COURSE TWO ­ THE HISTORY OF MODERN FINLAND

1 The content of the course; 1) We will begin by trying to get an image of the Finnish past. The influence through time from both east and west. 2) After this we'll discuss the Russian time (1808­1917) mainly focusing on the later part. Finland's role as a autonomous Grandduchy and the influence of Worldeconomy and ­politics. 3) The main focus will be on this century and Finland as an independent state

2 The prehistory of Finland. Archaeological finds of the 1990s indicate that there was probably human settlement in Finland more than 100,000 years ago.

Until very recently it has been thought that the first people to arrive did not come until just over 10,000 years ago during the Mesolithic period. Finds from the warm interglacial period before the last Ice Age had been limited to plant and animal remains, including mammoth bones and teeth. There had been no discoveries of anything suggesting human activity this far back.

3 The Roman historian Tacitus writes about the Fenni, a people of the north. This is the first reference to the Finns in recorded history. (98A.D.)

Finland­a territory which has always been inhabited by foreigners moving in small groups from the west, east and the south.

4 The Vikings visited Finland on their journeys eastwards but didn't settle down. When the Vikings converted to Christianity and the Christian church was divided in to two Finland became something of a battleground between the churches. Myths about Swedish crusades in the 12:th century existed but have never been proven

5 In the early 14:th century Novgorod (Russia`s leading city) and Sweden battled in Finland and the result was the first peace and the first border between east and west (The treaty at Pähkinänsaari 1323). The western and southern parts of Finland became part of Sweden and the western European cultural sphere while eastern Finland became part of the Russo­Byzantine world.

6 THE SWEDISH REIGN FREEDOM is the most important heritage Finland acquired from its Nordic past. The Finns never experienced feudalism and were never enslaved (compare with Russia). Swedish rule and the authority of the Catholic church solidified (blev solidare, fastare) their position in Finland during the 13th century The declaration of 1362 by the Swedish King decreed that "each time when a new King has to be elected, the LAGMAN must be present, accompanied by elected peasant representatives, to select a king on behalf of the people of the Province of the Eastland" This declaration established the right of the free peasants to participate in the election of the Swedish king.

7 During the Sweden­Finland period such Nordic traditions and institutions as religious practices, a system of justice, education and public administration took root in Finland. In the 16th century, following the reformation, the work of advancing Finnish culture and literacy got under way when religious texts were translated to Finnish. Swedish civil and criminal codes remained in effect throughout the period of Russian rule.

8 During the 600 years of Swedish rule Finland and the Finns suffered from constant warfare. Not one longer period of peace (25 years) and often Finland was the battleground. When the rivalry with Russia calmed down (17:th century) the province was 'forgotten' by Stockholm.

9 Gustav III:s coup détat Of even more lasting importance was the promulgation ﴾utfärdande﴿ in 1772 constitution﴿ and 1789 ﴾Act of Union and Security﴿ of the constitutional laws in which﴾ the power of government became concentrated in the hands of the King ﴾these laws were part of a coup d'etat in Sweden and designed for enlighted despotism﴿. As this constitution was to remain unchanged until 1919 and during the period of Russification were interpreted differently by the Finns and the Russian authorities it will be referred to during this course. Some remnants of this law can also be seen in the form of Government Law of 1919 which established the government of independent Finland. This is also one historical explanation to why the President in Finland has quite extended powers.

10 FINLAND BECOMES AN AUTONOMOUS RUSSIAN GRAND DUCHY The deal made between Alexander I and Napoleon at Tilsit in 1807. Alexander promised Napoleon that he would persuade Sweden to participate in The blockade against Britain. When the Swedish king Gustav IV didn't respond to diplomatic means , military coercion was resorted to. Alexander probably never intended to annex Finland but as the Russian forces succeeded in occupying the country without much Swedish resistance he decided it could be an option.

11 The peace of Hamina ﴾1809﴿ established the present­day border between Finland and Sweden along Tornio river and ceded the Åland Islands to Russia. Viipuri province, which Sweden had already lost in 1743 was returned to Finland in 1812. To pacify the Finns, and maybe also as an experiment of liberalism ﴾at the time Alexander was open ﴿to liberal ideas which definitely wasn't the case after the devastating war against Napoleon Alexander I gave Finland a special autonomous status as a Grand Duchy with himself as grand duke, within the Russian Empire. All legislation was separated entirely from Russian administration. The consequence of this was that Finland and Russia were united into a personal union with the ruler as the sole uniting factor. The Grand duke was to be represented in Finland by a General Governor who also would be the chairman of the Imperial Senate ﴾government﴿ which members were appointed by the grand duke.

12 Alexander I called for the Finnish estates to meet in Porvoo on March 28, 1809. At this meeting Alexander pledged that Finland could retain its rights under the Swedish constitution, its religion, and special privileges of the Finnish estates﴾the promise could easily be done as this constitution had been designed for totalitarian rule﴿. Legaslative changes could only be done with the estates and the ruler but the ruler wasn't obliged to assemble the estates ﴾which in fact didn't happen until .﴿1863

The coat of Arms of the Grandduchy of Finland 1809­1917

13 EXPLAINING THE LIBERAL TREATMENT • Alexander I and his advisers liberals • The Swedish constitution designed for totalitarianism • Fear of the Finnish reaction in case of war against France.

14 CHANGES: Helsinki the new capital 1812 • Swedish loyal of Turku • Closer to St:Petersburg 'Old Finland' reunited with the country 1812 • Expansion of the autonomy to the areas lost 1743 The university (ÅA) moved to Helsinki • Turku fire 1827

'The Empress stone' (1833) The first monument built in Helsinki to honour the visit of the ruling couple to the capital city and the constructionworks.

15 REACTIONARY RULE • The 'Napoleonic wars' affected the ruler • The Vienna congress and the 'Holy Alliance'. • The diet wasn't assembled 1809­ 1863 • Nikolaj I • Censorship with strict political control • Stagnation as no legislative development could take place

16 THE CRIMEAN WAR 1853­56 • Nikolaj I died and was replaced with Alexander II. • The war spread to Finland 1854, strengthened the ties with Russia. • Liberalism of the new ruler

17 REFORMPOLICY Alexander II assembled the diet in 1863 which resulted inn a period of development and reforms. • The Dietreform of 1869 ­The diet had to assemble every 5, later every 3 year. ­Expanded representation ­Expanded powers

What problems did Alexander II face in 1855 and how far was he succesful in solving them?

18 THE INDUSTRIALIZATION OF FINLAND. Background; • the industrial revolution, late 18:th century (Britain, Belgium, Sweden) • liberalism of AlexanderII

19 CONDITIONS OF PRODUCTION • Labour • Capital • Energy • Know­how • Demand • Communication

20 The industrial breakthrough didn't take place before the 1860's. The transition was quite slow and concerned almost only the woodworking industry.

FORESTRY • Watermills (16:th century) • Tarproduction, the most important product of export • Steampower, restricted until 1857 due to fear of deficiency • Paperproduction, 1842 (Frenckell) • Saima channel (1856) • Industrial towns, Kemi, Kotka • Government of forestry 1859 • Worldexhibitions from 1867, exhibition of industry and art in Helsinki 1876 The Finnish pavillion in Paris 1900. Gesellius, Lindgren and Saarinen.

21 THE RAILWAY • Helsinki­Hämeenlinna 1862 • Riihimäki­St:Petersburg 1870 • Track connected to Russia 1908

22 ECONOMIC REFORMS • Right to take initiative in legislative matters 1886 • Decentralisation, the cities and municipalities received most of the clerical duties (education, healthcare, infra structure) but also the right of taxation • The language reform(1863) ­ Finnish an official language within 20 years. • Stock companies (1864) • Law of free enterprice ­ the right to buy/sell everywhere (1879)

• Law of banks (1864) ­made it possible to start bankingactivity. Necessary to acumulate investments. • The Finnish National Bank ­National currency 1860

23 SOCIO­ECONOMIC HISTORY OF THE LATE 19:th CENTURY

The rising value of the forests and the need for investments in farming ﴾if one wanted to :continue as a farmer﴿ resulted in Farming became one sector in the industrialization of the society ﴾The mechanisation of ﴿1 .﴿the agriculture A growing rift between rich ﴾big﴿ and poor﴾small ­ crofter﴿ farmers. Numerous crofters ﴿2 ﴿and landless farmers had were forced to give up look for a new ﴾usually not very attractive life in the industrial sector as industryworkers.

24 Revolts and upheaval. Crowfters forced to leave their livelihood. The last years of famine 1867­68. Massmigration and misery

25 Quite a few farmer became dependant on a bank ﴾big debts﴿. When the farms﴾and forests﴿ suddenly became ﴿3 valuable it resulted in problems when the hereditary domains had to be divided. This usually resulted in that the farms were divided in to smaller ones or that one heir had to become dependant to a bank to buy out the other heirs. In Finland this partly explains the existence of our numerous small farms.

Some of the farmers, who owned big forests, became very wealthy. This wealth could be invested in new ﴿4 machines but also in educating their children which resulted in a new, educated farming class with a big self­ confidence ﴾politically ­ the founding of a party for the farmers. Has had, and still has, an enormous impact on the .﴿political life in our country

26 As a consequence of the industrialization Finland the country witnessed a migrationmovement far bigger than ever before (same pattern in all countries which were industrialized). Migration and emigration. Push­pull factors.

27 The primary reason was to find work and the first time this accured in large scale was due to the last so called years of famine in Finland ﴾1866­67﴿ when the crop failed in most of the country .﴿similarities to the potatoplague in Ireland 1846­47﴾ At the same time the need of working labour in the agricultural sector was cut down ﴾the machines replaced the Crowfters﴿. New places of work could be found in constructing, service, railwaybuilding and industry ﴾typical in Finland was that most of the work wasn't necessarily found in the towns which explains the quite slow urbanization, compared to other industrialized countries. of the population still living on the countryside. ﴾Helsinki had 100 000 inhabitants, 50% 88% ­ 1900 .Swedish speaking﴿. Every fourth Finn moved during the 1890's

28 Emigration: Grew in to a massmovement during the last years of the century. Usually people moved to countries with similarities to Finland; Sweden, Norway, Russia and United States ﴾Canada﴿. The main reasons were economic but during the Russification period also a question of escaping. The peak during the years of 1901­10 ﴾160 000﴿. After this emigration slowed down due to stricter immigrationlaws in USA.

29 THE FEBRUARYMANIFESTO AND THE RUSSIFICATION Already from the early 1860's one could observe Russian nationalism in Finland. The ones reading Russian newspapers and literature could more and more often read about demands that the Finnish autonomy should be cut down. Nationalism, which had been spreading all over Europe since the beginning of the century had reached Russia approximately the same time as it came to Finland. The juridical expertise in Finland emphasised the fact that Alexander I, in his speech in Porvoo had raised Finland to a nation among the nations. In his regentassurance (regentförsäkran), which all Grand Dutchies after him also signed, he had confirmed the constitutional laws of Finland (RF 1772, FSA 1789).

30 According to these Consititutional laws the Russian Czar didn't have the supreme powers he had in Russia. Laws couldn't be made or changed without the acceptance of the Finnish diet. The juridical expertise in Russia claimed that while the Czar stood above everyone and everything he also had the right to withdraw his regentassurance.

31 In Finland one wished to develop the territorial exceptional position while one in Russia regarded the Finnish autonomy as a threat against the unification of the Russian Empire (one should remember that about 50% of the population in Russia were non­Russians). The Russian nationalists wished to create a united and strong empire. After the upheavals in Poland (1863) the radical Russian nationalism rapidly gained support. One emphasised Russian superiority in comparison to the other non­Russian peoples in the empire. The strengthening of non­Russian nationalism in the Russian border areas was seen as a dividing and dangerous development. Russian nationalism also played the important role of attracting the discontent masses and focusing their discontent on a feature and thus avoiding the growth of an oppositional force.

32 This is also the age of imperialism, the struggle for colonies and the emergence of strong nationalstates on the European continent. This national rivalry urged the rulers in St:Petersburg to consolidate the great Empire with the help of Russification policy.

33 The Russification started in Poland and spread through the Baltic states. The situation was different in Finland which made it slightly more difficult for the Russian nationalists to find a reason why the policy towards Finland should be reversed. Finlands autonomy had been cemented during a long time and while there had never been any problems or upheavals the autonomy had actually increased since the beginning of the 1860s.

34 1881 Alexander II was assasinated and was followed by his son Alexander III who was extremely shocked by the murder on his father. As the only way out he saw the strengthening of the totalitarian rule and he was supported by the Russian nationalists. Alexander III didn't like the Finnish autonomy but due to reasons of realist politics he didn't make any changes in the status of Finland while it was unnecessary to provoke problems where these didn't exist. The dilemma was the Russian nationalists who louder and louder demanded a revision of the specialstatus of Finland. At the same time the military expertise became increasingly worried about the security of St:Petersburg and in these fears Finland played a predominant rôle. Finland was a securityrisk if a hostile nation (Germany) wanted to use Finland as a springboard in a attack against Russia.

35 CHANGE OF RUSSIAN POLICY • 'The armed peace' • Growing German threat (1890) • Imperialism • Balkan­'the powder keg of Europe' • Russian nationalism • Growing opposition in Russia

36 THE FIRST RUSSIFICATION PERIOD The intention was to weed out the elements of "Finnish separatism" by depriving the country of its special status and absorbing it into the Empire. With this in mind, Nikolaj II appointed the passionately pro­Russian General Nikolaj Bobrikov as Governor­General of Finland in 1898, with powers to implement a stringent programme of Russification, including merging of the Finnish military with the Russian army, adoption of the Russian language for use in the senate, government offices and schools, the opening of all official posts in Finland to Russian citizens, and extension of the legal code of the Russian Empire to the Grand Duchy.

37 The Tsar issued a decree on the 15 February 1899 which the Finns saw as an attempt to seize power from the Diet. With the Februarymanifesto the Russian Tsar and Duma gained the powers to the legislation of so called nation­wide laws and it was the Tsar who had the powers to decide which laws were to be interpreted as nation wide ones. The Februarymanifesto gave rise to a vast outcry. At the beginning majority of the Finns thought that the Grand Dutch had been fooled and the Finns raised a Great Petition (with more than ½ million names of a population on 2 million). The petition was submitted to the Tsar but he refused to accept it. The same happened to the Cultural petition.

38 THE DIVISION OF THE POPULATION

THE 'CONCILIATION LINE' THE CONSTITUTIONALISTS • Advocated tactical collaboration with • Urged resistance (legal) to Russia and wished of returned Russification measures autonomy as a reward of good • The 'Kagaal'(secret org.) behaviour • Boycott of conscription call­ ups ACTIVISM • As Russification became harsher with Bobrikovs dictatorial powers 1903 and Cossack riots in Helsinki 1902 a group of radicals advocating violent resistance emerged (Nationalists and socialists)

39 1900 ­ Through a postmanifesto Finland lost its own national stamps. A languagemanifesto introduced Russian as administrative language in higher offices and the teachinglessons in Russian in the schools increased. Censorship was tightened and newspapers and magazines were forced to close. 1901 ­ Through the conscriptionlaw the Finnish army was dissolved and military service in the Russian army became compulsory (passive resistance and increased emigration). 1903 ­ Bobrikov received dictatorial powers.

40 1904 ­ Bobrikov assassinated by Eugen Schauman. 1904­05 ­ The Russo­Japanese war. The Russian defeat in the War resulted in the first revolutionary attempt in Russia. After the Bloody Sunday a general strike spread throughout Russia and to Finland were it became a protestmovement against the oppressive policies. During the year of 1904 the political situation changed drastically in Finland. The unrest and opposition increased. Russia dragged itself into a war with Japan and Bobrikov was assassinated by Schauman.

41 A revolutionary development was distinct in both Russia and Finland. At the same time an interesting alliance saw daylight. Some Finnish activists took contact with the Japanese embassy in Stockholm and proposed cooperation in their struggle against Russia. Japan promised economical assistance and with Japanese money the activists succeeded in buying arms in Great Britain. The shipment was smuggled out of the country with great difficulties on a leased ship ­ John Grafton but the affair had a dissapointing end when the ship went on a rock in the Ostrobothnian coast and sunk with its cargo.

42 In August 1905 the Russian railwayworkers started a nationwide proteststrike against the regime and this strike was the spark which resulted in a landslide of strikes in the Empire which paralyzed Russia. All different oppositional elements in Russia joined the protests which became increasingly violent. The objectives were to change circumstances and the legislation in Russia. This was to be achieved through a legislative peoples representation. The radicalisation of the movement and the fact that the socialdemocrats actually controlled the strikemovement started to worry other bourgeois elements. Quite soon the Tsar had to accept defeat and new principles for the ruling systems in Russia were proclaimed. Civil rights and franchise were increased. The ruler still had extensive powers. Actually one could talk of a compromise between the Tsar and preoppositional non­socialstic elements. These joined together in a new coalition and crushed the labourmovement. The development in Russia went towards a civil war while both partners had armed themselves.

'Bloody Sunday', 22.1.1905

43 In October the Russian strikemovement spread to Finland were a generalstrike very soon paralyzed the country. The Finns were more unanimous ­ it was a question of the peoples proteststrike against the Granddutch and his policy of Russification but after a while the rift between the socialists and the non­socialistic elements widened.

44 The Finnish politicians weren't satisfied with a promise from the Granddutch but demanded that everything connected with the Russification should be withdrawn. As Norway had broken their union with Sweden the same year some Russian liberals became worried that a similar kind o separatism was the motive behind the Finnish demands as well. The Constitutionalist assured that this wasn't the case in Finland. The 30.10.1905 the senate was dissolved and the Generalstrike was proclaimed. Constitutionalists and Socialdemocrats demanded the introduction of universal suffrage but as the labour movement chose a revolutionary program of action it immediately caused friction to the non­ socialists. Finland was paralyzed. AS the policeforces, which had been an instrument of Russification, ceased to exist, voluntary forces with the task to uphold the order were set up. In Finland the strikemovement was mainly directed against the Russification but the socialists also demanded other changes in the society. This widened the rift between socialists ­ non­socialists and it even came to violent clashes between the guard of the both partners.

45 Nikolaj and his government overestimated the powers of the protestmovement and decided to accept the Finnish demands. The Granddutch proclaimed the Novembermanifesto which meant that the Russification policy ceased to exist and Finland regained its Autonomy. When the protests continued (Viapori rebellion), under the command of some red guards and Russian sailors, it was suppressed by the Finnish authorities. The most important outcome of the Novembermanifesto was the Parliamentary reform of 1906.

Finska partiets kvinnor i Helsingfors i KFUM:s hus på hösten 1906. Museiverkets bildarkiv.

46 The Parliamentary reform 1906 This represented a major step towards democratization of the Finnish society. ● The outdated concept of the four estates was replaced with a unicameral Parliament with 200 members elected for 3 years. ● Suffrage was universal and equal and the minimum voting age was set at 24 years. ● The elections were secret and proportional (d'Hondt's principles) The outcome of this reform was that Finland developed a modern style partysystem in which the existing parties were joined by the Swedish People's Party and the Agrarian Party.

47 THE DIETELECTIONS OF 1907 SPP­24 FP­59 YFP­26 Ag­9 CWP­2 ­­­­­­­­­­­ SDP­80

The election campaignes were dividing and bitter. This revealed the existing socioeconomic rift of the Finnish society.

48 THE SECOND RUSSIFICATION PERIOD Quite soon after the Great strike and the Parliamentreform it became obvious that the political shift, which granted the Finnish autonomy, was merely a breathing spell. The global situation had become more favourable for the Russian Empire (treaty with Britain ­ 1907) and the Russian oppositional movements had been suppressed while the Czar had regained his control of the Duma. Russian ruling circles were annoyed over the fact that revolutionaries were finding asylum in free Finland (e.g. Lenin and Stalin met here for the first time). As soon as Nikolai II had regained his confidence the brief era of liberalism was over. As for Finland this meant that the political thaw turned in to a second period of Russification.

49 In 1908 a decree was announced which said that all matters relating to Finland were to be submitted to the Russian Ministerial Council for examination before being referred to the Granddutch. This decree took away (slopade) the symbol of a personalunion between Russia and Finland (before this Finland had been represented by a ministerstatesecretary who had personally related Finnish matters to the Granddutch).

1909 ­ 1) Frans A. Seyn was appointed as new generalgovernor. A man of the same kind as Bobrikov. 2) Nikolai II issued a number of illegal decrees and edicts, one of which established Finland's participation in Russia's military expenditures on a permanent basis. Finland's strategical importance grew while it was believed Sweden would join the Central Powers in the event of a major War (pro­German monarch). 1910 ­

50 1910 ­ Changed Imperial legislation (a renewing of the Februarymanifesto). All more important laws concerning Finland were to be enacted (antas) by the imperial assembly and the Czar. Finland was entitled to elect deputies to both chambers of the assembly ­ but this was never done, in protest.

51 1912 ­ Parity act (likställighetslagen); civil rights awarded to Russians in Finland. Russians could (and did) man the senate and key state offices. numerous civil servants were ousted and sentenced to prison by Russian courts for violating the provisions of the parity act.

52 No dictatorship was instituted, everything was arranged in accordance with the new laws. The Press was more free than during the earlier Russification period. A programme for total Russification was made up in the beginning of the First World War but it was never carried through in practice due to the War. REACTIONS; The constitutionalists resigned from the Senate in early 1909 and the Old Finns the same autumn. No compliants. This time the Finnish people wasn't divided and the number of activists grew steadily. Also the socialists were more active and established close connections to the revolutionaries in Russia.

53 The Finns sought compensation for their political reverses in the area of sports. At the Olympic Games in Stockholm, 1912 Finland was projected on the Worldmap which was important for the national self­esteem.

54 The "Jaeger"­ movement in Helsinki

The 27th Jaeger Battalion Heritage Association honours and upholds the traditions of Jaegermovement during the years 1914­1918.

The Jaeger­movement laid the foundation for Finland's independence. This active resistance movement was constituted at meeting held at the Ostrobotnia student association building in Helsinki on November 20th, 1914.

The impetus was the attempt by the Russian Empire to "Russify" the Grand Duchy af Finland, during the "years af oppression", and to destroy its autonomy. The latter period of "Russification" commenced in 1908 making the future af Finland appear ominous and when the first world war broke out, the common wish was for Russia's defeat. The final impulse to the birth of the Jaeger­movement was given when a new "Russification" programme was published in the Helsinki newspapers on November 17th and 18th, 1914, implementation of which would have meant the end of Finland's autonomy.

The first Finns arrived for military training at Camp Lockstedt in Germany on February 25th, 1915. This marked the start af a three year training period during which the number of Finnish trainees grew to a total of approximately 2000 men, starting from a small group assembled under the pretext of Pfadfinder (Boy Scout) training, and culminating into the formation of the 27th Royal Prussian Jaeger Battalion. This Battalion fought on the German eastem front before returning, as experienced fighters, onboard the s/s Arcturus to Vaasa in Finland, on February 25th, 1918. At the time the Finnish Independence War, which turned into a civil war, had already started.

55 THE GREAT WAR AND FINLAND With the outbreak of the First World war Finlands role in the Russian Empire changed drastically. From being a quite remote and uninterested country Finland suddenly became very interesting from a military strategical point of view. Suddenly the area could be a threat to the Empire if one couldn't secure the safety. The biggest threat was the security of St:Petersburg and a possible German assault through Finland. The Russian military expertise emphasised the danger if the enemy could make use of the Finnish separatism and try to launch a popular rebellion at the same time as attack was launched through the Finnish territory. These considerations are part of the explanation why Nikolaj II decided to carry through a complete Russification of Finland. Due to the war extensive rearmament­ and fortification­projects were started in the southern parts of Finland. A strong Russian defense was created (100 000 soldiers as strongest).

56 Immediately with the outbreak of the war the Finnish activists also increased their activity. This was the kind of situation the activists had been longing for. In 1915 the idea of a Finnish military force fighting the Russians was brought up among the activists. Konni Zilliacus was in contact with Swedish officers. He tried to raise a Swedish interest in the idea of a trained Finnish elitunit which could be used in the war against Russia. The idea wasn't completely utopian while Sweden had a king who openly was very pro­German and who actually wanted to bring Sweden in to the war, fighting Russia together with Germany.

The pro­german swedish king, Gustav V

57 After this the activists were in direct contact with the Germans. One was in direct contact with the Reichschancellor Bethmann­Hollweg and Emperor Wilhelm II who showed their interest in the Finnish cause. Germany needed allies and one shouldn't forget the enormous amounts of non­Russians in Russia.

The German Chancellor Betmann­Hollweg

58 The idea was to give the activists a couple weeks training in sabotage activity. The training was disguised as a scoutcamp in Lockstedt. But very soon the German chancellor succeeded in getting the Emperors approval to a more extensive training programme and the Finnish Jaegers were received in Lockstedt as members in their own Finnish union, the 27th Jaegerbatallion, all together 1886.

59 Finlands political life took a halt during the war but in 1916 we had a election to the diet. Due to the war and the fact that the diet had been stripped of almost all its powers the population wasn't very interested in going to the polls. 55,5% gave their vote and the results, which few paid any attention to at the time, was that the socialdemocrats gained majority of the seats in the diet. This revolutionary electionresult had an immense consequence the next year when suddenly the old system was revised due to a spontanious revolution in Russia.

SDP­103

Right wing parties­97

60 1917 Alexander Kerenskey

1917 THE FEBRUARY REVOLUTION ­the abdication of the Czar and the transfer of power to the provisional government. ­the MARCHMANIFESTO: returned to Finland the privileged position it had enjoyed before the years of oppression. ­as the governor general had been dismissed and the senate dissolved the first political problem was the forming of a new government.

General Kornilov

61 Tokoi's senate

Now the results of the parliamentary elections of 1916 became valid ­ after disputes between and inside the different parties a all­party senate led by the socialdemocrat O. Tokoi was formed. In the senate the powerstructure was 6 socialdemocrats and 6 Bourgeoise seats but when the votes went even it was the vote of the chairman .Tokoi﴿ that was decisive﴾

62 The outstanding and fundamental issue was: Who had inherited the powers of the Grandduke; a﴿ The Provisional government in Russia b﴿ The Finnish Parliament The socialdemocrats embarked on a collision course with the Russian government as it favoured the latter view and didn't even bother to discuss the problem. The Finnish Parliament had given an oath of loyalty to the Provisional government as the autonomy was restored.

63 During the spring the Provisional government faced growing problems in Russia as the Worldwar continued ﴾The government had made a promise to the Russian people to end the war but in secret Kerenskij's government had signed the London agreement which obliged Russia to continue the war against Germany and forbade any separate .﴿peace Lenin arrived to Russia in the spring and caused problems as he urged the Russians to continue with the revolution ﴾not a very popular announcement even among the .﴿Bolsheviks

Lenin hiding in Finland Lenin speaking in Russia

64 THE ENABLING ACT The 18:th of july th Finnish parliament declared itself as the body having supreme authority within Finland ­ not a full declaration of independence as foreign and military matters were still left in the hand of the Russian government. But Kerenskij interpreted this as an act of mutiny. The Finns tried to benefit from the problems facing the government in Russia. The Kerenskij government responded by dissolving the parliament which could be done by a governmental decree which was realized through the non­socialist members in the senate and the general governor Stahovits who had the right to participate in the senate (something he hadn't done before this).

65 Obviously it was some of the right­wing parties which stood behind this action as it meant dissolving the parliament and new elections. .﴿The new elections deprived the socialdemocrats of their absolute majority ﴾107­93

Consequences: • Political radicalisation and polarisation. • Svinhufvud's senate of Independence • 'The October revolution' in Russia • 'Mommila', acts of terror • Declaration of Independence 6.12 • Lenin's approval of the Independence 31.12.1917

66 THE CIVIL WAR (28.1­16.5.1918) • The absence of a Finnish army or police force resulted in the establishment of various armed groups ­ white and red guards. By the end of 1917 the white guards numbered 40 000 and the red 30 000 • The government was 12.1 Mannerheim empowered by the parliament to create a 'strong police authority. The task was handed over to Mannerheim • 25.1.1918 he declared the civil guards to be government troops • The war broke out 27­28.1 simultaneously but independently in three different places (Ostrobothnia, Helsinki and Viipuri)

Kullervo Manner

67 • The Red guards occupied key offices in Helsinki and took control of the urban southern Finland • The whites declared Vaasa the capital of White Finland and controlled Finland north of Tampere

Red troops about 100 000. 70 000 engaged in battles. The white forces 70 000. Red­Paid (mercenary)army White­Conscriptions

68 THE RED FINLAND • Objectives; a parliamentary democracy (not proletarian dictatorship) based on the principle of the sovereignty of the people­not very radical

Red Army White Army • incompetent leadership • 'Russian' officers • shortage of arms • Jaegers in late February • some Russian volunteers • Capital(money) • no official Russian assistance • Swedish volunteers • lack of capital • Germany (von der Goltz)

69 The civil war was short but bloody • The Red Terror (1600) • The White Terror (8300) • The Prisoncamps (13500) • Casualties of the war; Red­5300, White­3400, 600 Russians, 300 Germans. Altogether 38500 dead.

70 THE FINNISH MONARCHY After the civil war, a struggle broke out between monarchists and republicans over what was the rightful form of government for Finland, and this badly split the ranks of the bourgeois parties.

THE MONARCHISTS THE REPUBLICANS • Svinhufvud (temporary regent) • Ståhlberg • Paasikivi (chairman of the gov.) • Finland declared a republic • Had lost the confidence of a • The 'rump'parliament (111/200) republican constitution • Wanted a strong and uninterrupted leadership • 1772 constitution allowed the parliament to choose a new monarchial family in case the former had vanished

71 FINLAND'S KING • Friedrich Karl of Hessen • German connections and dependance • Germany's defeat in the Great War placed Finland in an embarrassing situation • The Entente powers interrupted the diplomatic relations with Finland • Friedrich luckily abdicated in early December • Svinhufvud resigned and Mannerheim became temporary regent

72 1919 ­ back to normal life • Parliamentaryelections in march resulting in a representative parliament • Ståhlberg elected first president by the parliament

73 THE DOMESTIC SCENE BETWEEN THE WARS • Continued political polarisation after the civil war • Antidemocratic radical rightwingmovements inspired by European fascism • The Worlddepression 1929 • AKS • The Lapua­movement

74 • Political kidnappings (kyyditykset) • The 'Farmers march' • The 'Mäntsälä rebellion' • IKL • Language struggle • The prohibition law (1919­1932)

75 FOREIGN POLICY DURING THE INTERWAR PERIOD THE ÅLAND CONTROVERSY(1921) • background; The 1st WW, The civil war, The languge struggle, Wilson's 14 point programme, Russia • Åland's motives • Sweden's motives • Finland's motives

76 The Geneveconvention 1921 (10 states) • Autonomy (under the League's protection) • Demilitarized zone (no army nor conscription) • Own national symbols ( flag, stamp) • native property rights (hembygdsrätt) • Worsened relations with Sweden • Orientation towards the Baltic • Language struggle's • Trust in the League of Nations

77 RELATIONS WITH SU­RUSSIA • The civilwars in Finland and SU­ Russia • Finnish expeditions to eastern Carelia (Aunus 1919) • Finnish volunteers in the Estonian civil war • Mannerheim THE TARTU PEACE TREATY • The Baltic states, Poland and Finland negotiated with SU concerning peace and borders

78 • 14.10.1920 • The independence recognized • Petsamo was given to Finland • 'Peace of Shame' or 'A to generous Peace' • Relations with SU remained cold • 1932 a treaty of friendship due to deteriorating global political situation. The confidence with the League dropped • The pro­German attitudes of Finland affected SU relations

79 THE WINTER WAR • The European development 1933­39 • The fall of 1938, 'The Yartsev­ negotiations' • SU proposed a lease of Finnish territories in order to strengthen the security of Leningrad • The Molotov­ribbentrop pact 23.8.39 • 5.10.39 ­ SU proposed changes of the border in the carelian isthmus, Hanko and the Islands of the Gulf of Finland • The Mainila shooting • SU breaks off all diplomatic contacts • 30.11.39 ­ THE WINTER WAR

80 THE WINTER WAR • SU offensive from land, sea, air • The League of Nations assmbeled for the last time and expelled SU and recommended collective aid and assistance to Finland • The Finnish army poorly equipped. Mannerheim commander in chief • Kallio replaced by Ryti as president • The Winter War spirit after the first 'defensive victories' • Finnish strengths versus Su weaknesses • French and British military aid promised but mainly Swedish help came • The War children • 13.3.40 The Moscow peace treaty • 'Interim peace'

81 THE CONTINUATION WAR • Improved militarysituation compared to the Winter War • 3 phases; 1) Offensive, 2) Positional and 3) Retreat 1) Lost territory of the Winterwar reconquered. Su territory conquered ­ opinions divided in Finland 2) Germany's requests (Murmansk and Leningrad) were not met. Finland in War with Britain but the allied powers did treat Finland as separated from Germany. After Germany's defeats 1942­43 the idea of a separate peace developed.

82 • The Peace negotiations were difficult as Germnay also was a threat to Finland. Finland dependant of German military aid. When the Germans heard of peacetalks they broke off all aid. SU major offensive during the summer of 1944. A occupation of Finland very close. • 26.6.44 the Ryti­Ribbentrop pact which secured the Finnish military positions. SU turned the focus on Germany. 1.8, Ryti resigned and was replaced with Mannerheim. • 4.9 truce and 19.9 armistice

83 • The Lapland war, Finland's heavily reduced army (38 000) forced to combat and drive out Germany's troops (200 000). Continued to April ­ 45. • The Controlcommission • The Paris Peace Treaty 1947 • Heavy losses

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