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Reading Assessment of Students With READING ASSESSMENT OF STUDENTS WITH SPECIFIC LEARNING DISABILITY: A COMPARISON OF TRADITIONAL AND NATURALLY OCCURRING TEXTS A Dissertation Presented to The Graduate Faculty of The University of Akron In Partial Fulfillment of the Requirements of the Degree Doctor of Philosophy Sarah Kathryn E. Hamsher December, 2011 © 2011 SARAH HAMSHER ALL RIGHTS RESERVED READING ASSESSMENT OF STUDENTS WITH SPECIFIC LEARNING DISABILITY: A COMPARISON OF TRADITIONAL AND NATURALLY OCURRING TEXTS Sarah Kathryn E. Hamsher Dissertation Approved: Accepted: _______________________________ _________________________________ Advisor Department Chair Dr. Ruth Oswald Dr. Evonn Welton _______________________________ _________________________________ Research Methodologist Dean of the College Dr. Evangeline Newton Dr. Mark D. Shermis _______________________________ _________________________________ Committee Member Dean of the Graduate School Dr. Shernavaz Vakil Dr. George R. Newkome _______________________________ _________________________________ Committee Member Date Dr. Susan Witt _______________________________ Committee Member Dr. Denise Stuart ii ABSTRACT The purposes of this qualitative, multi-case study were to (1) investigate how students with a specific learning disability (SLD) constructed meaning from print when assessed using naturally occurring texts (NOcT), (2) investigate how this same group of learners constructed meaning from print when assessed using traditional, leveled passages (TLP), and (3) identify any similarities or differences that emerged in the meaning construction patterns of two students with SLD. This study included eight case studies, four third-grade students and four fourth-grade students. All cases had an individualized education plan (IEP) with reading goals and were reading below grade level according to district curriculum materials. Data were collected using documents, assessments, and interviews. To deepen the understanding of the findings from these data sources, data were analyzed from three additional sources: (a) reading accuracy and fluency data, (b) student interview responses, and (c) field notes recorded during and immediately after each individual assessment. The constant comparative method of qualitative analysis was used to analyze the data. As conceptual categories emerged from the analysis, the evidence was sorted into these categories. Comparison of the categories to other categories resulted in theory that is grounded in the findings and the context of this study. Data analysis revealed three major findings: (1) the NOcT and TLP served different purposes, (2) schemata and interest played a critical role in the meaning-making process, and (3) the role of iii schemata and topic were critically important during oral reading assessments. The findings demonstrated that students with SLD used the semantic, syntactic and graphophonic cueing systems to predict potential meanings. The new theory that was grounded in the data suggests that students with SLD are able to interact with different texts based on their understanding of the process of reading, and they can make word- level predictions using the language cueing systems. iv DEDICATION This study is dedicated to two very important people. I first dedicate this study to Jeremiah. You were the inspiration for this “book.” I hope you see how intelligent, talented, valuable, and cherished you are. And, I hope you realize the possibilities for your future are limitless. Additionally, this study is dedicated to my son, Mason. I hope someday your knowledge of this study will inspire you to pursue your dreams. v ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS I am pleased to recognize the people who have supported me during my coursework and dissertation. Dr. Ruth Oswald (my advisor), a long time friend, who thoughtfully walked me through this program and took delight in my little accomplishments along the way. I have been so blessed to have you as my advisor. Dr. Evangeline Newton (my methodologist), who patiently coached me through how to craft this study, describe the findings, and analyze the data. You have taught me so much. Dr. Shernavaz Vakil, Dr. Denise Stuart, and Dr. Susan Witt (committee members), who each supported my vision for this study, which will hopefully benefit many young literacy-learners who struggle with reading. Dad and Mom, whose unconditional support made this dream a reality. Dad, your emphasis on “each step” helped me keep perspective. Mom, you were always available to listen and help me process my ideas. Thank you both for your willingness to help me manage life outside this dissertation, so I could keep the end in sight. Mason, whose wisdom, curiosity, humor, and maturity kept me grounded. Thank you for being patient while I did my “big project.” You truly are my sunshine. vi Dr. Patty Long, who had visions of my future long before I had them. Thank your for mentoring me personally and professionally. You have been a wonderful role model. To so many immediate and extended family and friends from near and far, whose interest at each phase of this study kept me motivated. Most importantly, thanks and praise be to God, who confirmed this path for me over and over. I humbly see how Your faithfulness overshadowed my doubt. Yes, all things are possible through Your Son, Jesus Christ. vii TABLE OF CONTENTS CHAPTER Page I. THE PROBLEM .................................................................................. 1 Background .................................................................................... 1 Text Types Used for Reading Assessments ................................... 2 Assessment of Students with Disabilities................................. 6 Statement of the Problem ............................................................... 8 Purpose ........................................................................................... 9 Research Questions ........................................................................ 10 Conceptual Framework .................................................................. 10 Assumptions ................................................................................... 11 Definition of Terms ........................................................................ 11 Summary ........................................................................................ 15 II. LITERATURE REVIEW ..................................................................... 17 History of Assessment .................................................................... 17 Role of Assessment in American Classrooms................................ 21 Literacy Development .................................................................... 25 Theories of Literacy Development ........................................... 25 Current Perspective of Literacy Development ......................... 30 viii Students with Specific Learning Disability (SLD) ........................ 35 Effective Oral Reading Practices for Students with SLD .................................................................................... 41 Texts Used for Assessment in the Elementary Classroom ............. 47 Leveled Texts ........................................................................... 48 Readability Formulas ............................................................... 50 Naturally Occurring Texts (NOcT)…….. ........................... …. 54 Schema Theory ............................................................................... 61 Summary ........................................................................................ 65 III. METHODOLOGY ............................................................................... 67 Design of the Study………………………………………………. 67 Research Questions ........................................................................ 70 Research Setting ............................................................................. 70 Participant Selection ....................................................................... 72 Role of Researcher ......................................................................... 75 Data Collection ............................................................................... 75 Documents ................................................................................ 75 Assessments ............................................................................. 76 Miscues..................................................................................... 78 Interviews ................................................................................. 81 Field Notes ............................................................................... 83 Data Analysis ................................................................................. 83 Assessments ............................................................................. 86 ix Miscue Analysis ....................................................................... 87 Retellings .................................................................................. 91 Interviews ................................................................................. 92 Field Notes ............................................................................... 93 Validity ........................................................................................... 93 Reliability ....................................................................................... 94 Limitations of the Study ................................................................
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