PD self-contained classrooms with can help both new and veteran teach- one teacher and fewer than 20 Development and Support Needs ers enhance the benefits of small pupils. of CSR Teachers classes by taking advantage of the • Courses on Experimental Pro- New teachers or those new to opportunities the class size provides. grams. Experimental programs of the small-class setting are likely to professional development can need two kinds of assistance: train- New Professional-Development encourage teachers to explore the ing in the use of classroom strate- Programs range of opportunities that small gies shown to be effective and support The conditions under which class classes permit, perhaps enhanc- in becoming acculturated to the school size reduction (CSR) is being practiced ing pupils’ learning and learning- environment. Both of these supports may require four types of support: related behavior. can have a direct impact on their • New Teacher Support. Teachers classroom functioning. Evaluation hired to staff newly created small Principles of Effective Professional of the Buffalo CSR program identi- classes have often just completed Development fied three domains of classroom teacher-training programs. The Much of the research identify- strategies in which small-class small-class placement may be ing general principles of effective PD teachers may require assistance. their first full-time teaching is summarized in a 1998 Organisation position, allowing them little or for Economic Co-operation and APPROACHES TO IMPROVING INSTRUCTION no prior classroom experience to Development report, “Staying Ahead: AND ACHIEVEMENT draw upon. The support that new In-service Training and Teacher This refers specifically to im- teachers receive can determine Professional Development.” The re- proving teachers’ capacities to engage whether the year will run smooth- port recommends that PD activity students actively in the learning ly and whether the benefits of • be connected to other aspects process and to encourage them to small classes will be realized. of school change; become independent learners. Instruc- • Refresher Courses. Teachers • be consistent with the needs of tional strategies include small-group with substantial experience, ei- teachers in the settings in which instruction, cooperative learning, ther in large classes or other they teach; scaffolding, and strategies that em- teaching positions, may have de- • include information about why it is phasize problem solving and higher veloped methods that do not important, what it will accom- order thinking skills. Professional- capitalize on the flexibility small plish, and how it should be imple- development programs can hone classes provides. To maximize mented correctly; teachers’ sensitivity to individual the benefits of small classes, ex- • be connected to teachers’ cur- learning problems and increase their perienced teachers may profit rent practices and instructional skills in working with lower achiev- from refresher courses in the styles and demonstrate how ing students. Both veteran and novice basic principles of individualized those practices should be modi- teachers can benefit from PD targeted

The CEIC REVIEW • October 2001 20 at improving instruction and performance assessment. These ap- comment on the novice’s teaching achievement. Veteran teachers, proaches reflect and encourage teach- and may provide opportunities for while they may have used these ing and learning at higher cognitive the novice to observe the mentor techniques in teaching larger levels. Teachers of small classes as well. classes, may need to reframe them have greater opportunity to use a All teachers—but especially for effective use in smaller classes. variety of assessment techniques. new ones—can benefit from ex- Novice teachers, while they may Small classes offer teachers the change of ideas, experiences, and be familiar with some of the tech- time to monitor student progress information with colleagues and ad- niques in theory, can benefit from continually and make it more practi- ministrators. It is incumbent on workshops to help put them into cal to employ hands-on activities. In schools undertaking CSR to give practice. this area, novice teachers are likely to teachers opportunities to meet and be more familiar with alternate forms collaborate with colleagues teaching ESTABLISHMENT OF A PRODUCTIVE of assessment than some veterans, if in the same classroom configura- CLASSROOM ENVIRONMENT these topics were emphasized in tion, to provide regular opportunities This refers to improving teach- teacher-education programs. for teachers to discuss problems ers’ capacities to structure an with their colleagues and adminis- orderly classroom environment PROFESSIONAL SUPPORT FOR CSR trators without fear of retribution, where the learning process is val- TEACHERS and to receive feedback and recog- ued and where students receive re- Teachers participating in a new nition from colleagues and adminis- spect and support from each other initiative need information about the trators alike. and from the teacher. It involves program itself, their roles, and the ex- effective use of the classroom pected outcomes. Such support can be Recommendations space, use of effective behavior provided through practices orienting New teachers in CSR programs management techniques, and a teachers to the program and keeping can benefit especially from focused focus on teacher–student and them continually informed. Without PD and supportive interactions with student–student relationships. this information, teachers may feel dis- their colleagues. The following rec- Small classes provide real advan- enfranchised and work with only a ommendations are directed to teach- tages in this domain. Veteran teach- vague sense of purpose. With it, they ers, administrators, and researchers. ers may have developed good skills may experience more commitment to • When implementing PD pro- in this domain but could not prac- their jobs and to the program, whether grams, choose carefully. Not all tice them because of larger class it is CSR or some other initiative. topics and not all workshops are sizes; professional development New teachers may need assistance of equal value to all groups of allows them to rediscover these adjusting to the school environment teachers. Choose those most skills and learn new ones. For nov- and the “nuts and bolts” of teaching. directly related to teaching and ices, the greatest struggle is often This may seem a minor issue, but classroom management in the developing effective methods of teachers can be incapacitated without settings in which teachers are managing disruptive behavior. Tar- basic information about daily sched- placed. geted PD can help them learn more ules, classroom routines, finding class- • Provide professional support for effective behavior management room supplies, accomplishing simple both novice and experienced techniques so they feel less over- clerical tasks, or performing expected teachers placed in small-class set- whelmed by disruptions. administrative tasks. Moreover, newly hired teachers often have minimal ex- tings in order to ensure effective instruction. EFFECTIVE ASSESSMENT OF PUPIL perience developing lesson plans, or- • Establish a research program on LEARNING ganizing classrooms, and controlling actual and potential benefits of PD Focused PD in the domain of ef- pupils with severe behavior problems. programs for teachers of small fective assessment strategies can Perhaps the most effective way enhance teachers’ skills in evaluating to support new teachers is through classes. • student performance, with the objec- school- or district-level mentoring Ensure that researchers and tive of guiding instruction. It should programs, which involve pairing of practitioners concerned with include basic principles of achieve- experienced teachers with novices CSR ask what opportunities ment testing and the appropriate for various purposes. In more formal small classes present to do use of techniques like portfolio and programs, mentors observe and things differently. z

21 The CEIC REVIEW • October 2001 Students’ Sense of Community: Implications for Class Size Helen Vrailas Bateman, Vanderbilt University

The American educational system complex, dynamic interdependence improve children’s learning environ- today is faced with a major chal- between the student and the class- ments, very few studies to date lenge related to the level of students’ room as a whole. The classroom have attempted to systematically academic and cognitive skills. community can be examined from examine the contribution of learn- Graduates must compete for jobs multiple perspectives, such as the ing environments to students’ sense requiring a solid foundation in lit- teachers’ and students’ senses of of community, the classroom struc- eracy, math, science, writing, and community and the classroom char- tures and mechanisms promoting technological skills as well as ex- acteristics that foster community. that sense of community, the pro- pertise in critical thinking, reasoning, This study examines the class- cess by which students’ sense of and decision making. Data from room community through Seymour community develops, and the rela- the U.S. Department of Education’s Sarason’s work on the psychologi- tionship of that process to the de- National Assessment of Educational cal sense of community—the per- velopment of social and academic Progress indicate that although ception of similarity to others and skills. Important questions remained average proficiency in science, math- of acknowledged interdependence. unanswered: What are the mecha- ematics, and writing in 1992 was nisms through which students’ slightly higher than in 1988, achieve- Psychological Sense of Community sense of classroom community ment failed to keep pace with the in Schools can increase? What conditions higher skill level required in a global Sarason argued that the tradi- make some classroom communities economy. tional classroom should be restruc- more effective than others? Another major challenge relates tured to provide students with an to the lack of fit between students’ environment that nurtures their ac- Small Class Size Can Facilitate developmental needs and traditional quisition and development of aca- Classroom Community school environments. Students in a demic and social/affective skills. No research to date has exam- grade may be in different stages of Community-building processes in ined the relationship between small cognitive and emotional develop- schools and classrooms are in- class size and students’ sense of ment. Learning and social needs creasingly seen as profoundly af- community. This report explores of students in a class may be very fecting students’ attitudes about mechanisms through which class diverse because of differences in school and learning, their social size reduction can facilitate building previous knowledge, skills, and skills, and their social behavior. and sustaining classroom commu- culture. Although their approaches to the nity. An additional challenge relates sense of community vary some- to the lack of social skills and pro- what, researchers are increasingly MEMBERSHIP IN THE CLASSROOM social behavior in our schools. identifying bonding to social envi- COMMUNITY Changes in the structure and cohe- ronments like schools, which provide The key to feelings of belong- siveness of families and communi- norms and skills that oppose high- ing in a community is the level of ties have left many children with risk behaviors, as instrumental in personal investment in the commu- less positive social support and less increasing students’ resiliency. Re- nity processes. The harder one works adult guidance. search indicates that school commu- and the more resources one invests, These academic and social issues nities that provide students with a the more valuable and meaningful have yielded increased calls for recon- school or classroom sense of be- community membership becomes. ceptualizing the student goals, teach- longing, educational engagement, In the learning-community class- ers’ roles in learning, and the and support are most effective in room, all students participate in a structure and function of learning retaining high-risk youths and are rigorous learning process that con- environments. An area of research associated with academic motiva- tinuously challenges them by requir- addressing some of these issues tion, interest, and expectations of ing deep levels of inquiry. Students conceptualizes classrooms as com- success. must use active, strategic learning, munities of learners. This concept Despite the growing interest in reflect on their learning, and moni- stems from an appreciation of the community building as a means to tor comprehension. They must

The CEIC REVIEW • October 2001 22 invest considerable effort in acquir- INTEGRATION AND FULFILLMENT OF collaboration toward common ing expertise in different areas of NEEDS goals in a safe environment research throughout the year. In the learning-community should provide students in smaller Evidence indicates that small classroom, students’ learning needs classrooms with higher levels of class size can powerfully promote are facilitated and enriched by shared emotional connection. students’ membership in the class- teachers and peers. The continuous Reducing class size is not a room by making them more active exchange of ideas through various panacea for all that ails our classes and frequent participants in the means of discourse allows students today. It can, however, act as a fa- learning process. Class-size reduc- to benefit from the common knowl- cilitator to build and sustain strong tion research indicates that students edge base and to selectively incor- classroom communities. The use in small classrooms—especially porate the information they feel of the educational practices that those of lower ability—get more op- they need. Research indicates that have been shown to be effective portunities to participate actively in in small classrooms, students’ in- community-building tools is signifi- classroom processes. dividual needs can be better met. cantly aided and amplified through Students in the learning-com- In addition, in small classes the the reduction in class size. z munity classroom are expected to contributions of individual students effectively communicate, share, toward common goals can become and teach their knowledge to oth- more salient and instrumental, es- ers and to apply knowledge toward tablishing them as valued members the common goals of the class- in the classroom community. In a The CEIC room. Reduced class size has been small classroom, students have in- REVIEW associated with increased opportu- creased opportunities to contribute nities for collaboration in groups toward common goals either that are small enough to enable all through the individual work they Bonnie Hartman students to actively participate in share with their classmates or Mark Rohland each group. through increased participation in small groups. Editors STUDENT INFLUENCE Moreover, in small classrooms In the learning-community teachers have more time to better This publication is sup- classroom, every student is an in- address each student’s unique ported in part by the Labora- tegral part of the learning experience. learning and social needs. Instruc- tory for Student Success at the Through the process of distributed tion anchored in authentic problems Temple University Center for expertise, all students become provides students with relevant and Research in Human Develop- experts in a domain of knowledge, interesting curricula. Students’ needs ment and Education (CRHDE). and their peers depend on them for for autonomy, engaging and chal- The opinions expressed do not knowledge and understanding of lenging activities, social support, necessarily reflect the position that area. Conversely, students de- and a social comfort zone can be of the supporting agencies, and pend on the rest of the group for better met through the structure no official endorsement should their understanding of other areas and activities facilitated by a small be inferred. of expertise. This bidirectional classroom. For more information, influence bonds each individual to write CEIC, Temple University the classroom community. SHARED EMOTIONAL CONNECTIONS Center for Research in Human In small classes, each student As community members share Development and Education, gets more individual attention from a common history, an emotional 1301 Cecil B. Moore Avenue, the teacher and more opportunities bond is gradually created among Philadelphia, PA 19122-6091, to participate in group lessons with them. The formation of such bonds or call (215) 204-3000. Se- fellow students. These increased can be facilitated by small class lected CEIC publications and opportunities can facilitate the size. Research indicates that stu- abstracts of articles, including development of expertise and dents in small classrooms report back issues of the CEIC Re- academic and social competence lower levels of antisocial behav- view, are available at http:// for all students in the class, not just ior and higher affective evalua- www.temple.edu/LSS/ a select few. tions of their peers. Increased ceicrevlist.htm

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