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Proquest Dissertations (Un)natural law: Women writers, the Indian, and the state in nineteenth-century America Item Type text; Dissertation-Reproduction (electronic) Authors Ryan, Melissa Ann Publisher The University of Arizona. Rights Copyright © is held by the author. Digital access to this material is made possible by the University Libraries, University of Arizona. Further transmission, reproduction or presentation (such as public display or performance) of protected items is prohibited except with permission of the author. Download date 05/10/2021 16:30:17 Link to Item http://hdl.handle.net/10150/290048 (IJN)NATURAL LAW: WOMEN WRITERS, THE INDIAN, AND THE STATE IN NINETEENTH-CENTURY AMERICA by Melissa Ann Ryan Copyright © Melissa Ann Ryan 2004 A Dissertation Submitted to the Faculty of the DEPARTMENT OF ENGLISH In Partial Fulfillment of the Requirements For the Degree of DOCTOR OF PHILOSOPHY In the Graduate College THE UNIVERSITY OF ARIZONA 2004 UMI Number: 3131638 Copyright 2004 by Ryan, Melissa Ann All rights reserved. INFORMATION TO USERS The quality of this reproduction is dependent upon the quality of the copy submitted. Broken or indistinct print, colored or poor quality illustrations and photographs, print bleed-through, substandard margins, and improper alignment can adversely affect reproduction. In the unlikely event that the author did not send a complete manuscript and there are missing pages, these will be noted. Also, if unauthorized copyright material had to be removed, a note will indicate the deletion. UMI UMI Microform 3131638 Copyright 2004 by ProQuest Information and Learning Company. All rights reserved. This microform edition is protected against unauthorized copying under Title 17, United States Code. ProQuest Information and Learning Company 300 North Zeeb Road P.O. Box 1346 Ann Arbor, Ml 48106-1346 2 The University of Arizona ® Graduate College As members of the Final Examination Committee, we certify that we have read the dissertation prepared by Melissa Ann Ryan entitled (Un)Natural Law: Women Writers, the Indian, and the State in Nineteenth-Century America and recommend that it be accepted as fulfilling the dissertation requirement for the Degree of Doctor of Philosophy 'w IJimS "Ujf Dr. Annette Kolodny / iJ date Dr. Edgar Dryden ^ ^ • H'atp Dr. Gregory Jacksop;/ date date Final approval and acceptance of this dissertation is contingent upon the candidate's submission of the final copies of the dissertation to the Graduate College. I hereby certify that I have read this dissertation prepared under my direction and recommend that it be accepted as fulfilling the dissertation requirement. Dissertation Director: Dr.'Annette Kolodny li 3 STATEMENT BY AUTHOR This dissertation has been submitted in partial fulfillment of requirements for an advanced degree at The University of Arizona and is deposited in the University Library to be made available to borrowers under rules of the Library. Brief quotations from this dissertation are allowable without special permission, provided that accurate acknowledgment of source is made. Requests for permission for extended quotation from or reproduction of this manuscript in whole or in part may be granted by the copyright holder. SIGNED: 4 ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS I am deeply grateful to the faculty, staff, and administrators in the English Department of the University of Arizona for various forms of support over the past several years. First thanks go to the first person I met in Tucson: Marcia Marma, Administrative Assistant and rock of the department, who has been a consistent source of answers, an exemplary manager of graduate student anxiety, and a good friend throughout. I was also fortunate to meet Professor Charlie Scruggs early on in my graduate school career, and continue to be energized by his enthusiasm and genuine passion for ideas. I have received encouragement and inspiration, both formally and informally, from many outstanding professors at the U of A - particularly Professor Joan Dayan, whose seminar on personhood, property, and civil death began the thought process that culminated in this project; Professor Laura Berry, who gave me the opportunity to spend my last year here in the Undergraduate English Advising Office and (along with Michelle Damon and Bridget Wade) both tolerated my crankiness and gave me hope for the future of/my future in the profession; Professor Daniel Cooper-Alarcon, who always has an encouraging word and who has offered invaluable support throughout this weird transitional phase between grad school and assistant professorship; Professor Greg Jackson, from whom I have learned much about both scholarship and teaching and who graciously agreed to be a reader on this committee from another state; and especially Professor Edgar Dryden, who has been so generous with his time and endless knowledge as a reader on this project, as a guide through nineteenth-century American literature, and as a role model in the profession. Professor Annette Kolodny's impact on my life has been so profound that it requires its own paragraph. Her extraordinarily attentive and insightful reading of my work always motivates me to think harder. For teaching me to clarify my logic, to approach the material with sensitivity, and to stop with the semicolons already, as well as for countless personal and professional kindnesses over the past few years, I am deeply grateful. As I saw first-hand during the two invaluable years I spent as Professor Kolodny's research assistant, no one is more devoted to her students. None of this would have been possible without the support of my colleagues in the graduate program, especially Patrick Guinan, Matt Sheehan, Sonja Perez, and Angela Mullis, who provided scholarly and not-so-scholarly conversation, encouraged me to keep working, and helped me rationalize not working. For research assistance, I am gratefril to the Onondaga Historical Association in Syracuse, New York, and the Fayetteville Free Library in Fayetteville, New York. I am particularly indebted to the Assistant Director of the latter, Linda Ryan, for consistent inspiration throughout my years in graduate school, for moral and financial support, for introducing me to Matilda Joslyn Gage, for raising me to be a feminist, for setting an example to respect, admire, and emulate, and for being my mother. Thanks also to Bob Ryan, my father and best colleague, for teaching me to endeavor to persevere. And to Ian, for showing up at just the right time. 5 TABLE OF CONTENTS ABSTRACT 7 L CIVIL ERASURES: THE WOMAN QUESTION AND THE INDIAN PROBLEM 9 I. The Woman Question 11 II. The Indian Problem 26 2. REPUBLICAN MOTHERS AND INDIAN OTHERS: GENDER AND GENRE IN LYDIA MARIA CHILD AND CATHARINE MARIA SEDGWICK 45 I. Hobomok and The Republican Mother 52 II. Good Wives and Indian Tales: the 20s and 30s 68 III. Indian Wives and White Women's Rights; the 40s and Beyond 85 IV. The National Family and the Indian Tribe: Hope Leslie 100 V: Conclusion 121 3. OTHER INTO ORIGIN: SUFFRAGISTS, SAVAGES, AND CIVILIZATION 131 I. Alice Fletcher: Mothering the Indian Child 136 II. Matilda Joslyn Gage and the Indian Citizen 154 III. The Multiple Meanings of Indianness 169 IV. Matilda Joslyn Gage: Child of Indian Mothers 180 6 TABLE OF CONTENTS -- Continued 4. MOTHER TONGUE: WORDS AND WORDLESSNESS IN S. ALICE CALLAHAN AND ZITKALA-SA 203 I. The Wordless Indian 205 II. Wynema and (Mis)representation 213 III. Zitkala-Sa and the Problem of Identity 231 5. CONCLUSION: WHITE WOMEN AND INDIAN OTHERS REVISITED 274 I. Limited Vision: Gender and Civilization in the Nineteenth Century 275 II. Sentimentalizing the Indian Problem 280 III. Women's Problems and Indian Questions in the Twenty-first Century 290 WORKS CITED 297 7 ABSTRACT This project explores the intersecting discourses of the "Woman Question" and the "Indian Problem" from the market revolution of Jacksonian America through the early twentieth century. It examines how Indiaimess was legally and culturally constructed in the nineteenth century, from Jacksonian removal policy to the strategies of allotment and assimilation in later decades, identifying both legal and figurative parallels to the status of white women. As Native peoples were effectively erased under Anglo- American law, married women were likewise dispossessed by the laws of coverture, under which the identity of the wife was absorbed into that of her husband. Both white women and Native peoples experienced a form of "civil death" ~ or legal nonexistence ~ and both were deprived of personhood under the guise of protection. For women writers, then, Indian policy provided an opportunity to contemplate fundamental questions of citizenship, of personhood and property, of national and individual identity. Incorporating a wide range of texts, from the early nineteenth-century fiction of Lydia Maria Child and Catharine Maria Sedgwick to the later nineteenth-century writings of suffragist Matilda Joslyn Gage and anthropologist Alice Fletcher, this study explores the various tensions — between individual sovereignty and maternal moral authority, between the language of rights and the language of sentiment ~ that defined the relationship between nineteenth- century white women and their Indian others, and considers how the Anglo-American tradition of possessive individualism often prevented these women from making sense of their experience with Native cultures. This study concludes with an examination of how Native women writers responded to and made use of white women's constructions of the Indian Problem. S. Alice Callahan, author of the first known novel by a Native woman, and writer-activist Zitkala-Sa carefully constructed their stories in the terms set out by women's rights discourse, inviting a readership of white women to engage with the Indian cause as an extension of their own agenda. Ultimately, even as white women's rights activists sought to subordinate the Indian Problem or to appropriate the Indian, these Native writers found in the Woman Question a way of speaking for themselves. 9 1. CIVIL ERASURES: THE WOMAN QUESTION AND THE INDIAN PROBLEM In the past few decades, scholars have begun to uncover the complex relationship between abolition activity and nineteenth-century women's rights.
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