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The Political Ecology of Natural Gas Extraction in Southern Bolivia

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The Political Ecology of Natural Gas Extraction in Southern Bolivia THE POLITICAL ECOLOGY OF NATURAL GAS EXTRACTION IN SOUTHERN BOLIVIA A thesis submitted to the University of Manchester for the degree of Ph.D. In the Faculty of Humanities 2010 DENISE HUMPHREYS BEBBINGTON SCHOOL OF ENVIRONMENT AND DEVELOPMENT Table of Contents List of Maps and Figures ..................................................................................... 5 List of Tables....................................................................................................... 6 List of Acronyms ................................................................................................. 7 Thesis Abstract ................................................................................................. 11 Declaration ........................................................................................................ 13 Copyright Statement ......................................................................................... 13 Acknowledgments ............................................................................................. 15 The Author ........................................................................................................ 19 Chapter 1 Extraction, Development, Mother Earth: Negotiating Contradiction 21 1.1 Extraction and XXI Century Socialism ................................................. 22 1.2 Extraction and Integration .................................................................... 24 1.3 The centrality of natural gas ................................................................. 27 1.4 Research Question .............................................................................. 30 1.5 Summary of the thesis ......................................................................... 33 Chapter 2 Contention/Extraction: Approaching a political ecology of Bolivian natural gas ........................................................................................................ 37 2.1 Debating Extraction: Curses, blessings and local dynamics ................ 38 2.1.1 Curses ........................................................................................... 39 2.1.2. Blessings ....................................................................................... 41 2.1.3 Extraction and local dynamics ....................................................... 43 2.2 Contentious Politics and Social Movements ........................................ 46 2.2.1 Dynamics of Contention ................................................................ 46 2.2.2 Social Movements in Latin America: Old and New ........................ 50 2.3 Approaching extraction and contention in Evo‘s Bolivia ....................... 67 2.3.1 Political ecology & socio-environmental conflict around extraction 67 2.3.2 Methodology and Positionality ....................................................... 70 2.3.3 The Mexico-California Connection ................................................ 71 2.3.4 Territories, Conflict and Development in the Andes ...................... 74 Chapter 3 Long histories and changing geographies: Contextualising gas in Bolivia ............................................................................................................... 88 3.1 Post Independence: Neo Colonialism and the ―harmony of inequalities‖ ....................................... 91 3.2 Territorial losses and the ―Catastrophic loss‖ ....................................... 94 3.3 Bolivia‘s twentieth century history ........................................................ 96 2 3.3.1 The Chaco War and its Aftermath: Nationalisation, the 1952 Revolution, Agrarian Reform and the Eastward Turn ................................ 98 3.3.2 The Rise of Katarismo: ................................................................ 104 3.3.3 The Rise of the cocaleros: From ISIP to MAS to the Presidential Palace .......................................... 106 3.4 Bolivia‘s ―short‖ hydrocarbon history .................................................. 109 3.4.1 Privatisation and Capitalisation of the Hydrocarbon Sector – the 1990s ................................................................................................. 110 3.4.2 Pacific LNG and the ―Gas Question‖ ........................................... 112 3.4.3 Pacific LNG, Campo Margarita and the Guaraníes of Itika Guasu ......................................................................... 114 3.4 Conclusions ....................................................................................... 122 Chapter 4 Gas-infused Sub-national Conflicts: Tarija and Resource Grievances ........................................................................................................................ 126 4.1 Identity, protest and resource economies .......................................... 129 4.2 The Sedimentation of Grievances and the Rise of Resource Regionalism ................................................................................................. 130 4.2.1 Hydrocarbons in Tarija, Grievances in Bolivia ............................. 134 4.3 Mobilisation and Violence in Tarija, 2008: An Anatomy of Protest ..... 147 4.4 Interpreting Protest: Conflicts within and between Resource Nationalism and Resource Regionalism ...................................................... 150 Chapter 5 State-Indigenous Tensions over Hydrocarbon Expansion in the Bolivian Chaco ................................................................................................ 155 5.1 A History of dispossession ................................................................. 159 5.2 Struggles for Land, Self Governance, and Resource flows in the Presence of Hydrocarbons .......................................................................... 164 5.2.1 Struggles for Land ....................................................................... 164 5.2.2 Autonomy and Self Governance.................................................. 171 5.2.3 Social and Environmental Safeguards ........................................ 175 5.2.4 Access to financial resource flows............................................... 178 5.3 Hydrocarbons, TCOs and Protected Areas: The case of the TCO Yaku Igua .................................................................. 179 5.4 Conclusions ....................................................................................... 191 Chapter 6 Extracting Gas - Collecting Compensation: Consultation and Participation in the TCO Weenhayek .............................................................. 196 6.1 History and settlement ....................................................................... 198 6.2 Weenhayek tructure and Organisation............................................... 205 3 6.3 Hydrocarbon development in twentieth century ................................. 209 6.3.1 Socio environmental impacts ...................................................... 214 6.3.2 Territory and Hydrocarbon Expansion ......................................... 217 6.3.3 BG Bolivia in the TCO Weenhayek ............................................. 219 6.4 Negotiating Gas: Consultation and Participation in the TCO Weenhayek ............................... 226 6.4.1 Early mis-steps ............................................................................ 229 6.4.2 Consolidating rights ..................................................................... 230 6.4.3 Processes of negotiation and crises of representation ................ 231 6.4.4 Managing impacts ....................................................................... 238 6.4.5 Collecting compensation ............................................................. 240 6.4.6 The aftermath .............................................................................. 242 6.5 Conclusions ....................................................................................... 242 Chapter 7 Frictions in the Collectivities: Extraction and the Process of Social Change ........................................................................................................... 247 7.1 The VII Indigenous March ―For Territory, Autonomy and the Defense of Indigenous Rights‖: An Answer to the Research Questions ........................ 247 7.2 The centrality of gas .......................................................................... 253 7.3 Territorialising projects ....................................................................... 259 7.4 Beyond Bolivia ................................................................................... 266 Bibliography .................................................................................................... 271 Appendix 1: Schedule of Interviews and meetings .......................................... 297 Schedule of Interviews ................................................................................ 297 Interviews conducted by Denise Humphreys Bebbington ........................ 297 Interviews conducted by Research Assistants Hernan Ruiz and Nolberto Gallardo ................................................................................................... 303 Schedule of Meetings .................................................................................. 305 Appendix 2: Schedule of Publications and Presentations ............................... 307 Publications ................................................................................................. 307 Presentations .............................................................................................
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