<<

A Forum of The American Physical Society • Volume IX, No. 1 • Fall 2003 ofPhysics HISTORYNEWSLETTER Recent Forum Activities

– Michael Riordan, Forum Chair

The spring and summer of 2003 have been a period of intense Fisher had organized two other gatherings on Gibbs, one at activity for the Forum. Not only did we sponsor or cosponsor two Maryland and the other at Yale, thus enabling him to bring Danish slates of extremely well-received sessions on the history of physics historian Ole Knudsen to Austin to talk about “Gibbs in at the March and April meetings of the American Physical Society, Europe.” Featuring such world-renowned speakers as Phil Ander- but we have succeeded in establishing the Abraham Pais Award for son and Fred Seitz, Hoddeson’s session was absolutely jam-packed, the History of Physics to honor outstanding scholarly with standing room only and hopeful listeners crowded at the door- achievements in the field. In addition, we have initiated an ongoing ways. Perhaps one tenth of all the present at the huge project in tandem with the APS staff to identify, recognize and March meeting were in the lecture hall – or at least trying to get in! publicize a series of historic physics sites in America, as part of the At the April meeting in Philadelphia, the Forum leveraged its Forum’s contributions to the World Year of Physics in 2005. These usual allotment of two invited sessions by cosponsoring four activities and accomplishments have benefited greatly from the sessions in all with other APS units. (See Reports, pp. 9-14.) untiring contributions of the Forum officers, Executive Committee Executive Committee member Dan Siegel of Wisconsin teamed with and members. his counterpart in the Forum on Education to organize a well- At the March APS meeting in Austin, hundreds of physicists received session on “Using History in Physics Education,” while attended the two FHP sessions – a Symposium on J. Willard Gibbs Per Dahl and Elizabeth Paris worked with the Division of Beam organized by Michael Fisher of the University of Maryland, and an Physics to pull together a smashing session on “The Development invited session on the Origins of Solid-State Physics convened by of Electron-Positron Colliders.” Next came a session titled of the University of Illinois. (See Reports, pp. 6 -9, “Benjamin Franklin, Civic Scientist” that I put together with Bo this issue.) With the aid of Steven Brush and Pierre Hohenberg, Hammer of the Forum on Physics and Society, followed on Tuesday

INSIDE Editor’s Note 3

Reports 4

Forum News 16

APS and AIP News 18

Notes and Announcements 20

Book Reviews 26 Physics, the Human Adventure: From Copernicus to Einstein and Beyond Gerald Holton, and Stephen G. Brush, Minding the Heavens: the story of our discovery of the Milky Way Leila Belkora From to Per F. Dahl Splitting the Second Frederick Seitz, courtesy AIP Segre Photo Archives Tony Jones Fred Seitz in 1937, three years before the publication of The Modern Theory of Solids. Read below about his A History of and Colour Measurement: reminiscences (now age 92) at the March 2003 APS Mtg. in the Shadows Sean F. Johnston morning by “The History of Solar in the world given specifically for outstand- term. I will serve as an Associate Editor ,” cosponsored with (and largely ing contributions to the history of physics. I during this time and step in when Ben organized by) the Division of Nuclear am heartened that it was our members who decides to retire; hopefully, this will set up a Physics. Although none of these four recognized the need for such an award and succession process that will make sure our sessions could claim the attendance of those put together the successful fundraising Newsletter is always in experienced hands. at Austin, the breadth and depth of our of- effort to make it happen. So far, we have built We are indeed fortunate in getting Ben, with ferings were clear to anyone. In addition, an endowment of more than $115,000, which his vast experience as APS Editor-in-Chief Nobel laureate and FHP member Dudley will enable the APS and AIP to begin and as editor of A, to take Herschbach of Harvard presented the granting the Pais Award annually in 2005 with over from Bill – who deserves an Sunday evening APS Public Lecture, on “Ben a stipend of $5,000. It promises to become enthusiastic “Thank You!” from the Franklin’s Scientific Amusements,” at the the world’s premier award for scholarly membership for his efforts over the past six Franklin Institute. The Forum had a major contributions to the history of physics – and a half years. and obvious presence in Philadelphia. named after a great and historian Prodded by APS Deputy Executive Another encouraging development was of physics who embodies the international Director Alan Chodos, who has been the Forum’s contributed papers session, spirit of the discipline. promoting the idea of setting up plaques to which is generally coupled with the annual Recognition for the success of this recognize U.S. sites where important FHP business meeting, open to all members. effort is due to many individuals, only a few advances occurred in physics, the FHP (See Reports, pp. 14-15.) Several of the six of whom can I mention in this brief column. Executive Committee recently decided to papers presented there on the history of Past Forum Chair Ben Bederson served as establish a new Committee on Historic physics were of high quality. At its Philadel- the indefatigable chair of the Award Physics Sites to advise the APS staff in this phia meeting, the Forum Executive Commit- Committee, guiding its workings over the effort. (See p. 18.) Accordingly, the commit- tee agreed that we should devote specific past two years and leading the sometimes tee will “examine policy issues and other attention to this session in the future and unruly conference calls. Former APS questions regarding the implementation of a attempt to upgrade it into a widely recog- Treasurer Harry Lustig revealed what I call proposed American Physical Society project nized gathering where physics historians the “asking gift,” obtaining several key to select, signify and publicize the most note- young and old are encouraged to deliver commitments of large contributions that worthy locations in the United States where talks on their research in progress. Recently enabled the fundraising effort to move major advances in physics occurred.” Execu- elected Executive Committee member Patrick forward in great leaps rather than a slow tive Committee member Gerald Holton has McCrea of the , Santa crawl. The most significant among these were agreed to serve on this committee, which is Barbara, has agreed to spearhead this effort. a $30,000 outright contribution from John currently in formation. I seek highly Of all the Forum’s recent activities, Armstrong, former Chair of the AIP distinguished senior physicists with a good however, none compares with our great Governing Board, and his wife Elizabeth – sense of the history of physics to serve with success in establishing the Abraham Pais plus an equal matching grant, which him, and I solicit members’ recommendations. Award for the History of Physics in honor of attracted other large contributions that This service will be part of the Forum’s our dear departed colleague. (See p. 16.) As eventually carried us well over our original contributions to the World Year of Physics far as I know, this is the only award or prize fundraising goal. in 2005 (see p. 17), when we hope that the Under Roger Stuewer’s able leadership, first few of these sites can be recognized. a subgroup of the Award Committee has been The program of invited sessions for the of Physics working out the details of the award- 2004 APS meetings is in good hands, with HISTORY NEWSLETTER granting process. The results of his persis- Forum Chair-Elect Nina Byers and her tence are now available on the FHP web site Program Committee putting together two full The History of Physics Newsletter is under Pais Award; I encourage Forum slates of invited sessions for Montreal and published twice each year by the Forum members to glance at the pages describing Denver. (See p. 15.) This is perhaps the most on History of Physics of the American the award and the guidelines for nomina- important Forum activity – and probably the Physical Society. It is distributed free to tions. Roger will chair a distinguished most time-consuming one, too. A subcom- all members of the Forum. Others who selection committee that includes Allan mittee of this Committee, consisting of Laurie wish to receive it should make a Franklin, Lillian Hoddeson, Anne Kox and Brown, Holton and Vice Chair Robert Romer, donation to the Forum of $5 per year (+$5 Spencer Weart representing the AIP. is already at work planning sessions about additional for air mail). Each volume Nominations for the first Pais Award, to be for the 2005 APS meetings, consists of six issues. presented at the 2005 APS April meeting, are to celebrate the centennial of his annus due no later than 1 May 2004. mirabilis. Editor: Over the summer the Newsletter Finally, I would be remiss indeed if I did William E. Evenson Editorial Board, spearheaded by chair Bill not recognize the untiring efforts of Forum Department of Physics Evenson, found a very able person to Secretary/Treasurer Ken Ford in enabling all Brigham Young University replace him as Editor. Coming off his great these activities. He has been my steady Provo, UT 84602 success in leading the Pais Award effort, Ben consultant, confidant and partner during the e-mail: [email protected] Bederson will officially assume these reins past several months when many of these tel: (801) 422-6078 at the beginning of next year for a three-year activities and accomplishments occurred,

2 History of Physics Newsletter • Volume IX, No. 1 • Fall 2003 efficiently running the Executive Committee remains solid. My hat is off to Ken! valuable time, especially to serve on our email meetings and votes. His firm hand on If we are to maintain this heightened newer committees. Therefore I hope some of the Forum’s budget and disbursement of level of activity, The Forum will need more you will respond affirmatively when our Past funds has allowed me to concentrate on the conscientious members like the ones I have Chair Hans Frauenfelder or members of his direction of activities without having to mentioned (or unfortunately failed to men- Nominating Committee come asking your worry about its financial condition, which tion) above to step forward and offer their participation. Editor’s Note

These six and a half years as Editor of to the public, to students, and to policy square of time. Johannes Kepler at Prague the History of Physics Newsletter have makers why what we are doing in physics and, independently, Korean and Chinese been a great experience for me. To be sure, is important and exciting and worthy of astronomers observe a supernova in the it has been a lot of work, but the associa- their attention. We need to look at how constellation Ophiuchus that lasts 12 tions with physicists and historians of history of physics teaches us to see months. physics have been rewarding and physics as a discipline and consider what 1654 - German physicist Otto von stimulating. My wife, Nancy, an architect we are doing today that might figure in the Guericke demonstrates atmospheric who was an undergraduate English major history of physics written in 2053. History pressure through experiments in which the many years ago, has generally read the of physics can give us perspective that muscle power of humans or animals copy of each issue before I sent it for helps us set realistic priorities and value competes with air pressure. French math- typesetting, lending her sharp eye to those activities and worldviews that will ematicians Blaise Pascal and Pierre de improve clarity and readability. I appreci- sustain both the unity and the freshness Fermat found probability theory. ate her contributions. With other of physics. 1704 - Publication of Newton’s commitments, it is time for me to move on, A thoughtful response to these Opticks, De Quadratura Curvarum (on but I will continue to stay close to the Fo- suggestions came from Leonardo Colletti the calculus), and Enumeration of Curves rum on History of Physics. As I pass the (Livermore) and is reproduced in part in of Third Degree. baton to Ben Bederson, let me echo the Research Reports below. He makes the 1754 - In the first application of Michael Riordan’s comments about how point that a critical view of science, such quantitative analysis to chemical reactions, fortunate we are that someone of Ben’s as can be acquired in the study of the best Scottish chemist Joseph Black discovers experience, leadership, and personal philosophy of science, is an essential that carbon dioxide is a component of air. qualities has agreed to accept this perspective to add to our historical Birth of Joseph-Louis Proust. position. It is gratifying to be able to leave perspective. He says, “You need a 1804 - Birth of Carl Gustav Jacob the Newsletter in such good hands. scientific method in everyday life also, not Jacobi, Emil Khristianovich Lenz, and In the last issue I asked, “What can only in a lab!” after having made the point . Death of Joseph history of physics do for physics?” I that a critical philosophical understand- Priestley. suggested that we should use history of ing of that method is essential to enable 1854 - predicts physics more often as a guide in our one to apply it sensibly and fruitfully. I the “heat death” of the universe. He also research in physics, as a guide in the agree, and reiterate the suggestion I made posits that gravitational contraction is the teaching of physics, and as a guide in previously that we look to the historical/ source of the sun’s energy, leading Lord explaining science to the public and to philosophical work of scholars such as Kelvin to calculate a famously young age policy makers. In all our use of history of Allan Franklin, twice former Chair of FHP. for the sun and the earth in 1862 (before physics, for maximum impact we need to Philosophy of science, when done with a the discovery of radioactivity). Georg convey fully the realities of doing careful hold on the realities of doing Riemann develops his non-Euclidean physics: including discovery with all its physics, can be enlightening and enabling. geometry. Birth of Johann Elster, August false starts and blind alleys, recycling old Föppl, Richard Glazebrook, Louis-Georges concepts into new, the ways that routine, Some Anniversaries Gouy, Jules-Henri Poincaré, Johannes hard work is interspersed with exhilarat- Rydberg, and Karl Hermann Struve. Death ing moments of new insight, and the deep for 2004 of Macedonio Melloni and Georg Simon satisfactions that come from developing a 1054 - Observation on July 4 of a Ohm. thorough understanding of some compli- supernova in Crab that remains 1904 - Charles D. Perrine discovers the cated working of . History of visible for 22 months. sixth satellite of Jupiter, beginning a physics helps bring the perspective to 1304 - Theodoric of Freibourg, century-long series of discoveries of new understand and articulate what is meant Germany, accurately explains several Jovian moons. Johannes Franz Hartmann by the “unity of physics.” With that aspects of the formation of rainbows. discovers spectral absorption lines that perspective, we can do better at relating 1604 - Galileo observes that a falling indicate the existence of interstellar clouds between subdisciplines and at articulating body increases its travel distance as the of gas and dust. German chemist Richard

History of Physics Newsletter • Volume IX, No. 1 • Fall 2003 3 Abegg suggests that chemical reactions Frenkel, Kotaro Honda, Theodor Kaluza, subscription to Physics in Perspective for occur when electrons transfer from one John Edward Lennard-Jones, Fritz London, an individual who could benefit from it. to another. Jacob Bjerknes publishes Theodore Lyman, and Alan Turing. Does anyone else want to join this effort? Weather Forecasting as a Problem in Suggestions to identify individuals, Mechanics and Physics. Hertha Marks Call for readers to report their especially outside the developed nations? Ayrton becomes the first woman ever to activities in history of physics address the Royal Society, reading a Question for readers about paper on the origin and growth of ripple Readers who are engaged in research marks in sand. She also becomes known and writing in history of physics, Newsletter format for her research on electric arcs. J.J. biographies of physicists, histories of About seven years ago FHP members Thomson proposes the plum pudding physics departments or colleges of were surveyed about their reaction to model of the atom. Experimenting with the science, memoirs, or other physics history moving the Newsletter to electronic scattering of X-rays, work, please alert the editor to your format. There was considerable sentiment discovers that the number of charged interests and any requests for information against such a move at that time. Because particles in an atom varies according to its from other readers. See the address and of the cost of the paper Newsletter, the . He also shows that X-rays are email in the box on p. 2. question arises again as to the acceptabil- transverse waves like light, confirming ity of providing an online Newsletter once their electromagnetic nature. William Henry Physics in Perspective a year, with provision for paper copies on Bragg shows that alpha particles are A year ago I issued a call to help keep request, and a fully paper issue for the emitted with a discrete energy spectrum. the journal Physics in Perspective alive. second issue each year. Please respond to John Ambrose Fleming invents the first This wonderful quarterly journal deserves the incoming editor, Ben Bederson electron radio tube, the diode thermionic many more subscribers. I remind readers ([email protected]; Department of valve. Birth of , George to subscribe at the inexpensive rate for Physics, , 4 Washing- Gamow, Gerhard Herzberg, Louis Néel, and APS members ($35 plus $10 shipping) and ton Place, New York, NY 10003) consider- J. Robert Oppenheimer. Death of Emilio to have your institutional libraries ing the following three options: Villari. subscribe. Go to the publisher’s web site: a) definitely opposed to exclusively 1954 - proposes the Birkhäuser Verlag, www.birkhauser.ch/jour- online Newsletter once a year. existence of a multinucleotide genetic nals/1600/1600_tit.htm or contact one of b) online OK once a year, but with code. Physicists at the University of the editors: John S. Rigden, American paper version mailed on request. California build the bevatron. CERN is Institute of Physics, One Physics Ellipse, c) online OK once a year without founded. C. N. Yang and Robert Mills College Park, MD 20740, [email protected] and paper version. develop Yang-Mills gauge-invariant field Roger H. Stuewer, Tate Laboratory of Either choice b) or c) would allow for theory. Abraham Pais coins the term Physics, University of Minnesota, 116 considerable saving in mailing costs “.” Silicon transistors are intro- Church Street SE, Minneapolis, MN 55455, assuming most members do not ask for duced to the commercial market by Texas [email protected], or paper. It is not proposed that both Instruments. Death of Karl Taylor contact me (Bill Evenson). Two readers semiannual issues be online. Online issues Compton, , Yakov Ilyich have offered to sponsor an annual could be provided in multiple formats. Reports

Research Reports work in statistical mechanics. Boltzmann’s Charles Falco (U of Arizona) has E.G.D. Cohen (Rockefeller University) predilection for mechanics , as opposed to worked with David Hockney applying sent his article on Boltzmann, entitled statistics, is discussed and the more recent optical principles to understand the histori- “Boltzmann and Statistical Mechanics”, developments in statistical mechanics, cal use of optical instruments by artists. An published in the Proceedings of the based on dynamical systems theory, appear invited paper at the 8th International International Meeting “Boltzmann’s legacy to confirm his view. Cohen therefore puts Conference on “Education and Training in 150 years after his birth”, Rome, Italy, 25-28 Boltzmann’s historical contributions in the Optics and Photonics” (ETOP 2003), May 1994, Atti della Academia della Lincei context of the modern theoretical and October 6–8, 2003, presented their 131:9-23 (1997). It was later also published experimental study of statistical mechanics. evidence, as they explain in the abstract: in the proceedings of another meeting, He briefly contrasts the approaches of “Recently, one of us (DH) observed that Dynamics: Models and Kinetic methods Boltzmann and Gibbs and traces certain drawings and paintings from as early for Non-Equilibrium Many Body Systems, Boltz-mann’s legacy in modern practice. as the Renaissance seemed almost ‘photo- J. Karkheck (ed.), pp. 223-238, Kluwer This paper will be valuable to anyone graphic’ in detail. An extensive visual Academic Publ., The Netherlands (2000). interested in statistical mechanics, whether investigation of western art of the past 1000 The paper gives a personal account, half from an historical, a practical, a theoretical, years resulted in the revolutionary claim that historical and half scientific, of Boltzmann’s or a philosophical point of view. artists even of the prominence of van Eyck

4 History of Physics Newsletter • Volume IX, No. 1 • Fall 2003 and Bellini must have used optical aids. the Conference Proceedings. “From the Lab of the particular knowledge we call However, art historians insisted there was to the Fab: Transistors to Integrated “science.” More, I would dare to say that a no supporting evidence for such a remark- Circuits” by Howard R. Huff, presented at critical consciousness about the difference able assertion. This paper presents some the 2003 International Conference on between the scientific method and other of the optical evidence we subsequently Characterization and Metrology for ULSI human ways of knowledge should be the discovered that convincingly demonstrates Technology (March 24-28, 2003) and to be very core of all that a non-science major optical instruments were in use – by art- published in the Conference Proceedings. student should know about science. ists, not scientists – nearly 200 years “Silicon-on-Insulator (SOI) Wafers: A Brief “As an Italian high school student, I earlier than widely thought possible, and Taxonomy of Fabrication Techniques, had the opportunity to appreciate science, that accounts for the remarkable transfor- Trends and IC Application Opportunities” and physics in particular, more by means of mation in the reality of portraits that by Howard. R. Huff and Peter M. Zeitzoff, the philosophy lessons, where we read occurred early in the 15th century.” submitted to Solid Sate Technology. papers by Popper, Kuhn, Lakatos and On August 3, 2003, the segment “Was Louis Brown (Carnegie Institution of others, than via the succession of often it Done With Mirrors?” was replayed on Washington, Emeritus) reports that he has unexplained formulae. It was by reading CBS “60 Minutes.” Especially considering completed a manuscript history of the Popper that I understood the greatness of the limitations of a 15-minute TV segment, Department of Terrestrial Magnetism, physics and the humility of physicists. the program did an excellent job telling a Carnegie Institution of Washington, as part “After coming to the United States as a complex story that impacts our understand- of the celebration of the Institution’s post-doc last year (a wonderful experience ing of 600 years of Western art. You can centennial. Its length is 84,000 words with of life, not only of research) I was impressed read about these discoveries in David 101 figures. The Department, generally by two observations related to the theme Hockney’s book, Secret Knowledge: referred to as DTM, has engaged in above. First, more technically, I don’t see Rediscovering the Lost Techniques of the research on geomagnetism, atmospheric among physicists much attention to Old Masters (Viking, 2001), as well as about electricity, the ionosphere, experimental philosophy. When they look outside their some more recent details at www.optics. , cosmic rays, wartime specific field of research seeking connec- arizona.edu/ssd/FAQ.html. development of the proximity fuze, tions, on one side they refer to history of A conference in Paris May 31- June 1, palaeomagnetism, radio , optical physics, while on the other side the only 2003 also dealt with these questions: astronomy, biophysics, geochronology, connection that they seem to see between “Measuring Art: A Scientific Revolution in geochemistry, and seismology. A separate physics and society (see the APS Physics Art History,” cosponsored by the volume is intended for each of the and Society Newsletter) are weapons- University of Chicago and the American Institution’s five departments, to be related issues. I think there is something University of Paris. And a European published as a set by missing in between, and it should be a Science Foundation Exploratory Workshop University Press on completion of all five. discussion about the role and status of the in Ghent, Belgium, 12-15 November 2003 Doug Mounce (U of Washington) scientific method in society (very briefly: was entitled “Optics, Optical Instruments suggests that the history of fiber optic ‘how to learn from errors and how to and Painting: The Hockney-Falco Thesis technology would be interesting to improve successive attempts’). You need a Revisited,” indicating the seriousness with develop. Laws like Snell’s law are founda- scientific method in everyday life also, not which this work is now being taken. tional because they weren’t proven or only in a lab!” Eri Yagi (Toyo U, Emerita) retired in derived when proposed, but testing this one Colletti also raises the question of April 2002. At that time her collected generated a classic disagreement between religion in America and the disconnect papers, A Historical Approach to Entropy, Fermat and Descartes on the speed of light. between scientific inquiry and the faith were published in a commemorative volume. It ends with Feynman’s development of path professed by some scientists. He says, This volume includes eight papers and a integrals, following a line from Fermat to “Facts [at the base of a religion] should be supplement. The papers were previously Huygens and Maupertuis in the develop- subjected by definition to scientific inquiry. published in international journals and ment of optimization principles. Everyone’s So, how is it possible that people used to proceedings. They reflect her work of 20 insight, except perhaps Feynman’s, was the scientific method look at these years on and his work on overshadowed at the time by a larger [particular] facts in an odd, anti-scientific entropy. She is now Director of the personality like Descartes, Newton, or way? I’m not speaking about the theologi- Institute for History of Science. Voltaire. David Gao wrote an article that cal side and interpretations, but just about Howard Huff (International Sematech) outlined this relationship. It’s a nice facts. On the other side, for example (I’m has shared some of his recent work on the historical approach to understanding path just quoting what I know), the Catholic history of the semiconductor industry: “The integrals. Church refers to a highly qualified ‘Ultimate’ CMOS Device: A 2003 Perspec- Leonardo Colletti (Livermore) sent scientific committee (physicists, physicians, tive (Implications For Front-End Character- comments on my Editor’s Note in the last historians etc.) every time an investigation ization And Metrology)” by Howard R. Huff issue. He says, “You are right when you about miracles and sources is needed. A and Peter M. Zeitzoff, presented at the 2003 point out how useful history of physics true faith shouldn’t be afraid of facts and International Conference on Characteriza- could be for teaching physics. I would add counterfacts. This is in my opinion where tion and Metrology for ULSI Technology that it could be even more useful if accom- the misunderstanding between science and (March 24-28, 2003) and to be published in panied along with a philosophical critique religion starts, and this is something that

History of Physics Newsletter • Volume IX, No. 1 • Fall 2003 5 should find place in the reflections about for Muslim-Christian Understanding, terms “canonical” and “microcanonical,” the connections between physics and Georgetown U) on “Scientific Growth in a and introduced the “grand ensemble.” society. I think the two disciplines could be Religious Culture: Lessons from Islamic Statistical mechanics proved to be the best most useful to one another and together Science,” and respondent Mustanir Mir way to treat systems of a large number of fruitful for humanity if correctly used. I (Director, Center or Islamic Studies, Young- and molecules, as well as photons would really appreciate your (and other stown State U). A second session addressed and other particles, especially when scientists’) thoughts about this issue. I look the topic “Science and Religion – Are They quantum effects play a crucial role. The at this (and other similar) e-mail as a Culturally Compatible in Islamic Countries?” technique of vector analysis, which Gibbs sampling of the interests about such a It was moderated by Prosser Gifford (Direc- published in 1901, is widely used in discussion in the physics world.” tor, Kluge Center and Office of Scholarly scientific calculations. Programs, The Library of Congress), with At the American Physical Society Workshop on Oral Histories: “For the speakers Ahmad Dallal (Chair and Profes- meeting in Austin, on March 3, the Forum Record: A Workshop on Conducting Oral sor, Department of Arabic Language, Lit- sponsored a symposium organized by Histories of Science” was held in conjunc- erature and Linguistics, Georgetown U) on Michael Fisher and Stephen Brush (U of tion with the 2003 annual meeting of the “Tolerance or Compatibility? The Search for Maryland), featuring four speakers. History of Science Society on November a Qur’anic Paradigm of Science” and Martin J. Klein (Yale) talked about “Gibbs 20, 2003. The workshop included discus- Ebrahim Moosa (Research Professor of and Statistical Mechanics a Century Ago.” sions and activities dealing with strategies Religion, Duke U) on “Mediating Modern The paper described what we know about for planning an oral history project, Science through Islamic Law and Theol- the development of Gibbs’s ideas on equipment needs and use, legal and ethical ogy,” and respondent Ibrahim Kalin (As- statistical mechanics, ideas that were issues, and interviewing skills. Organizers sistant Professor, Religious Studies Depart- published only in their fully developed form and Sponsors: Amy Crumpton (AAAS), ment, College of the Holy Cross). The sym- in his book of 1902. His work was given its Patrick McCray (AIP and UC-Santa posium also included a panel discussion historical setting in his own career and also Barbara), and Elizabeth Paris (Argonne on “The Future of Science in Islamic Coun- in the context of the physics of the time. National Laboratory and University of tries – Social, Cultural and Religious Fac- Indeed it turns out that Gibbs’s book was, Chicago). The workshop was supported by tors.” in fact, overdue! Despite his marked the National Science Foundation, the resistance to putting down his deep insights History of Science Society, the American J. Willard Gibbs and His in book form, as requested by Lord Kelvin Institute of Physics, and the Dibner and others, Gibbs was evidently persuaded Institute for the History of Science and Legacy: A Double Centennial. to prepare his book in honor of the Technology. APS March Meeting, Austin, bicentenary of Yale’s foundation in 1701. 3 March 2003. He completed the book in December 1901, Symposium on Islam, Science and but publication came only in 1902. It was Report by Stephen G. Brush and Cultural Values was held at the Library of his last work before his death on 28 April Michael E. Fisher (U of Maryland) Congress on October 9, 2003. Co-spon- 1903. From February 28 through March 6, sored by the Library of Congress, African Ole Knudsen (U of Aarhus, Denmark) 2003, the APS Forum on the History of and Middle East Division; Georgetown spoke on “Gibbs in Europe.” In 1866, at Physics collaborated with University, Center for Muslim-Christian the age of 27, J. Willard Gibbs set out from and the University of Maryland to Understanding; American Association for his native New Haven on a three-year study commemorate the publication of Gibbs’s the Advancement of Science, Dialogue on tour that was to take him to Paris, , book Elementary Principles in Statistical Science, Ethics and Religion; and National and Heidelberg. His previous education at Mechanics (1902) and celebrate his life: Academy of Sciences, Office of Interna- Yale had given him an adequate grounding 1839-1903. tional Affairs. The program included a in geometry and mechanics and a Ph.D. in J. Willard Gibbs, Professor of keynote address by Seyyed Hossein Nasr, engineering (the first in the United States); Mathematical Physics at Yale University, University Professor of Islamic Studies, he came back with enough knowledge of was one of the most important American George Washington University, on “Islamic higher mathematics and advanced physics scientists of the 19th century, although his Critique of Modern Sciences – Problems to begin a brilliant career as a mathematical achievements were recognized in Europe and Challenges.” A session on “Science in physicist. Based on the extant source before they became known in his own Islamic Countries – Historical and Cultural material, mainly three notebooks with country. His formulation of the laws and Perspectives” was moderated by Audrey entries on the courses he attended and the concepts of thermodynamics is a funda- Chapman (Director, Science and Human books and papers he read during his trip, mental part of theoretical physics and Rights Program, and Senior Associate for Knudsen gave an impression of the physical chemistry; it has found widespread Ethics, Dialogue on Science, Ethics and content and style of the physics he was applications in research on the properties Religion, AAAS),with speakers George exposed to in Europe, and showed how his of matter and in engineering. In his famous Saliba (Professor of Arabic and Islamic later work was influenced by his European book, building on the work of Maxwell and Science, Columbia U) on “The Birth of Sci- experience. Boltzmann, Gibbs established a new branch entific Thought in Early Islamic Civilization” Johanna Levelt Sengers (NIST) of theoretical physics. Indeed, he invented and Osman Bakar (Visiting Professor and discussed “Key Concepts from Gibbs that the name “statistical mechanics” and the Malaysia Chair of Islam in SE Asia, Center Empowered van der Waals, Korteweg and

6 History of Physics Newsletter • Volume IX, No. 1 • Fall 2003 Kamerlingh Onnes.” In 1873, Gibbs laid the reflection from Gibbs’s time to our own. The reviewer has ever attended. Surely 600 plus foundation for a geometric approach to connections can be analyzed using con- persons were in attendance, crowding the thermodynamics, studying the energy cepts suggested by the work of Michael aisles, floors and even the space adjacent surface as function of entropy and volume. Berry and explicitly put forward by the phi- to the speakers. No wonder, with the If the surface is touched by a plane in more losopher Robert Batterman. This line-up of speakers: , Lillian than one point, these tangent points repre- viewpoint relates theory-connection to the Hoddeson, Frederick Seitz and Philip sent coexisting phases. Merging of two applied mathematics concepts of asymptotic Anderson. A brief summary of their talks tangent points results in a critical point. In analysis and singular perturbations. Finally, follows. A number of photographs of his papers of 1876 and 1878, Gibbs intro- Kadanoff remarked that J. Willard Gibbs, the persons referred to by the speakers may be duced the chemical potential, formulated younger, had all his great achievements found in several of the books noted in the the equilibrium conditions for coexisting concentrated in science; but his father, also summaries below. phases in mixtures, and derived his famous J. Willard Gibbs, also a professor at Yale, Hans Bethe – “Reflections on Arnold phase rule. In 1873, van der Waals had one great achievement that remains un- Sommerfeld and the Beginnings of produced the first equation of state able to matched to our day. This “social triumph” Modern Solid-State Theory.” N. David describe vapor and liquid, as well as criti- was described by Kadanoff in his talk. Mermin kindly arranged a videotaped cality. Around 1890, van der Waals, thor- A symposium on Gibbs was also held interview with Bethe (1967 oughly acquainted with Gibbs’s work, had on February 28 at Yale University, organized winner in Physics) in Ithaca, New York. This generalized his equation of state to binary by Daniel Kevles. Speakers and topics were: interaction, in and of itself, was a most mixtures, using the analogy of the Ole Knudsen (U of Aarhus, Denmark), stimulating endeavor. That is, Bethe, one isothermal Helmholtz energy surface of the “Gibbs in Europe”; Martin J. Klein (Yale), of the key figures in the initiation of the mixture with Gibbs’s energy surface. He “Gibbs and Statistical Mechanics a quantum-mechanical based solid-state found both vapor-liquid and liquid-liquid Century Ago”; Daniel J. Kevles (Yale), “En- physics discipline in the late 1920s in phase separation. Simultaneously, the gineering and Physics in Gibbs’ America.” Munich, and Mermin, co-author of the mathematician Korteweg developed the A third symposium took place on March seminal textbook Solid State Physics (with theory of folds and critical points on 5 and 6 at the University of Maryland, Neil W. Ashcroft) published in 1976. (The surfaces, as well as their evolution as a co-sponsored by the National Institute of videotape is available as indicated in the function of a parameter, with application to Standards and Technology, and organized Notes and Announcements section of this the van der Waals mixture equation. Around by Stephen Brush and Michael Fisher Newsletter.) 1890 as well, Leiden experimentalists (U of Maryland). Speakers and topics were: The style of Sommerfeld in establish- Kamerlingh Onnes and his student Kuenen Ole Knudsen (U of Aarhus, Denmark), ing a broad frontal assault on virtually the started to produce the first reliable data on “Gibbs in Europe” [abstract above]; complete field of theoretical physics in his binary mixtures near critical points: Robert W. Batterman (Ohio State U), Lectures on Theoretical Physics afforded retrograde condensation, critical azeotropy, “Gibbs and Asymptotic Relations between Bethe a wide-ranging view of theoretical critical endpoints and three-phase Theories” (Batterman’s work was alluded physics. Indeed, Sommerfeld played the key equilibrium, all subsequently derived from to by Kadanoff, as mentioned above); role in extending Bohr’s 1913 theory of the the van der Waals equation. Based on the Johanna Levelt Sengers (NIST), “Key hydrogenic atom into the early 1920s via experimental data, Kamerlingh Onnes Concepts from Gibbs that Empowered van the Bohr-Sommerfeld quantization rule, constructed several plaster models of the der Waals, Korteweg, and Kamerlingh often classified under the old quantum isothermal Helmholtz surfaces of mixtures. Onnes” [abstract above]; C. David theory (in contradistinction to the work of Chemical potentials and coexisting phases Levermore (U of Maryland), “The Legacy Heisenberg, Jordan, Born, Pascal and Dirac can be read from these models, conserved of Gibbs’ Geometric View of Entropy.” et al. on the newer and at the Leiden Boerhaave Museum. Support for the Gibbs symposia was the wave mechanics of Schrödinger, (References: J. L. Sengers, How Fluids provided by the American Physical Society, building on De Broglie). Before the theory Unmix, 2002; J. L. Sengers & A. Levelt, the National Institute of Standards and of electronic conduction in solids was “Diederik Kortweg, Pioneer of Criticality,” Technology, the University of Maryland promulgated in the late 1920s by Bloch, one , December 2002) (through the Institute for Physical Science of Heisenberg’s first two Ph.D students Leo P. Kadanoff (U of Chicago) & Technology, the Chemical Physics along with , the concept was presented “Reflections on Gibbs: From Program, and the Committee on Philosophy anticipated and appeared most natural to Critical Phenomena to the Amistad.” J. and the Sciences), and by Yale University. Bethe and his colleagues, notably Rudolf Willard Gibbs, the younger, was the first Peierls. Indeed, Bethe and Sommerfeld had American theorist. He was one of the The Early Days of Solid State resuscitated the Drude free-electron theory inventors of statistical physics. His of metals, adapting it to fit experimental introduction and development of the Physics. APS March Meeting, results by utilizing some ideas of the new concepts of phase space, phase transitions, Austin, 4 March 2003. quantum theory. A number of additional and thermodynamic surfaces was remark- Report by Howard R. Huff (Interna- technical gems are distributed throughout ably correct and elegant. These three con- tional SEMATECH) the dialogue between Bethe and Mermin. cepts form the basis of different but related The session on The Early Days of Solid It was most exciting to hear Bethe note, areas of physics. The connections among Physics on Tuesday, March 4, 2003 was one in response to Mermin’s question, “How these areas have been a subject of deep of the most densely packed sessions this long did it take you to write your famous

History of Physics Newsletter • Volume IX, No. 1 • Fall 2003 7 1933 article Elektronentheorie der Metalle chemistry and 1962 ) and rectification properties based on an experi- in the Handbuch der Physik?” Bethe E. Bright Wilson, Jr. at Harvard. mental investigation of over 1,000 material responded about one year. He wrote a sheet Of particular interest was Hoddeson’s combinations. The onset of Lee de Forest’s of manuscript paper, turned it over into a observation that Bardeen’s post-doc time diode and, subsequently, triode vacuum pile and simply continued writing the next at Harvard was focused on a host of tube, however, delayed further significant sheet – while still getting eight hours of issues, generically related to what eventu- utilization of silicon until World War II. At sleep every night! Mermin noted that it took ally became the beginnings of many-body that juncture, it was observed that silicon him and Ashcroft about eight years to phenomena. Bardeen was exploring a (and germanium to some extent) extended complete their textbook. spectrum of issues of interest to him! It the frequency range of detectors appropri- Interestingly, regarding the Handbuch seems that times have indeed changed, with ate for war-time needs. The contributions der Physik article co-authored with the emphasis in today’s world on ensuring of Schottky, Mott, Davidov and Bethe were Sommerfeld, Bethe noted that Sommerfeld the successful completion and publications instrumental in clarifying the nature of the was the lead author (even through related to the research contracts at hand. rectification phenomenon. Finally, the role Sommerfeld only wrote the first chapter) Additionally, the friendships and easy of Mervin Kelly, Bell Telephone because Sommerfeld was extremely well relationships established during those Laboratory’s research director who estab- known, and they wanted to indicate the years amongst Seitz, Bardeen and Herring lished an interdisciplinary team in 1945 with seriousness of the manuscript. Mermin with their colleagues at Harvard (Percy the goal of replacing the vacuum-tube noted, and Bethe agreed, that today, Bridgman and John H. van Vleck) as well as amplifier and the electro-mechanical generally the student’s name is listed first with John Slater and Bill Shockley at MIT, relay-type devices, utilized in the Bell to advertise the student’s capability. generally withstood the test of time in most System, by a solid-state amplifier and Nevertheless, the famous book Quantum cases. switch, respectively, brought us into the Mechanics of One- and Two-Electron Let me summarize these brief comments modern age of silicon technology. Atoms (which this reviewer remembers noting that the 2002 book True Genius: The Due notice was taken of the contribu- studying very hard in graduate school in Life and Science of by tions of Herbert Matare who discovered a 1962) was authored by Bethe and Salpeter! Hoddeson (co-authored with Vicki Daitch) form of transistor action in polycrystalline Lillian Hoddeson – “The Quantum and published by the Joseph Henry Press, germanium in France after World War II as Theory of Solids Enters American Gradu- Washington, DC, expands the above theme well as the role of H. Welker in identifying ate Programs in the 1930s: John Bardeen in the most exciting manner. Indeed, the the promising benefits of III-V semiconduct- at Princeton and Harvard.” Eugene book follows Bardeen’s career from ing compounds. As regards the former case, Wigner at Princeton (who had applied Princeton and Harvard through his World the contemporary research group theory to quantum mechanics in War II service work, into the Bell Labs point program simply overwhelmed the French Berlin, sharing the 1963 Nobel Prize with contact semiconductor amplifier research work, while the latter, although of great Maria Goeppert-Mayer and J. Hans D. (i.e., the point-contact transistor) earning importance from a scientific standpoint, Jensen) and John Slater at MIT established Shockley, Bardeen and Brattain the 1956 never successfully replaced the elemental the first graduate quantum theory of solids , and culminating in semiconductors germanium and then programs in America in the early to the resolution of the fifty-year supercon- silicon, at least in the dominant commercial mid-thirties. This was a most significant ductivity enigma by Bardeen (then at the U markets. period in America, during which Wigner’s of Illinois) with Leon N. Cooper and J. Indeed, it was silicon technology that first three graduate students (Frederick Robert Schrieffer, with their 1972 Nobel became the workhorse of the discrete Seitz, John Bardeen and Conyers Herring) Prize in Physics (Bardeen’s second in transistor and, subsequently, the integrated “were in the first generation of physicists physics). circuit (IC) era. Seitz’s historical overview who called themselves ‘solid-state’ Frederick Seitz – “How We Came to (with N.G. Einspruch) in their 1998 book, theorists.” Indeed, Seitz’s textbook The Know What We Knew About Semiconduc- Electronic Genie: The Tangled History of Modern Theory of Solids, published in tors During World War II.” Frederick Seitz, Silicon (U of Illinois Press) is essential 1940, became the paradigm against which in a tour de force, reviewed the history of reading for those interested in the all subsequent solid-state textbooks were silicon from its discovery by Berzelius in contributions that led to the observation, judged. the 1820s, the days of H. Cavendish and A. clarification and utilization of the historical It should also be noted that Bardeen L. Lavoisier in the late 18th century through silicon and its evolution as the pre-eminent had studied quantum mechanics in the late the 19th and, finally, the 20th century. It was semiconductor in the modern IC 1920s at the U of Wisconsin as an under- noted that Faraday in the 1840s observed electronics era. graduate with John H. van Vleck (1977 Nobel that some materials were neither good Philip W. Anderson – “The Magnetic Prize winner with Philip W. Anderson and metals nor good insulators. Reginald State: Mott Insulators, Magnetic Impuri- Nevill F. Mott) as had Walter Brattain with Fessenden in 1890 noted that silicon added ties and the Like.” Philip Anderson (1977 van Vleck earlier in the 1920s at the U of to iron enhanced the magnetic properties Nobel Prize winner with John H. van Vleck Minnesota. Wigner’s and Slater’s graduate of iron while silicon’s addition to steel and Nevill F. Mott) noted that, aside from programs were subsequently followed in increased steel’s toughness. After a brief Pauli’s explanation of paramagnetism, the the 1930s by the establishment of quantum review of the contributions of Hertz and heroic quantum mechanics era of the 1920s theory courses in America by Linus Pauling Bose, Seitz noted that by 1905 metallurgi- did not clarify the nature of magnetism at Cal Tech (1954 Nobel Prize winner in cal silicon was deduced to offer the best (although Hund’s rules were a useful

8 History of Physics Newsletter • Volume IX, No. 1 • Fall 2003 classifying scheme – note entered by the Gerald Holton, and James Rutherford, And what is the utility of the historical reviewer). Although Fe, Co and Ni were Understanding Physics (New York: approach – how does it help in teaching treated somewhat successfully by the band Springer, 2002); and Robert March, Physics physics? All of the speakers agreed in theory, and Kramers did introduce the for Poets, 5th ed (Boston: McGraw-Hill, stressing that historical material was concept of long-range ordering in 1934 2003). Michael Nauenberg has used helpful in getting at the process of science: (referred to as super-exchange), a host of historical material in his teaching at the Uni- historical episodes provide the most issues were carried over into the 1950s. versity of California-Santa Cruz; Daniel authentic narratives of how science is Of course, there were useful develop- Siegel has used such material in the really done. Michael Nauenberg, in his talk, ments between the 1930s and the 1950s, Integrated Liberal Studies Program at the “By Hooke or by Crookedness and Other including the Mott insulator phenomenon University of Wisconsin-Madison, as Tales about Scientific Discoveries,” clarified by Mott in 1949 and 1956, building described in “Historical and Philosophical presented a sustained narrative illustrating on Rudolf Peierls’s suggestions in 1937. Elements in the Integrated Liberal Studies concretely the process of science. He This was discussed in terms of the atomic Natural Sciences Sequence,” in Proceed- concentrated on the interaction of Isaac wave function overlap and the broadening ings of the Third International History, Newton and Robert Hooke, in their of the bands. Anderson then reviewed his Philosophy, and Science Teaching correspondence of 1679, first in theory of antiferromagnetic superexchange Conference, Minneapolis, Minnesota, ed. developing a description of motion, involv- and of magnetic impurities as well as the Fred Finley, Douglas Allchin, and Steve ing the “crookedness” or curvature of Hubbard model for magnetic metals. The Fifield (Minneapolis: U of Minnesota, 1995), orbits, and then in proceeding to dynami- antiferromagnetic exchange was noted as 2:1050-1061. cal considerations, leading to the develop- an example of frustrated band-forming David Cassidy, in his talk, “Understand- ment of the concept of universal tendencies. And yet, according to ing Physics: A Textbook Integrating gravitation, and forming the background for Anderson, these significant advances have History into Physics Education,” provided Newton’s Principia. not been sufficiently promulgated in the important background on the development As concerns the characterization of the more modern solid-state textbooks, in spite of the historical approach in physics process of science in more general terms, of three Nobel Prizes being awarded to teaching. Understanding Physics is an there was widespread agreement among the physicists working in these fields. outgrowth of the pioneering Project speakers that there is no single, unique Anderson discussed several reasons for Physics enterprise at Harvard in the 1970s generalization possible concerning how this situation, which apparently remained and 1980s; as Cassidy observed, “Utilizing science is done – there is no single controversial even into the 1980s. the historical approach in science educa- “Scientific Method” characterizing all of tion has since taken on national propor- science. Nevertheless, there was one Using History in Physics tions. It has been emphasized during the approach to scientific method – namely, the past decade in nearly every effort at the hypothetico-deductive, or H-D method – Education. APS April national level to reform science education. that was discussed at some length in two Meeting, Philadelphia, The historical approach appears, for of the talks: Stephen Brush, “Is Physics 5 April 2003. instance, in the influential recommenda- ‘Scientific’?” and Daniel Siegel, “Wrong tions offered in the National Research Physics and Right Teaching.” Siegel Report by Daniel Siegel (U of Council’s National Science Education pointed out that philosophers of science Wisconsin-Madison) Standards and in the recent Benchmarks for such as Charles Sanders Peirce in the 19th This most interesting session made a Science Literacy published by Project 2061 century and Ernan McMullin in the 20th strong case for the use of historical materi- of the AAAS.” (The recent ascendancy of century have distinguished three ways of als in teaching physics and provided a the historical approach in science teaching doing science: wealth of useful suggestions for carrying is reflected also in the establishment, in 1987, 1. The inductive methodology, champi- out this program. The speakers were and subsequent rapid growth, of the oned by Francis Bacon in the 17th century, Stephen Brush, David Cassidy, Robert International History, Philosophy, and which proceeds by observation and March, Michael Nauenberg, and Daniel Science Teaching Group. The Group holds generalization. Siegel; Siegel was chair, and his talk was in biennial conferences, attended by 200-250 2. The deductive methodology, advo- part commentary and response to the science teachers at all levels, science cated by Rene Descartes in the 17th others. The session was well attended, with teacher educators, historians, philosophers, century, which proceeds logically and a lively audience of about 50. and cognitive scientists; the Group deductively from self-evident basic truths, The participants brought to this publishes a journal, Science & Education. as in geometry. session a wealth of experience with using As concerns physics per se, the American 3. The hypothetico-deductive, or H-D history in physics education. Three are Association of Physics Teachers has seen methodology, which was something of a authors of textbooks representing landmark a flourishing of the activities of its methodological orphan in the 17th and 18th contributions to the use of historical Committee on the History and Philosophy centuries (hypotheses were in bad odor), material in physics education: Gerald Holton of Physics, which is forging links with our and was fully articulated only in the 19th and Stephen G. Brush, Physics, the Human own Forum on History of Physics of the century (as emphasized by both Brush and Adventure: From Copernicus to Einstein APS, to pursue the common interest of Siegel), most notably by the British and Beyond (New Brunswick, NJ: Rutgers promoting the use of historical materials in scientist and philosopher John Herschel. University Press, 2001); David Cassidy, teaching physics.) In the H-D approach, a hypothesis or

History of Physics Newsletter • Volume IX, No. 1 • Fall 2003 9 conjecture is formulated – often concern- 17th century, or motion at velocities included Michelson, and how his career ing entities that cannot be observed comparable with that of light, in the early was tied to the rise of the American research directly, as in the 19th-century kinetic- 20th century. Subsequently, direct obser- university; Einstein, and how his career molecular hypothesis; the consequences vations supporting the earlier H-D reason- trajectory reflected the European culture of concerning observable phenomena to be ing became possible in three of the four the era; Bohr, and the importance for him of expected if the hypothesis is true are examples: the Millikan oildrop experiment, intuition, and science as play; and the derived – such as the perfect gas law in the the Wilson cloud chamber, etc. for atoms Pauli-Heisenberg duo, with their contrast- case of the kinetic-molecular hypothesis; and molecules; stellar parallax for planetary ing personalities, illustrating the variety of those consequences are then compared orbits; and vacuum and particle experiments personal styles in science. with experiment, and agreement is taken as for frictionless and high-velocity regimes. Both March and Cassidy drew evidence (albeit indirect) in favor of the These successful subsequent verifications attention to the utility of the historical mode hypothesis. Brush, in his talk, took up the by direct observation, it may be argued, of presentation in treating the interaction question of prediction in connection with serve to legitimate the H-D methodology. of science and technology and its social the H-D methodology: Some would suggest In the absence of a time machine, impact. March discussed the interaction of – notably, the philosopher Karl Popper – however, the distant past – and perforce energy science with the technology of the that if the hypothesis predicts novel results, biological and geological macroevolution steam engine – a complicated interaction, which have not previously been observed – seem to remain inaccessible to direct in which technology stimulated energy or measured, then verification of these observation. Our discussion of the process science, and the resulting science of predictions will constitute especially strong of science, then, led ultimately to a consid- thermodynamics in turn influenced the corroboration of the hypothesis, as eration of the limits of science. Relatedly, further development of engine technology compared with a situation where the Robert March, in his talk, “Bringing – yielding the internal combustion engine, hypothesis serves merely to explain known Physics to Life through History and for better and/or for worse. Cassidy alluded results. Brush, however, took issue with this Biography,” emphasized that science does to the variety of socially relevant science/ perspective, considering as an example the not provide certainty, that there is no technology issues treated in Understand- case of General Relativity early in the 20th central control mechanism in science for ing Physics, such as global warming and century: Two consequences of the theory establishing dogma, and that it is doubt, ozone depletion, energy use and resources, – the “hypothesis” – were found to be in rather than certainty, that is the key to and the technologies based on condensed- agreement with experiment, namely: the progress in science (here making contact matter physics. (All too often, when these precession of the perihelion of Mercury, with the discussion of Popper by Brush). kinds of issues are treated in science which was a previously known and mea- (Lively discussion at the end of the courses, the instructor winds up preaching sured phenomenon; and the bending of session was directed to the question of to the student audience about his or her light as observed in the 1919 eclipse, which whether Siegel’s suggestion that the H-D favorite science and technology policy was a novel prediction. Here, Popper would methodology was validated by subsequent issues; but anyone who has interacted with contend that the bending of light was the direct observation would be convincing to teenagers and young adults knows how stronger evidence in favor of General students who were inclined to go perhaps useless it is to preach to this audience. The Relativity, because it was a prediction; too far under the banner of doubt.) better alternative is a truly historical whereas the historical record shows, March went on to distinguish three presentation of these kinds of questions, according to Brush, that the community of reasons for using history and biography in which enables students to understand the physicists considered the calculation of the teaching science: issues, see the range of opinions that have precession of the perihelion of Mercury as 1. Historical narrative illuminates the been voiced, and ultimately arrive at their just as convincing, even though it did not process of science, as discussed above. own considered and informed conclu- constitute a novel prediction. Brush 2.Historical material – especially sions.) concluded that novel prediction is not, in biographical considerations – can help to A final theme, treated by Cassidy and actual scientific practice, so highly prized motivate the study of science. Siegel, is broached in Siegel’s title, “Wrong as Popper and others seem to think, and 3. History can illuminate the science Physics and Right Teaching.” How can it supported this with further examples. itself. be helpful, Cassidy’s students ask (and Siegel, in his talk, continued the discus- In the Scientific Revolution, for example, some of our physics colleagues also ask) sion of the H-D methodology, including one encounters some “fascinating people” for students to learn wrong theories, wrong John Herschel’s characterization of it as a – such as Galileo, Kepler, Brahe, and physics? The first answer – as Cassidy bridge to the unknown, useful for getting Newton; beyond this, the Scientific emphasized and all of our speakers have at four kinds of entities that are not directly Revolution also illustrates some central agreed – is that students can learn about observable (at the given time): the very features of science itself, such as the inter- the process of science, in an authentic way, small, such as atoms and molecules, in the action of observation and theory – includ- by going through the successive stages of 19th century; the very large and distant, ing, on the observational side, issues of “wrong physics” that our intellectual for- such as planetary orbits, in the 16th and experimental strategies, instrumentation, bears traversed. Secondly, Siegel discussed 17th centuries; occurrences in the distant and the role of precision; and, on the an “ontogeny recapitulates phylogeny” past, such as geological and biological theoretical side, the role of mathematics. pedagogical strategy, in which students macroevolution; and ideal or inaccessible Foci of 20th-century biographical interest approach complex and abstract modern regimes, such as frictionless motion, in the that were highlighted in March’s talk physics concepts by easy stages, going

10 History of Physics Newsletter • Volume IX, No. 1 • Fall 2003 through the steps that the scientific for were afforded the lion’s share priate and exciting thing to do at Frascati community went through historically. of prestige and resources. In the late 1950s, would be to store electrons and positrons Research in physics education (and the promise of FFAG (Fixed-Field Alternat- in the same magnetic lattice and cause them Cassidy emphasized that we must pay ing Gradient) machines for achieving to collide. Throughout the experimental attention to this research) shows that we collisions seemed just over the world, the culture of high energy particle cannot completely shield our students from horizon. The high-energy establishment in physics was dominated by the use of “wrong” ideas about physics concepts, for the United States generally had little inter- protons for probing the nature of matter. two reasons: first, these students come to est in the alternative idea of storage rings, However, as one of his collaborators later us with “wrong” natural philosophies of which were being championed by a young recalled, Touschek considered protons to their own already in place; second, in Princeton physicist named Gerry O’Neill. be “hooligans,” and much preferred working physics problems of any complex- Thus, despite his best efforts, O’Neill failed electrons, which he reportedly considered ity, students will tend to cycle through all in his quest to obtain a suitable proton “gentle probes.” possible “wrong” ideas along the way to a injector for testing his design. Hence, he So, armed with an electron machine and solution. The research shows that ignoring eventually looked to electrons to provide a a theorist’s convincing affinity for the these misconceptualizations will not make less-expensive, less-complicated proving beauty of electron-positron annihilations, them go away. Instead, we must help ground. The move took him to the 500 MeV Frascati began its road to electron-positron students to confront these incorrect ideas, linear electron accelerator at Stanford colliders, beginning with the small storage explicitly, and overcome them; and University’s High Energy Physics Labora- ring, AdA (Annello di Accumulazione) and studying the history of how the scientific tory under the direction of Wolfgang later bearing full fruit with the large-scale community overcame similar errors in the Panofsky. There he met a young post-doc ring, Adone. past is of the greatest help in this endeavor. named . Thrown together as The next speaker was former Cambridge In conclusion, a strong case was made a result of O’Neill’s rejection by a proton- Electron Accelerator Laboratory researcher for the use of historical materials in centered establishment, it was at Stanford and current SLAC professor emeritus John teaching physics, and a wealth of useful that the storage ring idea first coupled with Rees, who picked up on the American story suggestions for carrying out this program electron aficionados to produce actual where Paris had left off. In “The CEA were provided. hardware for the United States – in the form Bypass Project and SPEAR”, Rees of the electron-electron Princeton-Stanford discussed the fierce competition that The Development of collider. This, along with an Italian ensued in the early to mid-1960s as both Electron-Positron Colliders. physicist’s realization of the possibilities CEA and SLAC vied for the right to for electron-positron annihilations, would construct the United States’ first electron- APS April Meeting, lead to the US adventures in electron- positron collider. Eventually the Atomic Philadelphia, 6 April 2003. positron colliders, the subject of the Energy Commission appointed a commit- Report by Elizabeth Paris (U of session’s second talk. tee, headed by L. Jackson Laslett, to Chicago & Argonne) and Ronald Ruth Across the Atlantic, the Italians had decide between the two proposals. When (SLAC) been busy. Wanting to regain their promi- the committee chose SLAC, CEA found This invited session, co-organized by nence in physics as quickly as possible itself “severely handicapped” but FHP and the Division of Physics of Beams, after World War II, some members of the responded with several new discoveries chronicled fifty years of electron-positron remaining community had organized in and innovations including the idea of “low machines in the United States and Europe. order both to take part in the creation of beta” sections and an elaborate, multi-stage As a substitute for scheduled chair Andy what was to become CERN as well as to injection scheme. These provided a means Sessler, who was unable to attend, Ronald build their own national laboratory. With by which the laboratory could turn its Ruth (SLAC), who proposed the joint the expense and innovation in high-energy existing electron synchrotron into a session, stepped in to keep all parties proton machines allotted to the CERN “synchrotron-storage ring hybrid with a relaxed and engaged. collaboration, they felt compelled, both worthwhile luminosity,” a project known as The session opened with an historical politically and economically, to initiate a the CEA Bypass . SLAC, meanwhile, talk from Elizabeth Paris (U of Chicago and program that would be exciting, relatively submitted proposals for a purpose-built Argonne) concerning “The Birth of inexpensive, swift to begin, and complemen- ring year after year without obtaining Lepton Colliders in Italy and the United tary to (rather than competitive with) the funding. Finally, in 1969, SLAC redesigned States.” Paris proceeded to argue that research that would be taking place at their proposed machine to contain two origins of lepton colliders can be traced to CERN. Hence, they had built themselves asymmetric rings at a less costly location, protons, proton physics, and proton an electron synchrotron, locating it in a with reduced energy in each beam and physicists. The argument was not one of grape-producing region near Frascati, just cheaper buildings. The new proposal was technical evolution, but historical contin- outside of Rome. The 1.1 GeV synchrotron christened SPEAR (Stanford Positron gency. She related how the succession of was completed in 1959. Meetings ensued Electron Asymmetric Rings). Then, SLAC accelerators meant to achieve the highest to decide on the next major direction for the went on to eliminate one ring entirely, possible center-of-mass energies had laboratory. leaving a single asymmetric ring and the focused on protons in such a way that, At one such gathering in February, 1960, possibility of adding a second one later if when ideas surfaced for colliding beams, University of Rome physicist Bruno money became available. Although there the magnetic configurations most suitable Touschek suggested that the most appro- was still no construction money, the

History of Physics Newsletter • Volume IX, No. 1 • Fall 2003 11 lowered cost made the project feasible The main goal for PETRA was achieving stability problems for the linear accelerator through use of equipment funds. The only high luminosity by utilizing exceptionally were the biggest surprise and challenge. further significant design change was the low beta and by controlling the beam Here Richter related a vivid analogy to overcoming of problems created by the emittance. The design used a multi-cell illustrate the problem for a linear collider: asymmetry. Thus “SPEAR” was no longer radiofrequency system and attempted to consider stretching mechanical pencil leads “asymmetric,” but the old name stuck and reduce as much as possible the cross to half a meter. Then, shoot one from is still usually capitalized by practitioners section changes in the ring. The accelera- Denver and one from Chicago, and force a to this day. Spear achieved its first tor technology and beam physics develop- head-on collision to occur over the collisions on April 28, 1972. ments achieved at PETRA (and its sister Mississippi River. Every time. Of course, During these years CEA struggled with collider, PEP, at SLAC) formed the many specific challenges were discussed its Bypass, a struggle Rees once character- foundation for Europe’s next – and the as well. One particular example, which ized as “the Book of Job of the accelerator world’s largest – circular collider, LEP. engendered a highly counter-intuitive builders.” It eventually began running Indeed, the innovations paid numerous solution in the case of the SLC and arose collision experiments for physics in 1971 dividends for CERN’s large ring, amongst again in the question period, involved wake with a few milliamps of current at 2 GeV and whose technical achievements was a one fields: since such fields are proportional to a luminosity around 1028. Although shut kiloamp peak current. Hofmann recounted the beam intensity, reducing the intensity down after a couple of years, it was able to how LEP’s energies were chosen for actually increased the beam density and obtain measurements of the R-ratio specific experiments and that the choice the luminosity by permitting a decreased (number of events with hadrons vs. paid dividends in the creation of Z0 cross section at the interaction point. The number of muon-pair events) at energies of particles, among others. He related the Stanford SLC project provided a testing 2 GeV and 2.5 GeV per beam. Spear, once it struggles at LEP for more luminosity and ground for accelerator techniques and began to operate, measured the R-ratio at finer energy resolution in the face of errors technology with an eye towards the hoped- energies between 1.5 GeV and 2.5 GeV per such as flux loops and lunar gravitational for, larger, purpose-built machine. Muon beam, and its measurements ran right effects. One story in particular recounted background problems were solved through through the CEA points. Spear’s results the “dirty effect” of the French Geneva- deflection by cheap, solid iron magnets, and would soon generate a share of the Nobel Paris train whose 500V and high currents stability problems in the linac were prize awarded for the discovery of the J/psi were creating a circuit which included LEP addressed with help from laboratories particle. Spear still operates today as a and a local river! He noted, however, that worldwide, including a great deal from the synchrotron light source. the 15 kV, 15 Hz Swiss trains had presented Russian laboratory at Novosibirsk. Albert Hofmann, a veteran of CEA, no problems. (Hofmann is Swiss.) Although the SLC initially had enormous SLAC, and now retired from CERN, The last speaker of the afternoon was problems with large beam cross-sections, a recounted the second generation of former SLAC director Burt Richter whose task force was formed to attack the electron-positron storage rings – this time more forward-looking talk laid out back- difficulty. In the early running of the SLC across the Atlantic – in “Colliders Come of ground and plans for an international 500 the beam cross section was more than three Age in Europe: PETRA and LEP.” He GeV electron-positron linear collider, times the original design. The solutions enumerated the many technical and design building on experiences with the hybrid which were discovered throughout the advances achieved through DESY’s work Stanford Linear Collider. In “The First mid-1990s reduced the cross section to a on PETRA, its second major project in this Linear Collider,” Richter spoke of the third of the original design, creating a huge area (after its first collider, DORIS). He struggle to build an international collabo- boost for the linear collider cause. (See characterized this generation of storage ration for the machine, a machine whose figure at left.) rings as aiming at optimization and scaling. origins he traced back as far as a 1965 Just as the first physics results were article by Maury Tigner in Nuovo Cimento coming in from the SLC in 1989, the effort and whose energy recovery scheme towards a much larger linear collider began Richter noted as being reinvented by Ugo in earnest with a sequence of workshops Amaldi in Physics Letters in 1976. He aimed at stimulating the development of the recalled a 1972 meeting in Switzerland in necessary physics and technology for the σ σ which G. I. Budker may have discussed collider. Although SLAC, DESY, and the x * Y linear colliders, and failed efforts by him- Japanese laboratory, KEK, had signed an self and others to make LEP a US-European interlab memorandum of understanding, collaboration. He recalled the ICFA hopes for the large collider in 1993 were (International Committee for Future delayed seven or eight years. The project, σ Y Accelerators) meeting at Fermilab in 1978 initially termed the Next Linear Collider x σ

σ x * at which a few members were considering (NLC), became associated with the United Y σ electron-positron linear colliders in addition States. Richter pointed to a “mistake” in to the abundant discussion of a very large socio-political tactics. Different labs worked proton accelerator. on specific questions, and each In exploring the linear collider idea into technology got a local label. What should the 1980s and beyond, Richter reported that have been done, he lamented, was to locate

12 History of Physics Newsletter • Volume IX, No. 1 • Fall 2003 10-15 individuals from each laboratory into had appeared prominently on the two-hour 100 in the audience. other laboratories, thus uniting the effort. PBS miniseries about him that aired the Franklin spoke on the topic “Where Today, according to Richter, there is world previous fall, Claude-Anne Lopez of Yale Are The Neutrinos? The Early History of consensus for a single 500 MeV linear and Dudley Herschbach of Harvard. the Solar Problem.” He collider. The ICFA technical review is Having organized and then pored through discussed the early experiments whose re- complete, and an OECD (Organization for the Franklin Archives for decades, and also sults led to the “solar neutrino problem,” Economic Co-operation and Development) published several books about him the fact that the observed number of solar Global Science Forum has been held on (including Benjamin Franklin and the neutrinos was far less than that predicted how to structure the laboratory. The Ladies of Paris, ooh-la-la!), Lopez was well by the Standard Solar Model. These projected price tag was quoted at “a mere 5 suited to talk, in her lecture “At the Dawn included the Homestake Mine experiment billion.” By the end of 2004, reported of Science,” about his personal side and of Davis and collaborators and the later Richter, the high energy physics relationships with such famous French SAGE, GALLEX, and Kamiokonde experi- community will have to have chosen a scientists as Antoine Lavoisier.Herschbach, ments. He began by briefly discussing the technology and a site for its new machine. who had just given the APS Public Lecture early history of the neutrino, including the Also worth noting from the session as on a similar subject the previous (Sunday) experiments that led to its suggestion by a whole, the contributions from Gersh evening, focused on Franklin’s scientific Pauli, the early indirect evidence for it, and Budker and the innovative laboratory in activities, especially his experiments on the first experimental demonstration of its Novosibirsk were cited by both speakers electricity, in “Ben Franklin: A existence by Reines and Cowan. and discussants. Although none of the talks Curiosity-Driven Scientist, a Service- Bahcall, whose talk was titled “History specifically addressed this subject, Driven Citizen.” of the Solar Neutrino Problem: A Novosibirsk’s efforts were often recognized The third speaker, James McClellan of Theoretical Perspective,” related the as providing a large portion of the earliest Stevens Institute of Technology, took a theoretical history of the problem, includ- and of the most important work concerning much more critical approach. The only card- ing the extensive work that he and collabo- electron-electron and electron-positron carrying historian in the session, he argued rators did in exploring the extent of colliders. that Franklin’s scientific activities were freedom allowed by plausible modifications being exaggerated by scientists-turned- of the standard solar model. These studies Benjamin Franklin, Civic historians trying to using his exemplary life did much to establish that the “solar to promote their own current agendas. neutrino problem” was a real problem. Scientist. APS April Unfortunately, many of the audience of “The Homestake Solar Meeting, Philadelphia, 7 more than a hundred then began to exit the Neutrino Detector” was Lande’s title. He April 2003. hall, leaving Neal Lane to deliver his reviewed the history of the Homestake thoughtful closing talk on “The ‘Found- detector: it began operation in 1967 and Report by Michael Riordan (UC- ing Father’ of Civic Science” to a much- observed neutrinos from the Sun for over Santa Cruz) reduced group. Franklin, he noted, had long three decades. During this period the As Philadelphia is the city of brotherly ago anticipated and achieved much of what detector made the first observations of love and Benjamin Franklin, I agreed to put he (Lane) was advocating that scientists neutrinos from reactions in together an invited session on this should be doing in the public arena. (Lane’s the solar core, determined that the flux of Founding Father’s scientific interests and talk was subsequently published in solar electron neutrinos is a third of that how they influenced his better-known Physics Today, October 2003.) Hammer predicted by the standard solar model and, political activities on behalf of the nascent then closed the session with a brief com- when combined with the recent SNO American republic in the late 1700s. mentary and led a general discussion among observations, determined that the 7Be Fortunately, I was aided in this effort by the faithful who remained in the room. flux is also about a third close cooperation with Philip (“Bo”) of that predicted. He described the history Hammer, who has been Chair of the Forum of this detector, the results obtained and on Physics and Society, which cosponsored The History of Solar possible future applications of the radio- the session, and is now Vice President of Neutrinos. APS April chemical technique involved. the Franklin Center in Philadelphia. We took Meeting, Philadelphia, 8 “The Gallium Experiments” were our cue from a concept that Neal Lane had discussed by Vladimir Gavrin. In spite of enunciated and elaborated while in U.S. April 2003. great progress in the last several years in government service as Director of the Cosponsored by the Division of Nuclear solar neutrino research, at the present time National Science Foundation and then Physics and chaired by Hans Frauenfelder only the radiochemical gallium experiments Presidential Science Adviser during the (Los Alamos), the speakers included Allan are able to measure and monitor the Clinton Administration. Using Franklin as a Franklin (U of Colorado), John Bahcall low-energy part of the solar neutrino shining example, speakers explored the (Institute for Advanced Study), Kenneth spectrum. This is because they are mainly many facets of what it meant to be a Lande (U of Pennsylvania), Vladimir Gavrin sensitive to its principal component – the prominent scientist deeply involved in and (Institute for Nuclear Research, Russian flux of p-p neutrinos. The deficit of high- devoted to public service. Academy of Sciences), and Yoji Totsuka (U energy solar neutrinos compared to the Opening the session, the first two talks of Tokyo). A topic of much current interest, prediction of the standard solar model, were given by two Franklin admirers who the session was well attended, with about

History of Physics Newsletter • Volume IX, No. 1 • Fall 2003 13 discovered by the chlorine experiment and to appreciate the large scale structure of a Einstein to write that letter to President confirmed by the Kamiokande and SNO universe of superclusters and voids Roosevelt. In this talk Bederson related the experiments, has been shown by the resembles a game of snakes and ladders or difficulties Reiche experienced, first in leav- gallium experiments to extend to the low- “lose on the swings what you gain on the ing Germany and then in reestablishing his energy part of the spectrum. He briefly dis- roundabouts.” In practice, for a number of physics career in the US. He finally obtained cussed the history of SAGE and GALLEX/ decades, some people were working on an adjunct position at NYU where he served GNO, gave the general principles of the what we now think of as astronomy of the until his retirement. The role played by the gallium experiments, presented their results second half of the 20th century while renowned Emergency Committee in Aid of as well as the p-p solar neutrino flux others were simultaneously working on Displaced Foreign Scholars was discussed. derived by combined analysis of all solar distinctly 19th century astronomy. It is The particular role played by Ladenburg, neutrino experiments, and discussed the possible to argue about whether this is just who was instrumental in obtaining a small implications of the gallium results for solar a description or some sort of explanation. grant for Reiche permitting him to obtain a and neutrino physics. Incidentally, the K term (which we now call US visa, in helping many physicists leave The last talk was given by Yoji Totsuka Hubble’s constant, H) arose within stellar and occupied countries, was on “The Kamioka Experiments.” (No astronomy to describe a seemingly also described. report available.) analogous phenomenon among hot . Harry Lustig (CUNY and APS, Michael A. Day (Lebanon Valley Emeritus) asked (and answered in some History of Physics College, Annville, PA) spoke on “Rabi, measure) “Why did the Germans not Snow, and ‘The Two Cultures’.” John produce an atomic bomb?” The question Contributed Session. APS Rigden in his biography of I.I. Rabi, Rabi: has been examined and debated in books April Meeting, Philadelphia, 6 Scientist and Citizen (1987, 2000 with a new and articles by physicists and historians of April 2003. preface) includes an intriguing footnote science for the past half century. Since 2000, concerning Rabi’s influence on C. P. Snow. the controversy has been heightened by This was another successful contrib- According to the footnote, when Snow and Michael Frayn’s play . Was the uted session, with six history talks. The first his son were visiting the Rabis in New York reason for the failure that Werner was “Elmer Samuel Imes” by Ronald E. City, Rabi’s wife heard Snow tell his son Heisenberg, the leader of Germany’s Mickens (Clark Atlanta U). Imes graduated that Rabi was “the man who gave me [Snow] Project, for moral reasons, gave from Fisk University (Nashville, TN) in 1903 the idea for the two cultures.” In this talk, incomplete and misleading information to with a BA degree in science. In 1915, he after a brief overview of Rabi’s views on the Nazis, such as withholding the knowl- also received the MS degree from Fisk. In science and society, the mutual influence edge that fissionable can be the same year, he entered the University of between Rabi and Snow is explored. On the produced in a uranium reactor? Was Michigan’s doctoral physics program where basis of chronology and an interpretation Heisenberg’s science the cause, because it he worked under the direction of Harrison of Rabi’s works (published and unpub- resulted in a critically wrong M. Randall who had just returned from lished) as well as letters between Rabi and for fission of tons instead of kilograms? Did Germany. For the next three years, Imes Snow, a case is made that Rabi could very he not make the calculation at all because investigated the infrared spectrum of well have been the man who gave Snow the he was convinced, for practical reasons, that several diatomic molecules with the particu- idea for “The Two Cultures.” a bomb couldn’t be assembled in time to be lar interest of obtaining definitive evidence “Fritz Reiche and German Refugee of use to anyone in World War II? And what that the rotational spectrum was also Scientists” was the topic for Benjamin about Hans Bethe’s assertion that Walter quantized as had been shown for vibration. Bederson (NYU). Fritz Reiche (1883-1969) Bothe’s mistake in ruling out graphite as a In 1918, Imes published his dissertation was a distinguished theoretical physicist, moderator, which obliged the Germans to results in a long article in Astrophysical a student and colleague of Wilhelm embark on the difficult, long range effort to Journal 50 (1919), 251-276. This work had a Roentgen, , Fritz Haber, Rudolf obtain enough heavy water, doomed even major impact on molecular physics. In the Ladenburg, , , Max Heisenberg’s reactor program to failure? two decades after publication, Imes’ work von Laue and other early luminaries. He was Can the different answers that have been was extensively cited in research papers and coauthor of the famous Thomas-Reiche- given to these and other questions be reviews on the rotational-vibrational Kuhn sum rule, and author of the seminal reconciled? If not, which are likely to be spectra of diatomic molecules; and, book The Quantum Theory, first published correct and which should be abandoned? discussions of this work and Imes’ in 1920. He was one of the last Jewish The talk gave a progress report on this precision spectrum of HCl would be physicists to leave Germany during the Nazi investigation. incorporated into the standard textbooks period, in 1941. In his book Heisenberg’s Margaret McMahan and David Clark on . This presentation War, Thomas Powers relates that Reiche (Lawrence Berkeley National Lab) spoke on examined issues related to Imes’ family back- bore news of German work on nuclear “Lawrence’s Legacy: Seaborg’s ground, the reaction to his research, his fission, in a message from Friedrich – The 88-Inch Cyclotron Turns 40.” In 1958, career, and later life. Houtermans to Wigner and others in Sputnik had recently been launched by the Virginia Trimble (U of Maryland) Princeton, where Reiche lived in Einstein’s Russians, leading to worry in Congress and spoke on “Emergence of Cosmic Structure: home during the summer of 1941. Reiche’s increased funding for science and technol- The First Two Centuries of the First Two son Hans later claimed that this incident ogy. was director of the Eons.” The process by which we have come played a significant role in convincing “Rad Lab” at Berkeley. Another Nobel Prize

14 History of Physics Newsletter • Volume IX, No. 1 • Fall 2003 winner, Glenn Seaborg, was Associate beautiful facility surrounded by spacious “What is a Particle?” and Robert M. Wald Laboratory Director and Director of the grounds with many trails for hiking and (Chicago) speaking on “The Non-Unique- Nuclear Chemistry Division. In this bird-watching. Its idyllic setting and superb ness of the Vacuum.” On Saturday atmosphere, Lawrence was phoned by cuisine make it an ideal location for small morning, May 10, this topic continued with commissioners of the Atomic Energy Com- meetings. Its owner, Lee Gohlike, is the Vijay Balasubramanian (Pennsylvania) mission and asked what they could do for founder of the Seven Pines Symposium. speaking on “The Nature of the Vacuum in Seaborg, “because he did such a fine job of Unlike the typical conference, the talks String Theory.” The general topic then setting up the chemistry for extracting are limited to 30 minutes, twice as much time became “Dark Energy and the Cosmologi- plutonium from spent reactor fuel” [1]. In is devoted to discussions following the cal Constant,” with Sean Carroll (Chicago) this informal way, the 90-Inch (eventually talks, and long mid-day breaks permit small speaking on “The Energy of the Vacuum 88-Inch) Cyclotron became a line item in the groups to assemble at will. As preparation State” and, in the afternoon, John Earman federal budget at a cost of $3M (later for the talks and discussions, the speakers (Pittsburgh) speaking on “History of the increased to $5M). prepare summarizing statements and Cosmological Constant” and P. James E. The 88-Inch Cyclotron achieved first background reading materials that are Peebles (Princeton) speaking on “The Dark internal beam on Dec. 12, 1961 and first distributed in advance to all of the partici- Energy Problem.” The closing discussion external beam in May 1962. Forty years later pants. Twenty-one prominent historians, on Sunday morning, May 11, was chaired it is still going strong. Pieced together from philosophers, and physicists were invited by Roger H. Stuewer (Minnesota). interviews with the retirees who built it, Rad to participate in this year’s symposium. Lee Gohlike, the founder of the Seven Lab reports and archives from the Seaborg Each day the speakers set the stage for Pines Symposium, has had a life-long and Lawrence collections, the story of its the discussions by addressing major interest in the history and philosophy of design and construction – on-time and historical, philosophical, and physical physics, which he has furthered through under-budget – provides a glimpse into the issues related to the concept of the vacuum graduate studies at the Universities of early days of . in physics. After an introduction on the Minnesota and Chicago. To plan the [1] remarks made by Elmer Kelly, goals of the Seven Pines Symposium by annual symposia, he established an “Physicist-in-charge” of the project on the Lee Gohlike, the morning and afternoon of advisory board consisting of Roger H. occasion of the 40th anniversary celebration. Thursday, May 8, were devoted to the Stuewer (Minnesota), Chair, Jed Z. general topic of “Early Views on the Buchwald (Caltech), John Earman The Seven Pines Symposium Vacuum,” with Don Howard (Notre Dame) (Pittsburgh), Geoffrey Hellman (Minnesota), speaking on “From the Pre-Socratics to Don Howard (Notre Dame), Alan E. Shapiro by Roger H. Stuewer (U of Minnesota) Newton,” Anne J. Kox (Amsterdam) (Minnesota), and Robert M. Wald The Seven Pines Symposium is speaking on “Lorentz and the Ether,” and (Chicago). Also participating in the seventh dedicated to bringing leading historians, Simon Saunders (Oxford) speaking on annual Seven Pines Symposium were Babak philosophers, and physicists together for “Dirac and the Negative Energy Sea.” The Ashrafi (MIT), Laurie M. Brown (Northwest- several days in a collaborative effort to morning and afternoon of Friday, May 9, ern), Michel Janssen (Minnesota), Jürgen probe and clarify significant foundational were devoted to the general topic of “The Renn (Berlin), Serge Rudaz (Minnesota), issues in physics, as they have arisen in Nature of the Vacuum State,” with Ian J.R. Laura M. Ruetsche (Pittsburgh), and Henrik the past and continue to challenge our Aitchison (Oxford) speaking on “Properties Zinkernagel (Granada). understanding today. of the Vacuum State in Quantum Field The eighth annual Seven Pines The seventh annual Seven Pines Theory,” Philip Stamp (British Columbia) Symposium will be held May 5-9, 2004, on the Symposium was held May 7-11, 2003, on speaking on “Structure of the Ground State subject, “Quantum Mechanics, Quantum the subject, “The Concept of the Vacuum in ,” William G. Information, and Quantum Computation.” in Physics.” It was held in the Outing Lodge Unruh (British Columbia) speaking on at Pine Point near Stillwater, Minnesota, a Forum News

FHP Sessions planned for organized by Robert Romer; Physics in by Joel Primack; and History of the the March and “April” 2004 Industrial Laboratories, organized by Mössbauer Effect, organized by Catherine Chetan Nayak and William Brinkman; Westfall. These sessions promise very APS Meetings Monolayers and Multilayers, organized by interesting discussions, as can be seen by FHP will sponsor and/or co-sponsor Charles Knobler. The invited speakers, the invited speakers’ titles below. some interesting sessions on the history their titles and scheduled times are given The History of Physics in Canada: of physics at the March and April 2004 below. There are also three sessions at the Some Highlights (2:30-5:30pm on Mon. APS meetings. At the March meeting, to “April” meeting, to be held May 1-4 in March 22). Geoffrey W. Rayner: “Harriet be held March 22-26 in Montreal, there are Denver. They are: The Discovery of Black Brooks: Canada’s First Woman Physicist.” three sessions: Holes, organized by Virginia Trimble; Allan Griffin: “McLennan, Allen and Physics in Canada: Some Highlights, Scientists Advising Government, organized Misener: Low temperature physics at

History of Physics Newsletter • Volume IX, No. 1 • Fall 2003 15 Toronto,” Boris P. Stoicheff: “Gerhard Contributed papers for the The first selection committee will be Herzberg and The Temple of Science,” Eric “April” 2004 meeting – Call chaired by Roger H. Stuewer (U of C. Svensson: “Physics at Chalk River.” Minnesota) and other members are Allan Physics in Industrial Laboratories for Papers D. Franklin (U of Colorado), Lillian (8-11am, Tues. March 23), co-sponsored FHP invites scholars to present papers Hoddeson (U of Illinois), Anne J. Kox (U of with Forum on Physics and Society. Roland at the APS annual meeting which will be Amsterdam), and Spencer R. Weart (AIP). Schmitt: “The History of Physics at G.E. held May 1-4, 2004 in Denver, Colorado. The first award will be conferred in 2005. Laboratories,” Phillip Anderson: “The Graduate students, young scholars and Nominations are due by 1 May 2004 and History of Physics at Bell Laboratories,” non-APS members are especially encour- should be sent to Stuewer. For further Allen Fowler: “The History of Physics at aged to attend; the APS meeting itself information, see the website of the APS IBM T.J. Watson Laboratories,” Jennifer provides an opportunity to meet notable Forum on History of Physics, www.aps.org/ Chayes: “Physics at Microsoft Research.” scientists and science managers. History units/fhp/pais. Monolayers and Multilayers: Agnes talks are allowed twice the usual time for The Pais award will usually be given to Pockels and Katharine Blodgett (8-11am contributed papers: 20 + 4 minutes. a single person but no more than three on Wed. March 24), co-sponsored with the Funding may be available to defray costs individuals and is open to scholars of all Committee on the Status of Women in of travel and registration fees, especially nationalities. Physics. Christiane Helm: “Agnes Pockels: for graduate students. For the past two years, an award Life, Letters and Papers,” Charles Knobler: The deadline for abstract submissions establishment committee has been working “100 Years of Monolayers at the Air/Water is January 9, 2004. Scholars who wish to on both the concept and the fundraising. Interface: Agnes Pockels’ ...,” Katharine give papers that present the history of The initial goal of $100,000 to establish an Gebbie: “Katharine B. Blodgett: Aunt, physics and its interaction with culture, endowment has been exceeded. A major Friend and Physicist,” Daniel Schwartz: “70 education, and physics research should contribution came from John and Elizabeth Years of Built-Up Films: Katharine contact Patrick McCray (pmccray@history. Armstrong, who gave $30,000 outright and Blodgett’s Scientific Legacy.” ucsb.edu). This should be done well before provided another $30,000 in matching funds The Discovery of Black Holes (2:30- the January deadline to ensure proper to challenge other donors. Fundraising to 5:30pm on Sat. May 1) co-sponsored with submission of abstracts via the APS’s new cover travel expenses and to perhaps raise the Division of Astrophysics. Werner web-based system. Non-APS members who the amount of the award is continuing, Israel: “Theoretical Considerations and wish to present papers are welcome and according to Benjamin Bederson, who Deep History,” Omer Blaes: “Active arrangements will be made on an chairs the award establishment committee. Galactic Nuclei,” Jeffrey McClintock: “Black individual basis to help with the abstract Other members are Stephen G. Brush (U of Hole X-Ray Binaries,” Fulvio Melia: “The submission process. Additional information Maryland), Gloria B. Lubkin (AIP), Harry Black Hole in the Milky Way,” M. Coleman about the APS and its meetings is at Lustig (APS Treasurer Emeritus), Michael Miller: “And All the Rest (Primordial, www.aps.org. Riordan (Stanford and UC-Santa Cruz), Intermediate, and Orphan Black Holes).” Stuewer, and Weart. Science Advising (8-11a on Tuesday, Abraham Pais Award for May 4) co-sponsored with Forum on Call for Nominations for FHP Physics and Society. Gregg Herken: History of Physics “Presidential Science Advising from the The American Physical Society and the Officers Atomic Bomb to SDI,” Wolfgang Panofsky: American Institute of Physics have estab- Nominations are invited for Forum “Science Advising Successes and Fail- lished a major new award, the Abraham Pais officers to be elected in early 2004 for terms ures,” D. Allan Bromley: “The President’s Award for the History of Physics, which beginning immediately following the Scientists: Reminiscences of a White House will recognize outstanding scholarly Executive Committee meeting in April, or for Science Advisor,” Jack Gibbons: achievements in the history of physics. A future elections. Offices that will be open “Advising Congress and the President,” renowned theoretical particle physicist and in 2004 are Vice-Chair, Secretary-Treasurer, Joel Primack: “The Congressional Science historian of physics, Pais died in July 2000. and two Members-at-Large of the Execu- Fellow Program and Other Efforts to Help Among historians, he is best known for his tive Committee. In 2005 nominations will be Congress and the Public Make Wiser book Subtle is the Lord: The Science and needed for Vice-Chair, Forum Councillor, and Decisions on Technology.” the Life of Albert Einstein, which won the two Members-at-Large of the Executive Mössbauer Spectroscopy: Various His- 1983 American Book Award in Science. Committee. Send nominations to the chair torical Perspectives. John Schiffer: “The The award will be given annually and of the Forum Nominating Committee: Hans Beginnings of the Iron Age,” Hans consists of $5,000, a certificate citing the Frauenfelder ([email protected]). Frauenfelder: “Early Developments at the recipient’s contributions to the history of University of Illinois,” Catherine Westfall: physics, and funds to travel to an APS APS Fellow Nominations “Between Basic and Applied: Forty-five meeting to receive the award and deliver an Robert Romer is chair of the Forum’s Years of Mössbauer Spectroscopy,” Hollis invited talk on the history of physics. The Fellowship Committee for 2003-04. Any Wickman: “Mössbauer Hyperfine Relax- award is the first to be established Forum members who wish to nominate a ation Phenomena: From Berkeley to ....” specifically for the history of physics.

16 History of Physics Newsletter • Volume IX, No. 1 • Fall 2003 candidate for Fellow in APS are invited to January 2004. Spencer R. Weart, Director History of Physics.” Minutes have been send him their suggestion(s), along with a of the AIP Center for History of Physics posted on the FHP web site. c.v. and letter describing the candidate’s ([email protected]), and the Newsletter Electronic meetings of the Executive achievements in history of physics. Send Editor serve as ex officio members of the Committee were held in June, July, suggestions to Robert Romer, Department of Executive Committee. September, and October, 2003. In these Physics, Amherst College, Amherst MA Many thanks to Hans Frauenfelder, Los meetings the Executive Committee approved 01002; 413-542-2258; rhromer@amherst. edu. Alamos National Laboratory (frauenfelder the Pais Award Committee, confirmed the @lanl.gov), for his good work as Chair organization of a Committee on Historic FHP Website during 2002-2003, and to Ben Bederson, Physics Sites, approved an FHP nomination Department of Physics (Emeritus), New York for APS fellowship, approved a policy on FHP officers have been working to keep University ([email protected]), for support for speakers at FHP-sponsored the FHP Web site (www.aps.org/units/fhp) his continued help as Past Chair during invited sessions, and approved the up to date and to expand its coverage. 2002-2003. Thanks also to retiring members appointment of a new Newsletter Editor to Comments from members who find errors Elizabeth Urey Baranger, U of Pittsburg, take office in January 2004. or want to suggest additional material would and Michael E. Fisher, U of Maryland at be welcome, and should be sent to the FHP College Park, and Per F. Dahl, Lawrence Forum Committees Secretary/Treasurer, Ken Ford, kwford@ Berkeley National Laboratory (Emeritus) for verizon.net. their work on the Executive Committee For 2003-04, the Standing Committees of during the past years. the Forum are: Forum Officers Program Committee: Nina Byers (chair), Laurie Brown, David Goodstein, Patrick Michael Riordan, UC-Santa Cruz Executive Committee McCrea, Cheten Nayak, Robert Romer, Ken ([email protected]), became Chair The annual meeting of the Executive Com- Ford (ex officio), and Michael Riordan in April 2003 at the end of Hans Frauen- mittee was held on April 4, 2003, at the APS (ex officio) felder’s term. Nina Byers, UCLA (nbyers@ April Meeting in Philadelphia. It was chaired Nominating Committee: Hans Frauen- physics.ucla.edu), became Chair-Elect and by Hans Frauenfelder, who thanked the many felder (chair), Gordon Kane, Martin Klein, will succeed to Chair in May 2004. Robert Forum members who helped make the 2002- Gloria Lubkin, Elizabeth Paris Romer, Amherst College (rhromer@ 2003 activities successful. The Program Com- Fellowship Committee: Robert Romer amherst.edu), was elected Vice Chair and mittee, led by Michael Riordan, planned an (chair), Nina Byers, Elizabeth Paris, will succeed to Chair-Elect in May 2004. outstanding complement of sessions this year, Dan Siegel Patrick McCray, Center for History of as reported in this Newsletter. FHP member- Membership Committee: Ken Ford (chair), Physics, AIP ([email protected]), was ship has been holding steady at about 3,000 Bill Evenson, Dan Greenberger elected to fill Per Dahl’s unexpired term for the past 6 years. Participation in the elec- Award Committee: Ben Bederson (chair), which ends in April 2005. Gerald Holton, tion was about average at 7.5%. Although Stephen Brush, Gloria Lubkin, Harry Lustig, Harvard ([email protected]), there were exceptional expenses associated Michael Riordan, Roger Stuewer, Spencer and Michael Nauenberg, UC Santa Cruz, with FHP programs of about $3,000 beyond Weart ([email protected]) were elected to income for the year, FHP remains in good fi- Award Selection Committee: Roger H. three-year terms on the Executive nancial condition, with a small but adequate Stuewer (chair), Allan D. Franklin, Lillian Committee. Their terms end in April 2006. reserve fund. The FHP web site has been Hoddeson, Anne J. Kox, Spencer R. Weart Continuing members of the Executive updated and improved. Members are invited Editorial Board and Publications Committee are Daniel M. Greenberger, to visit the site at www.aps.org/units/fhp. The Committee: Bill Evenson (chair), Laurie CCNY ([email protected]), and Elizabeth Program Committee established a subcommit- Brown, Ken Ford, Dan Greenberger, Michael Paris, Argonne National Laboratory tee to encourage more contributed Riordan, Spencer Weart ([email protected]), whose terms expire in papers in history of physics, especially from May 2004. Daniel Siegel, U of Wisconsin young scholars, at future meetings. The World World Year of Physics 2005. ([email protected]) continues a Year of Physics 2005 was discussed with a term that ends in April 2005. view to FHP participation in the activities See www.physics2005.org for information Kenneth Ford, retired Executive planned by APS. FHP will assist Alan Chodos about plans for the upcoming World Year of Director of AIP ([email protected]), (APS Associate Executive Officer) with the Physics 2005 and how to participate. FHP, continues as Secretary-Treasurer until May identification and labeling of physics historic along with APS as a whole, will be major 2004. Gloria Lubkin, Physics Today sites in America. Michael Riordan will partici- participants. ([email protected]), continues as Forum pate on a committee considering the creation Councillor until December 2005. Bill of a “virtual journal” to reprint papers from Request for Information Evenson, Brigham Young U (evenson@ APS journals that led to Nobel prizes. The about Memorial Sessions for byu.edu), as Newsletter Editor, will hand Award Committee, chaired by Ben Bederson, over this assignment to Ben Bederson, reported the success of their fund raising so Prominent Physicists Department of Physics (Emeritus), New York far and the approval by the APS Executive When readers of this Newsletter hear University ([email protected]), in Board of the name, “Abraham Pais Award for of memorial sessions being planned to

History of Physics Newsletter • Volume IX, No. 1 • Fall 2003 17 honor prominent physicists, please notify be able to notify others in the history of phys- York, NY 10003; [email protected]. Ben Bederson, Editor of the History of ics community and gather records of the Spencer Weart: Center for History of Physics Newsletter, and Spencer Weart, physicist’s life as appropriate. Physics, American Institute of Physics, One Director of the AIP Center for History of Ben Bederson: Department of Physics, Physics Ellipse, College Park, MD 20740; Physics, at the addresses below. We want to New York University, 4 Washington Place, New [email protected]. APS AND AIP NEWS

Historic Physics Sites in two pages describing your research project, History Center’s mission is to help preserve America and a brief budget showing the expenses and make known the history of modern for which support is requested to: Spencer Several suggestions have been made for physics and allied fields, and the grant Weart, Center for History of Physics, the project to identify and label/memorial- program is intended to help support American Institute of Physics, One ize historic physics sites in America. Those significant work to make original sources Physics Ellipse, College Park, MD 20740, working on this project are looking for accessible to researchers. Preference will 301-209-3174, fax: 301-209 0882,sweart further suggestions in order to have a fairly accordingly be given to medium-size or @aip.org. comprehensive list as a starting point from larger projects for which the grant will be which to begin the process of making matched by the parent organization or other History of Physics Syllabi on the selections and addressing the logistical sources. For information about the 2004 Internet – Call for Syllabi. As an aid to (and possibly financial) problems associ- program, see www.aip.org/history/ teaching and studying the history of ated with this project. FHP members are grntann.htm or contact Joe Anderson, physics, and as an introduction to the vast urged to send suggestions to Alan Chodos, Center for History of Physics, American literature in the field, the AIP Center for APS Associate Executive Officer, The Institute of Physics, One Physics Ellipse, History of Physics has put together a American Physical Society, One Physics College Park, MD 20740; fax 301-209-0882; collection of syllabi. With the kind Ellipse, College Park, MD 20740-3844, [email protected]. permission of their authors, sample syllabi [email protected]. are exhibited on the Internet at New Web / CD Materials Teach www.aip.org/history/syllabi/. They feature Science with Firsthand Accounts of AIP Center for History of courses taught at a variety of universities, Discoveries. A new Web exhibit, “Moments Physics including “Scientific Revolutions,” of Discovery,” uses the actual voices of Grants-in-Aid for History of Modern “History of Modern Physics,” “Nuclear leading scientists to explore how major Physics and Allied Fields (Astronomy, Age,” “Science after WWII,” and discoveries are made, teaching some Geophysics, etc.). NEW DEADLINES for “Historical Experimentation.” If you are science along the way. The material is receipt of applications: APRIL 15 and teaching a course on the history of physics designed for classroom use (with NOVEMBER 15 of each year. or a related science such as astronomy, presentation and discussion taking one or The Center for History of Physics of please visit the site and send your two days), but is also suitable for individual the American Institute of Physics has a comments. And please send a copy of your study. It is the latest addition to the award- program of grants-in-aid for research in the syllabus or reading list, in any paper or winning online “Exhibit Hall” of the Center history of modern physics and allied electronic format, to Spencer Weart, for History of Physics of the American sciences (such as astronomy, geophysics, [email protected]. Institute of Physics, www.aip.org/history/ and optics) and their social interactions. exhibit.htm, and is also available on Grants can be up to $2,500 each. They can AIP Center for History of Physics CD-ROM. Extensive Teachers’ Guides are be used only to reimburse direct expenses Grants to Archives. The Center for History included to help instructors use the connected with the work. Preference will be of Physics of the American Institute of modules, chiefly in science courses at the given to those who need part of the funds Physics has a regular program of Grants to secondary-school or beginning college for travel and subsistence to use the re- Archives. The grants are intended to make level. sources of the Center’s Library accessible records, papers, and other One of the exhibit’s two modules, “The in College Park, Maryland (easily accessible primary sources which document the Discovery of Fission,” weaves together from Washington, DC), or to microfilm pa- history of modern physics and allied fields excerpts from oral history interviews and pers or to tape-record oral history interviews (such as astronomy, geophysics, and other tape recordings of the voices of Albert with a copy deposited in the Library. Appli- optics). Grants can be used only to cover Einstein, , , Enrico cants should either be working toward a direct expenses connected with preserving, Fermi, and many others, in a professionally graduate degree in the history of science inventorying, arranging, describing, or narrated story of the historical turning-point (in which case they should include a letter cataloging appropriate collections. when nuclear energy first came into view. It of reference from their thesis adviser), or Expenses may include acid-free storage ma- emphasizes the social process: how an odd show a record of publication in the field. To terials and staff salary/benefits but not over- phenomenon was glimpsed by experiment- apply, send a vitae, a letter of no more than head or other indirect costs. The AIP ers, tentatively explained by theorists, and

18 History of Physics Newsletter • Volume IX, No. 1 • Fall 2003 confirmed around the world. The other represents the first systematic investigation 2004-2005 APS/AIP module, “A Pulsar Discovery,” focuses on of records-keeping practices and needs in Congressional Science a few days of intellectual ferment. A high-tech industry. The project got under- narration by physicist-educator Philip way in November 2002 and field work Fellowship Programs Morrison is interwoven with excerpts from began in March 2003. The study is a The American Institute of Physics and tape-recorded interviews with the two continuation in an especially complex area the American Physical Society are now astronomers who first detected a pulsar in of the Center’s ongoing work to develop seeking applicants for the 2004-2005 ordinary light. Students can witness the strategies for saving hard-to-preserve Congressional Science Fellowships. Spend moment of discovery itself, for during that records in physics and allied fields. a year providing S&T expertise to Congress. night at the telescope, the two young Approximately one-third of all the physi- Application deadline: January 15, 2004. scientists happened to run a tape recorder, cists in the U.S. today are employed in Send all materials to: APS and AIP Congres- and it preserved their excitement and their industry, and the country’s economic sional Science Fellowship Programs, c/o arguments as they struggled to find out if dominance rests on a brilliant century of Jackie Beamon-Kiene, APS Executive Office, what they were seeing was real. corporate research and innovation. One Physics Ellipse, College Park, MD Users with slow internet connections Industrial R&D is, however, one of the least 20740-3844. For more information, call who wish to hear the voices without documented areas in our society. 301-209-3094 (AIP); 301-209-3269 (APS) or tedious delays can get both modules at cost The study’s key activities will consist visit www.aip.org/pubinfo or www.aps.org/ on a CD-ROM. “Moments of Discovery” of interviews with more than 100 corporate public_affairs/fellow. may be viewed at www.aip.org/history/mod scientists and R&D managers at IBM, Xerox, (where there is also information on how to General Electric, Kodak and 11 other 2004-2005 AIP State purchase the CD-ROM, or you can write to: high-tech corporations; interviews with Moments of Discovery, Center for History archivists and records managers respon- Department Science of Physics, One Physics Ellipse, College sible for industrial records in the U.S. and Fellowship Program Park, MD 20740 USA). abroad; and records surveys to identify This fellowship program represents an extant corporate records, laboratory opportunity for scientists to make a unique AIP Center for History of Physics notebooks and other sources. A principal and substantial contribution to the nation’s Begins Project to Document the History of product of the study will be published foreign policy. Each year, AIP sponsors one Physicists in Industry. The Center for reports that present our findings and fellow to work in a bureau or office of the History of Physics at the American Insti- endeavor to outline new frameworks for U.S. State Department, becoming actively tute of Physics has launched a three-year identifying, appraising, and preserving and directly involved in the foreign policy effort to create a national documentation historically valuable industrial R&D process by providing much-needed strategy to identify and preserve the records, both past and present. For addi- scientific and technical expertise. Applica- historically valuable records of physicists tional information on the project, contact tion deadline is November 1, each year. For in industry. Supported by funding from project director Joe Anderson ([email protected], more information, visit www.aip.org/mgr/ NHPRC, NSF, the Andrew Mellon 301-209-3183). sdf.html. Foundation, and other sources, the study NOTES AND ANNOUNCEMENTS

I. Bernard Cohen, an important $17.50) – PAL or SECAM. Tape copies can public’s appreciation of physics as a source historian of physics who was especially be ready to ship within a week of the of beneficial applications and as an well-known for his work on Newton, died receipt of the order. Orders should be made integral part of our intellectual life.” The at his home in Waltham, MA on June 20, to: Mr. Glen Palmer, Media & Technology Andrew Gemant Award, made possible by 2003 at age 89. A memorial service was held Services, 1156 Comstock Hall, Ithaca, NY a bequest of Andrew Gemant, is awarded at Harvard Memorial Church on 19 14853-2601, fax: 607-255-1563, grp2@ by AIP to individuals who have linked November 2003. cornell.edu physics to the arts and humanities. Past awardees include A. Pais, G. Holton, S. Bethe-Mermin video. The video Michael Riordan, current FHP Chair, Weinberg, F. Dyson, P. Morrison, S. interview of Hans Bethe, conducted by received the 2002 Andrew W. Gemant Hawking, and J. Bernstein. David Mermin at Cornell University on Award from the American Institute of February 25, 2003 and shown at the APS Physics “for skillfully conveying the New NASA Chief Historian. Dr. Steven March Meeting (see report above), is excitement and drama of science and for J. Dick has been appointed Chief Historian available from Cornell University for $12.50 clarifying important scientific ideas through of NASA. Dr. Dick has worked as an per cassette in NTSC format, plus tax and his books, articles and many television astronomer and historian of science at the shipping. Other formats are $5 more (i.e. programs. Riordan’s work has enhanced the U. S. Naval Observatory since 1979. He

History of Physics Newsletter • Volume IX, No. 1 • Fall 2003 19 obtained his B.S.in astrophysics (1971), The Annals of Science Prize for 2004-2005. The American Philosophical M.A. and Ph.D. (1977) in history and Junior Scholars is offered each year to the Society Library offers short-term residen- philosophy of science from Indiana Univer- author of an unpublished essay in the tial fellowships for conducting research in sity. He is a well-known expert in the field history of science or technology. The its collections. The Society’s Library, of astrobiology and its cultural implications. article must not be under consideration for located near Independence Hall in Philadel- He spent three years at the Naval publication elsewhere. The prize, supported phia, is a leading international center for Observatory’s Southern Hemisphere by Taylor and Francis, is intended for those research in the history of American science station in New Zealand. He served as the who have been awarded their doctorate and technology and its European roots, as first Historian of the Naval Observatory, and within the past four years, and for doctoral well as early American history and culture. has most recently been the Acting Chief of students. Essays should be submitted to The Library houses over 8 million manu- its Nautical Almanac Office. He has the Editor in a form suitable for publication scripts, 250,000 volumes and bound authored more than 100 publications, in Annals of Science and may be in English, periodicals, and thousands of maps and including: Plurality of Worlds: The Origins French, or German. Essays should be prints. Outstanding historical collections of the Extraterrestrial Life Debate from between 6,000 and 9,500 words in length, and subject areas include the papers of Democritus to Kant (Cambridge University including footnotes. The winning essay will Benjamin Franklin; the American Press, 1982); The Biological Universe: The be published in the journal and the essay’s Revolution; 18th and 19th-century natural Twentieth Century Extraterrestrial Life author will be awarded $500. Papers should history; western scientific expeditions and Debate and the Limits of Science be submitted by 1 September. For further travel including the journals of Lewis and (Cambridge University Press, 1996); and Life information, visit the Taylor and Francis Clark; polar exploration; the papers of on Other Worlds (1998), the latter translated Web site at www.tandf.co.uk. Charles Willson Peale, his family and into four languages. He was also editor of descendants; American Indian languages; Many Worlds: The New Universe, Marc-Auguste Pictet Prize. The Société anthropology including the papers of Franz Extraterrestrial Life and the Theological de Physique et d’Histoire Naturelle (SPHN) Boas; the papers of and his Implications (2000). de Genève invites applications for the forerunners, colleagues, critics, and succes- Marc-Auguste Pictet Prize. This Prize, in sors; history of genetics, eugenics, and The 2002 Singer Prize of the British principle intended for a young researcher, will evolution; history of biochemistry, Society for the History of Science was reward a significant contribution to the his- physiology, and biophysics; 20th-century awarded to Simone Turchetti, University of tory of science, which is as yet unpublished medical research; and history of physics. , for his essay “Atonic secrets or has only recently appeared. Application is The Library does not hold materials on and government lies: nuclear science, open to both Swiss and foreign candidates at philosophy in the modern sense. politics and security in the Pontecorvo case.” the university level. Notification of Eligibility: The fellowships, funded by candidature should be sent by 29 February a number of generous benefactors, are The winner of the 2003 Dingle Prize 2004 to Président de la SPHN, Muséum intended to encourage research in the for the book that best brings history of d’Histoire Naturelle, Case Postale 6434, Library’s collections by scholars who science to a broad readership is Ken Alder’s CH-1211, Genève 6, Switzerland. reside beyond a 75-mile radius of Philadel- The Measure of All Things. phia. The fellowships are open to both U.S. The Singer Prize, of up to £300, is citizens and foreign nationals who are Cushing Prize in History and awarded by the British Society for the holders of the Ph.D. or the equivalent, Ph.D. Foundations of Physics. An annual prize History of Science (BSHS) every two years candidates who have passed their prelimi- has been established in memory of James to the writer of an unpublished essay based nary examinations, and independent T. Cushing (1937-2002), who at the time of in original research into any aspect of the scholars. Applicants in any relevant field his death was a Fellow of APS and a long- history of science, technology or medicine. of scholarship may apply. time member of the Forum. The prize of The Prize is intended for younger scholars Award, duration: The stipend is $2,000 $1,000, honoring Cushing and his contri- or recent entrants into the profession. The per month, and the term of the fellowship is butions to the history and philosophy of Prize may be awarded to the writer of one a minimum of one month and a maximum of physics, will be awarded for significant new outstanding essay, or may be divided three, taken between June 1, 2004 and May work by younger scholars in the history between two or more entrants. Candidates 31, 2005. Fellowships are usually of one and philosophical foundations of modern must be registered for a postgraduate month in duration, and seldom exceed two physics. Information can be found at degree course or have completed such in months. Fellows are expected to be in www.nd.edu/~cushpriz/Nomination.htm. the last two years. Entry is not limited to residence at the Library for four to twelve Contributions to the endowment for the British nationals. For further information, consecutive weeks, depending upon the prize are being accepted at Cushing contact Paula Gould, BSHS Media Officer; length of their award. Awards are taxable Memorial Prize, Program in History and Tel/Fax: 01244 680044; Paula.Gould@ income, but the Society is not required to Philosophy of Science, University of Notre absw.org.uk; www.man.ac.uk/Science_ report payments. It is understood that Dame, 346 O’Shaughnessy, Notre Dame, Engineering/CHSTM/bshs/bshssin2.htm. recipients will discuss their reporting Indiana 46556. For more information, please obligations with their tax advisors. contact Don Howard at 574-631-7547 or The American Philosophical Society Deadline, notification: Applications are [email protected]. Library Resident Research Fellowships due no later than March 1. This is a

20 History of Physics Newsletter • Volume IX, No. 1 • Fall 2003 postmark deadline. Applicants will be journals, manuscripts, prints, and early 20th century), informed by mail whether all materials were instruments. The focus of the Bakken’s (especially electricity and magnetism), received. For additional information call collection is on the history of electricity and engineering technology (from the Renais- 215-440-3443 or send an email inquiry to magnetism and their applications in the life sance to the late 19th century), and [email protected]. Notification is sent sciences and medicine. Significant holdings scientific apparatus and instruments. This in May. include the writings of natural philoso- award is supported by The Dibner Fund. Applications: Completed applications phers, scientists, physicians, electro- Baird Society Resident Scholars will do include six collated sets (clipped, not therapists, and electrophysiologists of the research in other SIL Special Collections stapled) of: a) the cover sheet, b) the project 18th, 19th, and early 20th centuries. The located in Washington, DC and New York statement, not to exceed three single- instrument collection includes electrostatic City. This award is supported by the spaced pages, which briefly describes the generators, magneto-electric generators, Smithsonian Libraries Spencer Baird project and how it relates to existing induction coils, physiological instruments, Society. scholarship, states the specific relevance recording devices, and accessories. See Deadline for applications is March 1, of the American Philosophical Society’s www.thebakken.org for more details of the 2004. For application materials and further collections to the project, and indicates collections. Visiting research fellowships up information about SIL Special Collections expected results of the research, such as to a maximum of $1,500 are to be used to visit: www.sil.si.edu, write to Smithsonian publications; type your last name in the help to defray the expenses of travel, Institution Libraries Resident Scholar upper left of each page; c) your C.V., and d) subsistence, and other direct costs of Programs, P.O. Box 30712, NMAH 1041 two letters of support; if the applicant is a conducting research at the Bakken. The MRC 672, Washington, DC 20013-7012 graduate student, one of the letters must minimum period of residence is two weeks. (202-357-1568), or email: [email protected]. be from the dissertation supervisor. The Preference is given to researchers who are letters can be included with the proposal in interested in collaborating with the Bakken Jet Propulsion Laboratory Historian. sealed envelopes, signed across the flap. on exhibits or other programs. Research JPL is currently looking to fill a $52,312- The postmark deadline is March 1. Travel Grants up to a maximum of $500 $105,664 salary range Historian position. (domestic) and $750 (foreign) are to be used The job is posted on the JPL Career site, The Andrew W. Mellon Travel to help to defray the expenses of travel, careerlaunch.jpl..gov under requisition Fellowship Program is intended to assist subsistence, and other direct costs of number 509. The JPL Historian is respon- scholars at both pre-doctoral and post- conducting research at The Bakken. The sible for working with the JPL Archivist to doctoral levels. The program is designed to minimum period of residence is one week. preserve JPL’s rich history, overseeing JPL’s provide travel expenses and a reasonable The deadline for all 2004 applications is historical research program, participating in per diem to researchers who reside outside February 16, 2004. For further details and the NASA History historical research the central Oklahoma area, and who have application guidelines, contact Elizabeth program, and supporting the JPL oral well-defined research projects that can be Ihrig, Librarian, The Bakken Library and history program. served by the holdings of the History of Museum, 3537 Zenith Avenue South, Science Collections. Support is available for Minneapolis, MN 55416 (612-926-3878, ext. The Space History Division of the qualifying projects for periods ranging from 227; fax: 612-927-7265; ihrig@thebakken. National Air and Space Museum is two to eight weeks. It is expected that org; www. thebakken.org). currently looking to fill a GS 11/12 curato- pre-doctoral applicants will be graduate rial position. The job is posted on students actively engaged in projects for Smithsonian Institution Libraries www.usajobs.opm.gov under announce- the M.A. thesis or Ph.D. dissertation that Resident Scholar Programs 2005: The ment number 03MH-1372. are formally approved at the student’s home Smithsonian Institution Libraries (SIL) institution. For information, please contact: offers two programs for scholars to use SIL The National Air and Space Museum, The Andrew W. Mellon Travel Fellowship Special Collections for the calendar year Smithsonian Institution, provides three Program, The University of Oklahoma, 2005. Each program awards stipends of residential fellowships to support research Bizzell Library, 401 West Brooks, Room 521, $2,500 per month for up to six months. in aerospace history: the Guggenheim Norman, OK 73019; [email protected], Historians, librarians, doctoral students, Fellowship for predoctoral and recent kmagruder@ou. edu; libraries.ou.edu/ and post-doctoral scholars are welcome to postdoctoral scholars, the A. Verville depts/histscience/mellon. Proposals will be apply. Scholars must be in residence at the Fellowship, open to academic and evaluated three times each year, with dead- Smithsonian. non-academic historians, and the Ramsey lines for submission October 15, February Dibner Library Resident Scholars will Fellowship in Naval Aviation History, which 15, and May 15. do research in the Dibner Library of the is similarly open. Stipends range from History of Science and Technology. The $20,000 to $45,000 a year, plus money for Bakken Visiting Research Fellowships Dibner Library specializes in the physical travel and miscellaneous expenses. The and Research Travel Grants: The Bakken sciences and technology, and contains application deadline for the academic year Library and Museum in Minneapolis offers books and manuscripts from the 15th to the 2004-2005 is 15 January 2004, and success- visiting research fellowships and research 20th centuries. Subject areas include math- ful applicants will be notified in mid-April. travel grants for the purpose of facilitating ematics, astronomy, classical natural Further information can be found at scholarly research in its collection of books, philosophy, theoretical physics (up to the www.nasm.si.edu/getinvolved/fellow/

History of Physics Newsletter • Volume IX, No. 1 • Fall 2003 21 index.cfm. Potential applicants are also members of the American Physical Society NASA SP-2002-09-511-HQ. Alternately, it encouraged to investigate the Smithsonian at the special subscription rate of $35 per can also be found at history.nasa.gov/ Institution’s Office of Fellowships program. year plus $10 shipping and handling. Addi- centtimeline in an attractive Web exhibit. Information can be found at web1.si.edu/ofg. tional information can be found at the The National Air and Space Museum is Birkhäuser Verlag website, www.birkhauser. NASA’s Nuclear Frontier: the Plum also offering Aviation/Space Writer Award ch/journals/1600/1600_tit.htm. Brook Research Reactor (NASA SP-2003 grants of $5,000 to support research toward First-hand accounts of participants in -4532), by Mark Bowles, is a short, heavily publication on aerospace topics. Funds may interesting and important research projects illustrated monograph about this unique be used to support research travel and – experimental, theoretical, or computational Glenn Research Center facility. It is expenses, or the publication of research. – often become documents of historical scheduled for distribution in February 2004. Applicants for NASM or Smithsonian import. The editors of Physics in Perspec- Fellowships are encouraged to apply for the tive welcome such first-hand accounts and “The Wright Brothers & the Inven- Aviation/Space Writers Award, but recipi- hereby extend an invitation to physicists, tion of the Aerial Age” exhibit has opened ents of the award need not be in residence and particularly to members of the Forum at the National Air and Space Museum. The at the National Air and Space Museum. The on History of Physics, to submit exhibit contains artifacts, interactive exhib- deadline for submission is 15 January 2004. manuscripts for publication. (John S. its, photographs, and the Wright Flyer. For For more information, see www.nasm.si. Rigden, American Institute of Physics, One more information, see www.nasm.si.edu/ edu/getinvolved/fellow/writer_grant.cfm. Physics Ellipse, College Park, MD 20740, galleries/gal209/wrights.htm. The Museum also offers the Charles A. [email protected] and Roger H. Stuewer, Tate Lindbergh Chair in Aerospace History. Laboratory of Physics, University of NASA History: News and Notes is Senior scholars with distinguished records Minnesota, 116 Church Street SE, published quarterly by the NASA History of publication who are working on, or Minneapolis, MN 55455, rstuewer@ Division, Office of Policy and Plans, Code anticipate working on, books in aerospace physics.spa.umn. edu). ZH, NASA Headquarters, Washington, DC history, are invited to write letters of inter- 20546. You can receive NASA History: News est for the academic year 2005-2006 or later. Hydrogen: The Essential Element by and Notes via email. To subscribe, send a The Lindbergh Chair is a one-year John S. Rigden has been published in a message to [email protected]. Leave the appointed position; support is available for new paperback edition by Harvard subject line blank. In the text portion replacement of salary and benefits up to a University Press. simply type “subscribe history” without the maximum of $100,000 a year. Please visit quotation marks. You will receive confirma- www.nasm.si.edu/getinvolved/fellow/ Éditions numériques, scientifiques, et tion that your account has been added to lindfellow.cfm. universitaires VIGDOR (www.vigdor.com, the list for the newsletter and to receive [email protected]) provides out of print other announcements that may interest you. Physics in Perspective. Most journals books in electronic format that can be The latest issue of this newsletter is also are targeted to a small group of scholars. downloaded at a reasonable price from their available at www.hq.nasa.gov/office/pao/ That is not the case for the journal Physics web site. Among other subject areas, they History/nltrc.html. in Perspective, which has now been have a selection in history and philosophy published since early 1999 for a wide of science including books like Pierre-Simon Meetings audience of historians, philosophers, physi- LaPlace: Essai philosophique sur les cists, and the interested public. The probabilités. The American Astronomical Society will editors believe that scholarly papers hold a meeting 4-8 January 2004, in Atlanta, written by historians of physics, philoso- Celebrating a Century of Flight (NASA Georgia. Their Historical Astronomy Division phers of physics, and physicists themselves SP-2002-09-511-HQ). This very attractive conducts numerous sessions during the can be an effective means for bringing the and informative 32-page, 8 1/2 x 11", color meeting. For more information, please visit ideas, the substance, and the methods of publication was edited by Tony Springer, www.aas.org/meetings/aas203. physics to non-specialists, provided jargon the NASA Centennial of Flight coordina- is avoided and care is taken in the writing. tor, with input from the NASA History The American Institute of Aeronautics Physics in Perspective is published Office and many other organizations includ- and Astronautics will hold an aerospace quarterly. Besides articles and book ing the U.S. Air Force and the U.S. Centen- sciences meeting and exhibit 5-8 January, reviews, the journal has two regular nial of Flight Commission. It was designed 2004, in Reno, Nevada. For additional features: first, “The Physical Tourist,” by Melissa Kennedy. It is an excellent information, see www.aiaa.org/calendar/ identifies sites for the traveler whose inter- introduction to aerospace history since the index.hfm?cal=5&luMeetingid=665. The ests include artifacts from the history of Wright brothers’ historic flight in meeting will include sessions on History of physics, laboratories with historical signifi- December 1903. It is available in hard copy Aeronautics, History of Space Flight, and cance, birthplaces of well-known physicists, by sending a self-addressed stamped Science in Space: Achievements of STS-107 and the like; second, “In Appreciation” is envelope to the NASA Information Center, and ISS Increment 6. written about a physicist by a student, Code CMI-1, NASA Headquarters, 300 E first-hand acquaintance, or colleague. Street SW, Room 1H23, Washington, DC The American Historical Association Physics in Perspective is available to 20546-0001, (202) 358-0000, please order will hold their annual meeting 8-11 January

22 History of Physics Newsletter • Volume IX, No. 1 • Fall 2003 2004 in Washington DC. For more informa- now the International Society for the public audiences. Taken collectively, they tion, see www.theaha.org/ANNUAL/ History of Philosophy of Science (no longer represent a vast scholarly resource that is index.cfm. Working Group), will hold its fifth still largely hidden from view and under- international congress at the University of appreciated. Interdisciplinary Workshop on San Francisco, in cooperation with Stanford With this in mind, Dartmouth will host a Eddington, 11 March 2004. Contact Kate University and the University of California, conference in June of 2004, focusing on the Price, [email protected]. Berkeley. The conference is open to theme of instrument collections in academic scholarly work on the history of philoso- institutions. We hope 1.To encourage the Oppenheimer as Scientific Intellectual, phy of science from any disciplinary development of a network among these April 23-24, 2004, at University of perspective. Submissions of abstracts of collections. 2. To provide a forum to California, Berkeley, Office for History of papers of approximately 30 minutes’ read- discuss practical problems that pertain to Science and Technology, ohst.berkeley.edu ing length, and of symposia of three to four such collections, including cataloguing, /oppenheimer/conference. J. Robert Oppen- thematically related papers will be web exhibits, storage and exhibition space, heimer sensed that his life would be lived considered for the program. safety issues such as potentially toxic as an example – in how many ways, he could Guidelines for Submissions: Abstracts substances, and the profile of such collec- not have guessed. Raised in a cultivated of individual paper submissions should be tions on campus and their use in teaching Jewish milieu and shaped by the intellec- between 250 and 500 words in length. Panel and research. 3. To facilitate presentation tual left of 1930s Berkeley, the theorist was proposals should include one panel of scholarly papers and posters relating to remade as a large-scale scientific leader, a abstract, names and addresses of all scientific instruments, their histories and political insider, and the mid-century participants, and abstracts of 250 words for the collections in which they reside. scientist par excellence. Coming out of the each of three to four papers. All submis- Parts of the Dartmouth Collection will , Oppenheimer’s ascen- sions should arrive by January 1, 2004. be on display and the Shattuck Observa- dancy marked a turn in American concep- Notification of acceptance of submissions tory (1853) will be open. In addition, excur- tions of the promise and power of intellec- will be provided by March 1, 2004. sions are planned to the Precision Museum tuals and science. Then just as his postwar Preferred format for all submissions is in Windsor, Vermont, and to turret apotheosis symbolized the physicists’ plain ASCII text or RTF attachment telescopes in Springfield, Vermont. For entry into positions of power, the 1954 submitted by e-mail to hopos2004@ those who wish to explore other nearby stripping of his security clearance defined umkc.edu with “HOPOS 2004 Submission” instrument collections, the Harvard their political bounds. in the subject line of the email. Other collection in Cambridge and the University In all its dimensions, Oppenheimer’s submissions should include one paper copy of Vermont collection in Burlington are each unsettled career tracks deep-lying changes and one copy in plain ASCII or RTF format about 2 hours away by auto. in modern science. To mark the centennial on a 3.5" DOS diskette and be sent to: For further information or to express of Oppenheimer’s birth, the Office for Menachem Fisch, Co-Chair, HOPOS 2004 interest, contact Frank Manasek, francis.j. History of Science and Technology at the Program Committee, The Cohn Institute for [email protected]. University of California, Berkeley, is host- the History and Philosophy of Science and ing a scholarly conference on April 23-24, Ideas, Tel Aviv University, Ramat Aviv British Society for the History of 2004. Open to a broad range of Oppenheimer 61390, ISRAEL Science Annual Meeting at Liverpool Hope scholarship, the meeting takes as its theme For more information about HOPOS, University, 25-27 June 2004. Contact Geoff his role as a scientific intellectual. please visit www.umkc.edu/scistud/hopos. Bunn, [email protected]. Other Oppenheimer centennial events at Berkeley include a distinguished public Mundi Subterranei: Scientific Instru- Vienna International Summer lecture by Daniel J. Kevles and a program ment Collections in the University, an University / Scientific World Conceptions in the Department of Physics. Opening international symposium at Dartmouth 2004: The Quest for Objectivity, 19-30 July, concurrently with the conference are major College, 24-27 June 2004, co-sponsored by 2004. For information, contact Friedrich exhibits in the Bancroft Library gallery and the Scientific Instrument Commission and Stadler: [email protected], or the Brown Gallery of the Doe Library, Dartmouth College, Hanover, NH. see ivc.philo.at/VISU on the web. featuring Berkeley and Berkeleyans in the The Dartmouth collection of historic history of physics. scientific instruments, one of the oldest and The 2004 Meeting of the 3 Societies: The Oppenheimer centennial program largest at a North American university, is HSS, BSHS, and CSHPS. Every four years, is open to the public. currently being reorganized and catalogued. the Canadian Society for the History and Other universities and colleges around the Philosophy of Science, the British Society The Canadian Society for History and world have begun similar projects, seeking for the History of Science, and the History Philosophy of Science will meet in to formalize collections that, until now, have of Science Society come together for a Winnipeg, 4-6 June 2004. See www.fedcan. been virtually unknown even within their special meeting. The 5th meeting of the “3 ca/english/congress/congress.html. institutions. Taken individually, such Societies” will be 5-7 August 2004 in Halifax, collections present unique windows into Nova Scotia. Proposal Deadline: December HOPOS 5th International Conference, the role of instruments in higher education 15, 2003. Decision notices will be sent at San Francisco, June 24-27, 2004. HOPOS, and in transmitting scientific knowledge to the end of February, 2004. Primary Meeting

History of Physics Newsletter • Volume IX, No. 1 • Fall 2003 23 Email: [email protected]. Program A new source of manuscript material Tobey of the University of California- Chairs: Geoff Bunn (BSHS), Lesley Cormack concerning Henri Poincaré is now Riverside is at www.horuspublications. (CSHPS), and Jan Golinski (HSS). Local available on the web at www.univ- com/guide/tp1.html. Send any corrections Organizer: Gordon McOuat, University of nancy2.fr/ACERHP. or suggestions to Professor Tobey at the King’s College. University of California-Riverside, Depart- The European Physical Society has a ment of History, Riverside, CA 92521-0204. SHOT, Society for the History of new interdivisional group on the history of Technology, 2004. The annual meeting in physics: www.eps.org/divisions/ historyof Nixon Administration science files, 2004 will be 7-10 October in Amsterdam. See physics.html. chronicling significant events in earth shot.press.jhu.edu/annual.htm for more science, exploration, engineering, and other information. In 2005 SHOT will meet with The History of Science Society main- science fields are stored at the National HSS, 3-6 November, in Minneapolis. tains a guide to science history online at Archives and Records Administration II www.hssonline.org/guide. This guide facility in College Park, Maryland. Individu- History of Science Society, 2004. The enables users to access information about als interested in these files should visit HSS Annual Meeting in 2004 will be 18-21 publications, institutions, individuals, and www.archives.gov/nixon/about_nixon/ November in Austin, TX. This is a joint organizations interested in science. historical_materials.html. meeting with Philosophy of Science Association. Information can be found at The Historical Astronomy Division of Science in Orbit: The Shuttle & www.hssonline.org. In 2005 HSS will meet the American Astronomical Society Spacelab Experience: 1981-1986 (NASA in Minneapolis, 3-6 November, colocated examines science history and its implications. NP-119, Marshall Space Flight Center, 1988) with SHOT. In 2006 HSS will again meet The organization publishes a newsletter is now available at history.nasa.gov/ jointly with PSA, this time in Vancouver, online at www.aas.org/had hadnews.html. NP-119/NP-119.htm. BC, 2-5 November. The American Institute of Physics Online Exhibit of Wright Brothers The Atomic Bomb and American maintains an online database of collections Papers and Images. The Library of Society. To mark the 60th anniversary of called the International Catalog of Sources Congress has released an online Wright the detonation of the first atomic bomb, this for the History of Physics and Allied brothers exhibit including diaries detailing three-day conference, 15-17 July 2005, will Sciences. Interested parties may access the glides and powered flight, family correspon- assess how nuclear weapons’ development catalog by visiting www.aip.org/history/ dence, scrapbooks, and drawings. The affected American society and culture. The icos. Individuals wishing to access exhibit may be accessed at memory.loc.gov/ conference will convene in Oak Ridge. For documents within the collections should ammem/wrighthtml/wrighthome.html. more information contact Prof. G. Kurt contact the repository. Piehler, [email protected]. Proposals are NASA Educational Material Online. due April 1, 2004. History of Physics links: The AIP NASA’s Spacelink website has a new Center for History of Physics posts a Educator Focus article, this time dealing 22nd International Congress of History diverse set of web links and updates them with the Wright brothers. This article of Science: 24-30 July, 2005, Beijing, China. regularly at www.aip.org/history/web-link.htm. provides educational materials and See 2005bj.ihns.ac.cn on the web. resources in support of the celebration of AAAS History and Archives Website: the 100th anniversary of the Wright broth- Web Resources The American Association for the Advance- ers’ historic flight on 17 December 1903. ment of Science has launched a new AAAS The article is a guide for educators and The Newton Project, a joint effort based History and Archives website at archives. includes background material about the at the University of London, aims gradu- aaas.org. historic flight, and can be found at ally to post all of the scientist’s previously spacelink.nasa.gov/Educator.Focus/ unpublished work at a Web site (www. The British Society for the History of Articles/012_Wright_Brothers. newtonproject.ic.ac.uk), including thou- Science has a newly redesigned and sands of pages of alchemical and expanded website at www.bshs.org.uk. The New website for Philosophy of Science theological writings and, eventually, some Society now has an expanded links Association (PSA): philosophy.wisc.edu/psa. of his optical studies. The material, which directory at www.bshs.org.uk/links, cover- may take 15 to 20 years to finish transcrib- ing journals, societies, lists, museums and Dibner Institute for the ing, will be accompanied by high- online resources by subject area. An resolution images of the manuscripts. The updated BSHS Guide to History of Science History of Science and enterprise was founded in 1998 by a small Courses in the UK can be found at Technology group of Newton scholars who had grown www.bshs.org.uk/courses. tired of seeing the complete writings of other Fellows Programs 2004-2005. The Dibner Institute for the History of Science important thinkers published only as An online student guide to the History expensive multivolume editions that would and Technology invites applications to its of Science titled Horus Gets in Gear: A two fellowship programs for the academic invariably languish in a few academic Beginner’s Guide to Research in the libraries. year 2004-2005: the Senior Fellows program History of Science, by Professor Ronald and the Postdoctoral Fellows program.

24 History of Physics Newsletter • Volume IX, No. 1 • Fall 2003 Some twenty-five Dibner Fellows are Jones, “A New Babylonian Planetary Model the Dibner Institute will explore the role of resident at the Institute each year. The in a Greek Source,” Archive for History of physicists and scientific instrument-makers Dibner Institute is an international center Exact Sciences, 2000 (54). At the Dibner in the standardization of musical pitch in for advanced research in the history of Institute he will be working on a compre- 19th century Germany. science and technology, established in hensive book about Babylonian lunar Elzbieta Jung-Palczewska is a Visiting 1992. It draws on the resources of the theory that includes consideration of all the Scholar in the Theology Department, Burndy Library, a major collection of both more recently discovered cuneiform sources Boston College and was a recipient of a primary and secondary material in the along with the previously available sources. Fulbright Foundation Fellowship, 2002- history of science and technology, and Ofer Gal is Head, Division of the 2003. She is the author of “Walter Burley, enjoys the participation in its programs of History and Philosophy of Science, Ben Tractatus secundus de intensione et faculty members and students from the Gurion University, Israel. He is the remissione formarum accidentalium,” universities that make up the Dibner author of the book, Meanest Foundations forthcoming in The British Academy and Institute’s consortium: MIT, the host and Nobler Superstructures: Hooke, “Richard Kilvington on Local Motion,” in institution; Boston University; and Harvard Newton and the Compounding of the Essays in Honor of Zenon Kaluza, 2002. University. The Institute’s primary mission Celestial Motions of the Planets, 2002, the Her work at the Dibner Institute will be a is to support advanced research in the forthcoming article, “Constructivism for study titled “Walter Charleton: Concept of history of science and technology, across Philosophers,” Perspectives and the entry, the Science of Mechanics. A Transmission a wide variety of areas and a broad “Robert Hooke,” in Dictionary of of Ideas from Galileo to Newton.” spectrum of topics and methodologies. The Seventeenth Century British Philosophers, Irina O. Luther is a Senior Research Institute favors projects that address 2000. His research proposal while at the Associate, Institute for the History of events dating back thirty years or more. Dibner Institute is titled “The Imperfect Science and Technology, Russian Academy The deadline for receipt of applications Universe,” a continuation of his previous of Sciences, Moscow. She is the author of for 2004-2005 is December 31, 2003. Fellow- studies of Robert Hooke and his influence “Metaphysics of Aristotle and kinematical- ship recipients will be announced in March on Newton. geometrical Investigations of al-Tusi and 2004. Please send requests for further Robert Iliffe, Reader in History, al Shirazi,” Arabic Science and Philosophy information and for application forms Imperial College, U.K., is the Editorial (in press), “Incommensurability of the directly to: Trudy Kontoff, Program Director of the Newton Manuscript Project. Circumference and Diameter of a Circle in Coordinator, Dibner Institute for the With Peter Spargo and John Young, he the Context of Aristotle’s Doctrine: the History of Science and Technology, MIT edited A Catalogue of ’s Works of al-Tusi and al Shirazi,” Istoriko- E56-100, 38 Memorial Drive, Cambridge, non-Scientific Papers, 2001 and has Matematicheskie Issledovaniya, 2002 (7/ Massachusetts 02139; 617-253-6989; fax: contributed the following chapters to 42) (in Russian). At the Dibner Institute she 617-253-9858; [email protected]; website: forthcoming works: “Persecution Com- will prepare a critical edition with complete dibinst.mit.edu. plexes: the Historiography of Newton’s English translation of the treatise, On the Science and Religion,” in New Directions Motion of Rolling and the Relation Dibner Institute Names Fellows for in the History of the Relationship between between the Plane and the Curve, by the 2003-2004. The Dibner Institute for the Science and Religion, 2003, edited by J. Iranian astronomer, mathematician and History of Science and Technology is Brooke and “An Electronic Newton” in philosopher, al-Shirazi. pleased to announce the appointments of Recent Newtonian Research, 2003, edited Rhonda Martens, Associate Professor, the Dibner Institute Fellows for 2003-2004. by J. Force and S. Hutton. He plans to work University of Manitoba, Canada, is the The Institute will welcome fourteen Senior on two projects while at the Dibner: first, author of Kepler’s Philosophy and the New Fellows, seven Postdoctoral Fellows, five complete his book on Newton’s theologi- Astronomy, 2000 and the articles “A reappointed Postdoctoral Fellows, and eight cal writings between 1670 and 1700; and Commentary on Genesis: Plato’s ‘Timaeus’ Graduate Student Fellows. The Fellows second, integrate the Newton manuscripts and Kepler’s Astronomy” in Plato’s come from several nations and pursue many presently at the Dibner and the Timaeus as Cultural Icon, edited by different aspects of the history of science Smithsonian into the online resource Gretchen Reydam-Schils, 2001 and and technology. Those working in or close managed at Imperial College by the “Kepler’s Solution to the Problem of a to history of physics are listed below. A Newton Project. Realist Celestial Mechanics,” Studies in complete list can be found on the Dibner Myles Jackson, Associate Professor, History and Philosophy of Science 1999 (30/ Institute website: dibinst.mit.edu. Willamette University, is the author of the 3). The title of her project while at the Dibner book, Spectrum of Belief: Joseph von Institute is “The Best Of All Possible Dibner Institute Senior Fellows Fraunhofer and the Craft of Precision Worlds: Kepler’s Influence on Leibniz.” John P. Britton is President of Gryphon Optics, 2000 and the forthcoming articles, Edith Sylla, Professor of History at Research, Inc. He is the author of the “Harmonious Investigators of Nature: North Carolina State University, Raleigh, is articles “On Corrections for Solar Anomaly Music and the Persona of the German the author of the forthcoming chapters: in Babylonian Lunar Theories,” to appear Naturforscher in the 19th Century,” Science “Creation and Nature,” in Cambridge in the volume of Centaurus (in press), in Context, 2003 and “Can Artisans be Companion to Medieval Philosophy, “Remarks on a System A Text for Venus: Scientific Authors?” in Scientific “Business Ethics, Commercial Mathemat- ACT 1050,” Archive for History of Exact Authorship, 2002. His research project at ics, and the Origins of Mathematical Sciences 2001 (55), and, with Alexander

History of Physics Newsletter • Volume IX, No. 1 • Fall 2003 25 Probability, to be published in Oeconomies Peter Bokulich successfully defended Century Parisian Instrument Maker, in the Age of Newton, and, with Alfonso his dissertation, “Horizons of Description: Rudolph Koenig (1832-1901).” Maierù, “Daughter of her Time: Anneliese Black Holes and Complementarity” in Maier (1905-71) and the Study of 14th December, 2002 at the University of Notre Second-Year Postdoctoral Fellows Century Philosophy,” in Women Medieval- Dame. He is currently Assistant Director for François Charette wrote the book, ists in the Academy. Her project at the the Center for Philosophy and History of Mathematical Instrumentation in Four- Dibner Institute is titled “Mathematics and Science at Boston University. At the Dibner teenth-Century Egypt and Syria. The the Scientific Revolution: Leibniz and the Institute he will be working on a project Illustrated Treatise of Najm al-Din Bernoullis.” titled, “The Debate Over the Consistency al-Misri, 2003. A work on the descriptions of (Un-) Quantized Fields, 1929-1963.” of the Islamic astrolabes in the National Dibner Institute Postdoctoral Fellows David Pantalony, who received his Ph.D. Maritime Museum (Greenwich, U.K.) will be (First Year) from the Institute for the History and printed by , 2004. Babak Ashrafi received the Ph.D. in Philosophy of Science and Technology, His project while at the Dibner Institute is Physics at the Institute for Theoretical University of Toronto, is the Visiting titled “The Visual Language of Science in Physics, SUNY, Stonybrook. His disserta- Curator of Historical Scientific Instruments Islam”. tion for MIT’s Program in Science, at Dartmouth College. He is the author of H. Darrel Rutkin, received the Ph.D. at Technology, and Society is titled “Interroga- the following articles in press: “Americans Indiana University (2002). He is the author tory Structures in the Production of in Europe: the Purchasing Trip of Ira and of the article, “Celestial Offerings: Quantum Field Theory.” He has been Charles Young in 1853,” Bulletin of the Astrological Motifs in the Dedicatory Co-Principal Investigator and Project Scientific Instrument Society and “Do Letters of Galileo’s Sidereus Nuncius and Manager for the Sloan/Dibner History of Collections Matter to the History of Kepler’s Astronomia Nova,” in Secrets of Recent Science and Technology Project Science?” Bulletin of the Scientific Nature: Astrology and Alchemy in Early since May 2000. For his project as a Fellow, Instrument Society and is working on an Modern Europe, eds. Newman and Grafton he proposes to build on his thesis, explor- article on the history of the standard (2001). At the Dibner Institute he proposes ing alternative attempts to reconcile tuning fork. At the Dibner Institute he will to develop a book on the place of astrology relativity and quantum mechanics in the continue writing a book titled, “The in premodern western science, c.1250-1750. context of renormalization theory. Instruments and Workshop of the 19th- BOOK REVIEWS

Gerald Holton and Stephen G. Brush, another full review, but rather to discuss of Newton’s Third Law of Motion, using an Physics, the Human Adventure: From some salient examples of the pedagogical use example from the Principia: “If a horse draws Copernicus to Einstein and Beyond of historical materials, including examples a stone tied to a rope, the horse will (so to (Rutgers University Press, New Brunswick, from Physics, the Human Adventure, as well speak) also be drawn back equally towards NJ, 2001) 582 + xv pages, ISBN: 0813529085, as some further suggestions. the stone, for the rope, stretched out at both $39, paper; ISBN: 0813529077, $75, hard. Historical materials are helpful to science ends, will urge the horse toward the stone Reviewed by Daniel M. Siegel, teaching in a variety of ways. In particular, and the stone toward the horse by one and University of Wisconsin-Madison historical materials can be useful in the same endeavor to go slack and will Originally published in 1952, Gerald clarifying scientific concepts for students, impede the forward motion of the one as Holton’s Introduction to Concepts and in two ways: First, the originators of these much as it promotes the forward motion of Theories in Physical Science (Addison- concepts often supplied excellent the other” (p. 118). This example speaks to Wesley) was a groundbreaking contribution expositions of their new ideas, which may an issue that often puzzles students, namely, to the use of historical materials in teaching be very helpful to the present-day student if A exerts a force on B, how does B know (as physics. A second edition, substantially (either quoted or paraphrased). Second, in it were) how much force to exert back on A? reworked, and with Stephen G. Brush as the assimilation of scientific concepts, it may The answer, in real-world situations, is that coauthor, appeared in 1972; and Physics, the be helpful for ontogeny to recapitulate B undergoes an elastic deformation, which Human Adventure is the third edition, again phylogeny – that is, it may be helpful for the proceeds until the elastic restoring force substantially revised. The lead review in student to go through the same stages in exerted by B on A is equal to the force Physics Today of October 2001 judged that, the development of his or her understand- exerted by A on B. Newton’s example is a bit “In spite of its imperfections, this book, in ing that the scientific community went complicated, involving at least three bodies its three editions spanning half a century, is through in the historical development of the – horse, rope, and stone; to simplify, one one of the great textbooks of our time....It is concept. can have students consider instead a heavy a grand thing to have the new edition An instructive example of successful use object on a mattress, the key point in available.” I heartily concur, and the task I of the originator’s own exposition is clarifying the concept being the introduc- shall undertake here will be not to present supplied by Holton and Brush’s treatment tion of elasticity. In this respect, Newton’s

26 History of Physics Newsletter • Volume IX, No. 1 • Fall 2003 exposition – and Holton and Brush’s – is far in his manuscript writings, and in an alterna- between the particles that make up the meter superior to many a modern textbook account tive derivation of the centripetal force law in stick, and by understanding how those forces of the third law. the Principia, considered the case of a ball are affected by motion, one can give an The ontogeny-recapitulates-phylogeny bouncing around in a hoop, describing a account of the contraction. (One would use pedagogical strategy is quite fruitfully polygonal path that approaches a circle as the reasoning that goes into the Liénard- employed in Holton and Brush’s treatment the number of sides of the polygon increases Wiechert potentials, simplified as appropri- of the energy concept. The pedagogical without limit. The impulsive forces that the ate for the given student audience.) Einstein, problem addressed here is that the modern ball exerts on the hoop at the vertices of the in his own expositions of relativity theory, energy concept is forbiddingly abstract: The polygon are directed outward, and the was not completely inflexible concerning the contemporary definition of energy as the reaction forces that the hoop exerts on the supercession of electron theory by his own capacity for doing work is not very helpful ball are directed inward; this is the picture relativistic formalism, and students can still to the beginning student in coming to terms that Newton had in mind when he was benefit from this more pluralistic expository with this idea. Historically, however, the disentangling centrifugal and centripetal strategy in approaching relativity theory. (Cf. scientific community came to understand the forces, and it is helpful to the present-day N. David Mermin, Space and Time in energy concept, in mid-19th century, by way student as well. As for the magnitude of the Special Relativity [McGraw-Hill, 1968], pp. of two much more concrete, partial conser- force: one can easily see (either from the 225-227.) vation laws (which in turn dated from the formalism or from intuition) that each impact In sum, Holton and Brush, in Physics, 18th century). The law of conservation of of the ball with the hoop, at each corner of the Human Adventure, take a giant step vis viva (i.e., kinetic energy, and – more the polygon, will generate an impulsive force forward in the utilization of historical generally – mechanical energy) was very proportional to the product mv; the number materials in teaching physics; it is concrete, measured by the power to move of impacts per unit time will be proportional incumbent upon the rest of us to take their bodies, as in collisions; to raise bodies, as in to v, and inversely proportional to the accomplishment as a stimulus toward the the case of the pendulum; and to penetrate distance between impacts, which scales as further development of this approach, rather or damage bodies, as in the cases of sledge- the radius r of the hoop, yielding a propor- than as the last word. hammers, pile drivers, or cannonballs. The tionality to v/r for number of impacts per unit parallel law of conservation of heat was also time. Composing the two proportionalities, Leila Belkora. Minding the Heavens: understood in very concrete terms: There mv and v/r, the force will be proportional to the story of our discovery of the Milky Way. was the theory of a heat substance, caloric, mv2/r. (Institute of Physics Publishing, Bristol & made up of little particles, and heat flow and A final example, which includes a use of Philadelphia, 2003) x + 406 pages, notes, accumulation were visualized in terms of the historical materials by Holton and Brush as references, index, and B&W figures and flow and accumulation of these little particles. well as a further suggestion: As is well drawings with color plate section, ISBN: When the two partial conservation laws, for known, the pre-relativistic theory of H.A. 0750307307, $21.99, paper. mechanical energy and for heat, were put Lorentz and others, in which the behavior of Reviewed by Virginia Trimble, together in the 19th century, yielding the bodies traveling at speeds approaching that UC-Irvine and U of Maryland modern, completely general energy conser- of light was understood in terms of the Leila Belkora’s book on the discovery of vation law, a much more abstract energy behaviors of their constituent electrical our and others takes its name from a concept resulted; attention, however, to the particles, was an important step along the phrase used by William Herschel (1738-1822), roots of the abstract general law in its more way to relativity theory; Holton and Brush who said that, if he were called away from concrete precursors can be most helpful to discuss this, again making good pedagogi- the telescope, his sister, Caroline, could the modern student, just as it was helpful to cal use of the recapitulation strategy. What “mind the heavens” for him. Not surprisingly, the scientific community in the 19th century. is not so well known (and not mentioned by the seven people through whose lives and Holton and Brush give full attention to the Holton and Brush) is that Einstein himself works the author has chosen to tell her story more concrete precursors of the general (for example, in the manuscript account of are all men. The core seven are Thomas energy law, in this way helping the student special relativity that Holton and Brush Wright (1711-1786, disk-like shape for the to approach the more abstract modern reproduce, in part, on their front cover) Milky Way), Herschel (distances to stars, energy law by easy stages. considered treatments of relativistic phenom- types of nebulae), William Struve (1793-1874, By way of further suggestions of ena in terms of the behavior of electrical measurement of parallax), William Huggins pedagogically useful historical materials, particles as complementary to, rather than (1824-1920, applications of spectroscopy to consider first the issue of centripetal and completely superceded by, a macroscopic, astronomy), Jacobus Kapteyn (1851-1922, centrifugal forces in circular motion (here relativistic account. (The Collected Papers stellar dynamics), Harlow Shapley (1885- using “centrifugal” to designate the of Albert Einstein, Vol 4 [Princeton U. Press, 1972, non-centrality of the solar system in reaction force to the centripetal force 1995], p. 64.) To the student who is mysti- the galaxy), and Edwin Hubble (1889-1953, constraining the moving body). The fied, for example, by the Lorentz-Fitzgerald existence of other and expansion of question of the directionality of the forces contraction – and begs to know, What is the universe). Caroline Herschel and involved is perennially puzzling to students, happening inside the meter stick to make it Margaret Murray Huggins (wife of William, and the usual derivations of the mv2/r contract? – there is precedent, in Einstein’s and born the year, 1848, that Caroline died) magnitude of the force tend to be quite own expository strategy, for saying, Yes, one receive extended discussions, while other opaque to the beginning student. Newton, can look at the electromagnetic forces women are mentioned as astronomers

History of Physics Newsletter • Volume IX, No. 1 • Fall 2003 27 (Henrietta Leavitt, Martha Betz Shapley, A flock of factoids were new, at least to in the arms where the dense gas is. And why Annie Cannon, Williamina Fleming, and me. Betelgeuse might originally have meant would one of these clouds of dense gas be Cecilia Payne Gaposchkin) or as, mostly “house of the twins” (compare Hebrew called BN-KL? Becklin-Neugebauer and supportive, wives (Mary Herschel, Grace “beth”) in Arabic, rather than “arm of the Kleinmann-Low, for the discoverers. Some Hubble, Elise Kalshoven Kapteyn, and giant,” as many elementary stars books say. other passages in my copy are now marked Emilie and Johanna Struve). OED, incidentally, is silent on the topic. The “incomprehensible,” for instance the Professional astronomers should Baltic republics of Estonia and Latvia were sentence saying that bar structure in spiral probably not be allowed to read books like called Livland when Wilhelm Struve galaxies is “more pronounced when the this. It is simply too easy to focus in on the surveyed them (1815 or thereabouts). galaxy is imaged using a colored filter.” Yes, glitchs of arithmetic and physical principles, coined the phrase the color matters, and the best “color” for saying, “Merciful heavens (this is a “Island Universe” (or perhaps the German this purpose is near infrared. euphemism), what on earth was she think- equivalent) for galaxies. The reason that If you are contemplating authorship of a ing of to write this?” and “Crikey (another), heliometers (originally meant for measuring book for real people, there is one definite was I really one of the people consulted the diameter of the sun) led to successful action item to be found here. Many classic during the writing of this?” (Yes, I was, but determinations of parallax for the first time images and graphs have been redrawn not, I hope, on the most worrisome items.) was that they could measure much larger (perhaps to avoid copyright problems?), and And it is correspondingly easy to forget how angles than could wire micrometers, with redrawn very badly, making the Doppler many years we have put in mastering comparable accuracy. Willem de Sitter (of de shifts of stars look like a of about oddities like the magnitude system and the Sitter space, now popular in higher- two (Fig. 6.5), completely obscuring the fact enormous dynamic range of astronomical dimensional cosmologies) was the first that the globular clusters are concentrated phenomena: well, the energy of a typical graduate student of Jacobus Kapteyn toward the center of the Milky Way, which supernova is 1068 in units of 21 cm photons. (whose Kapteyn universe is metonymous for is what allowed Shapley to reach his And we too make mistakes. It took me three old fashioned astronomy). Yerkes, who paid conclusions (Fig. 10.3), and many others. Do tries during a lunchtime presentation for for Yerkes Observatory, made his money in not let the publisher do this to your book! graduate students today to get right the street cars, or rather by constructing them; Should professional historians of science ratio of neutrino to photon luminosity of a somehow we suspect he didn’t often ride be allowed to read books like this? Also supernova progenitor just before and just them. Radcliffe College was called something probably not, for they will be equally after core collapse sets in (about 103 and 106, else when Henrietta Leavitt was a student distressed by careless errors in their domain in case you should ever need this for there (but what?). The idea that the center of (even I caught several handfuls). And they anything). the Milky Way galaxy might be where the are less likely to be enchanted by the So, yes, the wavelength shift (Doppler globular clusters seemed to concentrate, storytelling than we who come with the effect) due to a typical stellar motion is wrong toward Sagittarius, rather than near the naive feeling that what really matters is by a factor 1000. The range of spectral types solar system, was advanced by Swedish getting the right answer to scientific of normal stars is attributed to differences in astronomer Karl Bohlin (when, we wonder?) questions so as to be able to go on to the abundances of trace constituents, while the before Harlow Shapley (1918), who gets the next. In this case, perhaps it is “What real cause is differences in surface credit, but rightly, since he made it happened before the big bang?” And the temperature. And two magnitudes of quantitative. author is, I believe, young enough that one absorption is described as twice as much as Perhaps you didn’t actually want to of her subsequent books might well be able one magnitude; but they are logarithmic know any of these things, and, indeed (like to incorporate the story of answering that units, in base 2.51 (the fifth root of 100). Well, Sherlock Holmes and the Copernican question. I look forward to reading it! I warned you one had to spend years hypothesis), now that you do know them, mastering these things. perhaps you will do your best to forget them. Per F. Dahl. From Nuclear Transmuta- What is right in the book rather than Never mind, I promise there are other things tion to Nuclear Fission, 1932-1939. wrong? Some ripping good stories of how in Minding the Heavens that will be new to (Institute of Physics Publishing, Bristol & parallaxes were first measured, the gaseous you and that you will want to know. Philadelphia, 2002) xii + 304 pages, notes, nature of some of the nebulae demonstrated, Another subtext has just crept in, of the bibliography, 2 indexes, and black and white existence of other galaxies proven, and much form “more information needed.” I noted a figures and drawings, ISBN: 0750308656, $75, else. There is one great analogy: Belkora good many of these. Some are arithmetic. hard. compares aberration of starlight to raindrops Why does a parallax of 0.287 arc second Reviewed by Jean-François S. Van hitting the windows of your forward-mov- correspond to a distance of 10 light years? Huele, Brigham Young University ing car (lots in front, few in back) rather than Well, we use distances in parsecs, for which Maybe one day the twentieth century to the usual tipping of an umbrella forward d = (parallax)-1. Some involve astronomical will be known as the century of nuclear as you walk into the storm. If you hate processes. For instance, the reader is told physics. It is certainly difficult to name one getting wet as much as I (and probably she that stars in the arms of spiral galaxies tend area of physics that has done so much over – the family name is Moroccan) do, you are to be bright, but with no indication why. The the last hundred years to catch the attention much more likely to have noticed the answer is that bright stars have short of everyone from scientists, politicians, apparent direction of raindrops from inside lifetimes and have no opportunity to journalists, authors and thinkers to the your car than from under your umbrella. wander far from their birthplaces, which are general public.

28 History of Physics Newsletter • Volume IX, No. 1 • Fall 2003 It was the nucleus that brought the news In the Prologue of Dahl’s book, this Cambridge, to the presentation of the of the relativistic and the quantum momentous event is related to the opening members of the American teams, the book revolutions to the world. The nucleus of the play “Wings over Europe” in London follows the evolution of nuclear physics in confronted physicists with their responsi- a few days earlier. In the play the release of general and the rapid development of mostly bilities and modified their role in society sig- atomic energy by a young physicist has experimental physics in America in the nificantly. For better or for worse the nucleus far-reaching philosophical implications and twenties. propelled physicists into the limelight and it political consequences. Dahl’s further story The annus mirabilis of nuclear physics, has turned the story of their life and work illustrates how in this case the reality not 1932, which witnessed, besides Walton and into a topic of scrutiny and fascination ever only paralleled but surpassed the fiction in Cockroft’s experiment, the discovery of the since. Not surprisingly, a great many books dramatic effect. positron by Carl Anderson, the publication have been written and will continue to be If nuclear physics has a rich and well of the discovery of by Harold written on the subject. documented history full of major break- Urey, and the discovery of the by Nuclear physics of course is a vast topic throughs, fascinating anecdotes and , is covered in dramatic with many interesting subfields. From the important insights, how does a scholar who detail. discovery of radioactivity just before 1900, competes for the time and attention of Once the different types of accelerators through Rutherford’s actual discovery of the potential readers select a unique subject and were operational, they could be used for nucleus, and the phenomenal advances in find the appropriate niche? fundamental research and many applications our understanding of and For the book reviewed here, there is no were found and discoveries confirmed, nuclear reactions, nuclear physics has given clear choice. fission being just one of them. Finally the us new insights from to The title refers explicitly to the years last two chapters of the book deal with what stellar evolution and many applications in 1932-1939, the period when physicists happened after 1932 to the people, the teams imaging, medicine, energy production, and studied nuclear reactions with accelerators and their machines. warfare, leaving the world in 2003 with as well as radioactive sources. It is ironic In fourteen chapters Dahl gives us a critical nuclear issues to be dealt with. For that whereas physicists at the time may have coverage of nuclear physics that stretches this to happen, scientists at some point had perceived this period as a race for creating in space and time far beyond what the reader to take control of nuclear physics by transuranic elements, it turned out after the might have expected. If there is a focus in switching from passive experimentation fact to have been a struggle for the the book, it would have to be the dynamics using available radioactive sources to the discovery of fission. An interesting of the research teams: we learn how they activation of particle accelerators with high analysis of this surprising discovery process were formed, how they interacted, and enough energies to cause nuclear reactions. can be found in Ruth Lewin Sime’s article ultimately achieved or didn’t achieve what This critical transition, Per F. Dahl tells (Physics in Perspective 2:48-62, 2000). The they set out to do. The teams take us in his book From Nuclear Transmuta- protagonists in that story (Lise Meitner and precedence over the individual scientists, but tion to Nuclear Fission, 1932-1939, Otto Hahn in Berlin, Irène and Frédéric Joliot- teams only exist as a result of the machines happened on April 14, 1932 when John in Paris, and Fermi’s group in Rome) that they build or dream of. Therefore the Cockroft and spotted are also present in Dahl’s book in later chap- author goes into some very detailed scintillation flashes of alpha particles whilst ters but mostly (although not exclusively) descriptions of the apparatus used in the bombarding a target with 252 kV for the purpose of discussing the reaction different experiments. His priority is appro- protons in Cambridge’s Mond Laboratory: of American laboratories to the fission news. priately reflected in his choice of illustrations Cockroft (...) rang up Rutherford, who The book’s jacket and the author’s for the book. We only find two traditional arrived shortly afterward. With difficulty preface present the central theme as an ear- portraits of physicists, but we discover six he manoeuvred in the little hut, and he, lier race (~1928-1932) between four different pictures of physicists in the proximity of their too, had a look at the scintillations (p. laboratory teams: John Cockroft and Ernest (impressively large) apparatus, and also one 114). He shouted out such instructions Walton in Cambridge, Ernest Lawrence in (uranium fission) group picture which is as “Switch off the proton current! In- Berkeley, Merle Tuve in Washington, and nicely analyzed in the text (p. 202). Sixteen crease the accelerating voltage!, etc. Charles Lauritsen in Pasadena, in their search drawings of the experimental designs are but he said little or nothing of what he for high voltage accelerators to overcome included. Some sketch the principles behind saw. He ultimately came out of the hut, Coulombic and nuclear repulsion and pen- the apparatus and some are detailed illustra- sat down and said something like this: etrate the nucleus in a bold move to verify tions taken from the relevant publications. A “Those scintillations look mighty like George Gamov’s prediction of tunnelling. large quantity of apparatus specification is alpha-particle ones. I should know an The book itself starts much earlier still given in the text and whereas some of it, like alpha-particle scintillation when I see with Marsden and Rutherford’s 1919 the cyclotron diameter, is critically important, one for I was in at the birth of the alpha- achievement of artificial transmutation and it is not always clear to the reader why particle and I have been observing them discovery of the presence of hydrogen ions certain facts were selected over others. As ever since.” inside nuclei, a result of Rutherford, one example, we learn in the epilogue (p. 217) In the last (italicized) statement Dahl Marsden and Geiger’s 1909 celebrated alpha that the optical components of a solar quotes ’s 1972 Recollections particle investigation of gold foils. observatory that Odd Dahl worked on after of the Cambridge Days (Elsevier). From the towering presence of Ruther- the war were provided by Zeiss in West ford, his many students and collaborators in Germany. Does the author mention this

History of Physics Newsletter • Volume IX, No. 1 • Fall 2003 29 because it has some deeper significance? The connection may have added to the knows what temperature it is. The situation accumulation of what seems to be discon- manuscript. is similar with clocks. We have at least ten nected trivia does eventually detract from The author has consulted a vast litera- clocks throughout our house and none of the story line. Presumably a lot of this ture of primary and secondary sources listed them read the same time. information could have been made available in forty-three pages of notes and references About ten days ago, my wife and I drove in comparative tables and charts in a series at the end of the book. His previous books a friend to the train station in Port Jefferson. of appendices. Such a compilation would covering related topics, Flash of the We were in my wife’s car which has an probably have led to further insight and cathode ray. A history of J.J. Thomson’s analog clock built into the dashboard. I would certainly have facilitated the retrieval electron, (I.O.P. Publishing, Bristol, 1997), remarked, after consulting that clock, that of the information. and Heavy water and the Wartime race for we were “cutting it close.” My wife then cast Of course team members were also indi- Nuclear Energy (I.O.P. Publishing, Bristol, doubt on the accuracy of the clock. “It runs viduals and Dahl gives us some biographi- 1999) and his colloquial writing style (“What about five minutes fast,” she said. My reply cal data and some character description of about our British friends in all of this?” p. was that the Long Island Rail Road seemed the main players: we learn, for example, about 211) make it clear that he is very comfortable to run about five minutes slow, so my friend Rutherford’s constant penny-pinching and with his subject and emotionally engaged. was in no danger of missing his train. about Lawrence’s touchiness when The eighteen-page name index and the My wife and I might be able to live with embroiled in scientific controversy. We twelve-page subject index will certainly help a five minute error in our clocks. However, in encounter quite a few funny (or maybe not in locating the information. various laboratories throughout the world, so funny) anecdotes such as the story of We are fortunate that Dahl has collected scientists and engineers take great pains to the two Berkeley mice: The first mouse was so many facts and sources of information determine and keep the time accurately to 3 fed a most expensive cocktail of heavy about a truly fascinating period in the devel- parts in 1015. Who needs that kind of water for the purpose of studying the effect opment of modern physics. His lively accuracy? of on living organisms. It survived writing and the many surprising turns of the Historically, determining and keeping the against all odds. The second mouse, housed story will help the reader navigate through time has been the purview of the astrono- in a little box of the cyclotron wall, died after the abundance of detail. The book should mers. After all, the changings of the days, five minutes of neutron bombardment due be keenly enjoyed by everyone who likes to months, and seasons to ... lack of air in the box! view progress in physics as one big (and were signaled or An intriguing facet of this book is the mostly friendly) competitive team game. accompanied by cor- presence of a large number of physicists of In the final four paragraphs of the text, responding changes Scandinavian origin whose major contribu- the author summarizes his opinion as to why in the heavens. The tions to nuclear and accelerator physics in the Cambridge team was first to produce astronomical mo- America are either not very well-known or nuclear reactions using man-made accelera- nopoly on time whose Scandinavian origin is not generally tors. It is left to the readers to analyze the keeping began to recognized. significance of this race and indeed of this crumble when mechanical clocks were The main protagonists, Lawrence and whole tale of scientific discovery. In closing developed to solve the problem of “taking Tuve, share Norwegian origins and a South- the book, thoughtful readers will reflect on time with you.” Readers of Dava Sobel’s in- Dakota childhood, and we discover many the changes that have occurred in the scien- credible book Longitude [1] will be aware more physicists (Lauritsen, Anderson, Rolf tific enterprise since the days of that John Harrison’s sea clocks were both Wideröe, whose original ideas led to the Rutherford and Lawrence, and they may accurate enough and stable enough to solve cyclotron, team members Odd Dahl, Philip wonder how many similarly dramatic a longstanding problem in naval navigation. Abelson, Lawrence Hafstad) as well as developments physics has in store for the The end of the astronomical standard for several less important characters with twenty-first century. timekeeping came in the twentieth century, Scandinavian roots. when physicists started applying their However the author does not tell us Tony Jones. Splitting the Second. knowledge of the atom to the problem of whether he sees any significance in this (Institute of Physics Publishing, Bristol & accurate time keeping. concentration of Scandinavian talent in Philadelphia, 2000) 216 pages, 50 cartoons, Tony Jones’ book entitled Splitting the American nuclear physics or whether it is 15 photos, ISBN: 0750306408, $22.99, paper. Second: The Story of Atomic Time is (as he just coincidental. Indeed the scientists Reviewed by Donavan Hall, Assistant announces on the first page) “not primarily comprise a mix of second generation and first- Editor, Physical Review Letters a history of the atomic clock but an account generation Americans, immigrants and tem- Most of us take time for granted. If we of timekeeping today.” [2] Indeed the first porary immigrants, and it is not clear to what need to know what time it is, we look at a two chapters give a fascinating account of extent their common Scandinavian back- convenient clock. Whatever that clock says how time has been measured and the ground created bonds or facilitated their is what time it is – unless we have some way problems with the timekeeping methods that collaboration. Neither does Per Dahl choose of comparing that clock with some other drove the development of better clocks. to acknowledge in the text or in the preface clock. If two clocks read different times, we Jones’ discussion of the geophysical his relationship to the Washington team must decide which one to trust. In our low mechanisms that conspire to speed up and member Odd Dahl (“a curious fellow, indeed”, temperature lab we would joke that an ex- slow down the Earth’s rate of rotation is p. 43) or any precious insight that this perimenter with two thermometers never

30 History of Physics Newsletter • Volume IX, No. 1 • Fall 2003 captivating. Each advance in timekeeping led The motivation for accurately determin- audience for Splitting the Second. For some- to some new insight about the physics of ing the time is clear in terms of our human one with a Ph.D. in physics, Jones’ book is a our spinning planet. He establishes the need for improving technologies. As in John quick and interesting read. He succinctly theme that runs through his book – that Harrison’s day, accurate time keeping is presents physical explanations for the accurate clocks are measurement tools that essential to navigation. The famous GPS or workings of different kinds of atomic clocks help scientists discover new and understand global positioning system is a system of and weaves a compelling, detailed account known physical phenomena. I might not need satellites that broadcast accurate time. By of the difficulties of keeping accurate time. to know the time to better than five minutes, determining the delay between the Jones’ explanation of how to “transfer time” but by determining time to 3 parts in 1015 I signals from several GPS satellites, one can from one place to another prompted me to could (amongst other things) do a number determine one’s position on the Earth’s leap up out of my armchair and dig my old of experiments to check the special and surface to with a few meters. While human shortwave radio out of the basement so that general theories of relativity. Jones provides desires and needs drive the development of I could tune into WWV for an up to the plenty of examples of how accurate measure- time keeping technology, the standards we minute update of the US version of ment of time has led to a better understand- have adopted for measuring time tell us more Universal Coordinated Time. For the first ing of physical phenomena. about humanity than about nature. Ken time in my life I actually understood what One of the issues raised in Jones’ book Alder in his book The Measure of All Things, UTC was and how it was determined. that puzzled me the most was the problem of an account of the effort to establish the meter Jones’ book probably will not interest establishing standards for measurement. as a length standard, writes: “Our methods the casual reader who is easily put off by Determining just how long a second really is of measurement define who we are and what technical descriptions. Although the (once one begins to appreciate the we value.” [3] The modern movement technical descriptions themselves tend not subtleties) can begin to seem like the (beginning with the Enlightenment to be detailed enough for the reader trained Munchausenian task of lifting oneself by Philo-sophes) to establish natural standards in physics to attempt any calculations of their one’s own bootstraps. demonstrates a remarkable shift in how we own. Jones provides a taste of the physics – How long is a day? Every culture humans view ourselves. without the equations. I don’t want to give throughout the history of humanity has Units of measurement prior to the 17th the impression that the casual reader would agreed that a day is the length of time it takes century could be highly idiosyncratic and not be able to follow Jones’ book. Jones has for the Earth to undergo one complete arbitrary. Establishing a natural standard for written his story of timekeeping in a way that rotation. Simple? Not really. As Jones shows, measurement was thought to be less is accessible to the general public, but the the length of the solar day varies by as much arbitrary and more democratic – as Jones presentation lacks those human interest as 30 seconds (either fast or slow) through- says, units “for all people, for all time.” But elements that make for a popular science out the year. Not a big deal if you are like me the shift from an astronomical timekeeping bestseller (if there is such thing). and have clocks that are five minutes off standard to an atomic standard represents [1] Dava Sobel, Longitude (Walker anyway. But 60 second swings in the length an even more radical shift in human self Publishing Co., 1998). of the day translate into significant timekeep- perception. Physics came of age in the [2] Tony Jones, Splitting the Second: ing errors when those errors are compounded twentieth century with advances in The Story of Atomic Time (Institute of over many years. recognizing and understanding the nucleus Physics Publishing, 2000). The seasonal variation of the length of and the atom. This understanding was [3] Ken Alder, The Measure of All the solar day is only one of many factors demonstrated clearly and powerfully to the Things: The Seven-Year Odyssey and that make the rotation of the Earth an world in August of 1945. From that time on, Hidden Error that Transformed the World unsuitable standard for accurate time it is tempting to speculate that the shift to an (The Free Press, 2002), p. 2. keeping. Jones carefully atomic standard for timekeeping was explains them all. How- inevitable. Sean F. Johnston, A History of Light and ever, abandoning the Jones sets out to tell the story of Colour Measurement: Science in the Earth as the time stan- modern timekeeping. On the whole, Jones Shadows (Institute of Physics Publishing, dard introduces addi- successfully informs the reader about the Bristol & Philadelphia, 2001) xi + 281 pages tional problems. When sequence of technological advances in plus (sparse) drawings and B&W the second was defined timekeeping and what issues drove those photographs, ISBN: 0750307545, $56 hard. in terms of the transition advances, but Jones never ventures too far Reviewed by Virginia Trimble, between two hyperfine levels and the into human concerns. Unlike many of the UC-Irvine and U of Maryland ground state of the cesium-133 atom, this more popular accounts of horology and Johnston begins with Astronomer Royal “atomic time” and solar time would always metrology (like Sobel’s Longitude and George Airy (the guy who failed to look for be out of step, so measures had to be taken Alder’s Measure of All Things), Jones avoids Neptune) on the Ides of March 1858, urging periodically to insert (or, in principle, remove) telling us anything about the people who his fellow countrymen to find out by how seconds as necessary to keep atomic time were behind the technological advances. We much sunlight is reduced during an annular and solar time in some agreement. Jones de- learn from Jones all about atomic clocks, but eclipse by trying to read at votes an entire chapter to this issue of in- not much about what makes the scientists various distances from their eyes before, serting “leap seconds” to keep atomic time themselves tick. Not that this is a major during, and after the event. He ends with an and solar time in rough agreement. defect. This fact reveals the intended “Undisciplined Science” of “Declining

History of Physics Newsletter • Volume IX, No. 1 • Fall 2003 31 Fortunes” in 1980, when the Illuminating treatment than is given. It may annoy you l’Eclairage (reconvened after , Engineering Society of London merged with every time you are reminded that the radio without the Germans, of course) could have the Chartered Institution of Building astronomer’s unit, the Jansky, is 10-26 W m-2 come from any resolution adopted by the Services. A few items come from both earlier Hz-1 sr-1, but at least we can think it International Astronomical Union over the and later times, but his focus is on the probably means that they know what they past 85 years. And William Henry Fox Talbot period from the 1890s to World War II, when are measuring. “Quantity of light”, defined (the inventor of the photographic negative) commercial and then military interests drove as “the light reaching either the human eye was a very clever chap indeed. the need for improved, repeatable measure- or the variety of physical detectors that have An enormous amount of hard-gained ments of the properties of light and color. If come into use since 1870” and similarly information has gone into this volume, as you were buying a certain amount of purely verbal definitions of illuminance, exemplified by more than 900 footnotes, many illuminating gas for your factory or dye radiance, and spectral flux leave me much of them extracted from industrial sources, stuffs to continue producing successful less certain about the author. The three whose history we are all just beginning to camouflage uniforms, you wanted to be sure standard attributes of color (hue, saturation, appreciate. But, like the poet, I have come you would get what you were paying for. and brilliance or intensity) are neither back out the entrance door, not having The author has worked as a physicist in defined in any obvious place nor indexed replaced Father’s definition of “white” (a industry, but is now primarily engaged in for the hunt. clean piece of paper outdoors on a sunny history of science. Interesting surprises included how large day) by anything more quantitative. (cf. J.M. The frustrations of reading the book are a role astronomy played in the early years of Overduin, AJP 71:216-219, 2003). Anyhow I surely a good match to the frustrations photometry and how very similar all interna- do now understand why, as late as the 1950s, experienced by the practitioners of tional scientific unions seem to be. Nearly the purveyors of colored gels for theatre and photometry, colorimetry, and radiometry over half the indexed names belong to sound stage lighting sent booklets of the past 150 years. Both as an astronomer recognizable members of our astronomical swatches, rather than lists of the available and as the daughter of a color cinematogra- tribe. The compromise definitions adopted colors! pher, I expected a much more quantitative by the Commission International de

32 History of Physics Newsletter • Volume IX, No. 1 • Fall 2003