Contrastive Negation

Faculty of Arts University of Helsinki

CONTRASTIVE NEGATION

CONSTRUCTIONAL VARIATION WITHIN AND ACROSS LANGUAGES

Olli O. Silvennoinen

DOCTORAL DISSERTATION

To be presented for public discussion with the permission of the Faculty of Arts of the University of Helsinki, in Room 107, Athena, on the 18th of October, 2019 at 12 o’clock.

Helsinki 2019 '1 , K=F '1 , ."$ 3IDBM

ABSTRACT

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ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

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PART I. BACKGROUND

1 INTRODUCTION

1.1 CHARTING THE TERRAIN

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1.2 RESEARCH QUESTIONS AND AIMS

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1.3 OUTLINE

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 2 CONTRASTIVE NEGATION

2.1 INTRODUCTION

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2.2 WHAT IS CONTRASTIVE NEGATION?

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 1#,2#,!#$-!311203!230# 5C

#SJIOM@ AJ>PN M@NK@>ODQ@GT

I simplify Quirk and colleagues’ account somewhat. In their view, focusing may change the scope of negation to =@>JH@IJK@H

In fact, Lambrecht uses the term ‘argument focus’ for what I have chosen to call ‘narrow focus’, following Van Valin =@>ON>PN@?DIOC@N

 2C@NPAA@MDIBJA%J?DNIJO$-!9@O@MICRDOUJMJA>@M@=M

 ‘I’HQJODIBAJM(JCI+>@NN: C@$-![promotes it],’ she purred. (BNC)

 ,-*"HNNOODJIN: $-!9BJQ@MIH@IONGJN@OC@H: ,!

>>JM?DIB OJ *CO KM@?D>PN DN OC@ PIHJIOMDJHHJI G@'' 'IMJNN GDIBPDNOD>Q@AJ>PN G@'4NCJRN $MJHOC@K@MNK@>ODQ@JAOC@KM@N@IO?DNN@MOJGG@JIOMG@NDIN>JK@PNDIJOC@MRDN@ D?@IOD>GOGT M@GJIOMOPMDIBOC@M@G@AON@GG 2C@M@COC@AJ>PNJAJIOMDJAI@BD N@@@NK@>DD N@@@NK@>DJHKJI@IO JA OC@ ?@ADIDODJI JA >JIOMGP?@?JK@ RCDG@DN@S>GP?@? NDI>@ OC@I@BG@GOPM@KMJK@MOC@@SG@'4

 "JTJPBJOJOC@BTHJAO@I B: I don’t [go to the gym often], I go running instead.

 "JTJPBJOJOC@BTHJAO@I ,J 'BJMPIIDIBDINO@

2C@ AJPMOC JHKJI@IO JA OC@ ?@ADIDODJI ?@GDHDON OC@ N@HN JA >JIOMC CJH=DIM@GJMM@>ODJI JIND?@M@? DI >JIEPI>ODJI RDOC JOC@M M@GC JI>@NNDJIJI?DODJIN@@!JPK@M )PCG@I)JMOHGP?DIB OC@N@M@G@H@IO RCD>CDNOC@>MDO@MDJIAJM<>JH=DIJIOM

 1HJFDIB%JCG

!*:2* <>> uwele ma:gsch no (.) ↑guck da hat=s no 47D,1(.5.B=6*+7*0. :24 (72@4:2.0<.:6.62:6E;;.<:*=,1. :24 zum wohl. ((Anstoβen von Gläsern)) ( %25+.7) 77* (-*4866<6.<8<*5=7<.:.:7C1:<4866<6.:1826 bloβ weil die rauche wollet. ‘1 +F #MDF [he’ll get nothing more we have to smoke. (.) #MDF >C@@MN >GDIFDIBJA>Gclauses, ‘he’ll get nothing more’ and ‘we have to smoke’. Together they form a clause combination or, in Gohl’s (2000: 85) terms, a ‘construction’, bound together by the semantics: the latter clause is a cause for the former. #Q@IOCJPBCOC@ADMNO>GJH=DI@ JA >JIOMGDIFJI?GT=@>GCOCDNKCDNOCGP?@OC@9!$76016 :>JINOMP>ODJI@ B 1*052'#-54'0%*$760162#0+5* RCD>C DN @SKGD>DOGT HJI>@NNDJI =T $76 'I MOD>G@' ' <>OPJIND?@M OCDN >JINOMP>ODJI NDI>@DODNAM@LP@IOGT?DN>PNN@?JIOMNRDOC9!016 :G@N ' C@DO?J@NIJOAJGGJROC@?@ADIDODJIOC@H@IO OC@ >JINOMP>ODJI @SKM@NN@N >JI>@NNDJI @>JIOMJHKDKG@ 2CPN DI OC@9!$76016 :>JINOMP>ODJIDN IJOJHKJIO@SO ,JO@OCJINOMP>ODJIDNJMM@>ODQ@ CDI>GP?@NOC@. >JIEPI>ODJI#$'4

 < 2C@T?D@?DI IJO = 2C@T?D@?DI=POIJO &P??G@NOJI.PGGPH

 #0&;52+'.6(755$#..#$'40+%*66'00+5 ‘Sandy plays soccer but not tennis.’ ()JID@OUFJ5DIFG@M

-OC@M>JINOMP>ODJINOCJPG?CGP?@OC@9!+(016 : >JINOMP>ODJI RCD>C JI?AJMHNJA>JIOMJI?DODJIC>GP?@? NDHDGPNN@?<=JQ@

'I OC@ AJGGJRDIB OCM@@ NP= N@>ODJIN ' GJJF PNDNJIOC@NTIO<>OD>KOTK@NJA>JIOMNODQ@JA>JIOMODQ@>JINOMP>ODJIOTK@

2.2.2 CONTRASTIVE NEGATION AS A FAMILY OF CONSTRUCTIONS 2C@KM@QDJPNN@>ODJI?@ADI@?>JIOM@NND@IO>JI?DODJIN 5@HJIOMODJI 2CPN 'HJQ@ AMJH>JIOMJHKJI>@KOOJ>JIOMMDKODQ@ >MDKODQ@ >JI>@KODJI >JIOMG@N 2CDNDHKGD@NOCJINOMP>ODJINOCCCODQ@DIHJM@?@OMD=DIB>JIOMPNJA MOD>G@N' JHKG@N''' JIOM@NNONRDOCHJM@OCJIQ@IODJIPNJIOC@=DK?DNODI>ODJIMPIN=@OR@@II@BJI?AJMHNJA >JIOM!JJM?DI JM JIEJDI@? @G@H@ION GGDQ@ ODQ@ 'I MOD>G@ ' OC@ M@KG<>DQ@ I@BJINOMP>ODJINGJJFGDF@–

 9016 $76!: 5DOCDIOC@2JMT.

 9IJO6 7: 'ODN

 #6. ,"#",#% 2'4# $'012 2C@NPAA@MDIBJA%J?DN126@O@MICRDOUJMJA>@M@=M

9:2JOOD@>G@'AJM?DN>PNNDJI

 .0#$ !#",#% 2'4# $'012 2C@M@=@GNG@AO+@MNC@?=<>F OJOC@DM=FNRDOCMDAG@N =CDI@ guns, chanting: ‘2 5744(1'(46+(),*+6*2(521.’ (BNC: A9E)

DN@JAOC@9016 $76!:>JINOMP>ODJI DNNDHDGJMM@>ODQ@>JIEPI>ODJIDIDO =JOCJAOC@>JIOMJIOMOD>MG@ JA OC@ I@BC >JINOMP>ODJINKM@A<>@? !JINOMP>ODJINGDF@–JIND?@M@?DIG@NDI .G@' 'IJO@?OC@>JIADBPM

901651/7%* #5$76!: The influence of all three is perceptible in Nicholas Shakespeare’s first novel, OCJPBCDODNnot so much the magical flights of Marquez as Greene’s $6+2/,&0;56,&,50RCD>C'AJPI?OC@HJNODIOMDBPDIB ,! %

 -2�,#% 2'4# $'012 2&#A<>OOCF@T+JPN@?D?126OPMIPKDI*JI?JIAJMOC@@H@IO of Eurodisney’s share price, preferring to battle it out with anti "DNI@T ?@HJINOMPNJAOC@#PMJK@ RD?@DNNP@DN ,! %

DGGPNOMJINOMP>ODJIOCJH@NRDOC<>JMM@>ODQ@ $76DINO@GJN@N@HDJIOMJIOMG@?DIBJIQ@IODJIJIOMJINOMP>ODJI=POOC@I@BGPNDQ@JIO@SO 2C@M@KG<>DQ@I@BJI?>JINOMP>ODJIND?@IODAD@?DI MOD>G@'

 9!016 : 2C@TO@?DI

 9!#0&016 : 2CDNKPG@JAAD>@M?J@N

#6. ,"#",#% 2'4# 1#!-," &@MPI>G@ +M#PNO<>@1C@NO@M >JI?@HI@?OC@ bombers for callous lack of ‘consideration for their own humanity and flesh’. ‘"+(;$4($1,0$/56+(;$4(126+70$1,’ he said. (BNC: AKH)

DGGPNOMJINOMP>ODJI OC@HJNO>JI?@IN@?JI? >JINOMP>ODJIN NCJRN DONNTI?@OD> QGP?@N OC@ JIEPI>ODJI #0& DGGPNOMJI?KCMJMM@NKJI?DIB I@BJI? >JINOMP>ODJINN@@HOJ=@PN@?DIQ@MTNDHDGJPMN@ PNN@?DI MOD>G@''AMJHOC@KJDIOJAQD@RJA>JINOMP>ODJI@IOMJIOMJIND?@M@? DIG@NJA.JI?KC

 -2�,#% 2'4# 1#!-," *JI?JI@GJ>PODJIO@<>C@M #?RDI<.D>F@OODIPI?

NCJRN ORJ M@GGCO@MDN@ OC@ NJI?JI@=TI@BGPNDQ@N>@IC JA OC@ KM@QDJPNGT DGGPNOMJINOMP>ODJIC@HDQ@GT ODQ@GT ?@K@I?DIBJIOC@KM@N@I>@JM<=N@I>@JAGPNDQ@@G@H@IODI @DOC@MOC@I@BG@'?DN>PNN@NOC@>JINOMP>ODJI DI

 9!$76016 : 'I<>@IOPMT"ODJIOCOM@NNAJMRCJHOC@MJG@ MJHK

NCJRN OC@ 9! $76 016 : >JINOMP>ODJI 'I MOD>G@ ' DO DN GDNO@? PI?@M M@NOMD>ODQ@ >JINOMP>ODJIN DHKGTDIBOCJINOMP>ODJIDN JAO@IDJIOMODJI =@GJR 'ODNAJMOCDNM@PNN@?DI MOD>G@' &JR@Q@M OC@>JINOMP>ODJI>JIOCQDJGJI>@NNDQ@DIH@C MOD>G@'?@AD@NHTPGODHJIOM>@KODIB>

 26only will it not be like its parents, it probably won’t want to be. (BNC: A7Y)

 7@OC@?D?126JKKJN@RC@HDON@GA); he simply didn’t like the idea that big DI?PNOMDJPG??PHKOC@DM?DMOTKMJ=G@HNJIOCDN>JPIOMT

JOC>JIOMO=JOCJAOC@>JIOM

 IJOC@MOTK@JA>CRGP?@?DI MOD>G@'=POIJONP=N@LP@IOGTDNDI

 5@GG520((56$6(51260$1;2)&2745(%76520((56$6(5C

GJJFNGDF@JIOMJI>@NNDQDOT @>GP?@NJI>@NNDQ@HGP?@?DIOC@JOC@M G@N 5DOCJPO OC@ KGP?DIB $76 DORJPG?=@<>JINOMP>ODJI@GN OC@ADMNOKJINOMP>ODJIMJIOMJPIO@?JIOMG@''' 2C@AJMHNJA#IBGDNC!JIOMJIND?@M@?>JIOM

Table 1. Contrastive negation vs. other construction types

2405 2) &2164$56,8( 1(*$6,21 ,1 :$03/( 1*/,5+ 9016 $76!: IJOJI>@=POORD>@ 9016 !: IJOJI>@ ORD>@ #6. ,"#",#% 2'4# $'012 It didn’t happen once, it happened twice. .0#$ !#",#% 2'4# $'012 ,JOJI>@ DOC@ 901651/7%* #5$76!: IJONJHP>CJI>@@ 9!016 : ORD>@ IJOJI>@ 9!#0&016 : ORD>@@ #6. ,"#",#% 2'4# 1#!-," It happened twice, it didn’t happen once. 2405 126 &2716(' $5 &2164$56,8( :$03/( 1(*$6,21,11*/,5+$)6(446,&/( 9!$76016 : IPH@MJPNHOD>JJM?DIJPMN@ =PONJH@ @NOJINOMP>ODJINJIOMG@ ''' CDJMM@>ODQ@>JIEPI>ODJIN8##0>@KO<=G@DI=JOCNK@@>CJIOMJMM@>ODQ@N@IN@DN >JGGJLPDG@''' DONA@RJ>>PMM@I>@NJMM@>ODQ@>JIEPI>ODJIODQ@ RCD>C NPBB@NON OCJIEPI>ODJIN ?DAA@M API>ODJIJH@G@SD>GJIEPI>ODJINR@RDGGN@@NJH@@SODJI

2.2.3 CONTRASTIVE NEGATION AS REPLACEMENT, ADDITION OR RESTRICTION NODJI >JIOMOTK@N =COC@>JIOMJINOMP@? Adapting Dik et al.’sO@MHDIJGJBT 'CDQ@ ODQ@ 2CDN?DQDNDJIDN>@IOMJIOMJINOMP>ODJIAJINDNONJAOC@QJINOMP>ODJIND?@IODAD@?=T@ B %!JINOMP>ODJIN CJINOMP>ODJIN JINOMP>ODJINDI#IBGDNCDNOJ @SKM@NNJI@JAOC@OCM@@N@HOTK@N "DFJGG@PNNOC@OCM@@N@HOTK@NPN 2C@DMN@H>G

– 

! 

 % 

% 

% – 

– 

Figure 1 The typology of focus phenomena (Dik et al. 1981:60)

2C@ADMNO?DNODI>ODJI>PON=@OR@@IAJ>DOC@JADIAJMHCDODN >JHKDOGTJM@SKGD>DOGT"DF@OJIOMC>JIOMDOGTH@IODJI@? PNOCPN @S@HKGDAD@?DI

5CDG@"DF@OG A@CJN@I OJ ?DN>PNN !JIOMJINDNO@IOGT JIOM

'IMD=DIB >JIOMJINOMP>ODJIN PNDIB OC@ @N JA @MF@G@T !JINOMP>ODJI %M

 5CJAA@@ "DF@O

2CDN@SGPN NIJO@? OCDNMPIN>JPIO@MOJ*CO RCJ >GGPN 2CPN APNDIBOC@N@ORJ<>>JPIONJAAJ>PN R@HJIOMDOCJHKG@ODQ@–DI?@@? HDDII>PMMDIB?DN>JPMN@ PNNPI?@MOC@ MP=MD> JA $J>PN CDAD> KM@NPKKJNDODJI DI RCD>C >DAD> .M@NPKKJNDODJI 'IOCDN>GPN NCJRIDI

 (JCI=JPBCO<=DF@ =PO.@O@M<>

2C@M@NOJA !JIOMDDAD>.M@NPKKJNDODJI 2C@N@FDI?NJAAJ>PNJMM@>ODQ@ !JMM@>ODQ@ODQ@ !JMM@>ODQ@>DIB @SKODIB RCD>C correspond to my replacive, additive and restrictive. Replacing focus is defined as ‘cases in RCD>CDAD>DO@HDIOC@KMDIAJMH@? by another, correct item’ (Dik et al. 1981: 63). There are thus two parts to replacing focus: M@E@>ODJIOC@I@BJMM@>ODJIOC@JIOM

 (JCIR@IOOJ*JI?JI < B: No, he didn’t go to London, he went to New York. = ,J C@R@IOOJ,@R7JMF IJOOJ*JI?JI > B: No, he didn’t go to London. ? ,J C@R@IOOJ,@R7JMF "DF@O

<JIOMONDIBAJ>PN >JIGT>JIOODJIJMM@>ODJI 1ODGG OC@TDIBAJ>DOC@I@BPNDI>HJIQ@TOC@A<>O that something is amiss in A’s discourse universe and locates this, and the affirmed focus in d succeeds in removing ‘London’ and replacing it with ‘New York’ as they are construed GPNDQ@DIOCDNKPGDIBAJ>PNDQ@>JIOMC@OTKCOC@$J>PNDIAJMHPN DO?J@NIJO@S<>OGT>JMM@NKJI?RDOCJIOM

 KM@NPKKJNDODJIJA (JCI=JPBCOSS>JAA@@ < (JCIIJOJIGT=JPBCO>JAA@@ C@@ = 7@N =POC@@ "DF@O

NDI R@>PN>JINOMP>ODJINJHKG@O@ >JIOMJINOMP>ODJI = JIGT CJMM@>ODJI AMJH RCD>C OC@ M@E@>ODJI must be inferred. Dik et al. note that A’s presupposition is not actually reE@>O@?C– JIGTOC@DHKGD>MDKODJIJARCODQ@DNG@NN<=G@OJ@SKPN OCODQ@ Aocus is restricting focus, ‘a type of Focus by which an antecedently given presupposed set is restricted to one or more correct values’ (Dik et al. BJGG@JIOMJMM@>ODJIK

 KM@NPKKJNDODJIJA (JCI=JPBCOSS>JAA@@@ < No, he didn’t buy rice, he only bought coffee. = ,J C@JIGT=JPBCO>JAA@@ "DF@O

"DF@OCOC@M@DNDAD>KM@NPKKJNDODJI=PODODNIJO>JMM@>O@? These are cases of selective focus, which is used ‘when the Focus information selects one DO@HAMJHJIOM

 "D?(JCI=PT>JAA@@JMMD>@ < &@=JPBCO>JAA@@ = &@=JPBCO>JAA@@ IJOMD>@ "DF@O

DNIJO>JMM@>ODQ@NDI>@IJOCDIBOCO@?MODJIDNHJIOMC"DF et al.’s classification does not fully match my three semantic types. "DFJGG@JI>@MI@?RDOCAJ>PN 'JI>@MI@?RDOCDAD>OTK@JA >JINOMP>ODJIN $JMOCDNM@GOTK@NNCJPG?=@PI?@MNOJJ?ODJIKG@JM<=N@I>@JAGPNDQ@@G@H@IONP>CJINOMP>ODJI DA OC@M@ DN GPNDQ@ DI OC@ I@BJINOMP>ODJIDNGPNDQ@DIOC@JINOMP>ODJI DN M@NOMD>ODQ@ -A >JPMN@ I@BDO OOC@NODQ@ >JIOM @IMD>CH@ION JI >JINOMP>ODJIN RCJN@ N@H H@MD=@?G@' OCDNDN

 APMOC@MBMJPI?NAJM>JIND?@MDIBM@KG<>DQ@>JIOMJ?DIB=PO OTK@N #S>GPNDQ@ JIOM@ =@OR@@I,756PGJIND?@M@? NTIJITHJPN JIND?@M

 Tax evasion is not {just/#only} a misdemeanour, it’s a felony. (Horn 2000: 149)

!MDHDI@N AJMH < MMDHDI@>>JM?DIBOJ&JMI– RCDOJPNDIOCDN>JIO@SODNDONKM@NPKKJNDODJICO@M+501610.; entails ‘S is P’. Since tax evasion can only be either a misdemeanour or a felony, the variant RDOC10.;DNDIA@GD>DOJPN T>JIOMOD>?DAA@M@I>@=@OR@@I016,756

< He doesn’t {only/just/merely/simply} like her (—C@GJQ@NC@M = &@IJOVJIGT EPNO H@M@GT NDHKGTWGDF@NC@M C@GJQ@NC@M > ,JOVJIGT EPNO H@M@GT NDHKGTW?J@NC@GDF@C@M C@GJQ@NC@M ? He {doesn’t only like/*not only likes} her. @ ,JOJIGT9?J@NC@GDF@C@M: &JMI NGDBCOGTHJ?DAD@?

2C@ >@ JA I@BJH=DIGPNDQ@ G 2C@N@RJM?JM?@MQJIOMJINOMP>ODJINCDNBDQ@I PDG?DIBJIOCDN 'IO@M@NODIBJINOMP>ODJIC@HOTK@NDNIJO@SKGJM@?DIOCDN?DNN@MOJMKPNNOP?D@NAJ>PNDIBJIOTK@NJMDJINOMP>ODJINNK@>DAD>@KODJINDN2JOOD@ RCJ=MD@AGTIJO@NOCJINOMP>ODJIDNHJM@>JHHJIDIRMDODIBOCC 3I?@MNOJI>GPNDJINM@B@ MOD>G@'>JMMJ=JMO>JI?DODJINOCCJD>@JA< =ODJI COTK@NJA >JIOMODJICOC@TR@M@IJO@?

&JMINPBB@NONOCJIO@IOC@ &@JIOMJQ@MND

DIAJMHOPMJINOMP>ODJI OTK@N=JOC RDOCDI MJNN GPGO RDOCOC@OTK@JA@S>GPNDQ@JINOMP>ODJI 2C@M@NOMD>ODQ@OTK@DN >JII@>O@?OJOC@@H@MB@I>@JA>JMM@>ODQ@@G@H@ION HCGPNDQ@@G@H@ION@ B OC@$DIIDNC1,>JIEPI>ODJI8##0

2.2.4 CONTRASTIVE NEGATION AS INTERSUBJECTIVITY ,@BJMM@>OKM@QDJPNGTJMKJO@IODODQ@NODJI@DOC@M NKJF@I RMDOO@IJMNDBI@?>DKD@ION RCD>C@IO>JPIOOC@DMK@MNK@>ODQ@ JMODQ@DNKM@NPH@?OJ=@ 2CDN JMD@IOODQ@ CJH@ OJ =@ FIJRI ODQDOT N M@BODQDOT CODJI =@OR@@INK@@ I@BJIND?@M@?AMJHOC@KJDIOJAQD@RJA @SKM@NNDIB NO@N OCJINOMP@? =T OC@ NK@ODQ@GT NCJI>@KOPA ,PTON=PON@@4@MCJH@N>GJN@OJOCDN ,@B@AJMBPD?DIBOC@JIQ@MNODJI 1>C@BGJAA (@AA@MNJI 1<>FN 1>C@BGJAA %DQ@I OCJPIO@MKODJINTBD@M N DO OJINOMP@? JPMN@ KDK@ DO >JIOMD=PO@NOJJIOMJIOMODQDOTDIJMM@>O=@GD@AN 'IHT?JIOMM@@>A "P JDN 'I OG@''' R@N@@M@JIOM

 !JIQ@MNCDQ@1B 

4;.52 62*2 ‘what, he I mean what, was he really bad? or?’ &**>2 852 ;.!.52;;*78;227>**7.<CC7

4;.52 >*244* ;22;<82;27 ;*78.7 *5<18=01 ;8 8<1.:"%&;*A""%& ‘although, so in other words’ → " % 9=+52,2;.#&# +=< ,:2<2,2;.#%& ‘he didn’t publicise but criticised (us)’ &**>2 7227<82;27;*78.7 ‘yeah, in other words’ 'I FN@GDPNNDIBOC@G@CJDMDIRCD>COC@T=JOCCJDMG@JIO@IOJARCD>C?J@NIJO KG@JIO@IOOJ FN@GD 'IGDI@N –, Taavi summarises the contents of the interview and the choir leader’s criticism of the >CJDMH@H=@MN 'IGDI@N– FN@GDNCJRNOC@@SKM@NN@?=T2<OJINOMP@?@>M@G@'''NCJRN OC@DIO@MNP=E@>ODQ@IJIOMJMM@GPGC>JIOMODQ@GT 2C@AJMHNOCJIOMODJI@JADONPN@

2.3 PREVIOUS ACCOUNTS

2C@M@CPN@?JI>JIOMC T >JIOMODJI 'NCJIOMJH=DIJIOMAJMPNNDJIN -IOC@JI@CJIOMJIOMPNN@?DIN@>ODJI -IOC@JOC@MCJIOMJH=DIC DOCPNN@?DIOC@GDO@MJJM?DIJIND?@M@? NP=JM?DIG@JJM?DIJIOMPGJIEPI>ODJIN 2CDNGDO@MODJI 2C@?DN>PNNDJINJIKJGJMM@>ODQ@>JJM?DIJI>@MIN

PNNDJIM@GCDNQD@R@?JIOMJINOMP>ODJIN #GGDKNDNDNOC@OJKD>JAN@>ODJI 1@>ODJI DN?@QJO@?OJ>JIOMMJKNPKDIN@Q@MN 'IOCODJI 'KM@N@IORJMFJI>JIOMOPM@N OJOC@@SO@IOOCJIOMPNN@?DIOC@Q I@BODJIDI RC@M@'NCJIOMI@BI@BJIOM

2.3.1 NEGATION ,@BJMM@NKJI?DIB@ RC@I;9+('+501624')0#06DNOMP@ ;9+('+524')0#06DNA@KODJIG@NN GGJI>@KOPN DONI

9?:@K@I?DIBJIRCJTJPC <>O < = @G@H@IO JA N@H M@KM@N@IOJHHPID>ODJI #<>CJAOC@N@DOTDIGJBD> DIGM@GJIO@NNDIBODH@OCJPMN@ %DQ`I IJO@? OCC<>O C@DOJPNDAOC@>JIO@IOOCJIBMPJPN DI OC@ <=N@I>@ JA < KM KM@NPKKJNDODJI OC>JHHJ?JBIDODQ@ GDIBPDNOD>N OCDN KM >JHKG@SDOT C@N1R@@ON@M"TBD@MAJM>JPIO N@@$

JIID@M I@BODQ@N RC@M@ ODQ

'ODNKJNND=G@OJCFNODJIJHKG@O@ D @ DO>JH=DI

1@@>C@IO>C

 @S@NM@KM@N@IONDO@N

 2CDNODH@ OC@M@RC>JHHPID>JPG?CDK

4@MC+6M@A@MOJ?DAA@M@IO OCDIBNOC@ADMNO+6refers to the negative clause (‘¬[there was communication]’), the second +6OJDONJPIO@M part (‘there was communication’). Thus, both the negation and OC@>JMM@NKJI?DIBODQ>JPIOB@ON NPKKJMOAMJHKNT>CJGDIBPDNOD>@SK@MDH@IONOC@NN@?DIORJ NO@KN@ B )

Figure 2 Two mental spaces evoked by sentential negation (Verhagen 2005:30)

5CDG@I@BJHKJIND?@M<=G@C@O@MJB@I@DOTRDOCDII@BJINOMP>ODJIN 'IOTKJGJBT OC@NOJINOMP>ODJINOCGGJINOMP>ODJINNK@>D@MOJIO@SONNP>CDAD>JIOMDC >JINOMP>ODJIN CC NJH@ Q +PBCDJIOMJINOMP>ODJIN JIOMDJINOMP>ODJIN$7DJIOMCDN<>JH=DIPNHDJIOMJIOMJI?

< #$7*'-#('+'4*'%*# C@ ,#% ?MDIF >JAA@@ =PO ?MDIF O@< ‘He didn’t drink coffee but tea.’ = # *' %*# $7 *' -#('+ C@ ?MDIF O@< ,#%?MDIF>JAA@@ ‘He drank tea, not coffee.’ > # $75*+ *' -#('+ 6# 5*+ *' %*# C@ ,#% $-!?MDIF>JAA@@C@$-!?MDIFO@< ‘He didn’t drink >JAA@@—he drank tea.’ ? # 5*+ *' %*# 6#$75*+ *' -#('+ C@ $-!?MDIFO@JAA@@ ‘He drank tea—he didn’t drink coffee.’ (Yeh 1995: 57, glossing modified)

JINOMP>ODJIRDOCOC@>JIEPI>ODJI'4 ‘but’. =CJI?>JINOMP>ODJI >CDJIOMJINOMP>ODJI OC@ >JIOMPN KG@ 5*+ DI OC@ JINOMP>ODJI ? CDJIOMJI? >JINOMP>ODJI .@MCJIOMOJH=DI@NORJIJODJIN@ B DIHe doesn’t sm1-'%+)#45the two notions are ‘he’ and ‘smoking cigars’). Contrastive constructions deviate from this pattern, as AMJH -N>

 < +TMPDI>

!JIOMD@DOJIOMJINOMP>ODJINNP>CJINOMP>ODJIN@MQ@N@N OCOOC@@SKM@NNDJIJAI@BDKG@N OCJHK@O@ JINOMP>ODJIN OC@ ADMNO DN OC@ preference for nexal negation, the second for negation to be attached to ‘any word that can easily be made negative’ (Jespersen 1917: 56). Presumably, the variation between nexal and IJI I@SJIOMJINOMP>ODJINDN?P@OJOC@>JHK@ODODJI=@OR@@IOC@N@ORJ KMDI>DKG@N=T?@AJIOMJINOMP>ODJIN DODNPN@APGOJC OC@I@BPNOJHJIOMDO &JR@Q@M (@NK@MN@INOJKNNCJMO JANK@GGDIBOCDN>JII@>ODJIJPODOGTM@?DO@?AJM PI>JQ@MDIBDKG@ I@B ADMNOJMOC@KM@A@M@I>@AJMI@BJH@@G

(@NK@MN@I 'I MOD>G@'JAOCDN?DNN@MODKG@DNDIQJF@?OJ@SKGJIOMJI?AJMHN@ B 5*#-'0#0&01656+44'&DI#IBGDNC 2CDNO@I?@I>T> KM@NPKKJNDODJI JA I@B@? <=JQ@ DA JPIO@MDO DODN=@OO@M OJ?JOC@>JPIO@MDIB=@AJM@ JAA@MDIBOC@JBIDODQDNOO@MHN DAOC@H@IO@JANODMMDIB< HDIBDORDOC@JANCJBIDODQ@ RJMFAMJHOC@C@@?@NOC@>JINOMP>ODJIOJCJINODOP@IO CDNOC@ J=GDBJPIO@M@S

 ,JO(JCI=PO+

)GDH<@SKGGCO@IN@ =@GP?DIB PS C@KOOJ=@=TDONAJ>PN 1@@ N@>ODJI AJMHJM@JI@GGDKNDNJIOMJHHDOO@?OJ#IBGDNC>JIOMJIND?@MNOC@KMJK@MNTIO<>OD>@MOJIOMOD> O@NON %JI>GP?@OCJINOMP>ODJINDNNP=JM?DIODJI +JNO JA RCJIOMCODJI=@OR@@I?@N>MDKODQ@

'I OC@ HJM@ M@>@IO B@I@M@IO@ >JIND?@MN NP>C >G@IO@ &@=<>FNOCDNPKRDOCDD DD ,JO<=JT=PO@IO@ Vicente’s aMBPH@IODNOC@OC@1P=E@>O 4@M=ONJA?DAA@M@IO >GJJM?DIJIND?@M@?<>JJM?DIO 4@M=JJM?DIJINOMP>ODJINDNGH@JIGTOC@JIEJDIDIDD?J@N JIEJDIDN @>JMM@>ODQ@>JJM?DIG

I@BMDKODQ@I@BMDKODQ@DADOM@Q@MN@NOC@ OMPOC QJMM@NKJI?DIB I@B@MJIO@IO !G@SI@B

 I didn’t manage to trap two mJI%##1#—'H

 Grandma isn’t ‘feeling lousy’, Johnny, she’s indisposed.

 I’m not his daughter—he’s my father.

 1-+#men aren’t chauvinists— **H@IC

0JIO@IO &JMIAJMH OC@NJ>D@JMvagueness of Horn’s formulation seems to linger in NJH@G>JPION =GPMMDIBOC@GDI@N=@OR@@IH@OI@BJIOMJMM@>ODQ@>JJM?DI@CDNNOP?T DOCJIOMPG>JPIODIBAJMH@OI@B I@BJHKG@S'NCPGODJI $JM KM@N@IO KPMKJN@N OC@HJNODIO@M@NODIBJAOC@M@NKJIN@NOJ&JMIDN+>!JIAG!!

 < '>JH@OJ=PMT!<@NJH@OJ=PMT!<@N

JOCJAOC@N@@SJIOM@ RC@M@CJD>@ 2C@ AJMH@M DN OCPN ?@N>MDKODQ@ OC@ G !JIOMC OCJPBC<>>JM?DIBOJ McCawley, it ‘lends itself particularly easily to metalinguistic uses’ (1991: 189). The bulk of McCawley’s paper is about contrastive negatDJIJINOMP>ODJIN DI #IBGDNC ODQ@ N@@ +>!JAOC@K!!

‘S&-02’$-0+1 < (JCI?MJAA@@=POO@< =AJMH = (JCI?MJAA@@ M@Q@MN@AJMH > John didn’t drink coffee but tea. CJM@?AJMH c’.I’m surprised at John not drinking coffee but tea. ‘E6. ,"#"’$-0+1 ? John didn’t drink coffee, he drank tea. =@SKJAA@@ M@Q@MN@@SK

+>!JIND?@MN OC@ 9016 $76 !: >JINOMP>ODJIOJ=@=N@@< 2C@9!016 :>JINOMP>ODJIDI=DN?@MDQ@?AMJHDO DI OCDN ?@MDQJIEPI>ODJI $76 DN GJNO C BDQ@N OC@ construction its name in McCawley’s system, the ‘reverse form’. The basic and reverse forms are ‘short’ forms, which means that they operate on phrases. Forms of contrastive negation OCGIJMOC@M@Q@MN@AJMHCJIEPI>ODJIJANCJMOAJMHJIGTDI>GP?@N>COC@I@BC@?OJDONAJ>PN 5C@IDOis not (i.e. when it is ‘nexal’ in Jespersen’s terminology), we have an ‘anchored’ form –NJ>CJM@?OJOC@>GJK@+>!NCJRNCJMDIBOJGCJM@?AJMHND@=@OR@@II@BC@?OJOC@DMAJ>PNJINOMP>ODJINOCJINOMP>ODJIDI#IBGDNC>A $MD@?XNOHCJM@?AJMHN are difficult to treat empirically since many cases are ambiguous between McCawley’s CJM@?AJMHN 2CDNDNKPGJKPGGCC@?OJOC@Q@M=JMOJDONAJ>PN

 &@DNIJO$M@I>C=PO%@MH

2CDN DN IJO OJ ?DN>JPIO OC@ ?DNODI>ODJI =@OR@@I CJM@? CJM@? AJMHN >JHKG@O@GT +G@N'''@ JM G<>F OC@M@JA AJM I@BC@? OJOC@ Q@M= KCMCC DJIOMJIOMJH=M@"P>MJO>JIND?@M < RCD>C >JIODJIOMC OC@ NOJINOMP>ODJIne…pasDNPN@?

< M+'00'.'#07$''560102#5$.'7/#+5,#70' ‘In Vienna, the Danube is not blue but yellow.’ (constructed) = À Vienne, le Danube n’est pas bleu, mais jaune. ‘In Vienna, the Danube isn’t blue but yellow.’ (Plantin 1978: 89)

2C@M@GJIOMJINOMP>ODJIN DNJINOMP>ODJINONC?@MDQJMJGGOOC@IJODJIOCJINOMP>ODJIDI<JMOC@ #SKJINOMP>ODJI DI d are in any way ‘basic’ in relatiJI OJ JOC@M >JINOMP>ODJIN DI OC@ >JIOMCM@E@>ONOC@KJNND=DGDOTJAGDIFN=@OR@@I>JINOMP>ODJIN -IOC@>JIOMODJIJINOMP>ODJIN 2CDN D?@CJIOMJINOMP>ODJIN $JM+>!C@?>JINOMP>ODJIC@HGC@HC@?JINOMP>ODJING@'JINOMP>ODJINJMNDHKGTK!JMKPN =DJGDIBPDNOD>NOP?D@NJI#IBGDNCI@BPGHDIJIOM<>O@?AJMHn’t CJIND?@MNN@Q@MJIOMJINOMP>ODJIN2JOOD@ – &@M?@ADIDODJIJA>JIOMJINOMP>ODJI?DAA@MNNJH@RCJIOMGP?DIBJINOMP>ODJI2JOOD@ ,@Q@MOC@G@NN OJHTFIJRG@?B@ Tottie’s is the only corpus =JIOMJINOMP>ODJIN=@AJM@ MOD>G@' PNDNJIOC@QOJAOCJQ@MNDIO@M@NODIBKJIOMJINOMP>ODJIN 2JOOD@ NOJIOMGC@? DI #IBGDNC OCMJPBC DON PN@ DI >JIOMJINOMP>ODJIN 2C@ CMJID> >JII@>ODJI =@OR@@I016 negation and contrastive negation is confirmed in both Tottie’s study and my MOD>G@' 2JOOD@divides contrastive constructions into two groups, which she calls ‘neg first’

 2JOOD@ DO@N (@NK@MN@I DI OCDN >JIO@SO JIOMJINOMP>ODJINDJI>@MINOC@?DNODI>ODJI =@OR@@INK@>DCDNIJOD?@IOD>ODJI

LaBrum’s study is based on a very small dataset. Working with more data, Wallage –ADI?NOCJIOM@OC@-G?#IBGDNCK@MDJ? OCDNKMJ=<=GTR@?OC@@

and ‘neg second’; because of the former’s association with Jespersen’s (1917) neg ADMNO principle, I have used the terms ‘negative first’ and ‘negative second’ instead. AccordiIBOJ Tottie (1991: 163), the two types are ‘distinguished by the locus of the contrastive negative AJ>PN@DOC@M=@AJM@JM@

 < ,#%6 327 '?D?IJOI@@?HJI@T=POAMD@I?N = 6 32,#%7 'I@@?@?AMD@I?N=POIJOHJI@T

2JOOD@?J@NIJOHODJI=@OR@@IJMM@>ODQ@ $76 2CPN ?@ADI@? >JIOMJINOMP>ODJIN <>>JPIO AJM JA OC@ I@B>JPIO@? AJM JIGT JA OC@ NKJF@I>@IO@OC@MJIOMC CJI? >JINOMP>ODJIN JINOMP>ODJI GDF@ JM JOC@M @SC JIOM

 OCDNDN David Simons # … # gives his address # =POIJ?

 2C@C@?PG@?AJM KMDG=TOC@.M@ND?@IO=PONJA

 POOC@M@R@M@OCM@@?@

Interestingly, in Tottie’s ?JI?>JINOMP>ODJINJHHJI DINK@@>C >JIOMJIOMJINOMP>ODJI DI OC@N@ NOP?Des. In both Tottie’s study and mine, negative ADMNO >JINOMP>ODJINKM@?JHDIJMKPN =DAD>JIOMJIOMJIOMJINOMP>ODJIN PN@? AJM >JIOM@OC@HD??G@JMKPN =JMKPNNOP?D@NJA I@BPG@JA>JIOMJIO@SODOAM@LP@IOGTM@NKJI?N OJ NJH@OCDIB DI OC@ >JIO@SO 2C@M@ C < BDQ@I O JA OC@ ?DN>JPMN@PIDQ@MN@>JPG?=@ GP?@?AMJH>JIND?@MODJI JA I@BJINOMP>ODJIN JIOMPGDN@ROOCPNDIB@DOC@MOCMJPBCDONKJNDODJIC 2C@M@

JIOMJINOMP>ODJIN NPBB@NONOCODJIDIBOC@>CJD>@JAJI@ AJMHJQ@MOC@JOC@MN

2.3.2 CORRECTIVE COORDINATION (OR SUBORDINATION) 'CJIOMJH=DIJH=DIDIBORJ@G@H@ION NP>CG ?DNODI>ODJI >PON <>MJNN >JJM?DIJH=DIJH=DICJI@DN?@K@I?@IOJIOC@JOC@M !MJNN GDIBPDNOD>JJM?DIJJM?DIJIEPI>ODJI#0&DI+/#0&''1ODJMM@GJH=DIC=JOC@G@H@ION JH=DIC I@DOC@M DN H

 < (JCIDN<0@KP=GD> (JCIDN%26+<0@KP=GD>

+T ?@ADIDODJI JA >JIOMDAT RC@OC@M OC@ >JINOMP>ODJIN JJM?DIJMM@GJM@>JINOMP>ODJINJJM?DIDJBIDODQ@ODJICJGG@PO JAAKJDIO=@OR@@I>JJM?DIF@M– !MJAO–4PGJIOMJINOMP>ODJIN J>>PKT OC@ BM@T JJM?DI@N@Q@MOJI#IBGDNC>JIOMJINOMP>ODJIN9!016 :COC@T?DN>PNNDIOC@NJIO@SO 2C@HJNODHKJMOJI>@MIN NP=E@>O Q@M=

 < JOCOCJN@=JJFN>@KO<=G@ = JOCOCDN=JJF>@KO<=G@

 < #DOC@MOCJN@=JJFNJMOCDNJI@DN<>>@KO<=G@ = #DOC@MOCDN=JJFJMOCJN@JI@N>@KO<=G@

2CDN?DNODI>ODJIH

 < ,JOJIGTOCJN@=JJFN=PO>@KO<=G@ = ,JOJIGTOCDN=JJF=PO>@KO<=G@

 < ,JOOCDN=JJF =POOCJN@ >@KO<=G@ = ,JOOCJN@=JJFN =POOCDNJI@ DN<>>@KO<=G@

 < 2CJN@=JJFN IJOOCDNJI@ >@KO<=G@ = 2CDN=JJF IJOOCJN@ DN<>>@KO<=G@

NCJRNO Q@M=JJM?DIONDI=JOC Q@MNDJINODQ@ >ODNODJIJANDIBPGJIOMDKG@N 0O Q@M=C DN N@HO@? OJ MDBJMJPN O@NODIB 3INPMKMDNDIBGT K@MC@IO@ KM@N@ION@S<>OGTOC@JKKJNDO@EP?B@H@IONDI1K

 < 1 5' VP24'5'06I 24'5'06#410 70 2+#0+56# ,#% 0#$* NCJR PK 1% .12NCJR PK .* .12

'I OC@Q@M=@IO@PN@NOCDN EP?B@H@IOOJJMM@>ODQ@$76DN<>JJM?DIJIEJDINAPGG>GOOJ@GGDKNDNJINODOP@IONN@@2JJNDKG@ DO>JPG?=@OCJJM?DI@IO@>GGJN@ND=GDIB9!#0&016 ] as examples of ‘016in coordination’. McCawley >JIND?@MNOC@=AJMHJA9016 $76!:>JJM?DICJM@?AJMHODJIJIND?@M@?>JJM?DIJIEPI>ODJIN@Q@IRC@IOC@TJMM@>ODQ@GT@ B 0P?JGKC+

5CDG@4D>@IO@?DN>PNN@N=JOC#IBGDNC$76!-00JQ@M1P=E@>O 4@M=

2C@ AJM@BJDIB HDBCO =@ @SKGJJM?DIODIB >JIOMJJM?DIJINOMP>ODJIN>JH@NAMJH@SCG@N' ODQ@GT

The influence of all three is perceptible in Nicholas Shakespeare’s first novel, OCJPBCDODN1265207&+6+e magical flights of Marquez as Greene’s $6+2/,&0;56,&,50RCD>C'AJPI?OC@HJNODIOMDBPDIB ,!

4#E#5#15+06'4%A/$+15&''567'5%1/157%'&'01241)4#/#4#5/75 ‘Thanks to student exchanges, such as Erasmus,’ 15 015515 ,18'05 OC@ .* +JPM .* +TJPIB .* ,#% JIGT ?@@K@I .* OC@ .* +OC@DMFIJRG@?B@ .* DI ?JHDAD> .* + DAD>NP=E@>O areas, but are also broadening their horizons.’ (Europarl)

@SCD=DONOC@ 901651/7%* #5!:>JINOMP>ODJI RCD>C RODJI <=JQ@ 'IDO >JIOMGJN@I@NNJAOCDN>JINOMP>ODJIOJ>JIOM@?=TOC@A<>OOC@?=T$76&P??G@NOJI.PGGPHDIHT ,!?JIOMJINOMP>ODJI 90C1#2'0#55I %1/16#/$F/!] ‘(lit.) not only X as (also) Y’, in which the adversative >JIEPI>ODJI/#5‘but’ is replaced by the similative subordinator %1/1‘as’. This is possibly a M@NPGOJA>JIOJINOMP>ODJI96#061 %1/1!] ‘both X and Y’. SDHDG>@NDIJOC@MGG@'4 ?JINOMP>ODJINPMM@IOJI@NOCGP?@=JOCJAOC@N@DIHT?@ADIDODJIJA>JIOMGP?@NP=JM?DIPGJIOMJIEPI>ODJI$76DIDON >JMM@>ODQ@N@IN@ODJIJIEPI>ODJIJIE I JIOGJINDNO@IO OJ OC@ KJDIO JA I@JHKJMM@>ODQ@NJI>@NNDQ@N@ B C@M@ 2C@O@MHNOCCJN@I

 2J DGGPNOMJHKM@C@INDQ@JIND?@M@?NOP?D@NJIOC@NP=E@>O ?DNJHKG@O@GTJIRC>G

 OJPN@C@M@PMM@I>TDIOC@GDO@MGJKKJNDODJI ?@IDOJMM@>ODJI 1@HJKKJNDODJIM@A@MNOJ>JJM?DIJINOMP@?=TOC@NK@OC@GDO ODJIM@A@MN OJ>CJI@NO

 (JCIDNO

 John is tall but he’s no good at basketball. (Lakoff 1971: 133)

 (JCIDNIJO H@MD>

2C@?DAA@M@I>@=@OR@@IN@HJKKJNDODJIO@IOMG@DQ@NNPKKJMOAMJHOC@A<>OOCODJIN 'IODJI=@OR@@I. JIEPI>ODJIN 0JHODJIDIOC@. ?JH JKKJNDODJIO

< 1007'24156 Marin e leneş. ‘Ion is not stupid, but/and Marin is lazy.’ = 1007'24156dar/însă e leneş. ‘'JIDNIJONOPKD? =POC@DNI@vertheless lazy.’ > 1007'24156 leneş. ‘Ion is not stupid, but lazy.’

'I< +#4>JINOMP@NOC@M@GGJKKJNDODJIDI= M@O %+@AA@>ON<>JMM@>ODQ@>JJM?DIODQ@ >JJM?DIODJIDODJI=@OR@@I. JJM?DIMDKODQ@JIOMJMM@>ODQ@ >JJM?DIJIEPI>ODJIN @ B *

JA@SK@>OPNN=@>

 1@@ 0P?JGKC –AJM

HODJI=@OR@@IJMM@>ODQ@$76 'UPONPKJDIONJPO OCPNJIOC@?DAA@M@I>@=@OR@@IN@HJKKJNDODJIOJMM@>ODJI @ B *PNDIBJIOC@>JIOMJMM@>ODJI 'IQ@MT =MJODJI=@OR@@I H@MD>PNDIBJI#IBGDNCPNDIBJIOC@HJIODI@IOG NOP?T JI >JMM@>ODQ@ >JIEPI>ODJIN DN IN>JH=M@ MJO RCD>C ?DN>PNN@NOC@?DNODI>ODJI=@OR@@IJMM@>ODQ@>JJM?DIPGPNJI$M@I>C RCD>C?J@NIJOHODJI =@OR@@I. ODJIDNM@K@JIQ@ID@I>@

 < 1 '5 (4#0%F5*#$.#(4#0%F5 ,#%=@ 1%$M@I>C=PO "4 NK@C

= &@DNIJO$M@I>C%76C@NK@C

 < 1 '5 (4#0%F5 #.'/?0 ,#%=@ 1%$M@I>C =PO!-00 %@MH

= &@DNIJO$M@I>C%76%@MHJH=M@and Ducrot’s paper appeared at the same time as Dascal and Katriel’s (1977) G@JIOC@N@OC@I OC@?DNODI>ODJI=@OR@@I. JJM?DIC )JMCJI@I $M@I>C DMF@GPI? %@MHCR@IO@M 4D>@IO@ $Y=M@BMJNN GDIBPDNOD>RJMFJIOC@OJKD>$JJG@I< 0P?JGKC+CPFJQ'UPONP+PNDIBJI #PMJK@OOCJIEPI>ODJIN N@@HOJ=@DC@SKGD>DOGDIFN=@OR@@ID?@O@?N@@+DOCPI– – 2C@OCM@@OTK@NJA$76NCJRI<=JQ@CPNNDJI +P>CJAOC@?@=JI>@IOM@MOJGG JKKJNDODJI OOPM@DNJHKGD>

In Abraham’s words, ‘[f]rom the scarce literature on the semantics of clausal conjunctions in general and $76DIKPGJI>GP?@OCC

'IOC@%@MHODJIJA#$'4O@?OC@JM@OD>JH=M@ and Ducrot’s paper (e.g. Abraham 1979; Lang 1984, which are based on the authors’ previous work written in German) .JNND=GT=@>@

OC>@KONOCODJI=@OR@@IN@HJKKJNDODJIOO JKKJNDODJI &JR@Q@M C@ NCJRN OCODJIHPNO=@<>>@KO@?NDI>@0PNNDODJIDIOJ#N@H JKKJNDODJI >JMM@>ODJI ODJIN IJO ?DN>PNN@? =T $JJG@I O JKKJNDODJI @SKM@NN@? RDOC # ?@IDOJMM@>ODJI

 .') .,7$+6 (76$1. 1/#0' .,7$+6 -G@B GDF@N AJJO=

 #0,# 241567&+.5,# 215*'. 8 5*-1.7 4JG? =PO R@IO OJ N>CJJG ‘Vanja caught cold, but went to school’ (Malchukov 2004: 180)

 .') '<&+. 0' 8 Pariž, 8 '4.+0 -G@B R@IO IJO OJ .

2C@M@AJM@ <>>JM?DIBOJ$JJG@I #IBGDNCM@>MPDONDON>JMM@>ODQ@>JIEPI>ODJIAMJH?@IDOJKKJNDODJI -IOC@JOC@MCODJIDN&@=M@R RDOC #8#.JIO@SONDIRCD>C DODNIJOJIEPI>ODJI@SDO@?DI$JJG@I<

 1C@DNJIODIPDIBC@MNOP?D@N

 I?@Q@I%DO@'C

$JJG@IODJIN@KODJI@KODJI@KODJIDN>GJN@GTM@GODJI >DODIB?G@DI#IBGDNC OC@ @S>GPNDQ@AJ>PNKG@10.;HC@N>JIEPI>ODJI *'9'#6*'49#50+%'10.;+64#+0'&019#0&6*'0N@@JIEPI>ODJI8##0DNI@GPNDQ@ CJ=N@MQJI>GP?@NOC

2J=DIKM@N@IONOCDNK

GCOC@>JMM@>ODJI>JINOMP>ODJIDNHJ?@G@?DI HJ?@MI#IBGDNCDODNOC@OJIEPI>ODJI DI0PNNDJKKJNDODJI:>JIEPI>ODJI@KODJI $JJG@I<– 2C@GDO@MJMM@>ODQ@>JIEPI>ODJINDNM@GOTK@N RDOC@KODJIN &JR@Q@M OC@ >JMKPN G@N ' '' JMM@>ODQ@ >JIEPI>ODJIN=JOC. 1,JIEPI>ODJINDJINOMP>ODJIN -I@JAOC@A@R@S>@KODJINDN1Q@INNJI RCJ>JHKC9010 5'7.'/'06 /#+5#755+!] ‘not only X but also Y’ with its Swedish >JPIO@MK@N=@OR@@IOC@H $JJG@I<NOJINOMP>ODJIN PIGDF@DIJOC@MOTK@NJA>JMM@>ODQ@ >JJM?DIJMM@>ODQ@N RCD>C HODQ@>JMM@>ODQ@K@GJIEPI>ODJIN OCJHKMJO 4JBO "P>MJO JMM@>ODQ@N=@>DODIOC@DMO@MHN ‘argumentative’) negativity of comparison. Consider JMDBDI@MJ DIRCD>C the comparison of ‘eloquent’ and ‘wise’ seems to negate the latter:

 +5'4675/#)+5'5637#/5#2+'05 ‘He is more eloquent than wise’ (Ducrot & Vogt 1979: 323)

%DQ@I OC@ @SDNO@I>@ JA HJMM@>ODQDOT R@NCJPG?IJO=@ NPMKMDN@?DA>JIOMJH=DIJIEPI>ODJI 2CDNDNDI?@@?RCJIEPI>ODJIN GJMM@>ODQDOT OCMJPBCJPMN@H@ 'I MOD>G@'' 'ADI?OCGPNDQ@CODQ@>JINOMP>ODJINHP>CGDF@>JIEPI>ODJIN MOD>G@'' IJO@NOCGPNDQ@CODJI JIEPI>ODJI DI M@NOMD>ODQ@ >JINOMP>ODJIN RDOCJPO $76 OD> M@NOMD>ODJIN JA OCDN >JINOMP>ODJI ' GPNDQ@JMM@>ODQ@>JIEPI>ODJI

 ‘It's 126+$4'RJMF,’ she says, ‘-756&2156$16.’ (BNC)

"DN>JPMN@HNJIEPI>ODJIN 'I1KJPMN@HODJI1>CR@IO@M 'I#IBGDNCC HC DJIOMDJINOMP>ODJIN*@RDN "DN>JPMN@HO RDOC>JMM@>ODQ@>JIEPI>ODJINAJMDINO@ RC@I#IBGDNC$76RLPDMDIBDON>JMM@>ODQ@PN@ DO AM@LP@IOGT JGGJ>JPMN@ HPNJAOCDN?DNN@MOJHKG@O@<>>JPIOJA>JIOMJQ@MNOC@HODJI 'CJMM@>ODQ@ >JJM?DIJMM@>ODQDOT 'I

 >JINOMP>ODJINJAOC@OTK@9016 $76!:DI#IBGDNCJM901 5+01!:DI1KJMM@>ODQ@M@GCGPNDQ@ JPMN@HODJI =@OR@@IGODJIH@N=@OR@@I GDJMM@>ODQDOT @S>@KODQDOTODJI

2.3.3 CONTRAST !JMM@>ODQDOT=PDG?NJI<>JIOMN >JIOMOPM@ ?DN>JPMN@ NOMP>OPM@ N 3H=<>C +PMKCT $JM HT KPMKJN@N DIAJMHOPM@ NJIOMJH=DI@AJMORJ@G@H@IONOJ=@DI>JIOMJHHJI?@IJHDIJINOMJIOMJIOMJINOMP>ODJINOPM@ DN G@NN >JINKD>PJPN OCJMM@>ODQ@>GJH=DIDIB &JR@Q@M DO PNNDJI NDI>@ DIAJMHOPM@ DN OJM DI OC@ AJMH JINOMP>ODJIN 'IAJMHOPM@ JM information packaging, denotes ‘the tailoring of an utterance by a sender to meet the KPGJIO@IO HF@ =T KM@N@IODIB < >JINODOP@IOJIOMJINODOP@IO 'ODNOC@GJI>@MIDIOCDNN@>ODJI 'IAJMHOPM@ O@?@I>@OJNTIO<>OD>>G KMJHDI@IOMO KMJHDI@IOGMD=@ DIAJMHOPM@ QJIOMPGJIO@IODJPN 2C@GDO@MJIOMOPM@RC@?OJJOC@M IJODJINOCDPN 'M@BJINOMP>ODJIN OCJIOMJIOMJI>@KOPPN >>JM?DIBOJ!CJIOMJINDNONJAOCM@@A<>OJMN $DMNO OC@M@ DN<=<>FBMJPI?COC@>JIOMJI? OC@M@DN< N@OJA>O10#.&DN>JIOM@ NOM@NNNDI>@OC@M@DNFBMJPI?@OC@NK@@OCJIOMDOGT

'JIOM

"DN>JPMN@NOMP>OPM@RJAN@>ODJI NIJO@?<=JQ@ DI?DN>JPMN@NOMP>OPM@ OC@O@MH%1064#56H

H@IODJI@?DI?DN>JPMN@ GO@MIJIOMCOC@ >JIOMAJMH 2CDNDNOC@DIO@I?@?N@IN@JA>JIOMC ?@ADIDODJI R@ KM@A@M DO DN @QD?@IO OCJIOMPGG@JIOMONOJKM@QDJPNGT@IO@MO>JHHJ?JHHJI=<>FBMJPI? 2C@N@OJA>CJJN@JPMN@OC@JIOMJINOMP>ODJIOTK@OCJIOMG@AO>JINOMP>ODJINJIOMCO +JGIYM+JGIYM5DIFG@M4JIOMJ J>>PMNRDOCOC@N@>JINOMP>ODJINHG@'''CJIOMJPIO@?OC@H DON@@HNOCG@AO@? >JIOMG@N 'I KPGJIOMJ J>>PMNRDOC DIA@M@IODPN>G@AO>JINOMP>ODJIN@ B It’s that women in Ireland are not #(14/1(24#;'4"@GOPM@HJIOMDJIEPI>ODJIN 'I A<>O R@ C@JAOCDNOC@+DCAPN@NOJB@OC@M OC@ NOPNH@JADIAJMHOPM@AJM>JIOMOPMJIND?@MJIOMOJIOC@DIQ@IOJMTJA>JINOMP>ODJIN 'I MOD>G@'' 'NCJR OCJINOMP>ODJIND@MOPN>JINOMP>ODJINN@@*CO 1J APNN@? >JIOMCO@MDN@OC@>JIOMN 2CDN ?DNN@MOJINOMP>ODJIN>J N@G@>OJI@@NODJIJIRCJIOMJIOMJINOMP>ODJI OJ KD>F PK JI OC@ ?@ADIDODJIJA>JIOMJINOMP@?N@@%DJM<@O@IOGT=@@I@SKGJM@?DI>JMKPN =CCD@Q@?JIOMOPMJQ@MNJINOMP>ODJIN !JIND?@M–

 )@II@?T'($'DNHJM@DIO@M@NODIBOC

 ‘We helped a landbound frog, 4,*+6/;JM9421*/;, back to the water’s edge. (JI@N@O

 'OPN@?OJ=@'$;6,0(, now it’s getting 1,*+66,0( (JI@N@OG

 That’s not making it &/($1, that’s making it ',46; (JI@N@O

2C@N@@SJHKG@O@GDNOJAOC@FDI?NJANTIO<>OD>>JIO@SONDIRCD>CKO NJH@ODH@NOC@>JIOMC OC@>JIOMJIOM@DI<9 14 !:>JINOMP>ODJI G@JA>JIOMJINOMP>ODJIJIOMJINOMP>ODJINJIOM>JPIODIB AJMOC@DMKMJK@INDOTOJOJINOMP>ODJINDNBMJPK@? PI?@MOC@G<=@G ‘negated antonymy’, which mostly consists of contrastive negation. If we >JIND?@MOC@A@JIOMJIQ@IODJI OCDN PI?@MNOJIOMOPM@ =PN 'I>JI>GPNDJI >JIOMJIND?@MDOPGG@JIOMFNPKOC@A<>OOCJIOMJINOMP>ODJINI@@?OJ=@>JHKJIOMJMM@>ODQDOTJIOMJIOMCJGCKGI@B

2.3.4 ELLIPSIS #GGDKNDNM@A@MNOJ>JINOMP>ODJINDIRCD>COD>NOMP>OPM@>JION 1@Q@MJIOMJINOMP>ODJINCJIOC DON @ DN KJNDO@? #GGDKNDN O@I?N OJ =@ QD@R@? A@AJMOC@@SDNO@I>@JANDG@IO >JINODOP@ION < >@IOMC QF +@M>CJIOMMDOD>@JA@GGDKNDNJMJQ@M (<>F@I?JAA%JG?=@MB.@M@F 2C@GDO@MJII@>ODJI DI RCD>C NJH@ >JIOMJINOMP>ODJINCCDNRCT'NCPNN@?DIOC@GDO@MJII@>ODJIRDOC>JIOMJIOMJINOMP>ODJIN COJ@GGDKNDN<>>JPION 'NCMDKODQ@?@QD>@DIOC@NOP?D@NDI.

#GGDKNDN >JINOMP>ODJIN CF+@M>CGG@KODJIJAJI@JADON>JINODOP@ION RCD>C DN >JI>@MI@?HGGG@?DIQF+@M>C

 < 1*3'!',% Ed killed someone, but I don’t know who. = 1.0-32',% Ed is eating, but I don’t know what. > % ..',% (JCIGDF@NN

1GPD>DIBDNOC@=@NO FIJRIOTK@JA>GJINODOP@IO9* LP@NODJIDN@GD?@? NDIBDNNKMJPODIB RC@M@OC@@GD?@?H@?@IO 'IBJJM?DIGJINDNON JAORJJMHJM@M@HIJINODOP@ION RCDG@DINOMDKKDIBJIOMDAD>JINOMP>ODJIDN>JIND?@M@?OJDIQJGQ@BJINOMP>ODJIN NOMDKKDIB #SCI@@?IJO>JI>@MIPNC@M@

 (JCI?MJAA@@=PO(JCI?M

 (JCI?MJAA@@

2C@BMJNN GDIBPDNOD>DOGT 2CPN &JMI>GJINOMP>ODJI 9'+ 8##0!:RJPG?DIQJGQ@BJMM@>O B@I?@M

1@@0@KKAJMODQ@ DI>GP?DIB=POIJO GDHDO@?OJ>JIOMI@B

 < B0'+ 1.' 5#+4#5 /766# *'+--1 *B0 10 1% ,#% 1%=@ !,%ND>F =PO "4R@F =POOC@T1%#4'weak.’ = B0'+ 1.' 5#+4#5 8##0 #+8#0 6'48' 1% ,#% 1%=@ !,%ND>F =PO!-00>JHKG@O@GT C@

2CDN >GG@ ''' DI RCD>C JJM?DIG

 /766# 5++55 =PO "4NJ 1% ,#% 1% = @ !,% CDQ@1BNDHKGDAD@?

KJO@IODJPIO@MODJI=@OR@@I. /766# ODJI =@OR@@I JMM@>ODQ@N@SKGD>DO &JR@Q@M OC@M@DN@OCODJI *< MPHADI?NOC@ AJGGJRDIB@SCNC@M@BJIOM

 R'15)1&%70&0;55 0' 10)#0 0#'(4' #% *'1 9#'5

+JMM@>ODQ@PN@ -G?#IBGDNC#%H@?@>GDO@JINOMP>ODJIN DIKM@N@IO ?

 'O@H@MB@?OC

2C@IJQ@MF@I?JAA JIND?@M

 < &JO>CJO>C 'CJK@

DO@?DIAJII@>ODJIDN harder to see. While both of B’s responses are incomplete from the point of view of clausal NTIO@?@IO>GG@@?@IOKMJ?P>@?=T 0COC@D?@IODOTJAOC@?MPIFGDLPD?DNLP@MD@? $JMOC@N@ ><>>JPIOAOD> NOMP>OPM@ 2CDNN<>>JPIO>JO>CDI< 2CDN =@BNOC@LP@NODJIJARCTR@I@@?OC@NTIO<>OD>@ BDQ@IOC<>>JPIODNJIOMJAA@@ JINOMP>ODJIN RJPG? OCPN =@ >JIQ@IODJI@NJAOCDNFDI? 2CDN ?DNN@MOJINOMP>ODJIODQ@ OJ >JIOMPNNDJIJAOC@QJINOMP>ODJIBMCPGJINOMP>ODJI BM@ CDIB@N JI RC@OC@M R@ <>>@KO OC@ @SDNO@I>@ JA >JINOMP>ODJIN RDOCJPO H@JINOMP>ODJI BMJINDNON JA >JINOMP>ODJIN JINOMP>ODJINJH=DIJINOMP>ODJI>@KO OC@ @SDNO@I>@ JA N@HN AM@@ NTIOJQ@M(<>F@I?JAA$DGGHJM@ *@@ %JG?HDO@DIAJHKG@ODJI'+5%.'#4.;(#/+.+#49+6*#0& (10&1(6*#6%#6?JIJOC>JIO@IOOCJINOMP>ODJIN OPM@ &DGK@MO IJO@N OCC JINOMP>ODJI BMC@IOMJINOMP>ODJIN -I@RJINOMP>ODJIBMJHHDOO@?OJOC@ D?@>JINOMP>ODJINDNOJOMDOD>DNHNJA@GGDKNDNOJOC@DMGJBD>JI>GPNDJI C 0M@ODJI OC@ JINOMP>ODJINNPAAD>D@IOGT>JHK@GGDIBOJIJODIQJF@ OC@N@IJODJINDI.PNNDNKM@?D>F +@M>C

~~ John likes candy, but Bill doesn’t __~~

~~ 4.#DNJIOM~~

~~ […] thought she was gonna stab me with screwdriver and 5+(9(4(165+( 9(4(/22.,1*)24$3(1&,/525+(&27/'47%,6276 ,!)!6 NDHKGDAD@?~~

~~ ! 1B~~

&==5* 874;7..21C77.<.27224C;22.7CC(F88F ‘are they, they aren’t teenagers anymore?’ **7*→(↑ " %<1.A → *7A68:.+." ‘they aren’t anymore’ → <8<*69<11111 <1.A +. # #$& ‘they are, umm’ → <1.A+. # ;=,1# #$& .: JINDNOJAORJ>JIN@>PODQ@>GCOC@ADMNODNI@BJI?G@?@IO@DOC@MDIOC@NNJINOMP>ONRDOCJPOKJNDODIBGOPM@ !PGD>JQ@M (<>F@I?JAA –292). Following Schegloff’s (1996a) notion oA ‘positionally sensitive grammar’, Thompson, Couper )PCG@ICOC@TO@MHHDIDHGODJIC>JINOMP>ODJIN 1@@ MOD>G@'''AJMHJM@?DN>PNNDJI 2JNPHHODJI 'CJIOMG@ @MOJIOM?@QD>@DI.

~~2.3.5 A DIGRESSION: METALINGUISTIC NEGATION 'IOCDNN@>ODJI 'M@OPMIOJOC@LP@NODJIJA?@N>MDKODQ@I@BODJI H@OI@BPNNDJI JA >JIOMJIOM~~

metalinguistic negation. Finally, I move to some details of Horn’s analysis and its uptake in OC@GDO@MMJO OCJPBC CDN H@@JIGP?DIBOC@>JIQ@IODJIJIQ@MN@N DON HJMKCJGJBT DON NOTG@ JM M@BDNO@M JMDONKCJI@OD> realization’ (Horn 1989: 363). If taken literally, Horn’s definition of metalinguistic negation CGP?DIBJIO@SOP@?@ION–DODN after all ‘a device for objecting to a previous utterance 10#0;)4170&59*#6'8'4’ (emphasis HDI@ 3I?@MNOJJ?DIOCDNRI@BCJA?@N>MDKODQ@ I@BOD>@ OCDNDNIJORCI@BPNNDJI +JNONOP?D@NJIH@OI@BGP?@>JIOMODJI JIQ@ID@I>@

~~ I didn’t manage to trap two mon%##1#—'H~~

~~ Grandma isn’t ‘feeling lousy’, Johnny, she’s indisposed.~~

~~ I’m not his daughter—he’s my f~~

~~ 1-+#men aren’t chauvinists— **H@IC~~

~~#SI@B I@BC&JMICDHN@GAJK@INCDNK~~

~~ 2C@)DIBJA$M@DNIJO=@~~

~~2C@I@BG=@>OJAOC@>JIO@IOOC@ 0@>DM>PHNO@N KM@NPKKJNDODJIN NPMQDQ@ I@BI@BJMM@>ODJI @DOC@MOCMJPBC >JIOMG@Q@IRDOCJPO<>JMM@>ODJI !DO@N~~

~~2CJIADMH@?=TCDNNP=N@LP@IOKP=GD>CC@ ?MG@~~

~~ 9>JIO@SO JMM@>OKGPM~~

!JMM@>ODJI 'INKDO@JAOC@A<>OOCJIOMCDAIJOHJNOJAOC@GDO@MJIOMnegations are either descriptive or H@O DD?@N>MDKODQ@I@BODJII@BODJIODJI=JOC?@N>MDKODQ@GT I@BJIO@SON GGAJPM KJDIONCOJAGDQ@GT?@=MDOD>N -IOCDNKJDIO OC@?DN>PNNDJIC!feature is that it starts with Horn’s dichotomy between descriptive I@B I@BTBD@M %@PMON %@PMON AJM DINO@ >JIO@I?N OCMDKODQ@ R@ NCJPG? ?DNODIBPDNC =@OR@@I AJPM ‘mechanisms of denial’. Proposition denials would correspond to descriptive negation, while H@O I@BGG

< .0-.-1'2'-,"#,' * If Ramon hadn’t been Spanish but French, he would still beat his donkey. = .0#13..-1'2'-,"#,' * Barney didn’t take his wife to Acapulco—he isn’t even married—=POCDN %'0*AMD@I? > '+.*'! 230#"#,' * (PGDPNC

~~Yet, despite criticising Horn’s dichotomy, Geurts retains it in latent form in his four AJG? >GMDKODQ@ I@B~~

~~2C@N@>JI?>CGDIBPDNOD>N@ B +J@N>CG@M G=P *C@MN DI OCDN >ODJI =@OR@@I ?@N>MDKODQ@I@BI@BCG@M 2C@OCM@@ OTK@N~~

~~ < +#2 *',%3'12'!,#% 2'-, They don’t have )'"1 OC@TC "#1!0'.2'4#,#% 2'-, At least, they don’t have kids.~~

~~'IOCDNOMI@B@=JOC@ JM OCJPBCO 'I OC@ $M@I>C O@MHDIJGJBT NP>C negations are ‘polemic’ (Ducrot 1972). Descriptive negation is then only those I@BMDKODQ@ I@BCOMGI@BC@H~~

~~ ~~

~~Figure 3 Types of negation in the French tradition~~

~~IDO@? AJM H@OI@B@JI@Q@IOPM@NJPOND?@JAOC@NOJ>FJA AG@@NJAI@BJIQ@MNO N@Q@M~~

~~ O<=G@ OJ M@>JBIDN@ K@JKG@ DI JG? KCJOJBMDIBOC@KMJQ@I@JAOC@KCJOJBM~~

~~ !JIQ@MNCDQ@1%~~

!*23* […] hän oli 72279*11=87877C4D7.7.<271111C:*3*7A52111.DD.24C 4=4**7<*:4*;<*7=<1C7MJNNOC@=JM?@MR@GGC@>F@?C@M HJPG?say yes’ 8=72 7// !*23* @ […] ‘and not yes’ The crucial element is the contrastive negation on both sides of Jouni’sIJI Q@M=JIOMDIBOC@RJM?JIOMJG OC@ADMNOJ=N@MQDIB$DIIDNC QJR@GCJI?QDJG@?DIJPMN@ 2CPN OC@@S 7@O OC@>JIOMG@ -IOC@JOC@MCJIOM@?@?=T<>JHHPID>ambiguity KMJMJOC@MRDN@<=JPOOC@H@OIJIOMG@C>I@BMJOAJMOCDOT MDKODQ@ I@B I@B@ OCDN DN OC@ =@OO@M FIJRI PN

~~!MDKODQ@I@BC CI@B~~

~~&@M@ '?DQ@MB@IJOJIGTAMJHOC@$M@I>COM~~

(5&4,36,8(850(6$/,1*7,56,&241 (5&4,36,8( (6$/,1*7,56,& 21 ,@BODJIJIO@IO =PO DN IJO M@NKJINDQ@ 32/(0,& M@NKJINDQ@ 85 32/(0,& 2/(0,& ,@BODJIJIO@IO ODJI OJ < KMDJM POO@M@ M@NKJINDQ@ H@OI@B

~~Figure 4 Types of negation, revised~~

2C@$M@I>COMJBIDN@? OC@ C@O@MJB@I@DOT JA OMI@BPG@=@OR@@IKM@NPKKJNDODJI ?@ITDIB>CG@M8PJ 2C@N@>JI?ODJIMDKODQ@I@BODJII@BODJIDODJII@BODJI@ =@OR@@I ?@N>MDKODQ@ I@B@ DN DI OC@ >JIO@IO =@DIB I@BCG@MI@BODJIJI?DODJIND@IOAJM?@N>MD=DIBOC@N@HNJA@MO=POOC@RJM?NHJINOMPJPG? >JIQ@TOC@JKKJNDO@ Horn’s third point is related to the second and concerns the theoretical status of H@OI@BJIO@SON5@FIJROCPN@N JAI@BODJIDIOC@NMDKODQ@ I@BODJIDNIJOOMPOC API>ODJI@ 2C@LP@NODJIOC@IDNRC@OC@MOC@M@OPODJI@ AJ>PN@?2CJN@RCJRDNCOJ >JIND?@MI@BODJIN >JMM@NKJI?RDOCORJJK@MMDKODQ@ I@B

‘pragmatically ambiguous’ between the two readings. The notDJIJAKMMDODLP@ *DF@H@OI@B@?OCMJPBC@S@N PODJI@NM@LP@NOJI>GPNDJI OCMDKODQ@ M@JH@NM@=@OR@@IJM?DID $JM&JMI OC@?DAA@M@I>@GD@NDIKMN RCD>CC@M@BMDKODQ@ =PODAMDKODQ@M@M@pragmatics, >JPKG@?RDOCM@BNJI?DODJID@IOGT DINK@>DAD>JQ@M=JOC descriptive and metalinguistic uses; Foolen’s suggestion is ‘signifying inadequacy’. Negation DN DIO@MKM@O@? KMODJI DIO@MKM@OTDNOCPN@DOC@MM@GJIO@IOJMKMDH@ CJI@DODN 2JH@ this would come close to Carston’s (e.g. 1996) monoguist view that negation is always truOC API>ODJICDOAPI>ODJINDNOC@@NCDHN@GAAMJHOCDNQD@R The fourth debate relates to Horn’s claim that there are diagnostic tests by which we can M@>JBIDN@ H@O I@BI@B

~~ < 2C@FDIBJA$M@DNVIJOC@ = 2C@LP@@IJA#IBGNO &JMI ~~

~~<>JIOJMM@>ODQ@JI@ 'I=JOC JIGTJMKJM>@NNAPGGTH@O &JR@Q@M DODNPI>G@I@BC=DN@LP>@NNAPGMDKODQ@>JIOM~~

~~ 2C@LP@@IJA#IBG~~

~~1@>JI? H@OI@BJK@ ..'N JIO@SON @ B 51/' 4#6*'4 !JIQ@MN@GT I@BJIO@SON@ B #0; #6 #.. 'I H@OI@B~~

~~1@@@ B 'NM<@GAJM~~

~~ < Chlamydia is not ‘sometimes’ misdiagnosed, it is frequently misdiagnosed. = !CG~~

'I OC@ JMM@>ODJI H -IGT OC@ ..' 51/'6+/'5RJMFNDIOC@I@BJINOMP>OOC@,.''8'4DN?DNJIOMJAH@OI@BJPIO@MKJINOMP>ODJINJA>JIOMPN CJR@Q@M DNJI. JIEPI>ODJIN . >JIEPI>ODJINJKKJNDODJIOJIEPI>ODJIN MDKODQ@ =PO 1, >JIEPI>ODJIN JMM@>ODQ@ PN@N JA JIEPI>ODJIN D I@BGJMM@>ODQ@>JJM?DII@BDJINOMP>ODJI !JIND?@M &JMI

~~ Il n’est pas grand/#+564G5)4#0& —+.'5664G5)4#0& /#+5+.'5664G5)4#0& ‘He’s not tall, = P O Q @ M T O < G G —he’s very tall # but he’s very tall’~~

~~Above, I summarise Horn’s position rather coyly as an ‘association’ between SN >JIEPI>ODJINI@BDN@IG@GJIEPI>ODJIN>JIO@SON 2JB@OC@MRDOC Horn’s rather PI>G@I@BJII@>ODQ@ NK@>D I@B~~

The English examples considered here are consistent with Anscombre and Ducrot’s OC@NDNOCCJKODJIJI>@NNDQ@. >JINOMP>ODJIN DN I@>@NNMDKODQ@ RCDG@ OC@ I@B &JMI @HKCDOGT?DND I@BJIOMJIAPNDJIHOOCJI>@KOJAH@OI@BDO@NOC@@SJH=M@MJO@Nof ‘polemic (i.e. metalinguistic) negation’. As

~~ we saw above, Horn’s gloss does not correspond with Anscombre and Ducrot’s own PI?@MNOI@B~~

1K5+01616#./'06'#761/?6+%1 %@MH510&'40)#0<#761/#6+5%* $M@I>C {Ce n’est pas conscient / # c’est inconscient}, mais totalement automatique. #IBGDNC ‘It’s{not conscious / # unconscious} but (rather) totally automatic.’ &JMI HJ?DAD@?NGDBCOGT

105%+175O=@>JINOMP@?GP?DIB MDKODQ@ OCJPBC OCJIO@SO +JNO JA Horn’s other examples are clearly metalinguistic as the term is now regularly understood. 5CDG@&JMI?J@NIJO@SKGD>DOGT@LPJIOMI@BO JI OC@ >JIOMODJI JI 1, >JIEPI>ODJIN AJM H@O I@BJIAPNDJIOCI@B@NDI.I@B@NDIOC@@HKDMD>COC@NOP?D@NDI.I@BN EJPMI I@BG@N''C

~~ *@+JI?@DNIJOEPNO~~

>NDI>@DODNGDO@MGPNDQ@JK@JAOC@I@BJINOMP>ODJINOCJPBCODJI ' M@QDNDO@? OC@ >JHKG@S DIO@MKGJIOM I@B!JIOMFGDIB NOMPBBGDIB OJ H@ N@@I >JPNDI MJJH@N -IOC@JI@CI@B@IOMJIOMOPJIOMI@BI@BJIAPN@?RDOCKJG@HD>I@B

~~'ODN KMJQD?@?OCGPNDQ@CJD>H~~

~~QD They’re ,-2‘only engaged’, they’re + 00'#"&JMI~~

~~CDIHTQD@RRJPG?=@OJM@BJIOMI@BJI>@KOPJH=DIPG I@BJIOMJIOM~~

~~2.4 SUMMARY~~

!JIOMODJI JA N@Q@MODJIJINDNONJAKJGJH=DIDIBRC@OC@M>GJH=DIDIBJMKCMJH=DIDIBOPM@DIKPGJIOMJIOMPN 2C@M@D RC@M@ < NK@>DJIOMJINOMP>ODJI HJIEPI>ODJIPNHJIOMDJINOMP>ODJIN !JINDNO@IOGT RDOC < API>ODJIJIND?@M@? JH=DIJIOMJIOM@N RDOC @S>GPNDQ@ C GPNDQDOTOJKMJ?P>@OC@OCM@@N@HOTK@N $MJHKJDIOJAQD@R >JIOMJII@>ODJI OJ H@OI@BODQDOT =JOCAMJHODJIODQ@ !JIOMCGDF@JOC@MDIO@MNP=E@>ODQ@>JINOMP>ODJINDOKMJQD?@NJKKJMOPIDOD@N=JOCAJM?DM@>ODIB OC@ JHKQJINOMP>ODJIOTK@ OC

~~ 3 CONSTRUCTIONAL VARIATION WITHIN AND ACROSS LANGUAGES~~

~~3.1 INTRODUCTION~~

'I OC@ KM@QDJPN >CJIOMODJIDJMM@>ODQDOTOPM@ODQDOD@NDI?DN>JPMN@ 'IOCDN>CJIOMN 'IOCDN>CD?JIOMC 'JINOMP>ODJIBMODJI RDGG DIOMJ?P>@ OCDN CCDOC@GKNPNOJPI?@MNOJIOMJI>@KONGODJI AO@MOCJINOMP>ODJIMJNNGODJI 5DOCDI GJINOMP>ODJIJIO@SOJAOC@ GDO@MOD> JINOMP>ODJINRDOCQCH@IO >MJNNGJINOMP>ODJIJINOMP>ODJI

~~3.2 CONSTRUCTION GRAMMAR AND USAGE-BASED LINGUISTICS~~

3.2.1 CONSTRUCTION GRAMMAR(S) 'IOCDN?DNN@MOJIOMJINOMP>ODJIBMMD=@? JINOMP>ODJIN G@JIOMJIND?@MBMJINDNOJAMPG@NDIJINOMP>ODJIN 2CPN DI>JINOMP>ODJIBMJINOMP>ODJIN $DBPM@NCJRNOC@NTH=JGD>NOMP>OPM@ of constructions. Note that ‘meaning’ is understood broadly to include not only semantics =PONJPMN@ API>ODJIJINOMP>ODJI

~~Figure 5 The symbolic structure of constructions in CxG (Croft & Cruse 2004: 258)~~

'>JIO@I?OCJIOMJINOMP>ODJINDIOCDNN@IN@ 'IO@MHNJAAJMH 'AJ>PNJINTIO<>OD> KMJK@MOD@N DI OCDN ?DNN@MOPNN@? OC@ N@H KMJK@MOD@NJA>JIOMCJPMN@ API>ODJIT JA NJH@ >JIOMJINOMP>ODJIN OJ AODQ@ >JIO@SON G@'''NCJRN +JNO>JINOMP>ODJIBMJINDNONJAG@C@?AJMH–H@CR@ may call the ‘construct D con’ (analogously to ‘lexicon’), and they have inherDO@M@GJINOMP>ODJINDAD>@SODJIN JI>@KOP@IODOD@NOC@OC@TJINOMP>ODJIN !S%DNOCPN@ JMD@IO@? HJIJNOMC@N MDOGTAJMHCODJI %MOPM@%MODJIC@NOCC@RHJNODAIJOF@M%JG?=@MB !MJAO!MJAO!MPN@&DGK@MO GGJAOC@N@C@NCOJGDIBPDNOD>N PGJINOMP>ODJIC RCD>CC@NJINOMP>ODJI BMJINOMP>ODJIBM

~~ RCDG@ OC@ JOC@M ORJ CD@AGT H@OCJ?JGJBD>ODJIJINOMP>ODJI BMJMKPN =JINOMP>ODJIN~~

~~ $ $ " " ~~

$ $ # " #

~~Figure 6 Construction grammar and this dissertation~~

2C@ ADMNO JI@ DN !JBIDODQ@ !JINOMP>ODJI %MJIND?@M@?OJ=@OC@>ODJI %MDJBIDODQ@ GDIBPDNOD>N OCDN OM ?DAA@M@I>@N OCGJN@GT M@GJINOMP>ODJIN @SCD=DO 'O @HKGJTN >JI>@KON NP>C JINOMPJI>@KOP@N OJ >CO@MDN@ OC@N@ ?DAA@M@I>@N 'HKJMOODJI %MJINOMP>ODJIN JBIDODQ@GT M@DO DI OC@ %JG?=@MBDJINOMP>ODJIN ODJI@IOM@I>CH@IODNJIQ@IODJIOCJHHPIDOT 2CDN QD@RDNIJORDOCJPONPKKJMON@Q@MCJGDIBPDNOD>@SK@MDH@IONNCJR OCJINOMP>ODJIJINOMP>ODJIC @ B @I>DID%JG?=@MB%PM@QD>C (JCINJI%JG?=@MB 2C@N@>JI?tradition, which is closely aligned with the previous one, is William Croft’s 0ODJI%MODJI %MMD=DIB OC@ morphosyntactic variation of the world’s languages in a construction =CGJINOMP>ODJIN IJOOC@JOC@MR@ DN IJO < OC@JM@OD>C@N =@DIB < ,JPI ?@K@I?NJI@MOJINOMP>ODJIN

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account of an individual speaker’s knowledge of language, many corpus linguDNONRJMFDIB RDOCDI>JINOMP>ODJIBM@OJRJBIDODQ@ M@>JINOMP>ON–@I>@ !JBIDODJI DN IJO ?DM@>OGT J=N@MQ<=G@ 'I

'I@MOC@MNHJIN>DJPNH@OCJ?JGJBD>CJD>@OJKMJ>@?PM@OCJBIDODQ@M@@ NOP?D@NOC@#IBGDNCK@MDKCM&1@IODM@GTDIO@MHN JA DON >JII@>ODJIN OJ JOC@M >JINOMP>ODJIN *DF@ !JBIDODQ@ !JINOMP>ODJI %MJINDNONJAIJ?@ND @ >JINOMP>ODJINODJI %MJINOMP>ODJIODJIKDDODJINNP>C FGTOCJINOMP>ODJIN=@>DN@HCO@MDN@OC@MJG@OCJBIDODQ@GTM@I@ORJMFJA>JINOMP>ODJIN

~~ 2CPN DI>JMKPNNOP?D@N DODN=@OO@MIJOOJHG FIJRG@?B@ JA DI?DQD?PJMKPN DN NK@>DAD>~~

3.2.2 A NETWORK OF CONSTRUCTIONS 2C@?@ADIDODJICGGPN@NJI 2M@ODJI GFBMJPI? JIN@LP@I>@NOCDNCJIOMN M@QJGQ@N DKG@N )@HH@M @IOMGOPM@ AJGGJRN OJ < GJI OJ PN@ !S% O@MHDIJGJBT >JIOODJIN=M@KM@N@IOC DI @I>T>GJK<@?D> @H=J?D@? ODJIJIO@IO *LPDNDODJI?J@NIJO?DAA@MHP>CAMJHJOC@MFDI?NJAG@JBIDODJIMJIOMJINOMP>ODJINDNKJNND=GTOC@HJNOAPI?N AJM OCDN ?DNN@MOJIOJINOMP>ODJINOPM@? >JGG@>ODJI JA @IOM@I>C@? KODJI %JG?=@MB*F@MOPM@DNKMJQD?@?=TOC@GDIFN=@OR@@I OC@>JINOMP>ODJIN 'IKM<>OD>@ OC@I HT>GJIOMJINOMP>ODJINGPNO@MDIOC@I@ORJMFJA>JINOMP>ODJINDIJINOMP>ODJIN O CJMDUJIOOD>GDIFN RCD>C J=OJINOMP>ODJIN OI@NN 'I PNJINOMP>ODJIN ODJIN JQ@M>JI>M@O@ DINO@N AMJHOC@ bottom up. Constructionist studies on child language acquisition suggest that children’s >JINOMP>ODJIN=@>JH@HJM@N>C@H=DO=T=DO@ B 2JH@NOC@ >CDG?OJ<=JI>M@O@M@KM@N@IOLPDM@ HJM@ <=NOM<>O Q@MNDJINJAOC@NC@H< 2CPN >JINOMP>ODJIN@SDNOC@HDOTF@M– $DBPM@DGGPNOMGDIFN

"D@NN@G@SO@I?NGJINOMP>ODJIN@IOQ@MNDJIJACDNHJ?@GC@M@ 1DHDGCJGDIBPDNOD>KMJK@MOD@N=@OR@@IG@SD>C@H >JINOMP>ODJIN=PO @RDOCC@M C@HJI>@KOPODJI=@OR@@IRJM?NJINOMP>ODJINJIOCDN GGJN@MOJHJMe formalist variants of construction grammar, which define constructions as ‘the rules that license “new” linguistic signs based on other linguistic signs’ (Fillmore, Lee %JG?H

~~Figure 7 Taxonomic links (Croft & Cruse 2004: 321)~~

2C@N@>JI?FDI?JAGDIFDNCJMDUJIOJINOMP>ODJINJAOC@ NOI@NN 2C@>JINOMP>O D >JIDNJI 'ODNR@GGFIJRIOCD NDHDGON DI KNT>CJGDIBPDNOD> @SK@MDH@ION C@ >J J>>PMM@I>@ AM@LP@I>D@N DI >JMKPN NOP?D@N 1DHDGON CJINOMP>ODJIN AJMDINO@GJ>

~~ < The 747 was landing by the airport’s control tower.9GJ>F*J@=@GG>DO@?DI"D@NN@G~~

2C@OCDM?FDI?JAGDIFDNNTIO<>OD>GDIFN RCD>C>JII@>O>JINOMP>ODJINOJNTIO<>OD>>C G@ NP>C >JINOMP>ODJIN@ B OC@#IBGDNC,JPI.CMODJI R@ HDBCOOCDIFJANTIO<>OD>GDIFNJINOMP>ODJINOC GDIFN =T OC@ A<>O OCJINOMP>ODJI DN @ JA OC@ JOC@M $JM @SODJI@ B #6(#:'& +..6*'.'66'4>C@HJINOMP>ODJINNJOCO AJMDINO@ DNOTKD>JINOMP>ODJINODJI DO CG@SD>CC%MD@N 2C@ HJNO DHKJMO '@SK@>OOCJIOMJINOMP>ODJI@SDNOJINOMP>ODJICT ' OD>GDIFN=@OR@@I>JIOMJINOMP>ODJINPNNOMP>OPM@ '?JIJO@SKGJM@CJMDUJIOJIOMDIJOC@M>JMKPN =JINOMP>ODJIN

~~3.2.3 CONSTRUCTIONAL PRAGMATICS !JINOMP>ODJI BMDJBIDODQ@ GDIBPDNOD>N !JBIDODQ@ GDIBPDNOD>N DI OPMI PNPODJI =@OR@@I N@HN~~

KMN H@T>GJK<@?D> JPIO@M@?DI<>OPM@KM@N@IOGP?@ OC@ >JIO@SO DI RCD>COJF@IN JAOCJN@ M@KM@N@IOJPIO@M@? "MJ?@?@NNT>GJK<@?D>INPN@APGGDI@ MJ?@? N@H OJ DIA@M@IOD H@DNP>CJIOMJINOMP>ODJINC@H 2C@TC>JIO@IOJAOC@DMJRIPIGDF@OPM@>JINOMP>ODJIN OC@T>@ N@ B@I@MMD=@ OC@ H@JIOMJINOMP>ODJIN -I OC@ JOC@M CJIOMG@ODQ@HJBIDODQ@NO@JAAM H@@ JA DIO@MNP=E@>ODQ@ OPMODJI R@ I@@? OJ>JIND?@M >JINOMP>ODJIN OJMOC@JA>JIOMJINOMP>ODJI BMOPGP?@ KMN DI OC@DM JHHJI AMC@H< DI $DBPM@ AJM >JINOMP>ODJIGP?@KMNC@HOPM@ -OC@M "DN>JPMN@JMB

~~Figure 8 A template of pragmatics in constructional organisation (Cappelle 2017: 145)~~

Of the pragmatic specifications in Cappelle’s schema, I have been concerned with 'IAJMHOPM@ "DN>JPMN@JMBOPM@ OC@I@BJINOMP>ODJINKM@A@MJI?>JINOMP>ODJIN OC@KM@A@M@I>@DNOC@M@Q@MN@ GNJ OC@A<>O OC>@NND=G@<>>JHHJ?OPM@OCJPBC>JIOMJINOMP>ODJINKMJ=<=GTDIC@MDO OCDNKMJK@MOTAMJHJINOMP>ODJI 2C@KM@A@M@I>@JAI@BJI? >JINOMP>ODJINAJMIJI M@<>ODQ@I@NNRJPG?=@JPMN@JMBGODQ@ $DIC@HONJAOC@KMN

JA >JIOMD@N MJINOMP>ODJICTNCJPG?=@KJNDO@?ONJAOC@>JINOMP>ODJINJA>JIOMODQ@GTJMD@IO@?>JINOMP>ODJI OTK@OCPNNDJINAJMDON AJMHNDI MOD>G@''' 'NNP@NJAAJMH@IOMJINOMP>ODJI>JPIOAJMOC@DNNP@NJAA@JHKPGNJMT=PONOMJIBGTAJHHPID>G@NJA.OGOPM@

~~3.3 VARIATION~~

2C@ KM@QDJPN N@>ODJI NCJR@? CJR >JIOMJINOMP>ODJIN 2CDNICJJN@JI@JAOC@QJIOMJINOMP>ODJIN JQ@M OC@ JOC@MN 2CDN DN OC@ >@IOMJINOMP>ODJIJA MOD>G@N' JINOMP>ODJIN OJ OC@DM NK@CJJN@ AMJH OCDN DN OC@ LP@NODJI JA QMJNN GG@N'''JINOMP>ODJIN@JA >JINOMP>ODJINPI?@MDIO@M<>ODJIJINOMMJNNGJINOMP>ODJIC >JHHPIDOD@N 'IJR?DN>PNNOC@N@K@MNK@>ODQ@NDIOPMI

3.3.1 VARIATION WITHIN A LANGUAGE: SYNTACTIC ALTERNATIONS -Q@MOC@OC>@IOPMT M@@AJMHN 5CDG@ OCDN ?DNN@MOPNJIOC@NJ>DJIOMCOJQDJGDIBPDNOD>N @NK@>DDJGDIBPDNOD>N OC@KMJOJOTKD>C M DI #IBGDNC D @ OC@ ?DAA@M@I>@ =@OR@@I 9Fɑ: C Q@OC@TDOGT RDOCJPO OC@ M@N@C@M CGP?@ >JIAJPI?NNP>C G@Q@GN RC@M@ < ?DAA@M@I>@ DI AJMH PNP@ DI API>ODJI 2CDN DN OD> C

>JIOM@ A syntactic alternation comprises ‘structurally and/or lexically different ways of saying to say functionally very similar things’ (Gries 2017: 8). In the case of contrastive negation, the ‘verysimilar thing’ is the functional definition given in >CC R@OTKD>OJMNOC@ HDBCOCJH@ DI ORJ OTK@N GO OC@ QJIOMJINOMP>ODJINOJ@SCD=DOIJOJIGTNJ>DODJI>JHHJ?G@'' '>JIND?@MN@Q@IQJINOMP>OOC@N@HOTK@ OC@>CJD>@ =@OR@@I 016 I@BC HODJI=@OR@@IKMJKJNDODJI?@IDDAD> OJ OC@ ?JHJIOMOPM@OC@G@IBOCJAOC@>JIOMPNNOMP>OPM@*COODQCJIJOC@MQCCCKM@?D>OJMNCOJIOD>G@'4 'PN@MJNN GDIBPDNOD>IOTK@ OC@OOPM@MJPBCGT>JHKPNNOMP>OPM@DI MOD>G@''HJ?GP?@?=@>G@'4 KMJ>@@?DIBN JAOC@#PMJK@JIOCJPMN@ JPKG@?RDOC@SKM@NNDJINJA>JIOMODQJIND?@M@? DI MOD>G@'4AJMORJM@JMM@GJINOMP>ODJIC@HG@'' 1@>JI? DODNLPDO@?DAAD>PGOOJJK@MJIOMJINOMP>ODJIN 'IOCDN?DNN@MOJINOMP>ODJIJI?P>O@?PNDIB HPGODKG@>JMM@NKJI?@I>@ODJI O@>CIDLP@OCJMM@GOJMN%GTII%M@@I<>M@ 2C@N@>JMM@GJMM@GGJN@MOC@TJINOMP>ODJIC@HC >JINOMP>ODJINGJN@OJJI@JM@PN@N 'I MOD>G@ '' OCDN H@OCJ?JGJBT NCJRN OCDJI? >JINOMP>ODJIN DI #IBGDNC JINOMP>ODJIN DI OPMI J>>PKT?DNODI>OC@HPGDJIO@SON 9016 !:AJMM@NOMD>ODQ@JI@N -IOC@JOC@MCJINOMP>ODJIC@HCNPBB@NONOCCJAOC@M@G@QJINOMP>ODJII@ORJMF 'I MOD>G@'4 @ N@HHJIOM

~~*@QDIDNOD>PNDIBH@OPM@~~

OC@H@OCJ?JGJBTGCGDJINOMP>ODJINDINJH@JA OC@GC>JQ@MM@GCNPBB@NONODJIDJINOMP>ODJIBMC G@IO OC@DM NOP?T NJH@ OC@JM@OD>JC@M@I>@ PO DA BMJINOMP>ODJIN D@JINOMP>ODJINCO@MDNDIB>JINOMP>ODJIN ‘in relation to a particular rough paraphrase’ (2006: 19; see also Goldberg 2002), it is C>JINOMP>ODJIDIDONJRIO@MHN 2CDNQD@R DN AJMHPGOD>B@I@MD@ OPM@AJMHOC@AJMHOAJMHOCOD>@ %@I@MC'RDGGH@IODJIJI@OC@?DOMODJI KDKODJIODQ@!JINOMP>ODJI%JG?=@MB

~~ +DI<=JPBCO<=JJFAJM+@G →+DI<=JPBCO+@G<=JJF~~

~~ +DI~~

~~'IODQ@>JINOMP>ODJINJPIO@MK@OC@N@>JPION OM@JINOMP>ODJIN &JR@Q@M OC@ ORJ ?DOM@MOON AJM @SDKD@IO DG@>JM?DIBOJ%JG?=@MB DOH@NJAJI@ODJI~~

~~ Table 2. Ditransitives and their prepositional paraphrases (Goldberg 2006: 27, modified)~~

,64$15,6,8(5 !7%- # %- %- $4$3+4$5(5 (paraphrasable with ‘to’ or ‘for’) 5CJ?D?+DI<=PT<=JJF 5CJ?D?+DI<=PT<=JJFAJM 5CJ?D?+DI@<=JS +DI<=JPBCO<=JSAJMOC@ +DI@<=JS +DI@ +DI<=JPBCO+@G<=JJF +DI< =JPBCO < =JJF AJM +@G +DIOD>JPIO@MKJDIODIOC@IPH@MJPNNOP?D@N OCJINOMP>ODJIN =JOC RDOCDI OC@ constructionist literature and without. Lambrecht (1994: 6; citing Daneš 1966), for instance, adopts the structuralist term ‘allosentence’ for ‘semantically equivalent but formally and KM@KCODQ@QN KG@AO@?JM?DNGJ>O <>>@IO@?QN KM@?D>JIQ@ID@I>@MOD>CO@MDNDIBOC@H@JINOMP>ODJI>A "G@JINOMP>ODJINOCJHK@ODIB@ OC@?OM@GODJIODJI@ B M@NIGOPM@JAODJIJINOMP>ODJI G@DGDIFN=@OR@@I>JINOMP>ODJINJINOMP>ODJIG@JINOMP>ODJIRDOCORJ NPMA<>@ M@D>JPIO ?J@N IJO M@LPDM@ < ?@MDQJINOMP>ODJINOC@NJAOC@HJM@ B@I@MC@H<

~~ < 1C@OPMI@?JAAOC@24 = 1C@OPMI@?OC@24JAA !~~

Cappelle’s account contrasts with the classical constructional analysis by Gries, who eschews G@>JINOMP>ODJINAJMHDIBGCJD>@ =@OR@@I OC@ORJ JKODJIN DN CDBCGT >JINOMM@BM@NNDJI<>CD@Q@NODJI<>>PM<>TJA 2C@?DAA@M@I>@NRJPG?OCPNN@@H OJJPOR@DBCOC@NDHDGJPIO@MNOCDNRDOCORJG@ >JINOMP>ODJIN @AJMJI@ JKODJIJMOC@JOC@M OC@TH@ roll up one’s sleevesDNKMJ=<=GTHJM@ >JHHJIOCC@?OJ >GJHHJI 1@>JI? BDQ@IOCJINOMP>ODJIN DODNPI>G@CDG?M@I>JPG?<>LPDM@OCJN@Q@M=KG@ >JINOMP>ODJIN OC@ &47/ 72 5722146DNQDMOPJIAJMHNOJOC@NTIOLPDNDODJI NOP?D@NCCDG?M@IH@JA@QD?@I>@OJ @QD?@I>@JA <=N@I>@AFGTDAOC@M@DN<>CJD>@=@OR@@IORJKCDG?M@>@DQ@N OC@TRDGGNOD>FOJOCCJD>@N@@ %JG?=@MB &JR@Q@M OC@<=DGDOTOJF@@KOC@ORJ>JINOMP>ODJINN@KMP>DJINOMP>ODJI BMDIAJMHCNK@>@NN "M@N <>>JM?DIB OJ >JINOMP>ODJIDID%JG?=@MB .@M@F NCJRN OCCJGDIBPDNOD>NPKKJMOAJMOC@>GJINOMP>O D >JI 'IJOC@MRJM?N R@I@@?OJ KJNDOB@I@MDAD@? !JHDIB=<>FOJ>JIOMJIOMJINOMP>ODJIN C NDHDG@JA@QD?@I>@AJMOCDNDNKG@'

~~ You don’t go to the opera to heaMOC@HPND>=POOJ=@=PI?G@?OJB@OC@MRDOC NDHDG~~

~~ You don’t go to the opera primarily to hear the music, you go to be bundled together with people similar to yourself, or people that you think you’re like. ,!~~

JOC@SJH@AMJHOC@N@ =POOC@AJMH@MPN@NOC@9016 $76!: >JINOMP>ODJI OC@GJINOMP>ODJI 2CONJIO@IO >JINOMP>ODJIN NPBB@NON OC B@I@MJQ@MDIB=JOCJAOC@HDAIJOHJM@>JINOMP>ODJINOC>@NN OJ MOD>G@''DN>GJN@DINKDMDOOJOC@D?@B@I@MJINOMP>ODJINNOP?D@?OC@M@PGJI?N>C@HG@ '' RCD>CH

3.3.2 VARIATION WITHIN A LANGUAGE: EMERGENT CONSTRUCTIONS 2C@D?@OD>C@? OC@"DOMODJIODJI AJM@SDOTJAOC@ I@ORJMFJA>JINOMP>ODJINHJM@APGGT 2C@?TIDOTJA>JINOMP>ODJIN=@>JH@NHCMJID> >JINOMP>ODJIN CJI? DN ?@Q@GJKH@IOCDG?M@I<>LPDM@>JINOMP>ODJIN@NK@>DODJI ?@OJA?TIDOT RCD>C DN DIO@M<>ODJIDAD> AJMHOCJINOMP>ODJIOOOJODJIDIRCD>CDO O@ =@DONKJF@I RMDOO@IJMNDBI@? #SOM<>ODGGPNOMODJI@JA>JINOMP>ODJIN 'O DN KG@''' 'IOCDN@SDKPNNDIBKCJOJBM@J RJMF@M 'IOCDN@SOM<>O (PNNDCJBIDN@?OC@%@MHOM@NN "JMJOC@<5D@>CDIJI@JAOC@KCJOJBM

~~ !JIQ@MNCDQ@1% ; ~~

=;;2 1112 722 A.*1 ‘yeah’ =;;2 →'2.4;22; .2 '224('24) >**7'2.4 '2.4 ;8 " '224 '24 >**7 '2.4 ‘Viek (.) I mean not Viik. Vik (.) but Viek’ #C2>2 (F388F) A.*1 ‘yeah’ =;;2 →11'224 11'224 ‘.hh Viik’ 'I GDI@ (PNND POO@MN OC@ IOM@NN 'I GDI@ C@ NOD@NAJPMQ@MNDJINJADO9QD@F: 9QDF: 9QDF:

KM@A@MM@?G@@ AMJH < NTIO<>OD> KJDIO JA QD@R DO N@@HN OC@DQ@N CDN JMDBDIN@GA M@K@DODNJIGTNDBIG@5++5‘so’ (here: ‘I mean’). At this point, what he has produced could be regarded as a [!'+ ] ‘Y not X’ >JINOMP>O 2C@I C@N@GA M@KCCJH@KMJ=G@H =T M@H@IOON@@HNOJKM@N@IO>C@DIGOD>NOMP>OPM@ OC@M@@AMJHHJM@>JIOMDOJIOMOPCDIOC@>JINOMP>O D >JI 0@ H@DIBJHKG@S>JINOMP>O =TDI>M@H@IO@ 2C@ADIOKMJ=<=GT?J@NIJOGJJFQ@MT HP>CGDF@C@?>JIOMJINOMP>ODJI =PODO?J@NDI>JMKJMC>JINOMP>ODJINJINOMP>O D >JIJAJHHPIDOT=POJOC@MNM@HPG@OC@KCDODNOTKD>GGJIEPI>ODJI @S>GPNDQ@ JPIO@M@?>JIOMC>JIOMODJIJIO@SO DIOJ <>>JPIO 'I MOD>G@ ''' ' ?DN>PNN H@N DI RCD>C >JIOMJIO@SO DN M@<>ODQ@>A *DI@GG N ?DN>PNN@?DIN@>ODJI JI@GGDKNDNG@''' >JIOMC@BGJAA<

3.3.3 VARIATION ACROSS LANGUAGES: CONSTRUCTIONAL STRATEGIES 'IOCDN?DNN@MOJINOMP>ODJINDAD> 5@>PGC CJG?N OCPG@DQ@N NPKKJMO AMJH >MJNN GDIBPDNOD> NOP?D@N OC@N =@OR@@I >JINOMP>ODJINOCODJIGJN@GTM@GODJIPNDIB>JBIPGG@N ''' TOC@M@JIOMOGT OC@ NC ADI?DIBN PGOOJ @SKGONBMDAD@?@IODOD@N 1DI>@>JINOMP>ODJINCJGJBD>CO@MDN@>MJNN GDIBPDNOD>O@I?@I>D@N RCD>C=T?@ADIDODJIOM@I?DI?DQD?PODJIAJGGJRDIB)@@IJH@DIOCM@@OTK@N $DMNO OC@TH

‘crosslinguistically valid properties of grammatical structure’ (Croft 2016: 381). Such NOM@JA@G@H@ION 1@>JI? NOM>PN>PNJINO@GGJINOMP>ODJIAJM@SKM@NNDIBKJNN@NNDJI 2C@IJODJIJANOMJIOMODJINDIOC@NOMODJIDN6+(170%(42)&2164$56('(/(0(165HDIDHG@N' JIOMJI? ?DNODI>ODJIDN6+(24'(4,1*2)6+(&2164$56('(/(0(165 2C@=OTK@NJI? =PO AJM OC@ OMDKJINOMP>ODJIN R@ ODJI DN 6+( *4$00$6,&$/4$1.2)6+(&2164$56('(/(0(165 JOCJAOC@>JIOMGJINOMP>ODJIN=JOCJAOC@HHGC@?>JINOMP>ODJINOCG@''GG@? ,@BODJIDI MOD>G@' 2C@AJPMOC?DNODI>ODJIDN6+(/,1.,1*%(69((16+(&2164$56(' (/(0(165 RCD>C>PON=@OR@@INTI?@OD>GDIFDIB D @ RC@OC@MOC@M@DNJIEPI>ODJI=@OR@@IOC@>JIOMJI>@MI NTI?@OD> GDIFDIB 2C@ ADAOC ?DNODI>ODJI DN 6+( '20$,1 )420 9+,&+ 6+( &244(&6,8(&21-71&6,21,54(&47,6('DII@BJINOMP>ODJIN 2CDNM@GODJI=@OR@@IGODJIJIOMJINOMP>ODJIN ODJIRJPG?=@6+( '20$,1)4209+,&+6+(&244(&6,8(&21-71&6,21,54(&47,6(',11(*$6,8(5(&21' &215647&6,215OCDNDNNP=E@>OOJ>MJNN GDIBPDNOD>QODJINDIQG@NJAOCDN?DNN@MOG@N''' DIRCD>COC@IJODJIJANOMDOGT '>CO@MDN@HT?JIOMOD> MJIOMG@ '4 RCD>C >JHKJC >JIND?@MDIBJIGTOC@JM?@MDIBJAOC@>JIOMCOC@>JMM@>ODQ@>JIEPI>ODJIDN M@>MPDO@?DII@BJINOMP>ODJIN OODH@N 'M@A@MOJDI?DQD?PJINOMP>ODJINDIOC@ GJI>@MI@? !CC'GJJFG@'4R@DOJQ@MKODJIRDOCJPO

=@DIBHC#PMJK@ODJI?J@NIJOAJGGJR<>G@JIEPI>ODJI DII@BJINOMP>ODJIN?J@NDIOC@>JM@NOJMM@>ODQ@>JIEPI>ODJIDNM@GD<=GTPN@?DIDQ@>JIO@SON RC@OC@M DODNJIEPI>ODJICC 2C@APMOC@MR@NOMJM@ OC@HJM@QJH@N$DIIDNCJIOMCDN JHHJIDIM@KG<>DQ@N=POG@NNNJOC

~~3.4 SUMMARY~~

3NJINDNON @IODM@GT JA AJMH–API>ODJI K@NRDOCJINOMP>O D >JI !@MOJINOMP>O D >JI>GPNO@MOJB@OC@M=@>ODJI 2C@N@IJ?@NJM>JINOMP>ODJINCJRQMJNN GDIBPDNOD>JINOMP>ODJI@NOMDIBNOCOGT OJC@?KJINOMP>O D >JI 'IOC@N@>JINOMP>ODN@H@MB@IO 'IJO@?OCJINOMP>ODJIBM>JPIODIB AJM>JMKPN?CJGJBD>JMKPNNOP?D@NJIQ@IODJIC@? 'RJPG?DONOCMJPBCOC@DM@SKJNPM@OJOC@HOJANOP?T DIOC@DMJRIMDBCO IJOC@MRCOCDNDNNP@DNOJOM@JIQ@IODJIIJOJMKPNNOP?THCO@MDNDIBOC@FDI?N JAKJHHPIDOTPN@? JI DI?DQD?P@NN 2C@?JAOC@AJGGJRDIB>C

~~ 4 DATA AND METHODS~~

~~4.1 INTRODUCTION~~

5@CJIOMCODJIOJOC@OC@JM@OD>COCCC@N CJD>@N JA OCDN ?DNN@MOJI>@KODJI JA GJIOMOJIRCOCDN@SPGOOJ@SOM<>OPNDIBCIDLP@NOJ OPM@JARCJIOMOPJIOMODQ@ ?JOJIOMJMKPN?DNOH@OCJ?JGJBT N MOD>G@N'JIOMJINOMP>ODJIC 5C@IOMTDIBOJNOP?T>JIOMCI@NNDN?DAAD>PGODAIJODHKJNND=G@OJ>JMKPN?MJNN GDIBPDNOD>?PGOTDNOC@A<>O OCJIOM@KOAJMGJIEPI>ODJIN ODJIJIOMJINOMP>ONCJMM@>ODQ@>JIEPI>ODJI OPM@ JA OC@ >MJNN GDIBPDNOD> =@CJIOM@ BM>JPIO PNN>JIOMDIDONJRI MDBCO -IOC@RCJG@ QOP@ JA @QD?@I>@ @Q@I AJM >MJNN GDIBPDNOD> B@I@MQJIOMJIOMG@'4DN=JMKPN?@IOMJIO@IODJIDNOCJMKPNGDIBPDNOD>NJIN@Q@MOGTI@RDON@@HNOCJMKPN =JIOM@@?NAMJHJI@GJHKD DI OCDN >CC OC@ NOP?D@N =PDG? JIOJ JI@ JH@DIOCM@@OTK@N NCJRIDI$DBPM@ HJIJGDIBPJMKPNJIGT>JIOJMKJM< HPGODGDIBPJMKJMJHKJMKJM< !JHKJMKJM< JMKJM

~~?DAA@M@IOG>JM?DIBOJNJH@@SOM?DH@INDJI 2C@T RJPG?OCPNAPI>ODJIJMKJMODQ@GJMKJM<JMKJMJINDNOJAO@SONOCJHKPO@N AJM DINO@ JI ?@ADIDIB >JHKJMKJM< N@@ 2@P=@MO DEH@M +DFC~~

~~ ~~

~~Figure 9 Types of corpora~~

2C@H@MDONJHKJMKJM<@GT ?@=NDIOC@H@OCJ?JGJBTJA>MJNN GDIBPDNOD>NOP?D@N'NCCJD>@N=@GJR 'NCG@N'ODJI HJQDIBJIOJOC@>JIOMG@'''N@>ODJI @I?DIBRDOCOC@>JMKPN =JHKG@'4N@>ODJI "@OCNOP?T >G@N OC@HN@GQ@N C@M@ ' OPM@JAHT H@OCJ?JGJBD>CJD>@N

~~4.2 ARTICLES I AND II: QUANTITATIVE ENGLISH CORPUS LINGUISTICS~~

~~!JIOMOJAN@Q@MODQ@NCJHKM@C@INDQ@>JMKPN =FDIB MOD>G@N'F=JI@JAOC@N@ORJG@NDNOCPN>JMKPNGDIBPDNOD>N D=@M~~

~~–DODN@HKDMD>OP~~

~~ –DOPODGDU@NDKG@?>JGG@>ODJIJAI~~

~~– DO HJHKPO@MN AJM ODQ@O@>CIDLP@N~~

– DO ?@K@I?N JI =JOC LPCIDLP@N D=@M !JIMNDNIJOEPNONOP?TRDOC N?JOO@SON 0CKMJ>@NNDN=PDGOJMKPN 'I OCDN ?DNN@MOJMKPN GDIBPDNOD> H@OCJ?N PG@'JMKPNGDIBPDNOD>N@ B %MD@N 2CDNDN@NK@>DG@ '' DI RCD>C ' PN@ HPGODKG@ >JMM@NKJI?@I>@ ODJIO@>CIDLP@OJPI>JQ@MOC@RCOC@QJINOMP>ODJIC@HJIOMNOP?D@NHJMKPN =JMKPN ?MDQ@I >JMKPN =JMKPN?JMKPN ?MDQ@INOP?T NOJMKPN =ODQ@DNGODQ@ OC@>JMKPN ?MDQ@IK@MNK@>ODQ@DI?P>ODQ@ -MDBDIODJI >CJJGN JAOCJPBCO DI>JMKPN GDIBPDNOD>N +>#I@MT&@OC@I OC@?DAA@M@I>@=@OR@@IOC@HCC@MNDJMKPN ?MDQ@IKJNDODJIC @ B &PINOJI 1P$JMOC>JHDIB OD>@ OC@M@C JH=DI@=JOC>JMKPN ?MDQ@IJMKPN =N 'I MOD>G@ ' HTCDNGJMKPN ?MDQ@I'OMD@?OJCJIOMJINOMP>OOTK@N DIOJHT?G@'' JIOC@JOC@MCJMKPN =C@?>JINOMP>ODJIOTK@NOCG>JM?DIB OJ OC@JM@OD>@=@OR@@I MOD>G@N'G@ ' KMJ>@@?N AMJH API>ODJIOJAJMH RC@M@G@''BJ@NAMJHAJMHOJAPI>ODJI 2C@?G@N>JH@NAMJHOC@ MDODNC,JMKPNJA MDODNC#IBGDNCOCJINDNONJAHDGGDJIRJM?NJARMDOO@I>@NNOC@ ,!'C@ @MBGPI? @O JHKJI@IOJIQ@MNJHKJI@IO 2C@IJHKJI@IO DN <=JPO HDGGDJI RJM?N ?DQD?@? DIOJ @DBCO NP= M@BDNO@MN DI *ee’s (2001)

~~'IOCDN?DNN@MOJHKG@O@?RJMFJIOC@NKJF@I>JMKJM~~

~~'OCC3IDOAJM4ON >@NNOJ ,!R@=~~

>GJI?P>OJINDNO JA O@SON OC>JM?DIBOJO@SOOTK@NNP>CG@' 2C@NP= KJIQ@MNJHKJI@IODN< RJM? NGD>@JAOC@=DBB@M>JIQ@MNJHKJI@IO 2CDN@SOM<>O>JINDNONJAODIB OCDN NP= KJMKPNR>@NNOJOC@NJPI?ADG@NJAOC@>JMKPN RCD>CR@M@PN@?OJNPKKJMOOC@OJMJABMJINOMP>ODJIN NCJR M@BDNO@M QCJD>@NOCJINOMP>ODJI@IOJINOMP>ODJI 2CDNADONOC@PNCOJG@R@F@@KOM<>FJADI?DQD?PJIO@SOPJGJPMDIBOC@M@NPGODIBHJM@<=NOM<>O>JINOMP>ODJIN 2JBDQ@JPIO@MOC@#IBGDNC'HK@MODJIHJNOGTDIM@>DK@N 'NODJINOMP>ODJIRDOCOCDN>JIO@SO 'IC@H< AJMDK@>A XNOHJIOMO@?>JIOMCJIOJIOMPN@?JIKM@N@IODIBHPGODKG@>JHK@ODIBQD@RKJDION =PO>JPIOJA<>JHK@ODODJI 'ICJIOMJINOMP>ODJIN RCDG@DINK@@>C OC@M@KG<>DQ@#SKC@HJMKPN ?MDQ@ICAMJHOC@ >JMKPN =C@M MOD>G@'DN>JMKPN ?MDQ@IDIOCJIOMJIOMJINOMP>ODJIN 'OCCOJJINOMP>ODJIOTK@ OC@N@HOTK@CRJMKPNH@OG@'' 'HJQ@OJOC@>JMKPN =O@?DIOCM@@RJIND?@MOC@RMDOO@IKJIND?@M OC@NDSHJNO>JIQ@IODJIJINOMP>ODJIC@HJIND?@M>OD>KJNDODJI

~~ < 9016 $76!: ,JONODMM@?=PONC #6. ,"#"9016 !: 2C@?MDIFDNIJONODMM@?–DODNNC~~

~~+TOD>@DINTIO<>OD>COC@TOPMQCN@@%MD@N IJOC@M>JMKPN =G@''DNOCJINOMP>ODJI~~

~~4.3 ARTICLE III: CONTRASTIVE INTERACTIONAL LINGUISTICS~~

!JMKPN GDIBPDNOD>N HMDOD>DN@? AJM CQD@RJAGO =POOC@TH@?PM@@NNDIB>JNON 3NK@MNK@>ODQ@OCJIND?@MNG@NN 2CDN DN OC@ K@MNK@>ODQ@ OODJIN @ B ->CN 1>C@BGJAA2CJHKNJI!JPK@M )PCG@I1@GODIB 'ODNOC@AJPI?G@ ''' G@' 'IO@M<>ODJIN NOP?D@NG@ OJ A<>@DIO@M<>ODJIOJPI>JQ@MOC@RC GDIBPDNOD> NOMP>OPM@N@NJ>DODJIN 'O >JH=DI@N >JIQ@MNJIO@SOP ODJIOPM@NJAGODJIODJINDIG@ JI OC@ KM<>OD>@ JA DIO@M<>ODJIN CDIO@M<>ODJIODJINOD>@N >ODJI>ODJINDC@BGJAA=PGCODJIN>JINDNOJAKM<>OD>@N RCD>CH JM IJI GDIBPDNOD> $JM OCDN ?DNN@MOODJIN JIOMM@NJPM>@NOCOD>@NAJM?JDIB QODJIN !JIOMJHKG@S>JINOMP>O OCJINOMP>ODJIND?@IODAD@?DIKM@QDJPN GDO@MG@N'ODJI IJOC@MRC MOD>G@ ''' ?DAA@MN AMJH OC@ ORJ KM@QDJPN JI@N DN OCJIOMJHKJI>@KO JA >JIOM

capture comparable phenomena in the two languages. I used the spoken part of Article I’s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

~~4.4 ARTICLE IV: CONTRASTIVE LINGUISTICS USING PARALLEL CORPUS DATA~~

~~MOD>G@'''NCJR@?OCJHKJIOMDJH=DIDIBNOMG@ '4N@OJPOOJDIQ@NODB#NOJID~~

~~'OC>@NNOJOC@N@H~~

~~2C@!JIQ@MNCDQ@DN<>OPJGG@>ODJIJAQMDO@MDJMKPN NDI>@DODNIJODKG@?>JGG@>ODJI~~

=JOCAMJHOC@$DIID>=MC OC@M@NO'I?J #PMJK@C #IBGDNC %@MH =MC $M@I>C 'O@=MC NPGOOJNOP?TPNDIB>JHKJMKJM< $JMJI@OCDIB DODN?DAAD>PGOOJADI?@SOM< GDIBPDNOD>JHKJIO@SONDIPGOPM@N 0@BDNO@MNPGOPMC@NHDBCON@@H>JHKMJNN>PGOPM@N T@OOC@THOJ>>PKTMC@N ?@K@I?DIBJIKJGDOD>PGOPM@N AJMDINO@ 5C@IOC@IPH=@MJAGM@JIODIB@I>D@NDI>M@@ DIO@INDQ@I@NNJA>JHKJMKPNNOP?D@N 2TKD>JHKJMKJM<CRJHKJMKPN NOP?T JA >JIOMJIO@SONJAPN@AJMNP>C>JINOMP>ODJIN 'OH@ OC@MOJIOM@ OCM@PGO@SKM@NNDJIJA?DNC LP@NODJINR@M@IJOOC@AJ>PNJA MOD>G@'4 @>JMKPN JAA@M@?JMKPN)J@CI RCD>CM@KM@N@IONKMJ>@@?DIBNJA OC@#PMJK@@@?DIBNDDPH@ION >@NN@? OC@>JMKPNOCMJPBCOC@-.31DIO@MA<>@2D@?@HCROD>@ 'M@DO@MCAJMMG@'JIJIOMJINOMP>ODJINJAOC@JOC@MGA %G@'' J?@N RJMM@NKJI?@I>@@ JINOMP>ONJAOC@DI?DQD?PODJI@?N@H HJIOM@NDIOC@PN@JA GJN@GTM@GJINOMP>ODJIN<>MJNNGG@'4N@ONOC@ADI?DIBNJAOCDN?DNN@MOMJNN GDIBPDNOD>>JIO@SODIORJ RJMM@>ODQ@I@NNAMJHODQ@ #PMJK@JM@JAOCDN24#%*$70&DNDIRCDO@?DIQ JHKMDNDIB $M@I>C DPGOPMJIJHD>>JIO<>ONDI

~~'OCCID>@~~

OC@@ BDQDIBMDN@OJAPMOC@MNCPGOPMDIAGP@I>@OCJIOMJINOMP>ODJINDN*

~~4.5 SUMMARY~~

2CDN ?DNN@MOJIND?@MN >JIOMMJNN GDIBPDNOD>C@N OCJMKPNGDIBPDNOD>NODJIN JOC JA OC@N@ H@OCJ?N JHK@JAOC@?DNN@MOONJADO!JMKPN GDIBPDNOD>N DN KMJOJOTKD>ODJIN LPNC@NGO DIO@M<>ODJIN@NN JOCJA OC@N@>G@NN JMD@IO@? >JMKPNGDIBPDNOD>N OC@M@DNO JMD@IO@?DIO@M<>ODJIN 2C@ G@N JA OCDN ?DNN@MOG@ ' DN >JMKPN ?MDQ@I DO @SKGJM@NOC@?JHJIOMJI>@KODJINCJN@NDS>JINOMP>ODJIC@HPNAJM MOD>G@'' RCD>CDN>JMKPN =JH=DIDIBJMKPNH@OCJ?N RDOCOC@JM@OD>JI>@MIN MOD>G@'''G@'DIOCJHKG@'DAD>OJ#IBGDNCOC@ORJGJIOMJINOMP>O D >JINLPDO@?DAA@M@IOGT 'IKPGJH=DIDIBOC@ JINOMP>ONDNPNJA>MJNN GDIBPDNOD>QMJNN GDIBPDNOD>NOP?TDI MOD>G@ '4 JH=DIC OPMI@? JPO OJ NCJR LPDO@ < GJO JA QO@?RG@'4G@''NDI>@DOPN@N< NDHDGC'N@OJPOOJNOC LP@NODJIN MD=@>JIOMMD=@?DO CO@MDN@?HTH@OCJ?JGJBD>CJD>@N 2CDNKCDNOC@H@JIOM

~~ PART II. STUDIES PART III. DISCUSSION AND CONCLUSION~~

~~9 DISCUSSION~~

~~LL@=:=?AFFAF?G>L@AKGDDGOAF?J=K=9J;@IM=KLAGFK A 1@9L9J=L@=>=J=FL>GJEKG>;GFLJ9KLAN=F=?9LAGF AA 1@9L>9;LGJK9J=9KKG;A9L=O@A;@>GJEK AAA 1@9LHJ9?E9LA;>MF;LAGFKJGE9E=L@GNA=O~~

~~9.1 SUMMARY OF RESULTS AND EVALUATION OF ARTICLES~~

9.1.1 ARTICLE I JLA;D= # AFN=KLA?9L=< F?DAK@ GFLJ9KLAN= (=?9LAGF AF F=OKH9H=JAJKL LG=PHDGJ=L@=>GJEKG>;GFLJ9KLAN=F=?9LAGFAFL@=K= LOG <9L9K=LK 9F< K=;GF< LG >AF< GML A> 9F< @GO L@=K= J=?AKL=JK 9F< AF L@= ;9K= G> F=OKH9H=JK L@=AJKM: J=?AKL=JK >=J .@=>AJKLG>L@=K=?G9DKJ=D9L=KLGJ=K=9J;@IM=KLAGF GFL@=>GJEKG>;GFLJ9KLAN=F=?9LAGF .@=K=;GF9;LGJK9>>=;LAF?;GFKLJM;LAGF;@GA;=LGL@==PL=FLL@9LL@=J=9J=J=?AKL=J >=J=F;=KAFL@= MK9?= G> ;GFLJ9KLAN= F=?9LAGF #L 9DKG ;GFLJA:ML=K LG J=K=9J;@ IM=KLAGFGFHJ9?E9LA; >MF;LAGFKAFL@9LL@=>=J=F;=KAFL@=J=D9LAN=>J=IM=F;QG>;GFLJ9KLAN=F=?9LAGFAF >=J=FL KM: ;GJHGJ9;9F:=J=D9L=MF;LAGF9D >=J=F;=K9EGF?L@=?=FJ=K #@9N=9DJ=9MDD 1@9L#G;MKGFAFL@9L K=;LAGF AK L@= J=D9LAGFK@AH :=LO==F L@= K=E9FLA; LQH=K G> ;GFLJ9KLAN= F=?9LAGF 9F< L@= ;GFKLJM;LAGFK L@9L 9HH=9J AF L@= <9L9 DD ;GE:AF9LAGFK G> ;GFKLJM;LAGF9D K;@=E9 9F< K=E9FLA;LQH=9HH=9JAF=AL@=JG>L@=<9L9K=LK =N=FA>KGE=G>L@GK= ;GE:AF9LAGFK O=J= K@GOFLG:=DAC=DA=JL@9FGL@=JK .@=K=>AFGJ=K@9>=J=FL O9Q G> GJ= L@= 9>>AJE9LAN= AK HJ=N9D=FL AF ;GFN=JK9LAGF 1@AD= L@AK AK AF DAF= OAL@ L@= GN=J9DD HJ=>=J=F;= >GJ 9KQF<=LA; ;GGJGJ= ALAKL@=5:;@).A@*6K;@=E9L@9L:=9JK9J9L@=J>GJE9DKLQD= FGLE=J=DQL@=;GFBMF;LAGFALK=D> #F9<GMF;GMJK= F?DAK@@9K9 HD=L@GJ9 G> GL@=J ;GFKLJM;LAGFK LG =PHJ=KK 9< O@A;@ 9J=

~~#FL=J=KLAF?DQ L@=J=N=JK=AKLJM=>GJ L@=KM:GJJ=IM=FL9F AFFAK@:MLALK;GJJ=;LAN=MK=AK=P;DMKAN=LGN=JQAF>GJE9D;GFL=PLK~~

;GEEGFAFKH==;@ #F9DDDAC=DA@GG< ;GFLJ9KLAN=F=?9LAGF;GFKLJM;LAGFK;GEH=L=FGLBMKL 9EGF?L@=EK=DN=K:ML9DKG9?9AFKLGL@=J;GFKLJM;LAGFK 9>9;LL@9L9DKG;9E=MHAFJLA;D= #0 JLA;D= # 9DKG ;GFLJA:ML=K LGO9J F=OKH9H=J ;GFLJ9KLAN=F=?9LAGF;GFKLJM;LAGFK O@AD=KM;@KM: J=?AKL=JK9KKHGJLK OJALAF? ;GFL9AF EM;@ D=KK G> AL )F L@= :9KAK G> L@AK # 9J?M=< AF JLA;D=# L@9L H=J@9HK MFKMJHJAKAF?DQ ;GFLJ9KLAN=F=?9LAGFAK9F9J?ME=FL9LAN=;GFKLJM;LAGFLQH=AL;9F:=MK=< to establish the writer’s or speaker’s stance. In Article I as well as in section 2.3. AF*9JL# #@9N=9J?M=L@=?=F=J9DDQ;GFLJ9KLAF?F9LMJ=G> F=?9LAGF O@A;@;9F:=<=K;JA:=L@=LOGE=FL9DKH9;=KL@9LF=?9LAGF;J=9L=K "A<9D?G GOFAF? 0=J@9?=F -O==LK=J .@= >9;L L@9L AL ;9F =PHJ=KK KL9F;=AK9DKGFGLKMJHJAKAF? KAF;=L@AK@9K9DKG:==FK@GOFLG:=L@=;9K=>GJK=FL=FLA9D F=?9LAGFAF?=F=J9D9F;Q?A=J JLA;D=# O9K L@= >AJKLL@9L # OJGL= >GJ L@AKG;MKGF ;GFLJ9KLAN=F=?9LAGF@9KJ=E9AF=<;GFKL9FL EQMF<=JKL9FL@=OJALAF? #F9<;GFLJ9KLAN=F=?9LAGF9DGF?L@=O9QAFK=;LAGF '=L@GGJLGL9D 9;;GMFL9:ADALQG>L@=<9L9L@9L#@9<;GDD=;L=< #FGL@=JOGJ = ? -AF;D9AJ "GO=N=J L@=J=O=J=KGE= ;9K=KL@9L;GMD<@9N=:==FD=>LGMLOAL@GMLK9;JA>A;AF?L@=;GJHMK DAF?MAKLA;9;;GMFL9:ADALQG> L@=KLMKHGC=F<9L9AFJLA;D=#L@9LAF;DM<=K9 H=JKGFJ=9AFL=J=KL L@=?J9EE9JG>;9KM9D;GFN=JK9LAGF .@=>=J=F;=KAF <9L9;GDD=;LAGF9F<9F9DQKAKFGLOAL@KL9FL@=CAF;GFKLJM;LAGFK

9.1.2 ARTICLE II JLA;D= ## LGGC L@= F=OKH9H=J <9L9 G> JLA;D= # LG DGGC EGJ= <==HDQ AFLG L@= J=9KGFK >GJ ;@GGKAF?GF=;GFKLJM;LAGF9DK;@=E9GN=JL@=GL@=J9DL=JF9LAN=K #LAKL@MK9:GMLJ=K=9J;@ question 2, i.e. the factors that affect construction choice. The notion of ‘constructional schema’ rather than simply ‘construction’ was preferred since these are abstract patterns 9FG;MK=J=IM=FLK;@=E9K .@= <9L9K=LO9K>MJL@=J;GFKLJ9AF=<:QGFDQ9DDGOAF?;9K=KAFO@A;@L@=;GFLJ9KLO9K9L ;GFKLALM=FL D=N=D .@AK O9K LG GFDQ ;GFKA<=J ;9K=K AF O@A;@ 9DDG>L@=K;@=E9KO=J=AF HJAF;AHD=MK9:D= JLA;D=##;GFKA<=J=F=?9LAGF F=?9LGJ O=A?@L >G;MK KLJM;LMJ= 9;LAN9LAGF ?=FJ= KM: J=?AKL=J .@=K= N9JA9:D=K O=J= GF=K L@9L HJ=NAGMK J=K=9J;@GF=AL@=J;GFLJ9KLAN=F=?9LAGFGJGL@=JKAEAD9J;GFKLJM;LAGF>9EADA=K@9K9J?M=>=;L;GFKLJM;LAGF;@GA;= .@=K=O=J=MK=9F9DQKAK AJKL #;GFKA<=J=

AF L@=K= N9JA9:D=K ;GMD< K@GO L@= >=J=F;=K 9F< KAEAD9JALA=K 9EGF? L@= ;GFKLJM;LAGF9DK;@=E9K 1@=F;GFKA<=J= O@A;@ O9K =PH=;L=< .@= ;GFKLJM;LAGF9D K;@=E9K >GDDGO=< L@= =F< O=A?@L HJAF;AHD= F=?9LAN= >AJKL K;@=E9K @9< @=9NA=J 9>>AJE9LAN= H9JLK O@AD= L@= KALM9LAGFO9KJ=N=JK=>GJ F=?9LAN= K=;GF9NGMJ=<:9D9F;=<;GFLJ9KLK OAL@FGO=A?@L >=J=nce. The ‘expanded’ schemas as well as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‘knock Guts’ in the analysis (i.e. cells with zero). While avoiding such cases is desirable in KGE=KL9LAKLA;9DE=L@GO=L9C=AF;9K=KL@9LN9JA9:D=KL@9LAL;GFKA<=JK #@9N= ;GFKA<=J=< L@GK= N9JA9:D=K L@9L L@= DAL=J9LMJ= KM??=KLK EA?@L :=J=D=N9FL>GJ;GFLJ9KLAN= F=?9LAGF =AL@=J:=;9MK=L@=Q9J=E=FLAGF= GJ:=;9MK=KLMDAL=J9LMJ=GFL@=>=J=F;=K9EGF?L@=;GFKLJM;LAGFK #LE9Q:=L@9L L@=J=9J=N9JA9:D=KL@9L#@9N=FGL;GFKA<=J=<9FGJ>MLMJ=J=K=9J;@LGJ=KGDN= F AKKM= FGL L@= ;GFF=;LAGF :=LO==F L@= F=?9LAN= 9F< affirmative parts of a construction. According to Rohdenburg’s (1996: 151) Complexity Principle, ‘[i]n the case of more or less complex grammatical options the more explicit one(s) will tend to be favoured in cognitively more complex environments’. .@= F?DAK@ AFAL=):B=;LGEHD=E=FLD9MK=;GFKLJM;LAGF >GJAFKL9F;= @9KLOGN9JA9FLKOAL@ 9F1=A5@1.A>01:?;91 .@= N9JA9FLOAL@L@9LAKL@=EGJ==PHDA;ALGF=9F< AF9?J==E=FLOAL@L@=GEHD=PALQ*JAF;AHD= ALAK9KKG;A9L=0-E@4-@;4:

4-0 3;:1 -C-E ,G@<=F:MJ? – #F L@= ;9K= G> ;GFLJ9KLAN= F=?9LAGF L@= GEHD=PALQ*JAF;AHD=OGMD9NGMJ=L@=;GFBGAFKAKN=JQDGF? #>AFL>GJ>MLMJ= KLMAF ?=F=J9DAK9LAGF 9FL@=N9JA9LAGF9EGF?L@=;GFKLJM;LAGF9DK;@=E9K AKMF9;;GMFL=<>GJ 1=KLADDCFGOJ=D9LAN=DQDALLD=9:GMLL@=DGO=JD=N=DKG>L@=;GFKLJM;LAGF9D @A=J9J;@QAF;GFLJ9KLAN=F=?9LAGFAF9FQD9F?M9?= #@GH=L@9L>MLMJ=KLML@=Qexist in language users’ mental construct A ;GFK9L9DD #=PH=;LL@9LL@=J=9J=EGJ=JG:MKL >=J=F;=K9LDGO=JD=N=DKG>L@=;GFLJ9KLAN= F=?9LAGF;GFKLJM;L A ;GF .@AKNA=OAK:9K=

9.1.3 ARTICLE III JLA;D=###;GEH9J=<;GFLJ9KLAN=F=?9LAGFAF F?DAK@9F< AFFAK@;9KM9D;GFN=JK9LAGF .@= D9F?M9?=KO=J=;@GK=FGFL@=:9KAKG>, first, the author’s language skills and, second, their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

~~#L@9FC'9JLAF"ADH=JL>GJHGAFLAF?GMLL@=;GFF=;LAGF:=LO==FGEHD=PALQ*JAF;AHD=9F<;GFLJ9KLAN=F=?9LAGF~~

~~~~

.@=>9;LL@9LL@=K9E=;GFKLJM;LAGFAKMK=<>GJ:GL@=;LDQLQHA;9D>GJAFL=JKM:B=;LAN=;GFKLJM;LAGF LQH=K G>O@A;@;GFLJ9KLAN=F=?9LAGFAKGF= GJ=P9EHD= "ADH=JL9F<GMJ?=GAK >AF< similar leeway in the use of what they call the ‘sarcastic 9A/4’ construction in English, O@A;@;9F:=MK=<>GJ:GL@;GF>JGFL9LAGF9FL=F >GJE9LL=< LG K@GO O@=L@=J L@=Q 9J= MK=< reactively or not. Thus, contrastive negation was shown to be a locus of ‘positAGF9DDQK=FKALAN= grammar’ (Schegloff 1996a) in which sequential position and grammatical formatting are AFL=JLOAF=< 9;LGJK9KKG;A9L=9F=?9LAN= >AJKL;D9MK=;GE:AF9LAGF9KO=DD9KKM: ;D9MK9DF=?9LAGFAFL@=>AJKLH9JLG>9 :AH9JLAL=;GFLJ9KLAN=F=?9LAGF;GFKLJM;L 9;LGJK9KKG;A9L=MDDQ;D9MK9DAF:GL@G>ALKH9JLK -M;@>AF9;LGJK"9OCAFK 9F< 9DGF?OAL@L@=>J=IM=F;Q AF>GJE9LAGFGFL@=N9JAGMKKLJ9L=?A=KG>;GFLJ9KLAN=F=?9LAGF=PHJ=KKAGF L@=QAFLMJF@=DH =PHD9AF;JGKK DAF?MAKLA;J=?MD9JALA=KAFL@=E9JCAF?G>;GFLJ9KLAN=F=?9LAGF AFH9JLA;MD9JL@= HJ=>=J=F;=G>;GJJ=;LAN=;GFBMF;LAGFK>GJL@=F=?9LAN= >AJKLJ9L@=JL@9FL@=F=?9LAN= K=;GF< KLJ9L=?Q JLA;D=###GH=J9L=KGF9KE9DD=JK;9D=L@9FL@=HJ=NAGMKLOGKLMGJEK 9F< >MF;LAGFK G> ;GFLJ9KLAN= F=?9LAGF L L@= K9E= LAE= L@= K;@=E9LA;ALQ G> ;GFLJ9KLAN= F=?9LAGF HGK=K >GJ KGE= HJG:D=EK >GJ KM;@ 9F9DQKAK -;@=E9LA;ALQ =FL9ADK K=E9FLA;9F9;LAGFKL@9L ;GFLJ9KLAN=F=?9LAGF;9F;9K=KAFO@A;@9KH=;A>A;9;LAGFLQH= AK >A;MDLLGJ=;G?FAK= .@=>GJE=JHJG:D=E;GF;=JF=L@=>GJE9D;9L=?GJA=KO=J=IMAL=J9J= =KH=;A9DDQAFL@=;GEH9J9LAN=DQKE9DD AFFAK@<9L9K=L ,=9;LAN=F=KK AK 9DKG FGL 9F =P@9MKLAN= =PHD9F9LGJQ >9;LGJ >GJ KLJ9L=?Q;@GA;=AF=AL@=J D9F?M9?= GJ=P9EHD= L@=;@GA;=:=LO==F9F9KQF<=LA;;D9MK=;GE:AF9LAGF9FGJ:QAL

9.1.4 ARTICLE IV #FJLA;D=#0 #LGGC=D=E=FLK>JGEL@=HJ=NAGMKL@J==KLM EQ GJE=< 9 KAEAD9J <9L9 ;GDD=;LAGF HJG;=G;MK=;D9MK= ;GE:AFAF?>GDDGOAF?L@=J=KMDLKG>JLA;D=### JLA;D=#09FKO=JKIM=KLAGFK9F< GF>GJEK 9F9;LGJKL@9L=PHD9AFL@=E GJJ=K=9J;@IM=KLAGF L@=EGKLAEHGJL9FL>AF: AFFAK@ B--: 9F< EGJ= ?=F=J9D * -( ;GFBMF;LAGFK = ? F?DAK@ .A@ J=F;@ 9-5? O=E9QE9C=>MJL@=J;GFLJ9KLAN=F=?9LAGF;9K=K GL@=JK9J=>MF;LAGF9DDQJ=KLJA;L=<

= ? #L9DA9F.1:?K>GJJ=HD9;AN=K *GJLM?M=K=/;9;>GJ9<GJ J=9;LAN=K >JGE JLA;D= ### JLA;D= #0 9DKG :JGM?@L LG L@= >GJ= O9QK G> =PHJ=KKAF?;GFLJ9KLAN=F=?9LAGFL@9L@99EGF?L@=EL@=MK=G>9GJ;=9;GJJ=;LAN=DQMK=< 9GMF9;LL@9L AKG>L=FGN=JDGGC=AFN9JA9:D=K O9KFGL=FLAJ=DQA<=FLA;9DLGL@9LMK==J=F;=K;AL=9DDE9Q @9N=:==FHJ=;AHAL9L=<:QALK;GEH=LALAGFOAL@9-5?‘but’ on one hand, <8A@L@‘rather’ on the GL@=J;> "9FK=F FGL@=JJ9HA<<=N=DGHE=FLL@9L@9K:==FFGL= B--: AF AFFAK@ #F L@= =9JDQ L@ ;=FLMJQ AFFAK@ MF;LAGF9D=JJ=< 9A@@- KGE==9KL=JF L@= L@ ;=FLMJQ L@= KL9F<9J< D9F?M9?=@9<9 D9F?M9?=;GFL9;L L@GM?@L@=AF< L@= >A;=G>L@=#FKLALML=>GJL@=&9F?M9?=KG> AFD9FJGEL@=?=F=J9DHM:DA;,AALL9%GJ@GF=F H=JKGF9D;GEEMFA;9LAGF ,=LMJFAF? LG >AF>=J=F;=K 9F< KAEAD9JALA=K>GMF<9EGF?L@=D9F?M9?=KL@9L#@9N=KLMMLMJ=J=K=9J;@GF L@= LJ9B=;LGJA=K G> ;@9F?= AF ;GJJ=;LAN= ;GFBMF;LAGFK 9F< ;GFLJ9KLAN= F=?9LAGF EGJ=

~~~~

~~?=F=J9DDQ #FH9JLA;MD9J O=CFGODALLD=9:GML5:;@;:8E).A@-8?;*69FJGE9KQF;@JGFA;9F<9~~

9.2.2 METHODOLOGICAL DISCUSSION .@=E=L@GL@AKJGEGF=D9F?M9?=LG9;JGKK DAF?MAKLA;;GJHMK :9K= ;GFKLJM;LAGF9DN9JA9LAGF #L@9K:=;GE=J=D9LAN=DQOA<=DQ9;;=HL=GDDGOL@=K9E=HJAF;AHD=K= ? MGAK"9OCAFK .@AKHJAF;AHD=AK 9;;=HL=<9;JGKKL@=>GJE9DAKE >MF;LAGF9DAKEJGEAL >=J KGE=LAE=KF=?9LAGF AL@9K:==F >J=IM=FLDQFGL=GDDGOKLQHGDG?A;9DN9JA9LAGFH9LL=JFK:GL@AF F?DAK@ F<=JO9D< F<=JO9D<%GJLE9FF J=KF9F =G-@9JE9 9F< AFGL@=JD9F?M9?=K'A=KL9EG N9F<=JMO=J9 =MQH=J=(=M;C=JE9FK GFN=JK=DQ >=JLQHGDG?Q9KGMJ;=G><9L9L@9LE9Q:=EGJ=J=HJ=K=FL9LAN=L@9F KL9F<9J=9LMJ=K;9MK=<:QKL9F<9J F<=JO9D<9F<%GJLE9FF 9J?M=L@9LL9CAF?KM;@AFL=J J=D9LAGFK@AHK:=LO==F N9JAGMKLQH=KG>N9JA9LAGFAnto account would further ‘the ideal of a unified approach to the KLMN9JA9LAGFAFD9F?M9?= :=AL@AKLGJA;9D ;JGKK DAF?MAKLA;GJD9F?M9?= internal’. I would DAC=LG9J?M=L@9L=N=FGL@=JCAFD9F?M9?= AFL=JF9DN9JA9LAGFL@9FMDDQ 9<<=< LG L@= 9HHJG9;@ 9>=J=FLN9JA=LA=KJGE >=J=FL9J=9K:ML>JGE >=J=FLEG<9DALA=KMK=GJ =PHJ=KKAF? ;GFLJ9KLAN= F=?9LAGF AF ;9KM9D ;GFN=JK9LAGF9F>=J=FLAF9O9QL@9LAF9;JGKK DAF?MAKLA;KLM>=J=F;= :=LO==F 9 N9JA=LQ L@9L MK=K KQF<=KAK LG =PHJ=KK ;GJJ=;LANALQ9FA;OGJCG>JLA;D=K#9F<## JLA;D=###MK=JGE!9KL O@AD=L@AKAF;MJKL@=;GKLG>F?DG;=FLJA;ALQ AL9DKGE=9FKL@9LL@=J=K=9J;@<=KA?FAKLJ9FKH9J=FL9F<;GFLJGDD=< .@=9F9DQKAKG>;JGKK DAF?MAKLA;H9LL=JFKO9K9DKGKMHHGJL=<:Q L@= D9F?M9?= KH=;A>A; KLMKLJ9L=?Q O@A;@AK=PHDA;ALDQ=EHDGQ=JLA;D=K#9F<## #L<=N=DGH=<>JGEEQOAK@LG<=K;JA:=L@=;GFKLJM;LAGF9DH9LL=JFK G> F?DAK@AF9<9L9 JGFL=GJ;=9;L # OAK@#@9<=EHDGQ=JLA;D=### 9DJ=9L@= F?DAK@5:;@).A@*6;GFKLJM;LAGFOGMD<@9N=:=F=>AL=<>JGE 9K=H9J9LAGFAFLG;D9MK9D9FGJ>MLMJ=J=K=9J;@ GFKLJM;LAGF9D N9JA9LAGF ;9F := KLMN=JQKH=;A>A; ;GFKLJM;LAGFKGJ;GFKLJM;LAGF9DKLJ9L=?A=K9F<9LL@=E9;JG D=N=DG>;GFKLJM;LAGF9DK;@=E9K

~~ #FL@AKAFJGE:GL@ #J=;GEE=FGJ>MLMJ=KLM K;@=E9LA;;GFKLJM;LAGFLQH=K~~

9.2.3 THEORETICAL DISCUSSION JGE9L@=GJ=LA;9DHGAFLG>NA=O EQ9AEO9KLG9;;GMFL>GJ;GFLJ9KLAN=F=?9LAGF>JGE9 MK9?= :9K=< ;GFKLJM;LAGF9DH=JKH=;LAN= )FGF=@9F< L@AKL=KL=<;GFKLJM;LAGF?J9EE9J 9 L@=GJQKGE=LAE=K9;;MK=KLA;CAF?LG9;GE>GJLRGF=;GFKAKLAF?G>9>=OH=LH@=FGE=F9 )FL@=GL@=J@9F< ;GFLJ9KLAN=F=?9LAGFE9Q@9N=KGE=L@AF?LG?AN=LGL@=L@=GJQ #FL@AK K=;LAGF # ;GFLJ9KLAN=F=?9LAGF 'QKL9JLAF?HGAFL@9K:==FL@9L ;GFLJ9KLAN= F=?9LAGF AK 9 ?JGMH G> ;GFN=FLAGF9DAK=< >GJE E=9FAF? H9AJAF?K 1@AD= L@=K= H9AJAF?K9J=K;@=E9LA;9FJ9E= K=E9FLA;;GFL=FLG>L@=AJGOF #@9N= KGM?@L LG >AF< >=J=F;=K 9EGF? L@= >GJEK 9KKMEAF? L@9L F9LMJ9D D9F?M9?= 9NGAMDD KQFGFQEQ:=LO==F >=J=FL>GJEK -M;@>=J=F;=KO=J=LG:=>GMFAF>GJE9LAGFKLJM;LMJ=9F<GJ L@= 9F9DQKAK G> 9J?ME=FL KLJM;LMJ= ;GFKLJM;LAGFK!GD<:=J? !GD<:=J?$9;C=F> G9K *=J=C '9FQ G> L@= L@=GJ=LA;9D 9F< =N=F E=L@G 9J?ME=FLKLJM;LMJ=AK:QFGE=9FK;GEHD=L== ? '_DD=J ,GKLAD9 KM;@ ;GFKLJM;LAGFK>GJE9;GE>GJLRGF=>GJL@=9HHJG9;@ O@A;@E9QDAEALL@=GJ=LA;9DHJG?J=KK "ADH=JL GFLJ9JQLGL@=KLMAFGLEGKLG>L@=P! DAL=J9LMJ= ;GFLJ9KLAN=F=?9LAGFJ=HJ=K=FLKL@=CAF;GFKLJM;LAGFKL@9L@9N=LJ9GJ:QE=;@9FAKEKDAC=?9HHAF?9F<>G;MKAF? 1@=F#:=?9FL@AKAFN=KLA?9LAGF #9KKME=;GFLJ9KLAN=F=?9LAGF HJ=>=JJAF?LGKL9L=L@=?=F=J9DAK9LAGFKAFEQ<9L9AF L=JEKG>KLJ9L=?A=K O@A;@9J=AFL=F<=<9KD9F?M9?= AF<=H=F<=FL9FGJ=;GEH9J9LAN=;GF;=HLKK==JG>L >GJ

~~ *=J=FFA9D>9NGMJAL=KGMLKA<=G>9J?ME=FLKLJM;LMJ=AF;DM<=HJ=HGKALAGF9DG:B=;L;GFKLJM;LAGFK!JA=K 9HH=DD= 9F~~

~~~~

)F==P9EHD=G>L@=>A;MDLQG><=L=JEAFAF?L@=;GJJ=;L?J9AFKAR=AF;GFLJ9KLAN=F=?9LAGF ;GFKLJM;LAGFK AK L@= J=KHGFKAN= MK= G> EAFAE9D F=?9LAN= ;D9MK=K9KL@=>AJKLH9JLG>9 ;GFLJ9KLAN=F=?9LAGF;GFKLJM;L .@AKH9LL=JFAK=P=EHDA>A=

~~ K@=O=J=FL K@=O=J=DGGCAF?>GJ9H=F;ADKGK@=;GMD~~

15 :1 1:HH ;; :1 ;: @;@-:1 ;: ?199;??55 ( ! -! L@=Q 9FQEGJ= := (!L@=Q:= -! *,.L@=Q := -!KM;@ *& *,. <->57E9<<5?55 LO=FLQ KGE=L@AF? *& *,. ‘they aren’t ((teenagers)) anymore, they are, like, they are twenty somethings’ -!7 7

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

~~ ‘It's OGJC,’ she says, ‘ .’ (BNC)~~

~~ […] But then she said you get erm … you put it on and you get a brush and er (~~

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utterance’s words, negating them and offering a truth ;GF>AJE9LAN= AFL@=AJKL=9L=F 1AL@GML OAK@AF?LGIM=KLAGFL@=OA<=KHJ=9GJ K@=<L@=HJ9?E9LA;KG>;GFLJ9KLAN=F=?9LAGFAK:9K= AFL=JKM:B=;LANALQ #K==;GFLJ9KLAN=F=?9LAGF;GFKLJM;LAGFK9KEGJ=GJD=KK;GFN=FLAGF9DAK=< O9QKG>E9F9?AF? K==CAF?9F<;J=9LAF?;GEEGF?JGMF=PHJ=KKAF?;GFLJ9KLAN=F=?9LAGFAFO9QKL@9L 9J=AFDAF=OAL@HJ=NAGMKJ=K=9J;@GFJ=9;LAN=9F>GJ<9F;=K G> J=9;LAN=F=KK9F=IM9LAF?HGD=EA;F=?9LAGFOAL@J=9;LAN=F=?9LAGF *GD=EA;F=?9LAGFAK9OA<= FGLAGFL@9L9DKGAF;DM<=KL@=<=FA9DG>9;;=KKA:D=:MLFGL=PHJ=KK= J=9;LAN=F=KK AF LMJF AK J=D9L= AL =PHDA;ALDQ >1-/@? @; KGE=L@AF? AF L@= ;GFLJ9KLAN=F=?9LAGF#@9N=LJA=

J=9DDQKH=;A9D9:GMLAL9FGJEK #L@AFCL@9LL@=J=9J=9JGE E=L9DAF?MAKLA; F=?9LAGF O@=F ;@9J9;L=JAKAF? ;GFLJ9KLAN= F=?9LAGF 9F< H=J@9HK L@= ;@A=>9EGF?L@=EAKL@9LL@AK9NGA9KL:GMF<9JQ:=LO==FK=E9FLA;K 9F< HJ9?E9LA;K O@=J= L@= J=9DALQ AK EGJ= DAC=DQ LG := 9 ;GFLAFMME :=LO==F L@= >MDDQ ;GFN=FLAGF9D9FMK9?= :9K=@GOALKM;;==L@=K=9HHJG9;@=K

~~9.3 EVALUATION OF THE DISSERTATION: ‘COGNITIVE LINGUISTICS’S SEVEN DEADLY SINS’~~

.@AK9DDKMF<=J;G?FALAN=DAF?MAKLA;K G?FALAN=DAF?MAKLA;KAK9H9JLG>L@=MK9?= :9K=K=E9FLA;K9FD9F?M9?=9K GF=H9JLG>;G?FALAGFJ9L@=JL@9F9K=H9J9L=EGL@=9ML@GJGJ9FAF<=L=JEAF9L=FME:=JG>;GDD=9?M=KGJ >JA=FAJKL?=F=J9LAGFG>;G?FALAN=DAF?MAKLK&9F?9;C=J&9CG>>&9CG>> $G@FKGF 1@AD=;GEEGFAFE9FQGL@=JH9JLKG>DAF?MAKLA;K9KO=DD L@AKHJ9;LA;= GDDGO #L GJ L@GK= 9KH=;LK G> ;G?FALAGF L@9L9J=:=DGOL@=D=N=DG> ;GFK;AGMK9LL=FLAGF 9F<=N=F>GJL@GK=L@9L9J=9:GN=AL AFLJGKH=;LAGFE9QHJG L@= KH==;@ ;GEEMFALQ (Dąbrowska 2016: 481). In short, introspection is seldom good for uncovering the kinds of H@=FGE=F9AFO@A;@;G?FALAN=DAF?MAKLK9J=AFL=J=KL=< Previous research on contrastive negation has suffered from the problems Dąbrowska E=FLAGFK '9FQKLMJ=IM=FLDQ MF;=JL9AF GJ =N=F <=EGFKLJ9:DQ >9DK= .@AK GMJKLMD9:GMJ9EGF?L@=N9JAGMK;GFKLJM;LAGFKAFL@=D9F?M9?=KKLMJGEGL@=J=O;G?FALAN=DAF?MAKLKJ=>=JLGL@=DAL=J9LMJ=GF ;G?FALAN=HKQ;@GDG?Q >GJAFKL9F;= 9F<=N=F>=O=J;GFJGEO@9LN9FL9?=HGAFLKH=9C=JK ;GFKLJM=K;=F=K9J=G>L=FE9<=OAL@GMLAF<=H=F<=FL=NA<=F;= D=9

~~#FKGE=O9QK L@AKEAJJGJKL@=KALM9LAGFAF=9JDQKG;AGDAF?MAKLA;K O@A;@@9K:==F>9MDL=<>GJFGLL9CAF?KG;AGDG?A;9D J=K=9J;@J=KMDLK E=L@G~~

.@AK 9DDK >GJ L@AK K=;GF< KAF AFKG>9J 9K AL AF;DM<=K FG HKQ;@GDAF?MAKLA; =PH=JAE=FL9LAGF9F<9=OJ=>=J=F;=KLGHKQ;@GDAF?MAKLA;K9F;GFLJ9KLAN=F=?9LAGFLG HKQ;@GDAF?MAKLA;KLML@=;GFKLJM;L A ;GF= ? =F;AFA!GD<:=J? *=J=C .@AK @9K@=DH=EQ>AF HKQ;@GDAF?MAKLA; =PH=JAE=FL9LAGF # MLMJ= HKQ;@GDAF?MAKLA;9F=PH=JAE=FL9LAGFEA?@L:=:=F=>A;A9DAFKLML@=>AF=<=L9ADKG>;GFLJ9KLAN=F=?9LAGF;GFKLJM;LAGFK The third sin, ‘!’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tensibly the ‘same’ linguistic ;9L=?GJQL@= F?DAK@*9KKAN=E9Q:=9K;@=E9LA;9F<>MDDQHJGGJGF= speaker but a set of fixed expressions for another, for example (Dąbrowska & Street 2006; Street & Dąbrowska 2010). .@AK>=J=F;=K #@9N=LJA=J=IM=FLDQ9LL=KL=<9LL@=;GEEMFALQD=N=DAKHJ=KME9:DQ O=DD =FLJ=F;@=< 9L L@= AF:9K=DAF=9?9AFKLO@A;@D9L=JKLMG;MKGFL@=;GEEMFALQ level was one of the motivations for using the term ‘constructional schema’ AFJLA;D=##9F< the term ‘(constructional) strategy’ in Articles III and IV: the notion of ‘construction’ is MKM9DDQK==F9KE=FL9DAKLA; >GDDGOAF?!GD<:=J? O@AD=K;@=E9K9FMLMJ= J=K=9J;@ OADD ;GFKA<=J AFAFIMAJQO@A;@#=PH=;LLG:=JA;@ .@AKOGMDGJ my present committing of Dąbrowska’s fourthKAF The fifth sin, ‘ ’, refers to the paucity of KG;AGDAF?MAKLA;9F9D9F?M9?= J=>D=;LK L@= KG;A9D KLJM;LMJ= G> L@= ;GEEMFALQ L@9L MK=K AL 9DL@GM?@ L@AK =>>=;L N9JA=K :Q ?J9EE9LA;9DAF

~~~~

1@AD=L@=K=G:K=JN9LAGFK9J=9;;=HL=GMJ;G?FALAN=HJG;=KK=KLGL@==PL=FL L@9LL@=K=;G?FALAN=HJG;=KK=KL@=EK=DN=K9J=9<L@=AJDAF?MAKLA;GMLHMLK -AEAD9J HGAFLK @9N= :==F J9AK=< 9:GML ;GFKLJM;LAGF ?J9EE9J AF H9JLA;MD9J 1@=F ;GEH9JAF?L@=>J9E=OGJCKG>;GFKLJM;LAGF?J9EE9J9F<@AKLGJA;9DKG;AGDAF?MAKLA;K "ADH=JL (2017) notes that the former has retained theoretical syntax’s focus on a decontextualised EGFGDAF?M9D KH=9C=J .@AK AK 9L G<L@=L@=GJQ )FL@=K9E=LGC=F "ADH=JL –FGL=KL@9L;GFKLJM;LAGF ?J9EE9J@9KF=?D=;L= D9F?M9?= MK= L@JGM?@ EMDLAN9JA9L= IM9FLAL9LAN= KLM=9LMJ=K 9J= 9FFGL9L=<9F<9:KLJ9;L=<9O9QAFKL9LAKLA;9D9F9DQKAK .@AK D9F?M9?= 9L L@= ;=FLJ= G> L@= AFN=KLA?9LAGF JLA;D=#KLM;GFLJ9KLAN=F=?9LAGFLGL@=AJ9J?ME=FL9LAN=HGL=FLA9D O@A;@O9K=NA<=F;=< AFL@=AJ@A?@>J=IM=F;QAFD=LL=JKLGL@==AFJ=IM=FLAF9J?ME=FL9LAN=L@=EGLAN9LAGFLG;GF;=FLJ9L= GFH9JDA9E=FL9JQMDDQ9FKO=JK Dąbrowska’s call for considering the pragmatics of constructionK AF ;G?FALAN= DAF?MAKLA; KLMMF;LAGFK G>;GFLJ9KLAN= F=?9LAGF 9F< J=D9L=9F9DQKAK #LAKJ=D9L=GMJL@KAF9F<;9F:=K==F9K9E=L@GAL GJHMK<9L9 LQHA;9DDQJ=HJ=K=FLKD9F?M9?=9LL@=;GDD=;LAN= KH==;@;GEEMFALQD=N=D Q;GFLJ9KL 9LD=9KL A>L@=F9E=G>L@=EGN=E=FLAK9FQL@AF?LG?G:Q ;G?FALAN=DAF?MAKLKO9FLLGK9QKGE=L@AF? 9:GMLL@=;G?FALAGFG>AFJGE9;GF;=HLM9DHGAFLG>NA=O MKAF?;GDD=;LAN= D=N=D<9L9LGHJG:=AF;GJHMK <9L9 E9Q 9F< LQHA;9DDQ9;LGJA9D:MLAF9;LM9DMK9?= =N=FLK KH=9C=JKE9QJ=KGJLLG>9J>=O=J;M=KLG<=;A<=O@A;@G>LOGGJEGJ=9DL=JF9LAF? N9JA9FLKL@=Q;@GGK=LGuse (Divjak, Dąbrowska & Arppe 2016). As stated above, I have tried LG := HJM<=FL AF HGKALAF? E=FL9D J=HJ=K=FL9LAGFK :Q L9DCAF? 9:GML L@=E AF HJG:9:ADAKLA; L=JEK The seventh sin, ‘ ’, relates to the E=L@G GH=J9LAGF9DAKAF? E=9FAF? L@JGM?@ ;GFL=PLM9D >=9LMJ=K .@AK methodology is often supported by Firth’s (1957: 11) remark that ‘[y]ou shall know a word by the company it keeps!’ In the usage :9K=OGJEMDLAHD=;GJJ=KHGF<=F;=9F9DQKAKAF L@AKL@AKLJ=F< .@AKE9QJ9AK=AKKM=KG>;GJJ=D9LAGF9F<;9MK9LAGF

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

~~Table 3. Cognitive Linguistics' seven deadly sins and this dissertation (Dąbrowska 2016)~~

P;=KKAN=J=DA9F;=GFAFLJGKH=;LAGF NAJLMGMK (GLLJ=9LAF?L@=G?FALAN=GEEALE=FLK=JAGMKDQ FGL KAF>MD :ML FGL NAJLMGMK =AL@=J (GL=FGM?@K=JAGMK@QHGL@=KAKL=KLAF? KAF>MD #?FGJAF?AF>=J=F;=K KAF>MD (=?D=;LAF?L@=KG;A9D9KH=;LG>D9F?M9?= NAJLMGMK KKMEAF?L@9LO=;9F<=MD:MLFGLNAJLMGMK >JGEH9LL=JFKG>MK= =AL@=J KKMEAF?L@9LMD :ML FGL NAJLMGMK =AL@=J .9:D=?AN=KMK9KMEE9JQG>L@=CAFL@AF?KL@9LO=CFGO9F< L@AK @GO ;GFLJ9KLAN=F=?9LAGF:=@9N=KAF;GJHMK<9L9:GL@AF F?DAK@9F<9;JGKKD9F?M9?=KG>O=KL=JF MJGH= 1=9DKGCFGOALKHJ9?E9LA;MK=K9F<@GOL@GK=EGLAN9L=L@=>GJEKL@9LALL9C=K What we do not know yet is the precise form of speakers’ mental construct A ;GFKAFL@AK

)F=E9QOAK@LGIM=KLAGFąbrowska@=J=GFO@=L@=JL@=K=N=FL@KAFAKJ=9DDQKH=;A>A;LG;G?FALAN=DAF?MAKLKE9FQ GL@=JK;@GGDKG>DAF?MAKLA;K9J==IM9DDQAFN=KL=GJE=9FAF?–IMGLAF? AJL@AK:QFGE=9FKL@=HJ=K=JN=G>;G?FALAN=DAF?MAKLK

~~~~

~~10 CONCLUSION~~

.@AK?J9EE9JO@=J=L@AK N9JA9LAGF@9KJ=E9AF==LGK9QL@9LEGKLG>O@9L;9F:=CFGOF9:GML ;GFLJ9KLAN=F=?9LAGFAKD=>L>GJ>MLMJ=KLM>=J9 >=OL@GM?@LKGFO@=J=LG?GF=PL 'Q>G;MK @9K D9J?=DQ:==F GF ;GFBMF;LAGFK 9LL@= =PH=FK= G> GL@=J>GJE9DE=9FK>GJ =PHJ=KKAF?9F<=PHDA;AL9LAF?;GFLJ9KLAN=F=?9LAGF .@=D9LL=JAF;DM<= F=?9LGJK >G;MKAF? <=NA;=KG>N9JAGMKCAF9FJGE9OA<=J;JGKK DAF?MAKLA;:9KAK KM;@>9;LGJKF==L@=N9JAGMKCAF >GJE9DE=9FK;GMD<:=AFN=KLA?9L=9J .@=J= 9J= J=9KGFK LG :=DA=N= L@9L ;GFLJ9KLAN= F=?9LAGF >GJEK 9 J=D9LAN=DQ =PL=F<=< F=LOGJCG>ALKGOFAFL@=;GFKLJM;L A ;GF #FD9F?M9?= KH=;A>A;KLMJMAL>MD9N=FM=G> >MJL@=JJ=K=9J;@OGMD<:=LGAFN=KLA?9L=L@=DGO=J D=N=DE=E:=JKG>L@AKF=LOGJC =;9MK= L@=K=F=LOGJCK9J=DAC=DQLG:=KGE=O@9LH=JKGF KH=;A>A; ALOGMDAFJGE9KG;AGDAF?MAKLA; H=JKH=;LAN= MJL@=JEGJ= 9F=LOGJCG>L@AKKAR=9F<;GEHD=PALQAKMFDAC=DQLGJ=E9AF;GEHD=L=DQKL9:D= GN=J LAE= KG 9 AL EA?@L := AF GJ<=J =KH=;A9DDQ ?AN=F L@= =P;DMKAN=DQ KQF;@JGFA;>G;MKG>L@AK;GFLJ9KLAN=F=?9LAGFAK9>A=D9J>JGE=P@9MKL=< )F= AKKM=L@9LL@AKKLM>=J=FLA9DK:=LO==F;GFLJ9KLAN=F=?9LAGFAFN9JAGMK ;GFL=PLK #FKME #@GH=L@9LO=FGOCFGOEGJ=9:GMLL@=OGJL@=>A;LAGF9D9?=FLL@9LO=E=L 9LL@=:=?AFFAF?G>L@AKL@=;GFKLJM;LAGF9DN9JA9LAGFG>;GFLJ9KLAN= F=?9LAGFAK:=?AFFAF? FGL=F

~~ ;:/8A?5;:~~

~~~~

~~REFERENCES~~

~~CORPORA~~

>75?E:9;><4;?E:@-/@5/-88E/;010[email protected]?1;2/;:B1>?-@5;:-85::5?4 9L9:9K=;GEHAD=<9LL@=/FAN=JKALQG>.MJCM OAL@E9L=JA9D>JGE L@= GFN=JK9LAGFF9DQKAKJ;@AN=9LL@=/FAN=JKALQG>"=DKAFCA9F .MJCM =H9JLE=FL G> AFFAK@ 9F< AFFG /?JA;&9F?M9?=K /FAN=JKALQG>.MJCM ( >5@5?4 -@5;:-8 ;>?-@5;::-8E?5?>/45B1 9L9:9K=;GEHAD=<9LL@=/FAN=JKALQG> "=DKAFCA =H9JLE=FLG> AFFAK@ AFFG /?JA9F9F<-;9F;<1-:!->85-91:@!>;/1105:3?!->-8818;>

~~WORKS CITED~~

:J9@9E 1=JF=J ML $@A05-5:3A5?@5/- – ABE=J %9JAF *9J9DD=D 9F<;GEH9J9:D=;GJHGJ9 #F FC= &_<=DAF? '=JB9 %QL^ =:-@5;:-8 -:0.;;7 ';8A91 – =JDAF'GMLGF<=!JMQL=J D:M D=F9 =K;JAHLAGF N=JKMK J=B=;LAGF AF L@= 9F9DQKAKG>F=?9LAGF NA<=F;=>JGE,GE9FA9F9F< F?DAK@ 5:3A-– – 0 >5@5?4 :385?4 -13A8->5F-@5;:?-:0-?E991@>51?,GMLD=F=?9LAGF #F!_FL=J,G@<=F:MJ?JALL9'GF =95:-:@? ;2 >-99-@5/-8 '->5-@5;: 5: :385?4.GHA;KAF F?DAK@ &AF?MAKLA;K – =JDAF GKLGF 'GMLGF <= !JMQL=J 1?1:@0-E 5-81/@;8;3E!>;.819?-:05:05:3?.J=FJ9FY9AK 5:3A- – 05:-@5;: 1:2>-:I-5? NGDK *9JAK S9J#F$MCC9.QJCC^ '9LLA%ADHA^ .=JLLM(=N9D9AF=F '9LLA,AKK9F=F=5/-8;>;9@41 18?5:75 ;>;8521>-@5;: ;2 #1?;A>/1? -LMA N9JA=F? K=JA=K NGDME=K 9J;@=J $MDQ

~~ #121>1:/1?~~

M=J *=L=J-L=>9F*>WF<=J GFKLJM;LAGFK E=J?=FLGJ=E=J?AF?#F *=L=J M=J -L=>9F *>WF<=J =A/@5;:? 91>31:@ -:0 91>35:3 &AF?M9= &ALL=J9= – =JDAF GKLGF <= !JMQL=J GJ<-&#*M:DA;9LAGFK =F;AFA !AMDA9' &<=D= !GD<:=J? .@=GFLJA:MLAGFG>J?ME=FL -LJM;LMJ= GFKLJM;LAGFK LG -=FL=F;= '=9FAF? ;A>:-8 ;2 19;>E -:0 -:3A-31 – >E9FF 9NA< &== (A;@GD9K -EAL@ (O=: E9FM9D @LLH J DAF?MAKLA; N9JA9LAGF ;>E – A/@A>1 -:0 A?1 9E:JA>J=Q&==;@ -MK9FGFJ9< -99-> ;2 $<;71: -:0 (>5@@1: :385?4 "9JDGO&GF?E9F Birkelund, Merete. 2009. Pierre n’est pas français mais danois. Une structure HGDQH@GFAIM= V H9JL -:3A1 2>-:I-5?1 – DME=FL@9D J9EZ DA;= :@>1:/491:@ 5: &?-31-?10 %41;>51? (4-@ ;>A/@5;:-8 <<>;-/4 @;#1?A8@-@5B1?-L9F>GJ< 'GFG?J9H@KAF&AF?MAKLA;K -L9F>GJ<-&#*M:DA;9LAGFK G9K "9FK #N9F -9?=A/@5;:>-99-> -&#&=;LMJ=(GL=K -L9F>GJ<-&#*M:DA;9LAGFK G;C %9L@JQF"=D?9&G=:=DD J9EAF?K=FL=F;=K ;3:5@5;: – 9 &GFGME9 #J=F=%JWE=J$GGKL 4O9JLK =<>1@-@5;: – EKL=J<9E,GQ9D(=L@=JD9F-;A=F;= J=KF9F $G9F K@OAFA=G=NQ9FA-@9JE9 .QHGDG?QAFN9JA9LAGF 9 HJG:9:ADAKLA; 9HHJG9;@ LG .19F F?DAK@ A9D=;LK :385?4 -:3A-31 5:3A5?@5/? – H=JAH@J9KLA;0;AF L@= H9J9 L@= EG<9D 9MPADA9JA=K *J=K=FL=< 9L L@= #FL=JF9LAGF9D GF>=J=F;=GFGFKLJM;LAGF!J9EE9J#! *9JAK Q:== $G9F -:3A-31&?-31-:0;3:5@5;: 9E:JAA/@5;:?-H=;A9DNGDME=

~~~~

Cappelle, Bert. 2017. What’s pragmatics doing outside constructions? In Ilse =HJ9=L=J=,9H@9=D-9DCA==-39-@5/?>-C5:3 -5:1&G?A; J?ME=FL9LAGF,=9KGFAF? – @9E-HJAF?=J =J=F;=GFGFKLJM;LAGF!J9EE9J#! *9JAK 9JKLGF ,G:QF '=L9DAF?MAKLA; F=?9LAGF 9F< =;@GA; MK= ;A>:-8 ;2 !>-39-@5/? – = 19DD9;= & !AN=FF=KK ;GFLJ9KLAN=F=KK <=>AFAL=F=KK KM:B=;LK LGHA;K 9FNA=O #F@9JD=K( &A=< $A.61/@-:0%;<5/ – (=O3GJC;9<=EA;*J=KK @9L9J 'GMEFA (AR@9 +M=DIM=K 9KH=;LK GF;LAGFF=E=FL <= D9 FZ?9LAGF=F9J9:=E9JG;9AF -5:3A5?@5=A1 – @AD5-@5;: -:0 /4-:31 5: :385?4 :13-@5;: />;?? 05-81/@-8 <1>?<1/@5B1 (=O;9KLD= /FAN=JKALQ G;LGJ9D GMH=J %M@D=F DAR9:=L@=JF<%GJLE9FF=-?@;3:5@5B1-:05?/;A>?1!1>?<1/@5B1?.GHA;KAF F?DAK@ &AF?MAKLA;K =JDAF GKLGF 'GMLGF <= !JMQL=J -/@5;:-85:3A5?@5/? $@A0E5:3 -:3A-31 5: $;/5-8 :@1>-/@5;: 9E:JA5031-:0.;;7;21:1>-@5B1$E:@-D – 9E:JAL 1ADDA9E .@==NGDMLAGFG>F=?9LAGF ;A>:-8;25:3A5?@5/? – L 1ADDA9E #-05/-8;:?@>A/@5;:>-99->$E:@-/@5/%41;>E5: %E<;8;35/-8 !1>?<1/@5B1 )P>GJ< )P>GJ< /FAN=JKALQ *J=KK GKG JG>L 1ADDA9E GEH9J9LAN=;GF;=HLK9FA;;9L=?GJA=K .@=GJQ9FL 1ADDA9E D9F JMK= ;3:5@5B1 5:3A5?@5/?9E:JAL 1ADDA9E%=AL@. *GGD= #F>=JJAF?MFAN=JK9DK>JGE?J9EE9LA;9D N9JA9LAGF 'MDLAGJ LQHGDG?A;9D 9F9DQKAK %41;>1@5/-8 5:3A5?@5/? – > .@=0A=O>JGEL@=*=JAH@=JQ.@= F?DAK@ GEH9J9LAN= GJJ=D9LAN= 5:3A5?@5/ :=A5>E – > $59<81>$E:@-D )P>GJ<)P>GJ< /FAN=JKALQ*J=KK Dąbrowska, Ewa. 2016. Cognitive Linguistics’ seven deadly sins. ;3:5@5B1 5:3A5?@5/? – H9KKAN=K=FL=F;=K:QF9LAN=9F

~~ #121>1:/1?~~

F?DAK@ KH=9C=JK -:3A-31 $/51:/1? – K=FL=F;=F=?9LAGF 5:3A5?@5/? – 9F;Q?A=J 9J:9J9 .OG E=L9L=PLM9D GH=J9LGJK F=?9LAGF 9F< ;GF;/1105:3?;2@41534@11:@4::A-8 11@5:3 ;2 @41 1>7181E 5:3A5?@5/? $;/51@E 1:1>-8 $1??5;: -:0 !->-?1??5;: ;: %41 !8-/1 ;2 ;><4;8;3E 5: - >-99-> – J9EAF? :385?4 %1D@ ;:?@>A/@5;: – ?<1/@5B1 – 9E:JA-B-AD 85:3A5?@5=A1?01!>-3A1 – 9K;9D '9J;=DG.9E9J%9LJA=D =LO==FK=E9FLA;K9F1@5/-85:3A5?@5/? – – ;GFKLJM;LAGFK #F *AD9J !M=JJ=JG '=<4;?E:@-/@5/ 8@1>:-@5;:? 5: :385?4 A:/@5;:-8 -:0 ;3:5@5B1 !1>?<1/@5B1? MF;LAGF9D&AF?MAKLA;K – &GFMF;LAGFK G> AF>=J=FLA9D K=FL=F;=K 5:3A5?@5/? – ?9F?#EG$^J?_;C=J=-99->-:05-8;35?9$1=A1:@5-8 $E:@-/@5/-:0!>;?;05/!-@@1>:?.1@C11:91>31:/1-:0$10591:@-@5;: &AF?MAKLAC #EHMDK=.=F<=FR=F – =JDAF GKLGF<=!JMQL=J L "9F<:GGCK G> &AF?MAKLA;K 9F< GEEMFA;9LAGF -;A=F;= "-% – =JDAF 'GMLGF<=!JMQL=J -99-> 1@C;>7;C5:3A5?@5/$@>A/@A>15? $4-<10.E-:3A-31&?1 9E:JA>E9FF $9F , <= $GF? -A= #F? BA9F? "9JJQ -LJGGE=J&GMJ=FK<=0JA=K )FL@=LQHGDG?QG>>G;MKH@=FGE=F9 #F .=MF "G=CKLJ9 "9JJQ N9F <=J "MDKL 'A;@9=D 'GGJL?9L =?<1/@5B1? ;: A:/@5;:-8 >-99-> – GJGJHMK :9K=<*JG:9:ADAKLA;'G<=DK ;3:5@5B15:3A5?@5/? – ?1 $A.61/@5B5@E B-8A-@5;: :@1>-/@5;:

*J9?E9LA;K =QGF< (=O -=JA=K – EKL=J<9E *@AD9<=DH@A9$G@F=FB9EAFK ;9-:1 – M;JGL )KO9D< 5>11@:1<-?05>1 *9JAK"=JE9FF U:J=?9K FLGFAG KLJM;LMJ9 <= ;GFKLALMQ=FL=K Q ?5:; !458;8;35/- -:->51:?5- – A/@5;:5: -@A>-8 -:3A-31 9E:JAA/@5;: >-99->-&#&=;LMJ=(GL=K – @A;9?G /FAN=JKALQG>@A;9?G*J=KK Fillmore, Charles J., Paul Kay & Mary Catherine O’Connor. 1988. Regularity 9F< A 81@ -8;:1 -:3A-31 – A/@5;:>-99-> -L9F>GJ<-&# *M:DA;9LAGFK AJL@ $ , KQFGHKAKG>DAF?MAKLA;L@=GJQ $@A051? 5: 5:3A5?@5/:-8E?5? – )P>GJ<D9;CO=DD GGD=F < 9 *GDQ>MF;LAGF9DALQ 9F< L@= K=E9FLA;K G> 9-39-@5/? – JA=< 'AJB9E$9F )D9TKLE9F GFKLJM;LAGF!J9EE9JL@ME:F9AD KC=L;@ #F'AJB9E JA=<$9F )D9TKLE9F=A/@5;:>-99-> 5:->;??-:3A-31!1>?<1/@5B1GFKLJM;LAGF9DHHJG9;@=KLG&9F?M9?= – EKL=J<9E *@AD9<=DH@A9$G@F=FB9EAFK !9KL 0GDC=J )FL@=MK=G>LJ9FKD9LAGF;GJHGJ9AF;GFLJ9KLAN=DAF?MAKLA;K ;9K=KLMAEH=JKGF9DAR9LAGFAF F?DAK@9F-?@ – 5/-:$<11/4 – <=FA9D -:3A-31 – >AJE9LAN=K;9FGJKGE=E=L9H@GJK ;A>:-8;2!>-39-@5/? – =J =AF #F:9J DC9:=LK PHDA;AL F=?9LAGF9KHGKALANALQAF-@5B1 -:3A-31 ;9<>141:?5;: $;/5-8 -:0 A8@A>-8 :28A1:/1? – "ADDK<9D= ($ JD:9ME !AN]F .9DEQ (=?9LAGFAFD9F?M9?=*J9?E9LA;K >MF;LAGF GFLGDG?Q #F *=L=JGD==< $E:@-D-:0$19-:@5/?!>-39-@5/? – (=O3GJC ;9<=EA;*J=KK !DQFF QD9F GJJ=KHGF<=F;=9F9DQKAK PHDGJAF?<9L99FQAF? H9LL=JFK #FQD9F!DQFF$MKLQF9 ,G:AFKGF= $19-:@5/? "A-:@5@-@5B1 $@A051? 5: !;8E?19E -:0 $E:;:E9E –

~~ #121>1:/1?~~

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