Management of Distance Teacher Education in Zambia
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MANAGEMENT OF DISTANCE TEACHER EDUCATION IN ZAMBIA by VINCENT CHIYONGO submitted in accordance with the requirements for the degree of DOCTOR OF EDUCATION in the subject EDUCATION MANAGEMENT at the UNIVERSITY OF SOUTH AFRICA SUPERVIOR: PROF A E VAN ZYL NOVEMBER 2010 DECLARATION I declare that Management of distance teacher education in Zambia is my own work and that all the sources that I have used or quoted have been indicated and acknowledged by means of complete references. ii DEDICATION This work is dedicated to my wife and my children iii ACKNOWLEDGEMENT I would like to express my sincere gratitude and appreciation to my supervisor, Professor Andrew E. Van Zyl for his kindness, guidance, encouragement and careful revision of my work. Without him this thesis would not have been possible. My heartfelt appreciation goes to Professor Richard Munsanje Chilima Siaciwena for advice and assistance that I received during my studies. He continued encouraging me to continue studying even during the time he was in Botswana. I would like to record my gratitude to the management, lecturers and students of the University of Zambia (UNZA), the Zambian Open University (ZAOU), the National In- Service Teachers’ College (NISTCOL), the Nkrumah College of Education (NCE) and the Copperbelt Secondary Teachers’ College of Education (COSETCO) for the cooperation that they rendered me during the collection and analysis of data. I want to extend my gratitude to Dr. P.C. Manchishi, Dr. V. Chifwepa, Mr. Henry J. Msango and Dr. J. Ng‟andu of the University of Zambia, Leonie Meijerink (VVOB Distance Education Advisor for Colleges of Education, Zambia) and Dr. Justin Lupele (Chief of Party, EQUIP 2-Zambia) for their encouragement and support. I also wish to express my deepest sense of gratitude to my wife Faustina Mukelabai Munalula Chiyongo and my children Rommy Kalengesa Chiyongo, Romeo Ndozi Chiyongo and Mulevwana Mantoka Chiyongo for their patience and perseverance throughout the period of this study. Finally, my sincere thanks also go to the Principal (P.M. Muzumara) and all the members of NISTCOL Education Board for graciously granting me financial assistance. If I were not sponsored by NISTCOL Education Board it would not have been easy for me to settle the tuition fees and attend the workshops, seminars and conferences that were organized by the University of South Africa (UNISA). iv ABSTRACT This study is a collective case study. It assesses the various aspects of distance teacher education in the five institutions. These are the University of Zambia, the Zambian Open University, the National In-Service Teachers’ College, the Nkrumah College of Education and the Copperbelt Secondary Teachers’ College. Distance education practitioners‟ and distance students‟ views on the management of distance teacher education in Zambia were elicited. The researcher collected data using semi-structured individual and focused group interviews, and observations. In addition, relevant documents such as reports, policy documents and statistics were used. Also, the researcher analysed instructional study materials (modules) to establish whether they were suitable for distance students. The researcher employed qualitative methods in the collection and analysis of data. Triangulation was used in order to verify the information given during this study. In terms of theory, a comprehensive literature review was carried out to determine the works other researchers had done in the area of open and distance education, especially in the field of the management of distance teacher education. The Literature review revealed that good management of distance teacher education depends on how the various aspects of distance education are managed. Furthermore, the evidence from the literature review indicates that good management of distance teacher education improves the quality of distance teacher education. Apart from ZAOU, the other four institutions are dual-mode institutions. They offer distance education programmes and full-time programmes. The same lecturers teach both distance and full-time students. The findings concerning the strengths of the management of distance teacher education in Zambia were: a recognition by providers and clients of the importance of distance teacher v education, an awareness of the challenges of distance teacher education as displayed in their guidelines and a positive attitude towards distance teacher education. The findings concerning the weaknesses were: inadequate student support services, inadequate channels of communication, inadequate training and professional development, problems relating to integrating Information and Communication Technology (ICT) in distance education delivery, problems concerning assignments and examinations, inadequate records management, inadequacy regarding interactive instructional materials, problems relating to staffing, and a lack of national policy on distance education in Zambia. The overall conclusion is that the management of distance teacher education in Zambia is reasonably effective. However, the areas of concern highlighted above should be given attention if institutions that offer distance teacher education programmes are to provide quality distance teacher education. vi TABLE OF CONTENTS DECLARATION ii DEDICATION iii ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS iv ABSTRACT v LIST OF FIGURES xiii LIST OF TABLES xiv LIST OF APPENDICES xv CHAPTER 1 – INTRODUCTION TO THE STUDY 1 1.1 Introduction 1 1.2 Background to the distance teacher education institutions in Zambia 2 1.3 Statement of the problem 9 1.4 Rationale and motivation for study 11 1.5 Significance of the study 13 1.6 The purpose of the study 14 1.7 Research questions 14 1.8 Objectives of the study 14 1.9 Methodological issues 15 1.10 Limitations of the study 15 1.11 Operational definitions of terms 15 vii 1.12 Commentary 16 1.13 Summary 18 CHAPTER 2 – THEORETICAL FRAMEWORK 19 2.1 Introduction 19 2.2 Tentative model of students‟ retention or attrition 20 2.3 The theory of interaction 26 2.4 The theory of autonomy and independence 30 2.5 The theory of equivalency 32 2.6 Classification of management of distance education models based on their centredness 34 2.6.1 Institution-centred models 35 2.6.2 Person centred models 35 2.6.3 Society centred models 35 2.7 Summary 36 CHAPTER 3 - LITERATURE REVIEW 38 3.1 Introduction 38 3.2 Management in distance education 38 3.3 The concept of distance education 41 3.4 The need for distance education 46 3.4.1 The Australian case 46 3.4.2 The British case 47 3.4.3 The Indian case 47 3.4.4 The Brazilian case 48 3.4.5 The South African case 49 3.4.6 The Zambian case 50 3.5 Improved access to higher education by means of distance education 51 3.6 Links between management of distance teacher education and quality viii education 57 3.7 The management of distance teacher education in selected Zambian institutions 59 3.7.1 UNZA 60 3.7.2 ZAOU 65 3.7.3 NISTCOL 66 3.7.4 NCE 68 3.7.5 COSETCO 68 3.8 Salient criteria of effective management at distance teacher education institutions 69 3.8.1 Capacity building in distance teacher education 70 3.8.2 Motivation of distance students 74 3.8.3 Students support mechanisms in distance teacher education 75 3.8.4 Acceptable quality of distance teacher education modules and other printed materials 79 3.8.5 Relevant modes of communication in distance teacher education 81 3.9 Challenges associated with distance teacher education 86 3.9.1 Negative perception of distance education as reviewed by the literature study 86 3.9.2 Financial constraints 87 3.9.3 Technologically related issues 87 3.9.4 Diverse student related problems 88 3.10 Preliminary suggestions in literature to improve distance teacher education 88 3.11 Summary 89 CHAPTER 4 - RESEARCH DESIGN 91 4.1 Introduction 91 4.2 Research design 91 4.2.1 Qualitative approach 93 4.2.2 Case study 95 ix 4.3 Population and sampling 96 4.3.1 Population 96 4.3.2 Sample 97 4.4 Methods of data collection 98 4.4.1 Interviews 99 4.4.1.1 Semi-structured interview 100 4.4.1.2 Details concerning the interviews conducted 106 4.4.2 Observations 109 4.4.2.1 Participant Observations 111 4.4.3 Document reviews 113 4.5 Validity, reliability and trustworthiness of the study 113 4.5.1 Validity 114 4.5.1.1 Content validity 115 4.5.1.2 Face validity 115 4.5.2 Reliability 116 4.5.3 Trustworthiness of study 117 4.5.3.1 Truth-value 117 4.5.3.2 Applicability 118 4.5.3.3 Consistency 118 4.5.3.4 Neutrality 119 4.6 Data analysis 119 4.7 Ethical considerations 123 4.8 Summary 124 CHAPTER 5 – RESEARCH FINDINGS AND DISCUSSION 126 5.1 Introduction 126 5.2 Research findings 127 5.2.1 Interview questions and answers 127 5.2.2 Findings from observations 172 5.2.2.1 UNZA observation 172 x 5.2.2.2 NISTCOL observation 175 5.2.2.3 ZAOU observation 178 5.2.3 Analysis of relevant documents 179 5.3 Summary 180 CHAPTER 6 – DISCUSSION OF THEMES THAT EMERGED FROM FINDINGS 182 6.1 Introduction 182 6.2 Themes concerning the strengths 183 6.2.1 A recognition by providers and clients of the importance of distance teacher education 183 6.2.2 An awareness of the challenges of distance teacher education 183 6.2.3 A positive attitude towards distance teacher education 184 6.3 Themes concerning weaknesses 185 6.3.1 Inadequate student support services 185 6.3.1.1 Guidance and counselling 187 6.3.1.2 Library services 187 6.3.1.3 Face-to-face sessions 188 6.3.2 Inadequate use of channels of communication 189 6.3.3 Inadequate training and professional development 191 6.3.4 Problems relating to the integration of information