Behavioral Parenting 2003, Volume 2, Number 2

2003

Volume 2, Behavioral

Issue 2 Parenting University of Florida – Behavior Analysis Services Program Published online at www.behavior.org

From the Editor

Token Welcome to another issue. In In each issue, we also have one Systems this issue we highlight featured article. In this issue, abstracts on the topic of token Claire St. Peter reviews a economies, which are recent study by Gershater- commonly used by parents and Molko, Lutzker, and Wesch in classrooms. Elizabeth (2003). Large-scale Athens has provided a brief evaluations of behaviorally review of the literature on based intervention strategies token economies. It is are extremely rare. This Contents interesting that very little article is one of few to explore recent research has been the overall efficacy of such a conducted in this realm. Yet, model for interventions with x From the Editor ~ 1 virtually every school in parents who are at risk for x Token Systems America has classrooms that committing child abuse. St. use some variation of a token Peter discusses the innovative Literature system. In addition, parents features of the study and also Review ~ 2 frequently use token systems makes recommendations for x Token Systems for chore charts and so on. future research on child abuse Abstracts ~ 5 What can behavior analysts say interventions. about this widely used x Behavioral application of conditioned Timothy R. Vollmer Parenting reinforcement? Athens has Updates ~15 identified several empirically based recommendations, but x Behavioral also suggests that much more Parenting work needs to be done in order Featured to fully understand how to implement token systems in Article ~23 the best possible manner.

Behavioral Parenting 2003, Volume 2, Number 2

Token Systems Literature Review siblings (Christopherson, Arnold, Hill, & Quilitch, 1972), as well as to decrease the response latency between an instruction and compliance (Fjellstedt & Sulzer- Token Systems Azaroff, 1973), among others. Elizabeth S. Athens The production and exchange schedules for tokens are important Implementing a token economy parameters. The production schedule is involves using a tangible item, referred to the total number of tokens that may be as a reinforcer, to increase appropriate earned by engaging in target behavior behavior and/or reduce inappropriate (Phillips, 1968). Key to the production behavior. There are several advantages to schedule is the clear definition of the using a token economy. For example, target behavior to be reinforced (followed tokens bridge the delay between a target by a token) or punished (followed by a behavior and back-up reinforcement, can token removal). This allows instances of usually be given at any time or place, and target behavior to be easily reinforced or may be carried anywhere, making it easy punished. For example, one target to immediately reinforce appropriate behavior identified by Chrisopherson et al. behavior (Kazdin & Bootzin, 1972). (1972) was inappropriate bickering, Researchers have identified several defined as verbal arguments above the important components of a token volume of normal speaking voice between economy. First, all target behavior must children. Bickering cost the children a be identified and defined. Second, the token. In this study, the target behavior type of tokens and back-up reinforcers was defined in writing and then posted on must be determined. Third, the production each child’s bedroom door. Examples of schedule, which is the total number of behavior listed included bickering, which tokens that may be earned by engaging in cost the children 10 points each target behavior, and the exchange occurrence, and cleaning the bathroom, schedule, which is the total cost of the which produced 10 points. back-up reinforcers in relation to the Researchers have used various tokens earned, must be determined exchange schedules. For example, Phillips (Phillips, 1968). Finally, this information (1968) conducted a study in a home-style should be made available to the rehabilitation setting, where the cost of participant. the back-up reinforcers varied according A variety of items have been used as the apparent changes in interest so that tokens; they are usually chosen according more preferred items cost more. In to ease of use. Some commonly used items addition, exchange was made possible at include poker chips (e.g., Mandelker, the end of each week for access to Brigham, & Bushell Jr., 1970), and points privileges the next week. This differs from on an index card (e.g., Phillips, 1968). a study by Jason (1985), which targeted Tokens have been used to increase decreased television viewing in two household chores completion (Jason, 1985; children. In this study, two children Phillips, 1968), to improve academic earned tokens for social behavior and performance (McGinnis, Friman, & could exchange one token for a half hour Carlyon, 1999), to decrease television of television viewing at any time of day. viewing (Jason, 1985; Wolfe, Mendes, & An important point in determining the cost Factor, 1984), to decrease the amount of of back-up reinforcers is to make the cost bickering, teasing, and whining among low enough to be obtainable, and high University of Florida Behavior Analysis Services Program Page 2

Behavioral Parenting 2003, Volume 2, Number 2 enough to see the desired amount of the Melin, & Ost, 1975; Hupp, Reitman, target behavior. In the Jason (1985) study, Northup, O'Callaghan, & LeBlanc, 2002; 30 minutes of chores or engagement in O'Leary & Becker, 1967). Additional social behavior such as riding bikes benefits to using multiple back-up resulted in one token. reinforcers include the increase in the Identifying back-up reinforcers is likelihood of the child finding something another important component in the preferred each time tokens are exchanged, implementation of a token economy. Myers as well as the possible decrease of effects (1960) and Myers, Craig, and Myers (1961) of satiation relative to back-up found that tokens could acquire secondary reinforcers. reinforcement properties. Tokens acquire A concern when implementing a these properties when paired with back-up token economy is the maintenance of the reinforcers that are preferred items or behavioral effects following conclusion of events. If the back-up reinforcers have a token economy. Behavioral maintenance been previously freely available is often anecdotally reported in studies, reinforcers, Kazdin and Bootzin (1972) however there is a paucity of empirical cautioned that minor resistance might be research on the subject. For example, observed following the implementation of O’Leary and Becker (1967) reported that contingent reinforcement. These cautions following use of both verbal praise and were based on one of only a few published token reinforcement there was anecdotal reports of such resistance (e.g., evidence that the children’s appropriate Lachenmeyer, 1969). More commonly behavior generalized to other school reported is the lack of resistance following situations where a token economy was not implementation of the token economy. For in effect. These researchers used the example, Phillips (1969) observed method of pairing verbal praise and token increases in appropriate behavior using reinforcement in an attempt to facilitate back-up reinforcers in the form of items subsequent maintenance so that when and events naturally available in the home tokens were eliminated, verbal praise that appeared important to the children, might still function as a conditioned items such as snacks and tools and events reinforcer (Locke, 1969). As another such as watching television, and riding a method of enhancing behavioral bicycle. No resistance was reported. A maintenance, Kazdin and Bootzin (1972) study by Wolfe et al. (1984) showed that recommended following the Allyon and when using tokens to decrease television Azrin (1968) procedure of teaching only viewing, the child showed few outbursts of behavior that would continue to be temper as a result of television restriction. reinforced after training. Typical target Kazdin and Bootzin (1972) argued that behavior of token economies, such as resistance may be a more common academic skills and appropriate social problem than reported, however, thus behavior, meet this criterion. calling for further empirical examination. Token economies can be highly These authors recommended that, should effective in reducing inappropriate resistance be a problem, involving the behavior and increasing appropriate child in choosing the back-up reinforcer behavior. There are a number of and developing the contingencies might procedural components that may be aid in reducing such resistance. An manipulated when implementing a token additional method used to reduce economy; however, several resistance involves using a multiplicity of recommendations have been made above back-up reinforcers (Eriksson, Gotestam, concerning commonly effective

University of Florida Behavior Analysis Services Program Page 3

Behavioral Parenting 2003, Volume 2, Number 2 techniques. Further research is needed on Psychological Record, 19(2), 247- resistance and behavioral maintenance. 257. Locke, B. J. (1969). Verbal conditioning References with the retarded: Reinforcer, sex of subject, and stimulus pacing. Ayllon, T., & Azrin, N. (1968). The token American Journal of Mental economy: A motivational system for Deficiency 1969, 73(4), 616-620. therapy and rehabilitation. New Mandelker, A. V., Brigham, T. A., & York: Appelton-Century-Crofts. Bushell Jr., D. (1970). The effects of Christopherson, E. R., Arnold, C. M., Hill, token procedures on a teacher's D. W., & Quilitch, H. R. (1972). The social contacts with her students. home point system: token Journal of Applied Behavior reinforcement procedures for Analysis, 3, 169-174. application by parents of children McGinnis, J. C., Friman, P. C., & Carlyon, with behavior problems. Journal of W. D. (1999). The effect of token Applied Behavior Analysis, 5, 485- rewards on "intrinsic" motivation for 497. doing math. Journal of Applied Eriksson, J. H., Gotestam, K. G., Melin, L., Behavior Analysis, 32, 375-379. & Ost, L.-G. (1975). A token Myers, N. (1960). Extinction following economy treatment of drug partial and continuous primary and addition. Behavioral Research and secondary reinforcement. Journal of Therapy, 13, 113-125. Experimental Psychology, 60, 172- Fjellstedt, N., & Sulzer-Azaroff, B. (1973). 179. Reducing the latency of a child's Myers, N. A., Craig, G. J., & Myers, J. L. responding to instructions by means (1961). Secondary reinforcement as of a token system. Journal of a function of a number of reinforced Applied Behavior Analysis, 6, 125- trials. Child Development, 32, 765- 130. 772. Hupp, S. D. A., Reitman, D., Northup, J., O'Leary, K. D., & Becker, W. C. (1967). O'Callaghan, P., & LeBlanc, M. Behavior modification of an (2002). The effects of delayed adjustment class: A token rewards, tokens, and stimulant reinforcement program. Exceptional medication on sportsmanlike Children, 33(9), 637-642. behavior with ADHD-diagnosed Phillips, E. L. (1968). Achievement place: children. Behavior Modification, Token reinforcement procedures in 26(2), 148-162. a home-style rehabilitation setting Jason, L. A. (1985). Using a token-actuated for "pre-delinquent" boys. Journal timer to reduce television viewing. of Applied Behavior Analysis, 1, Journal of Applied Behavior 213-223. Analysis, 18, 269-272. Wolfe, D. A., Mendes, M. G., & Factor, D. Kazdin, A. E., & Bootzin, R. R. (1972). The (1984). A parent-administered token economy: An evaluative program to reduce children's review. Journal of Applied Behavior television viewing. Journal of Analysis, 5, 343-372. Applied Behavior Analysis, 17, 267- Lachenmeyer, C. W. (1969). Systematic 272. socialization: Observations on a programmed environment for the ~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~ habilitation of antisocial retardates. ~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~

University of Florida Behavior Analysis Services Program Page 4

Behavioral Parenting 2003, Volume 2, Number 2

economies do not foster individualized treatment Token Systems Abstracts plans, that participating in a token economy is humiliating, that token economies are abusive, that concerns about milieu management are unimportant and irrelevant to treatment delivery in Token Systems: Books, Chapters and the 1990s, and that effective token economies are Review Articles impractical. Empirical evidence is presented to rebut these misconceptions and criticisms. Three steps in establishing a token economy include

identifying target behavior, establishing

contingencies for each target, and defining the Ayllon, T., & Azrin, N. (1968). The token economy: exchange rules for using the token store. (PsycINFO A motivational system for therapy and Database Record (c) 2000 APA, all rights reserved) rehabilitation. New York: Appelton-Century-Crofts. Patrick W. Corrigan, University of Chicago Center

for Psychiatric Rehabilitation, 7230 Arbor Drive,

Tinley Park, IL 60477.

Corrigan, P. W. (1991). Strategies that overcome barriers to token economies in community programs for severe mentally ill adults. Communtiy Glynn, S. M. (1990). Token economy approaches for Mental Health Journal, 27, 17-30. psychiatric patients: Progress and pitfalls over 25

years. Behavior Modification, 14, 383-407. Describes the token economy (TE) as an effective strategy for treatment of severe mentally ill Token economies are among the most well- inpatients. Several barriers have prevented facile validated and effective behavioral treatments for transfer of TE strategies from inpatient settings to schizophrenia and other serious psychiatric community programs: outpatient access to disorders. However, their use in clinical and competing reinforcers, supplemental income that research settings has declined from a peak in the helps outpatients to purchase these reinforcers, early 1970s. Reasons for this decrease in use weakening of the efficacy of response costs, include staff resistance, reduced length of limited hours of the day in which day treatment inpatient admissions, greater emphasis on contingencies apply, and interference of community-based treatments, economic contingency contracts by family or friends. These constraints, and legal and ethical challenges. barriers can be obviated by replacing response Nevertheless, a small but enthusiastic group of costs with alternative interventions, providing proponents still conducts token economy research reinforcers cheaply, and including other systems in and treatment. Important topics pertaining to the the development and implementation of token token economy remain to be addressed. These contingencies. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2000 include specifying its remediative components, APA, all rights reserved) For reprints: Patrick W. developing strategies to promote generalization Corrigan, Camarillo UCLA Clinical Research Center and maintenance of treatment gains, and creating for Schizophrenia and Psychiatric Rehabilitation, better methods to identify patients who would Box 6022, Camarillo, CA 93011-6022. benefit most from participating in these programs.

reserved) For reprints: Shirley M. Glynn, West Los

Angeles VA Medical Center (Brentwood Division),

B151-J, 11301 Wilshire Blvd., Los Angeles, CA Corrigan, P. W. (1995). Use of token economy with 90073. seriously mentally ill patients: Criticisms and misconceptions. Psychiatric Services, 46, 1258-

1263.

Presents common criticisms of the use token Kazdin, A. E., & Bootzin, R. R. (1972). The token economies in the milieu management of treatment economy: An evaluative review. Journal of Applied programs for adults and children with severe Behavior Analysis, 5, 343-372. mental illness. Detractors argue that token economies are ineffective, that their benefits do Proposes that, although the token economy has not readily generalize to other settings, that token several advantages, there are obstacles that may University of Florida Behavior Analysis Services Program Page 5

Behavioral Parenting 2003, Volume 2, Number 2 impede its implementation and therapeutic Child behavior management can be an important efficacy, including staff training, client resistance, concern in conducting summer camps for pediatric circumvention of the contingencies, and burn patients, because many of these patients have nonresponsiveness of Ss. Studies employing token a history of significant behavioral difficulties. To programs with psychiatric patients, retardates, be efficient, a flexible camp-wide behavior children in classroom settings, delinquents, and management system, such as a token economy, autistic children are reviewed. Although token would be ideal. In this article we discuss the economies are successful while in operation, the concept and principles of a token reinforcement issue of generalization of behavior gains or system and outline how this intervention was resistance to extinction has not been given careful applied to our pediatric burn summer camp across consideration. Inasmuch as generalization is 2 consecutive years. We also provide a description perhaps the most crucial issue, several procedures of modifications made for the second camp, based are presented that are designed to facilitate on counselor ratings of and our experience with the maintenance of performance when reinforcement token system during the first camp. Results from is withdrawn. Methodological suggestions for counselor assessments indicated that after using investigations on token reinforcement in applied the token system, counselors' perceptions of its settings are presented. (PsycINFO Database Record utility (e.g., effective in decreasing problem (c) 2000 APA, all rights reserved) For reprints: behavior in campers, useful in making behavior Alan E. Kazdin, Department of Psychology, The management easier) increased significantly across Pennsylvania State University, University Park, PA both years. For reprints: Christina D. Adams, PhD, 16802. Department of Psychology, West Virginia University, PO Box 6040, Morgantown, WV.

Williams, B. F., Williams, R. L., & McLaughlin, T. F. (1989). The use of token economies with individuals who have developmental disabilities. Monographs Bailey, J. S., Timbers, G. D., Phillips, E. L., & Wolf, of the American Association on Mental M. M. (1971). Modification of articulation errors of Retardation, 12, 3-18. pre-delinquents by their peers. Journal of Applied Behavior Analysis, 4, 265-281. The present review examined the educational and psychological research, specifically for applications Gave 9 predelinquent peers in "achievement place" of token economies with people with mental (a community based family style rehabilitation retardation, autism, and other developmental program based on a token economy) points (token disabilities. This research considered (a) strategies reinforcement) to modify the articulation errors of for implementing token systems, (b) advantages of a 12- and a 13-yr-old boy. In Exp. I, using a token economies, (c) instances of token multiple base-line experimental design, error words implementation with people of developmental involving the /l/, /r/, /th/, and /ting/ sounds were disabilities, and (d) reasons for the lack of use of successfully treated by both a group of peers and token economies. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) by individual peers. Generalization occurred to 2000 APA, all rights reserved) No reprint words that were not trained. The peers used information available. modeling, peer approval, contingent points, and feedback. Results indicate that peers can function as speech therapists without instructions, feedback, or the presence of an adult. Payment of points to peers for detecting correct articulations Token Systems: Research Articles produced closer agreement with the E than payment for finding incorrect articulations. Results were replicated in Exp. II. Peer speech correction Adams, C. D., Girolami, M. A., Joseph, K. E., procedures resulted in some generalization to the Sauvageot, S. A., & Slater, H. (2002). Use of a correct use of target words in sentences and token reinforcement system to promote significant improvements on standard tests of appropriate behavior at a pediatric burn summer articulation. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2000 camp. Journal of Burn Care & Rehabilitation, 23, APA, all rights reserved) For reprints: Jon S. 297-304. Bailey, Psychology Department, Florida State University, Tallahassee, FL 32306.

University of Florida Behavior Analysis Services Program Page 6

Behavioral Parenting 2003, Volume 2, Number 2

Brown, B. (1985). An application of social learning Farrell, 1993) in reducing inappropriate methods in a residential programme for young verbalizations of 2 13-yr-old male middle-school offenders. Journal of Adolescence, 8, 321-331. students with learning disabilities. The levels system (LS) consists of a hierarchy of levels in Describes the development of a partial replication which students must meet increasingly demanding of the achievement place approach by K. A. Kirigin standards of behavior before advancing through the et al (1979) in a community-oriented, behavioral hierarchy. The LS was used in a self-contained residential program for young offenders in London. classroom and targeted the acquisition and The program incorporates a token economy, a maintenance of academic skills and social behaviors school program, teaching interactions, and self- with the goal of integrating the students into an government. Successful outcomes are described for inclusive classroom. The 2 students showed little or 5 of 8 delinquents 1st admitted to the program, no progress within the LS because of a very high and factors associated with success are identified. rate of inappropriate verbalizations. Therefore, a Two process research projects evaluating self-management system that involved training on effectiveness of training in social reinforcement for the accuracy of self-recording these verbalizations residential care staff are discussed. (22 ref) was added to the LS for these students. In addition, (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2000 APA, all rights the investigator discussed with these students the reserved) For reprints: Dr. B. Brown, Institute of consequences of inappropriate behavior and Psychiatry, Orchard Lodge Regional Resource socially appropriate behavioral alternatives. A Center, William Booth Road, Anerley, London SE20 multiple-baseline-across-subjects experimental 8EG. design revealed that the intervention resulted in a substantive reduction in inappropriate Carton, J. S., & Schweitzer, J. B. (1996). Use of a verbalizations, as well as greater progress through token economy to increase compliance during the LS. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2000 APA, hemodialysis. Journal of Applied Behavior Analysis, all rights reserved) For reprints: Albert R. Cavalier 29, 111-113. or Ralph P. Ferretti, Department of Educational Studies, University of Delaware, Newark, DE 19716. Reports the effects of using a token economy to treat noncompliant behavior in a 10-yr-old male hemodialysis patient. The patient had previously failed to comply with vascular access cleansing Charlop-Christy, M. H., & Haymes, L. K. (1998). prior to hemodialysis, initiation of hemodialysis, Using objects of obsession as token reinforcers for and procedures during hemodialysis such as blood children with autism. Journal of Autism and pressure measurements and exercises designed to Developmental Disorders, 28, 189-198. reduce risk of muscle cramps. Baseline and token economy conditions were alternated in an ABAB Assessed the effectiveness of using objects of design. Results indicate that the intervention obsession as token reinforcers to increase task increased compliant behavior during both performance for 3 children with autism (9.2 and treatment phases. The token system was faded 9.0 yr old males and a 7.9 yr old female). The use gradually over the course of several weeks. of obsessions as tokens (e.g., letter W, a picture of Compliance was maintained at 3- and 6-mo follow- a train) was compared with the use of typical up observations. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) tokens (e.g., stars, happy faces). A multiple 2000 APA, all rights reserved) For reprints: John S. baseline design across children with a reversal Carton, Division of of Medical Psychology, Box within child was used. Data were collected on 3362, Duke University Medical Center, Durham, NC percentage correct of task responses and on the 27710. occurrence of inappropriate behaviors during work sessions. Results indicate that percentage correct on task performance was higher when objects of obsession were used as tokens as opposed to when Cavalier, A. R., Ferretti, R. P., & Hodges, A. E. typical tokens were used. Concomitant decreases in (1997). Self-management within a classroom token inappropriate behaviors during work sessions were economy for students with learning disabilities. also noted. Results are discussed in terms of Research in Developmental Disabilities, 18, 167- primary vs secondary reinforcement and the effects 178. of saliency and novelty of the reinforcing stimuli. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2000 APA, all rights Evaluated the effectiveness of a self-management reserved) For reprints: Marjorie H. Charlop- system used in a classroom-wide token economy Christy, Department of Psychology, Claremont based on a levels system (S. W. Smith & D. T. McKenna College, Claremont, CA 91711. University of Florida Behavior Analysis Services Program Page 7

Behavioral Parenting 2003, Volume 2, Number 2

Christophersen, E. R., Arnold, C. M., Hill, D. W., & 2002 APA, all rights reserved) For reprints: Frank Quilitch, H. R. (1972). The home point system: R. Cicero, Eden II Programs, 150 Granite Ave., Token reinforcement procedures for application by Staten Island, NY 10303; email: [email protected]. parents of children with behavior problems. Journal of Applied Behavior Analysis, 5, 485-497.

Investigated the effects of token reinforcement in Comaty, J. E., Stasio, M., & Advokat, C. (2001). 2 families in which parents, with a total of 5 5-10 Analysis of outcome variables of a token economy yr. olds, were taught to administer a token system in a state psychiatric hospital: A program economy within their homes. Parents received evaluation. Research in Developmental Disabilities, instruction in specifying desired social and chore 22, 233-253. behaviors, communicated these behavioral goals to their children, recorded data on their occurrence, Describes the outcome of a token economy and managed a point system backed with treatment applied to 2 distinct patient populations reinforcers normally found in the home. The on the same unit of a state psychiatric hospital: program successfully modified 15 problem individuals with a dual diagnosis of mental behaviors in Family 1 and 6 in Family 2. In addition, retardation and a Diagnostic and Statistical Manual the parents rated all 21 behavior changes as of Mental Disorders-IV (DSM-IV) Axis I diagnosis of significant improvements. These studies indicate either (a) a severe behavior disorder (BD) or (b) a that some cooperative parents need only a small serious and persistent psychiatric disorder (PD). amount of professional help to learn to manage Results showed that patients in the PD group were their children's behavior problems with token more likely to complete the treatment (17/20) than reinforcement procedures. (PsycINFO Database those in the BD group (17/31) who were more likely Record (c) 2000 APA, all rights reserved) For to be terminated from the program (14/31). reprints: Edward R. Christopherson, Department of Individuals who did not complete the program were Human Development, University of Kansas, distinguished early, within the first 3 weeks of Lawrence, Kansas 66044. treatment. These noncompleters received significantly more fines and earned significantly fewer tokens than those who completed the program. At an average of 2.7 yrs post-discharge, Cicero, F. R., & Pfadt, A. (2002). Investigation of a there was no difference in the proportion of PD reinforcement-based toilet training procedure for (12/16) and BD completers (9/11) and BID children with autism. Research in Developmental noncompleters (3/7) remaining in the community. Disabilities, 23, 319-331. These data show that diverse populations of patients can be treated within the same token Independent toileting is an important economy program, thereby improving cost developmental skill which individuals with effectiveness. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2003 developmental disabilities often find a challenge to APA, all rights reserved) For reprints: Joseph E. master. Effective toilet training interventions have Comaty, Eastern Louisiana Mental Health System, been designed which rely on a combination of basic Jackson, Louisiana; email: operant principles of positive reinforcement and [email protected]. punishment. In the present study, the effectiveness of a reinforcement-based toilet training intervention was investigated with three children with a diagnosis of autism (aged 6, 4, and 4 yrs; 2 Fabry, B. D., Mayhew, G. L., & Hanson, A. (1984). male, 1 female). Procedures included a Incidental teaching of mentally retarded students combination of positive reinforcement, graduated within a token system. American Journal of Mental guidance, scheduled practice trials and forward Deficiency, 89, 29-36. prompting. Results indicated that all procedures were implemented in response to urination Six moderately to severely mentally retarded accidents. All three participants reduced urination students (aged 12.75-22.17 yrs) were taught to accidents to zero and learned to spontaneously name sight words during the token-exchange request use of the bathroom within 7-11 days of periods of a token-reinforcement system. Words training. Findings suggest that the proposed appeared on 25% of the tokens, and an S was given procedure is an effective and rapid method of 2 opportunities to name a word written on a token toilet training, which can be implemented within a before the token could be exchanged. Sequential structured school setting with generalization to the teaching of new sets of sight words via a multiple- home environment. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) baseline design was used to evaluate the University of Florida Behavior Analysis Services Program Page 8

Behavioral Parenting 2003, Volume 2, Number 2 procedure. Five of the 6 Ss acquired sight-word on a noncontingent basis for a 12-wk period. vocabularies. The data support the contention that Following this experimental period, the 2 12-wk token-exchange periods may be used for conditions were repeated. Results indicate that educational purposes; they may also serve as a while free meals produced a slight increase in the means of programming generalization. The actual number of meals eaten, there were no effectiveness of this procedure may be related to systematic effects on Ss' performance of domestic developmental level. (29 ref) (PsycINFO Database and social activities and self-help skills. It is Record (c) 2000 APA, all rights reserved) For suggested that one way to resolve ethical dilemmas reprints: Bernard D. Fabry, Father Flanagan's Boys with regard to the selection of back-up events in a Home, Boys Town, NE 68010. TEP would be to identify idiosyncratic and novel events that would function as reinforcers but would not be associated with the manipulation or removal of patients' natural rights. (23 ref) (PsycINFO Fjellstedt, N., & Sulzer-Azaroff, B. (1973). Database Record (c) 2000 APA, all rights reserved) Reducing the latency of a child's responding to For reprints: P. J. Higson, North Wales Hospital, instructions by means of a token system. Journal of Denbigh, Clwyd, LL16 5SS. Applied Behavior Analysis, 6, 125-130.

Modified the response latency of following directions by an 8-yr-old boy from a class for Hupp, S. D. A., Reitman, D., Northup, J., emotionally disturbed children by the contingent O'Callaghan, P., & LeBlanc, M. (2002). The effects application of a token system. To demonstrate of delayed rewards, tokens, and stimulant reinforcer effectiveness, a multiple base-line medication on sportsmanlike behavior with ADHD- approach was used. Measures were obtained for the diagnosed children. Behavior Modification, 26, 148- time elapsed between presentation of verbal 162. directions and 5 performances: (a) entering the experimental room, (b) putting toys away, (c) Five children (aged 4-7 yrs) diagnosed with beginning academic work, (d) putting toys away attention deficit/hyperactivity disorder again, and (e) returning to the classroom and participated in a summer program designed to completing preparations for leaving school. These 5 evaluate behavioral and pharmacological measures were placed on the token system at 3 treatments in a recreational setting. The effect of different times. Results demonstrate that 4 of the 5 a contingency for increased sportsmanlike performances were clearly affected by the token behavior, with and without the use of tokens, was system as their response latency for following examined during kickball games. The influence of directions decreased substantially. (PsycINFO stimulant medication was also examined for 3 of Database Record (c) 2000 APA, all rights reserved) the children. A multiple-baseline, reversal design For reprints: Dr. Beth Sulzer-Azaroff, Behavioral revealed that a delayed reward condition did not Sciences and Community Health, University of increase sportsmanlike behavior, whereas the Connecticut Health Center, Hartford, CN 06105. addition of tokens (and praise) to the delayed reward increased sportsmanlike behavior for all 5 participants. Stimulant medication appeared to have very little influence on sportsmanlike Higson, P. J., Woods, P. A., Tannahill, M. M., & behavior. Future directions for behavioral social Ellis, N. C. (1985). The role of meals as a skills interventions using a sports skills model are reinforcing event in a token economy programme. also discussed. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2002 British Journal of Psychiatry, 147, 170-174. APA, all rights reserved) No reprint information available. Examined the effect of introducing meals as a nontoken or free item on the performance of patients who were participants in a token economy program (TEP) for the hospitalized chronically Jason, L. A. (1986). Using a token-actuated timer mentally ill that had previously used meals as a to reduce television viewing. Journal of Applied token event. Ss were 9 long-stay females in a TEP Behavior Analysis, 18, 269-272. serving a total of 16 female patients. Nursing staff administered the TEP in the normal manner during A 13-yr-old Black girl who watched an excessive a 12-wk period. Subsequently, Ss were informed amount of TV was provided a behavioral program that they would no longer be required to pay for featuring a token-actuated timer. Tokens, given their meals with tokens and were provided meals freely during baseline and earned with prosocial University of Florida Behavior Analysis Services Program Page 9

Behavioral Parenting 2003, Volume 2, Number 2

activities during intervention, were used to Lehrer, P., Schiff, L., & Kris, A. (1970). The use of activate the TV for 30-min periods. The token- a credit card in a token economy. Journal of exchange system effectively reduced TV viewing, Applied Behavior Analysis, 3, 289-291. and the reductions were maintained at 2 follow-up points. The principal contribution of the present For reprints: Paul Lehrer, Psychological Clinic, study is the development and evaluation of an Rutgers University, New Brunswick, NJ. electronically controlled device that was used to check the accuracy of parent-reported data. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2000 APA, all rights LePage, J. P. (1999). The impact of a token reserved) For reprints: Leonard A. Jason, economy on injuries and negative events on an Psychology Department, 2219 N. Kenmore Ave., De acute psychiatric unit. Psychiatric Services, 50, Paul University, Chicago, IL 60614. 941-944.

A token economy was introduced on an acute care unit in a rural hospital, and rates of negative Kahng, S., Boscoe, J. H., & Byrne, S. (2003). The events were compared before and after use of escape contingency and a token economy to implementation. Negative events were defined as increase food acceptance. Journal of Applied patient and employee injuries that were not Behavior Analysis, 36, 349-353. accidents. Unauthorized absences and use of emergency medications were also counted as Escape (termination of a meal) and token-based negative events. Rates of negative events were differential reinforcement of alternative behavior calculated over 2 4-month periods, before and were used as reinforcement to increase acceptance after the token economy was introduced on a 24- of food. A 4-year-old girl who had been admitted to bed acute care unit that housed the hospital's neo- an inpatient unit for the treatment of food refusal adult program for patients aged 18-20 yrs. The unit participated in the study. Using a changing also served as an admitting unit for patients over criterion design, the number of bites accepted and 20 yrs old. When the analysis was controlled for consumed was gradually increased to 15 bites per unit census and the number of neo-adults, an meal. These data suggest that, in some cases, analysis of covariance indicated that the number of escape may be a potent reinforcer for food negative events fell significantly after the token acceptance. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2003 economy was introduced, from 129 in the 4 months APA, all rights reserved) For reprints: Sun Woo before implementation to 73 after implementation, Kahng, Department of Behavioral Psychology, a 43% reduction. Both staff and patient injuries Kennedy Krieger Institute, 707 N. Broadway, were significantly reduced. A small increase in use Baltimore, Maryland 21205; email: of emergency medications was noted, but it was [email protected]. not statistically significant. Findings support the use of the token economy in acute settings to improve the unit milieu by reducing negative events. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2000 APA, Lachenmeyer, C. W. (1969). Systematic all rights reserved) For reprints: Dr. LePage, West socialization: Observations on a programmed Virginia University School of Medicine and Sharpe environment for the habilitation of antisocial Hospital, P.O. Box 1127, Weston, WV 26452; email: retardates. Psychological Record, 19, 247-257. [email protected].

Discusses the efficacy of a token economy in Locke, B. J. (1969). Verbal conditioning with the controlling the behavior of 12 delinquent retarded: Reinforcer, sex of subject, and stimulus retardates. The basic problem was crucial pacing. American Journal of Mental Deficiency, 73, uncontrolled contingencies that determined much 616-620. inmate and attendant behavior toward inmates. Areas of more effective control are discussed and it 48 mild and moderately retarded Ss with whom is concluded that a modification of the technique prior verbal conditioning attempts had been involved would be necessary and sufficient to unsuccessful were exposed to variations in the correct these problems. (PsycINFO Database Record reinforcing consequence and the pattern of (c) 2000 APA, all rights reserved) For reprints: presenting stimulus materials with separate Charles W. Lachenmeyer, Department of Sociology, replications for male and female Ss. Using a Taffel University of North Carolina, Chapel Hill, NC 27514. type of task, the reinforcing properties of the social consequence "good" were compared with tokens exchangeable for money or a variety of University of Florida Behavior Analysis Services Program Page 10

Behavioral Parenting 2003, Volume 2, Number 2 trinkets in factorial combinations with a fixed vs. a Mann-Feder, V. R. (1996). Adolescents in variable rate of stimulus exposure. Extensive verbal therapeutic communities. Adolescence, 31, 17-28. conditioning effects were obtained with tokens but no significant effects were associated with the Compared the course of change of 2 groups of social reinforcement, sex of S, or stimulus exposure conduct disordered adolescents in 2 theoretically rate. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2000 APA, all distinct residential treatment programs: a rights reserved) For reprints: Parsons Research therapeutic community and a modified token Center Library, Parsons, KS. economy. In all, 288 clients (aged 14-18 yrs old) were assessed on multiple measures at 3 points in the treatment process in a repeated measures design. Results indicate that, despite an overall Mandelker, A. V., Brigham, T. A., & Bushell, D. trend toward improvement in both groups, there (1970). The effects of token procedures on a was little difference between the rates of progress teacher's social contacts with her students. Journal over time. Dropouts and nondropouts could be of Applied Behavior Analysis, 3, 169-174. differentiated only by a small number of baseline scores and the amount of family contact during Observed a group of 6 kindergartners daily during a placement. The need is expressed for qualitative 20-min handwriting lesson. Ss were divided into 2 research focusing on the interaction of client groups (A and B) of 3 each. 5 conditions were attitudes and perceptions and the underlying imposed sequentially: (a) base line without tokens, components of treatment modalities. (PsycINFO (b) contingent tokens for Group A, noncontingent Database Record (c) 2000 APA, all rights reserved) tokens for Group B, (c) contingent tokens for Group For reprints: Varda Mann-Feder, D.Ed., B, noncontingent tokens for Group A, (d) Department of Applied Social Science, Concordia reinstatement of condition b, and (e) contingent University, 1455 De Masionneuve West, Montreal, tokens for both groups. It was consistently observed Quebec, Canada HG3 IM8. that the teacher's rate of social contact with higher with Ss receiving the contingent tokens than with those who received noncontingent tokens. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2000 APA, all rights McGinnis, J. C., Friman, P. C., & Carlyon, W. D. reserved) For reprints: Don bushell, Jr., (1999). The effect of token rewards on "intrinsic" Department of Human Development, University of motivation for doing math. Journal of Applied Kansas, Lawrence, Kansas 66044. Behavior Analysis, 32, 375-379.

This study used a multielement baseline design to analyze the effects of token rewards delivered Mangus, B., Henderson, H., & French, R. (1986). contingent upon completion of math problems by 2 Implementation of a token economy by peer tutors middle-school boys. Time spent on math and to increase on-task physical activity time of autistic number of work pages completed increased (with children. Perceptual and Motor Skills, 63, 97-98. high accuracy) during reward conditions and were maintained during fading and withdrawal. At Data generated from the implementation of a follow-up, time spent and work pages completed token economy with 5 7-11 yr old autistic children remained well above baseline for 1 boy and fell were graphed for visual inspection of the raw data below for the other, while accuracy remained high and means. Findings show that 4 Ss improved their and ratings of liking math were the highest possible time on task on the balance beam in at least 1 of for both boys. Overall, the results are inconsistent the intervention phases; the other S did not with warnings about use of token rewards to improve during the intervention phases, but there motivate children. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) was a positive slope in the final intervention phase. 2000 APA, all rights reserved) For reprints: Patrick (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2000 APA, all rights C. Friman, Youthcare Building, Boys Town, reserved) For reprints: Dr. Brent Mangus, School Nebraska 68010; email: [email protected]. of HPERD, University of Nevada, Las Vegas, 4505 Maryland Parkway, Las Vegas, Nevada 89154.

University of Florida Behavior Analysis Services Program Page 11

Behavioral Parenting 2003, Volume 2, Number 2

McLaughlin, T. F., & Malaby, J. (1972). Intrinsic This study was concerned with the extinction of an reinforcers in a classroom token economy. Journal operant response in children following partial and of Applied Behavior Analysis, 5, 263-270. regular primary and secondary reinforcement procedures. It was found that tokens can be Used an inexpensive, easily managed token established as strong secondary reinforcers in economy for 1 yr. in a normal combined 5th and preschool children. In addition, partial secondary 6th grade classroom with 25-29 pupils. Data were reinforcement during conditioning is shown to lead collected for the entire academic performance in to greater resistance to extinction than continuous spelling, language, handwriting, and math for that secondary reinforcement. The results are discussed year. During a base-line period, assignment in terms of a discrimination hypothesis for completion was variable. Introduction of a token secondary reinforcement. (PsycINFO Database economy with a point exchange every 5 days Record (c) 2000 APA, all rights reserved) No increased assignment completion and decreased reprint information available. variability of performance. An application of a token economy that had a point exchange averaging 4 days was accompanied by an assignment completion rate that approximated Myers, N. A., Craig, G. J., & Myers, J. L. (1961). 100%. A reinforcement contingency for quiet Secondary reinforcement as a function of the behavior rather than for assignment completion number of reinforced trials. Child Development, was accompanied by a marked diminution of 32, 765-772. assignment completion. A reintroduction of the token reinforcement for assignment completion The extinction behavior of preschool children again increased that behavior. (PsycINFO Database following varying numbers of reinforced trials was Record (c) 2000 APA, all rights reserved) For examined in an operant situation. When a button reprints: Thomas F. McLaughlin, Columbia on the nose of a clown was pressed, a token was Elementary School, East 3817 Sanson, Spokane, WA delivered from the clown's mouth. Inserting the 99207. token in a slot on the clown's face and pressing a second button on the nose yielded a piece of candy from the mouth. There were 12 groups of 8 Ss each differing in reinforcement and extinction Miller, R. P., & Cosgrove, J. M. (1990). An appeals procedures. Each child received either 2, 4, 8, or system for fines received by adolescents in a token 16 training trials with either token and candy economy. Adolescence, 24, 989-995. reinforcement or candy alone, followed by 5 minutes of extinction. There were no differences Describes a system in which adolescents (aged 12- due to the number of training trials or secondary 18 yrs) participating in a token economy at a state reinforcement. From Psyc Abstracts 36:05:5FD65M. hospital were allowed to appeal fines received (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2000 APA, all rights from staff. Appeals were heard weekly by a board reserved) No reprint information available. composed of 3 residents and a psychology intern. Although almost half the fines were upheld, there were practically no more complaints of unfairness, O'Leary, K. D., & Becker, W. C. (1967). Behavior and denials of responsibility declined drastically. modification of an adjustment class: A token The number of residents appealing fines fell from reinforcement program. Exceptional Children, 33, an average of 4/wk to less than 1/wk after the 637-642. system had been in effect for 11/2 mo. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2000 APA, all rights reserved) A base rate of deviant behavior was obtained for For reprints: Robert P. Miller, Ph.D., Senior Staff the 8 most disruptive children in a 3rd grade Psychologist, Pain Management Program, Tampa adjustment class. In a token reinforcement General Rehabilitation Center, Tampa General program, the children received teacher’s ratings Hospital, Davis Island, Tampa, FL 33606. which were exchangeable for reinforcers such as candy and trinkets. With the introduction of the token reinforcement program, an abrupt reduction in deviant behavior occurred. Delay of Myers, N. A. (1960). Extinction following partial reinforcement was gradually increased to 4 days and continuous primary and secondary without increase in deviant behavior. The program reinforcement. Journal of Experimental was equally successful for all children observed, Psychology, 60, 172-179. and anecdotal evidence suggests that the children’s appropriate behavior generalized to other school University of Florida Behavior Analysis Services Program Page 12

Behavioral Parenting 2003, Volume 2, Number 2 situations. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2000 Reitman, D., Hupp, S. D. A., O'Callaghan, P. M., APA, all rights reserved) For reprints: No reprint Gulley, V., & Northup, J. (2001). The influence of a information available. token economy and methylphenidate on attentive and disruptive behavior during sports with ADHD- diagnosed children. Behavior Modification, 25, 305- Phillips, E. L. (1969). Achievement place: Token 323. reinforcement procedures in a home-style rehabilitation setting for "pre-delinquent" boys. Three children (aged 4-7 yrs) diagnosed with Journal of Applied Behavior Analysis, 1, 213-223. attention deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) participated in a summer program designed to Token reinforcement procedures were designed to evaluate the influence of stimulant medication and modify the behavior of 3 predelinquent boys a token economy on attentive and disruptive residing in a community-based, home-style behavior during kickball games. Attentive and rehabilitation setting. Points (the tokens) were disruptive behavior were assessed using an interval redeemable for various privileges such as visiting coding system, and daily ratings on the ADHD Index their families, watching TV, and riding bicycles. of the Conners Teacher Rating Scale-Revised were Points were given by the house-parents contingent also obtained. A multielement reversal design was upon specified appropriate behavior and taken used, and the results indicate that both away for specified inappropriate behavior. The interventions independently improved attentive frequencies of aggressive statements and poor behavior and decreased disruptive behavior for the grammar decreased while tidiness, punctuality, and Ss. Contrary to other research, when the token amount of homework completed increased. It was economy and medication were compared in concluded that a token reinforcement procedure, isolation, the token system appeared more entirely dependent upon back-up reinforcers effective in reducing disruptive behavior for 2 of naturally available in a home-style treatment the 3 Ss. In addition, the token system generally setting, could contribute to an effective and enhanced the effects of stimulant medication. economical rehabilitation program for (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2002 APA, all rights predelinquents. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) reserved) No reprint information available. 2000 APA, all rights reserved) For reprints: Elery L. Phillips, University of Kansas, 23 East Eleventh St., Lawrence, Kansas 66044. Reynolds, L. K., & Kelley, M. L. (1997). The efficacy of a response cost-based treatment package for managing aggressive behavior in Reisinger, J. J. (1972). The treatment of "anxiety- preschoolers. Behavior Modification, 21, 216-230. depression" via positive reinforcement and response cost. Journal of Applied Behavior Analysis, 5, 125- Examined the effectiveness of a response cost 130. multicomponent treatment package for improving the classroom behavior of 4 3-5 yr old aggressive Implemented a target behavior program, structured male preschoolers. Using a multiple baseline within a token economy project, to modify the design, teachers implemented the response cost behavior of an institutionalized 20-yr-old female system during 2 phases, and observational data was patient who exhibited excessive rates of crying and collected during baseline and treatment conditions. no smiling responses. To affect both responses The system required teachers to remove smiley concurrently, token costs were made contingent faces contingent on Ss' aggressive behavior. Each upon crying and token payments and/or social face loss was accompanied by a reprimand. If the S reinforcements were provided for smiling. Results retained at least 1 smiley face at the end of the indicate both the feasibility of eliminating anxiety- observation period, the S was allowed to choose a depression within an institutional environment and reward. Child ratings of treatment satisfaction and the efficacy of treatment procedures 14 mo. after teacher ratings using the Intervention Rating discharge. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2000 Profile-15 before and after treatment were APA, all rights reserved) For reprints: James J. measured. Results show that the response cost Reisinger, Department of Psychology, George treatment package substantially decreased Peabody College for Teachers, Nashville, TN 37203. aggressive behavior in all Ss and was a highly acceptable classroom treatment to teachers and parents. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2000 APA, all rights reserved) No reprint information available. University of Florida Behavior Analysis Services Program Page 13

Behavioral Parenting 2003, Volume 2, Number 2

Rimmerman, A., Finn, H., Schnee, J., & Klein, I. Trocki-ables, P., French, R., & O'Connor, J. (2001). (1991). Token reinforcement in the psychosocial Use of primary and secondary reinforcers after rehabilitation of individuals with chronic mental performance of a 1-mile walk/run by boys with illness: is it effective over time? International attention deficit hyperactivity disorder. Perceptual Journal of Rehabilitation Research, 14, 123-130. and Motor Skills, 93, 461-464.

The main purpose of this project was to determine Examined 3 different types of reinforcers (token whether the addition of the token economy economy, verbal praise, and token economy reinforcement to the regular treatment modalities combined with verbal praise) on cardiorespiratory (medication therapy and psychotherapy) improved performance during a 1-mile/1.6 km walk/run test. the following outcome measures: re-hospitalization Based on visual inspection of time across 8 exercise rate, NYPCC (agency) therapeutic goals, sessions for each type of reinforcement technique, symptomatology, social integration activities and the 3 techniques were mildly associated with ADL skills. The research was carried out over a improvement of the cardiovascular performances of period of 18 months. Subjects were 617 individuals 5 young boys (aged 8-10 yrs) with attention deficit diagnosed as having chronic mental illness. They hyperactivity disorder (ADHD). Specific lived in three adult homes in New York, two of reinforcement techniques improved time for this 1- which were on a token economy programme, while mile walk/run by the Ss. (PsycINFO Database the third served as a quasi-control group. The Record (c) 2002 APA, all rights reserved) For findings suggest that while medication therapy and reprints: Dr. Ron French, Texas Woman's psychotherapy have different effects in respect to University, Department of Kinesiology, P.O. Box the various outcome measures, the addition of the 425647, Pioneer Hall 208D, Denton, TX 76204. token economy programme resulted in positive, albeit marginal, gains to all outcome measures. For reprints: A. Rimmerman, School of Social Work, Bar Ilan University, Ramat Gan, Israel 52000. Walker, H. M., & Buckley, N. K. (1972). Programming generalization and maintenance of treatment effects across time and across settings. Journal of Applied Behavior Analysis, 5, 209-224.

Sisson, L. A., & Dixon, M. J. (1986). Improving Investigated the effects of 1 control and 3 mealtime behaviors through token reinforcement: experimental strategies in facilitating A study with mentally retarded behaviorally generalization and maintenance of treatment disordered children. Behavior Modification, 10, effects on 44 3rd-6th grade problem children after 333-354. 2 mo. in a token-economy classroom. At the conclusion of treatment, Ss were randomly assigned Evaluated the effectiveness of a token to 1 of 3 maintenance strategies or a control group reinforcement program in improving mealtime and returned to their regular classrooms. behaviors of 4 mentally retarded, behaviorally Maintenance strategies were peer reprogramming, disordered children (aged 4 yrs 8 mo to 15 yrs), equating stimulus conditions between the using a multiple baseline design across behaviors. experimental and regular classrooms, and teacher Participants were residents on an inpatient training in behavior management techniques. psychiatric hospital program for children. Target Strategies were implemented in the regular behaviors included appropriate utensil use, classroom for a 2-mo period and then terminated. appropriate napkin use, chewing with mouth Results indicate a powerful treatment effect closed, and good posture. Training was produced by the token economy. Behavior implemented in a group setting and consisted of maintenance effects following treatment were also verbal instructions, modeling, manual prompts, and obtained. The mean per cent appropriate behavior token reinforcement delivered at preprogrammed for the peer reprogramming and equating stimulus variable intervals signaled by a tape recording. conditions strategies was significantly greater than Results show acquisition of target behaviors in 20 the mean for the control Ss. Teacher training and to 40 sessions. Further, behavioral gains were control group means were not significantly judged to be clinically significant by a group of different. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2000 independent observers. (PsycINFO Database Record APA, all rights reserved) For reprints: Hill M. (c) 2000 APA, all rights reserved) No reprint Walker, Department of Special Education, College information available. of Education, University of Oregon, Eugene, OR.

University of Florida Behavior Analysis Services Program Page 14

Behavioral Parenting 2003, Volume 2, Number 2

Wolfe, D. A., Mendes, M. G., & Factor, D. (1984). A programs and their associated research. parent-administered program to reduce children's Characteristics of the program are noted. Goals of television viewing. Journal of Applied Behavior the parent programs are to promote parent Analysis, 17, 267-272. competencies and strengthen families. The authors hypothesized that because parents are the most Tested a parent-administered program to reduce powerful, and potentially malleable, influence on TV viewing of elementary school-aged children in 5 young children's social development, intervening 8-12 yr olds from 3 families who were heavy with parents would be the strategic first step. viewers of TV. Ss were given 20 unearned tokens Studies have shown that parent training is highly each week by their parents, which they could promising as an effective therapeutic method for exchange for up to 10 hrs of viewing time. Each S producing significant behavior change in children earned a gold token for viewing in accordance with with high-risk behaviors and with high-risk the rules for 4 consecutive weeks, which was socioeconomically disadvantaged populations. exchanged for a reward. Parents were given These findings provide support for the theory that instructions to follow the program independently. parenting practices play a key role in children's Data on hours of TV viewing, homework, and social and emotional development. (PsycINFO reading were recorded each day by one or both Database Record (c) 2003 APA, all rights reserved) parents. A multiple-baseline analysis of the effects For reprints: Carolyn Webster-Stratton, of the TV reduction program indicated that Ss Department of Family and Child Nursing, University reduced their baseline TV viewing by more than of Washington, Seattle, WA. half once the program was implemented and that they continued to maintain these changes 6 mo and 1 yr after the program was discontinued. Reading time increased for all Ss, whereas effects on Kazdin, A. E. (2003). Problem-solving skills training homework varied across Ss. Results support the and parent management training for conduct effectiveness of a parent-administered program for disorder. In A. E. Kazdin & J. R. Weisz (Eds.), non-behavior-problem children who watch Evidence-based psychotherapies for children and excessive amounts of TV. (PsycINFO Database adolescents (pp. 241-262). New York: Guilford Record (c) 2000 APA, all rights reserved) For Press. reprints: David A. Wolfe, Department of Psychology, The University of Western Ontario, Discusses problem-solving skills training and parent London, Ontario N6A 5C2. management training for conduct disorder (CD) for children (aged 2-13 yrs). The treatment provided include cognitive problem-solving skills training ~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~ (PSST) and parent management training. These are provided individually to children and families ~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~ rather than in group format. Parent-management training (PMT) refers to procedures in which Behavioral Parenting Abstracts parents are trained to alter their child's behavior in the home. PMT focuses on altering parent-child interactions and includes several characteristics. It Behavioral Parenting Updates: also focuses on child performance at school. Both Chapters and Review Articles PSST and PMT emphasize changing how individuals perform. Both draw heavily on learning theories and research findings. Treatment is assessed and

APA, all rights reserved) For reprints: Alan E. Webster-Stratton, C., & Reid, M. J. (2003). The Kazdin, Child Study Center, Yale University School incredible years parents, teachers and children of Medicine, New Haven, CN. training series: A multifaceted treatment approach for young children with conduct problems. In A. E.

Kazdin & J. R. Weisz (Eds.), Evidence-based psychotherapies for children and adolescents (pp. Collett, B. R., Ohan, J. L., & Myers, K. M. (2003). 224-240). New York: Guilford Press. Ten-year review of rating scales. V: Scales

assessing attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder. Outlines the Incredible Years Training Series, Journal of the American Academy of Child and targeted at parents, teachers, and children (aged Adolescent Psychiatry, 42, 1115-1137. 2-8 yrs). This chapter reviews these training

University of Florida Behavior Analysis Services Program Page 15

Behavioral Parenting 2003, Volume 2, Number 2

This article summarizes information on scales on the Beck Depression Inventory (BDI) and the assessing attention-deficiy/hyperactivity disorder Parenting Stress Index (PSI) as well, but there were (ADHD) in children abd adolescents. The authors no group differences. At a 4-month follow-up, sampled articles on ADHD over the past decade. mothers in IF families maintained treatment gains Several popular older ADHD measures have recently on the ECBI. In contrast, mothers in AF families bee revised, and new ADHD scales have been reported significant decline at follow-up, although developed. The authors selected primarily ADHD their scores remained within the normal range. scales based in the DSM-IV construct of ADHD that Results suggest that father participation in also have multiple literature citations. They then treatment may not affect immediate treatment reviewed their psychometric properties. Those outcome but may help to maintain the beneficial with adequate psychometric functioning plus effects of PCIT. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) considerable literature citations, known wide usage 2003 APA, all rights reserved) For reprints: Sheila in clinical practice, or a current niche are M. Eyberg, Department of Clinical and Health presented here. Several rating scales consistent Psychology, P.O. Box 100165, University of Florida, with the DSM-IV conceptualization of ADHD are now Gainesville, FL 32610-0165; email: available for use in both home and school settings. [email protected]. Many of the instruments demonstrate solid psychometric properties and a strong normative base. However, some popular scales have not been adequately investigated. Some measures are Bradley, S. J., Jadaa, D.-A., Brody, J., Landy, S., restricted to the comprehensive assessment of Tallett, S. E., Watson, W., Shea, B., & Stephens, D. ADHD, whereas others also include symptoms of (2003). Brief psychoeducational parenting program: other disorders. The potential applications for An evaluation and 1-year follow-up. Journal of the these scales with youths diagnosed with ADHD are American Academy of Child and Adolescent broad. Rating scales can reliably, validly, and Psychiatry, 42, 1171-1178. efficiently measure DSM-IV-based ADHD symptoms in youths. They have great utility in research and Despite recognition of the need for parenting clinical work, assist treatment planning, and help interventions to prevent childhood behavioral to ensure accountability in practice. For reprints: problems, few community programs have been Dr. Myers, Division of Child Psychiatry CH-14, evaluated. This report describes the randomized Children's Hospital and Regional Medical Center, controlled evaluation of a four-session Box 5371, 4800 Sand Point Way, N.E., Seattle, WA psychoeducational group for parents of 98105; email: preschoolers with behavior problems, delivered in [email protected]. community agencies. In 1998, 222 primary caregivers, recruited through community ads, filled out questionnaires on parenting practices and child Behavioral Parenting Updates: behavior. Parents were randomly assigned to immediate intervention or a wait-list control. The Research Articles intervention comprised three weekly group sessions and a 1-month booster, the focus being to support effective discipline (using the video 1-2-3 Magic) and to reduce parent-child conflict. Using an Bagner, D. M., & Eyberg, S. M. (2003). Father intent-to-treat analysis, repeated-measures involvement in parent training: When Does It analyses of variance indicated that the parents who Matter? Journal of Clinical Child and Adolescent received the intervention reported significantly Psychology, 32, 599-605. greater improvement in parenting practices and a significantly greater reduction in child problem We examined the impact of father involvement on behavior than the control group. The gains in treatment. Participants were 107 families enrolled positive parenting behaviors were maintained at 1- in parent-child interaction therapy (PCIT), year follow-up in a subset of the experimental including 56 involved-father (IF) families, 16 group. This brief intervention program may be a uninvolved-father (UF)families, and 35 absent- useful first intervention for parents of young father (AF) families. All groups showed children with behavior problems. (PsycINFO improvements during treatment to within the Database Record (c) 2003 APA, all rights reserved) average range on the Eyberg Child Behavior For reprints: Dr. Bradley, Department of Inventory (ECBI), although mothers from AF Psychiatry, Hospital for Sick Children, 555 Univesity families reported better treatment outcome than Avenue, Toronto, Ontario, Canada M5G 1X8; email: mothers from IF families. Improvements occurred [email protected]. University of Florida Behavior Analysis Services Program Page 16

Behavioral Parenting 2003, Volume 2, Number 2

Coren, E., Barlow, J., & Stewart-Brown, S. (2003). compliance that maintained in follow-up The effectiveness of individual and group-based assessments. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2003 parenting programmes in improving outcomes for APA, all rights reserved) For reprints: Joseph M. teenage mothers and their children: A systematic Ducharme, Department of Human Development and review. Journal of Adolescence, 26, 79-103. Applied Psychology, University of Toronto, 252 Bloor Street, Toronto, Ontario M5S 1V6, Canada. Notes that there is evidence from a range of studies showing adverse child outcomes for the children of teenage parents. This literature review examined the effectiveness of individual and/or Galboda-Liyanage, K. C., Prince, M. J., & Scott, S. group-based parenting programs in improving (2003). Mother-child joint activity and behaviour psychosocial and developmental outcomes in problems of pre-school children. Journal of Child teenage parents (aged<20 yrs) and their infants. Psychology and Psychiatry, 44, 1037-1048. The findings of the review are based on 14 studies that used varying study designs, and are therefore A cross-sectional postal survey of a representative, limited. The results suggest, however, that population-based sample of 800 mothers of 3.5-yr- parenting programs can be effective in improving a old children living in an outer London Borough was range of psychosocial and developmental outcomes carried out to assess the association between for teenage mothers and their children. Further mother-child joint activity and behavior problems research is suggested. (PsycINFO Database Record of preschool children. The response rate was 70%. (c) 2003 APA, all rights reserved) For reprints: Lower levels of mother-child joint activity Jane Barlow, Institute of Health Services, Health remained independently associated with behavior Services Research Unit, University of Oxford, Old problems of preschool children both on a binary Road, Headington, Oxford OX3 7LF, UK; email: and a continuous scale after adjusting for a wide [email protected]. range of household, maternal and child circumstances. The association between low levels of mother-child joint activities and behavior problems of the children was stronger in the Ducharme, J. M., Harris, K., Milligan, K., & Pontes, presence of social problems in the family. Possible E. (2003). Sequential evaluation of reinforced causal pathways and directions for future research compliance and graduated request delivery for the and intervention are discussed. (PsycINFO Database treatment of noncompliance in children with Record (c) 2003 APA, all rights reserved) For developmental disabilities. Journal of Autism and reprints: Stephen Scott, Reader in Child Health & Developmental Disorders, 33, 519-526. Behaviour, Department of Child & Adolescent Psychiatry, Institute of Psychiatry, De Crespigny Errorless compliance training is a recently Park, Camberwell, London SE5 8AF, UK; email: developed approach that has been demonstrated to [email protected]. be effective in treating severe oppositional behavior in children. In conjunction with several ancillary techniques, the approach comprises two fundamental components: reinforcement for child Gershater-Molko, R. M., Lutzker, J. R., & Wesch, D. compliance and delivery of requests in a four-level (2003). Project SafeCare: Improving health, safety, hierarchy, from requests that yield high levels of and parenting skills in families reported for, and at- compliance to those that yield low levels. To risk for child maltreatment. Journal of Family determine the relative contribution of each Violence, 18, 377-386. component, four children with developmental disabilities and severe oppositional behavior were Project SafeCare was a 4-year, in-home, research observationally assessed in baseline and then and intervention program that provided parent treated using reinforcement following each training to families of children at-risk for instance of compliance to parental requests. maltreatment, and families of children who were Following this first treatment phase, we used the victims of maltreatment. Parents were trained in graduated request hierarchy in conjunction with treating children's illnesses and maximizing their reinforced compliance. Results indicated that use own healthcare skills (Health), positive and of reinforcement for compliance in isolation was effective parent-child interaction skills (Parenting), ineffective in bringing about clinically significant and maintaining low hazard homes (Safety). The improvements in child compliance. The addition of effectiveness of these training components was the graduated request hierarchy appeared to be evaluated as the change in the parents' scores on associated with substantial changes in child roleplay situations for child health problems, University of Florida Behavior Analysis Services Program Page 17

Behavioral Parenting 2003, Volume 2, Number 2 hazards present in the home, and the frequency boys (aged 4-7 yrs) exhibiting conduct problems and quality of parent-child interactions during attended a parent training program which lasted 22 activities of daily living. Statistically significant to 24 wks. Treatment effectiveness was assessed at improvements were seen in child health care, home 1 mo and 1 yr post treatment. Results indicated safety, and parent-child interactions. (PsycINFO significant decreases in observations of mothers' Database Record (c) 2003 APA, all rights reserved) negative parenting interactions with their children For reprints: John Lutzger, Division of Violence and decreases in their conduct problems according Prevention, National Center for Injury Prevention to mother reports and independent observations at and Control, Centers for Disease Control and home. Boys with elevated ratings of attentional Prevention, 4770 Buford Highway, Mail Stop K-60, problems in addition to conduct problems showed Atlanta, GA 30341; email: [email protected] similar benefits from the parent training program as the boys who did not have attentional problems. This study suggests that parent training is equally effective for boys with both conduct problems and Gulley, V., Northup, J., Hupp, S., Spera, S., attentional problems as it is for boys with conduct LeVelle, J., & Ridgway, A. (2003). Sequential problems without these attentional problems. evaluation of behavioral treatments and (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2003 APA, all rights methylphenidate dosage for hyperactivity disorder. reserved) No reprint information available. Journal of Applied Behavior Analysis, 36, 375-378.

We used a sequential approach to evaluate the relative and combined effects of different types of Huang, H.-L., Chao, C.-C., Tu, C.-C., & Yang, P.-C. behavioral treatments, as well as dosage of (2003). Behavioral parent training for Taiwanese methylphenidate (MPH), on the disruptive behavior parents of children with attention- of 3 students who had been diagnosed with deficit/hyperactivity disorder. Psychiatry and attention deficit hyperactivity disorder. Results Clinical Neurosciences, 57, 275-281. showed that individualized behavioral treatments produced decreases in disruptive behavior Examined the effectiveness of a behavioral parent equivalent to MPH for all 3 participants and training program for Taiwanese parents of children demonstrated creases the need to evaluate with attention deficit/hyperactivity disorder behavioral treatments and medication dosage on an (ADHD) in a Confucian environment. 14 ADHD individual basis. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) preschoolers (aged 3-6 yrs) and their parents 2003 APA, all rights reserved) For reprints: completed a 10-session parent training program. Raymond G. Miltenberger, Department of Parent ratings of ADHD/oppositional defiant Psychology, North Dakota State University, Fargo, disorder (ODD) symptoms and problem behaviors at North Dakota 58105; email: home were collected at the 1st, 4th, 6th, 7th, and [email protected]. 10th sessions. Three instruments were used to evaluate treatment outcome: (1) the Disruptive Behavior Rating Scale-Parent Form (R. Barkley, 1997, 1998); (2) Child Attention Profile (R. Barkley, Hartman, R. R., Stage, S. A., & Webster-Stratton, 1988); and (3) Home Situations Questionnaire (R. C. (2003). A growth curve analysis of parent Barkley, 1998). Results show that both ADHD/ODD training outcomes: Examining the influence of child symptoms and home behaviors of the children risk factors (inattention, impulsivity, and improved significantly after the parent training. hyperactivity problems), parental and family risk There was also a significant decline in the severity factors. Journal of Child Psychology and of symptoms and problem behaviors at home with Psychiatry, 44, 388-398. the progression of training. These findings support the effectiveness of this parent training program Parent training is one of the most effective for parents of ADHD children in an environment of treatments for young children with conduct Confucianism. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2003 problems. However, not every family benefits from APA, all rights reserved) For reprints: Chia-Chen this approach and approximately 1/3 of children Chao, PhD, Graduate Institute of Clinical Behavioral remain in the clinical range at follow-up Science, Chang Gung University, 259, Wen-Hwa 1st assessments. Hierarchical linear modeling methods Road, Kweisan, Taoyuan 333; email: were used to examine the effects of child [email protected]. attentional, parental and familial risk factors upon the efficacy of a parent training program to decrease boys' conduct problems. Mothers of 81 University of Florida Behavior Analysis Services Program Page 18

Behavioral Parenting 2003, Volume 2, Number 2

Hudson, A. M., Matthews, J. M., Gavidia-Payne, S. neighborhood was rural or urban and the level of T., Cameron, C. A., Mildon, R. L., Radler, G. A., & maternal depressive symptoms predicted parental- Nankervis, K. L. (2003). Evaluation of an monitoring behavior concurrently and longitudinally intervention system for parents of children with as well as change in parental monitoring over time. intellectual disability and challenging behaviour. Monitoring increased over the 15-month interval Journal of Intellectual Disability Research, 47, 238- more in urban areas than rural areas and among 249. mothers with lower levels of depressive symptoms. Clinical implications and directions for future Background: Signposts is a flexible intervention research are discussed. (PsycINFO Database Record system for families of children who have (c) 2003 APA, all rights reserved) For reprints: intellectual disability and challenging behaviour. Deborah J. Jones, Department of Psychology, Life The Signposts materials include eight information Sciences Building, P.O. Box 6040, West Virginia booklets, a workbook and videotape for parents, University, Morgantown, WV 26505; email: and a series of instructional manuals for therapists. [email protected]. The system was designed so that it can be delivered in several different ways, i.e. group support, telephone support and self-directed modes. Methods: The present study was an Kahng, S., Boscoe, J. H., & Byrne, S. (2003). The evaluation of these three modes of delivery and use of escape contingency and a token economy to involved 115 mother-child dyads. Results: Following increase food acceptance. Journal of Applied the use of the Signposts materials in parent training Behavior Analysis, 36, 349-353. programmes, the subjects reported that they were less stressed, felt more efficacious about managing Escape (termination of a meal) and token-based their children's behaviour, were less hassled about differential reinforcement of alternative behavior meeting their own needs and that their children's were used as reinforcement to increase acceptance behaviour had improved. Additionally, families of food. A 4-year-old girl who had been admitted to generally reported high levels of satisfaction with an inpatient unit for the treatment of food refusal the content and delivery of the materials. participated in the study. Using a changing Conclusions: Finally, there were minimal criterion design, the number of bites accepted and differences among the three modes of delivery on consumed was gradually increased to 15 bites per the measures used, although families who used the meal. These data suggest that, in some cases, self-directed mode were less likely to complete the escape may be a potent reinforcer for food materials. Implications of these results for service acceptance. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2003 delivery are discussed. (PsycINFO Database Record APA, all rights reserved) For reprints: Sun Woo (c) 2003 APA, all rights reserved) No reprint Kahng, Department of Behavioral Psychology, information available. Kennedy Krieger Institute, 707 N. Broadway, Baltimore, Maryland 21205; email: [email protected].

Jones, D. J., Forehand, R., Brody, G., & Armistead, L. (2003). Parental monitoring in African American, single mother-headed families: An ecological approach to the identification of predictors. Kazdin, A. E., & Whitley, M. K. (2003). Treatment Behavior Modification, 27, 435-457. of parental stress to enhance therapeutic change among children referred for aggressive and Parental monitoring is considered an essential antisocial behavior. Journal of Consulting and parenting skill. Despite its relevance to a range of Clinical Psychology, 71, 504-515. child and adolescent outcomes, including the prevention of conduct problems and substance use, This study evaluated a parent problem-solving there has been little empirical attention devoted to (PPS) intervention designed to augment the effects examining the antecedents of parental monitoring. of evidence-based therapy for children referred to Building on Brofenbrenner's ecological model, this treatment for aggressive and antisocial behavior. study examined the association between the All children (N=127, ages 6-14 years) and their ecological context in which families reside and families received problem-solving skills training parental monitoring across two waves of data (PSST), and parents received parent management separated by 15 months. Findings were consistent training (PMT). Families were randomly assigned to across increasingly conservative sets of hierarchical receive or not to receive an additional component multiple regression analyses. Whether the (PPS) that addressed parental stress over the University of Florida Behavior Analysis Services Program Page 19

Behavioral Parenting 2003, Volume 2, Number 2 course of treatment. Children improved with McDonald, M. E., & Hemmes, N. S. (2003). treatment; the PPS intervention enhanced Increases in social initiation toward an adolescent therapeutic change for children and parents and with autism: reciprocity effects. Research in reduced the barriers that parents experienced Developmental Disabilities, 24, 453-465. during treatment. The implications of the findings for improving evidence-based treatment as well as Level of spontaneous social initiating by three adult the limitations of adding components to treatment caregivers toward a youth with autism was studied are detailed. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2003 during a program to increase the youth's level of APA, all rights reserved) For reprints: Alan E. social initiating. The adult participants were three Kazdin, Child Study Center, Yale University School staff members of a program for individuals with of Medicine, P.O. Box 207900, New Haven, CT autism; they were assigned to the classroom of the 06520-7900. youth participant, but none was directly involved in his educational program. Under a multiple-baseline across subject design, in combination with a multielement design, the youth's social initiations Kratochwill, T. R., Elliott, S. N., Loitz, P. A., toward each adult were systematically reinforced. Sladeczek, I., & Carlson, J. S. (2003). Conjoint Two sessions were conducted daily: one in which consultation using self-administered manual and prompts, token reinforcers, and verbal praise for videotape parent-teacher training: Effects on the youth's social behavior were presented children's behavioral difficulties. School Psychology (baseline and training sessions), and one in which Quarterly, 18, 269-302. prompts were absent and only verbal praise was presented (probe sessions). Frequency of This research involved comparing the effectiveness spontaneous initiating toward the youth increased of two different approaches of conjoint for each adult during treatment when the youth's consultation using a manual versus a videotape frequency of initiating toward a given adult series as the main components of joint training increased. It was higher during training vs. probe parents and teachers to treat children's behavioral sessions, where level of social initiating by the difficulties. Children exhibiting externalizing or youth was also higher. (PsycINFO Database Record internalizing behavioral problems who attended (c) 2003 APA, all rights reserved) For reprints: Head Start Programs were targeted for this Mary E. McDonald, The Graduate Center and intervention. During the first 2 years of the Queens College, City University of New York, and project, a manual-based program was conducted. The Genesis School, 270 Washington Ave., Suite 6, The last 3 years of the project involved delivery of Plainview, NY 11804; email: [email protected] (M.E. the parent-teacher training program through a McDonald). series of videotapes and accompanying manuals. Children were randomly assigned to either an experimental or no treatment control group. The effectiveness of the intervention within the McGill, P., Teer, K., Rye, L., & Hughes, D. (2003). experimental group was assessed primarily through Staff reports of setting events associated with a pretest-posttest, experimental-control, group challenging behavior. Behavior Modification, 27, repeated-measures design. Direct behavioral 265-282. observations did not indicate clinically relevant improvements in behavior; however, parents' and This study identified the setting events reported by teachers' goal attainment reports characterized caregivers as more and less likely to be associated students as meeting their overall behavior goals. with challenging behaviors of people with Parents and teachers also reported high rates of intellectual disabilities. 65 staff (aged 18-63 yrs) treatment acceptability and satisfaction with the working with 22 individuals (aged 13-54 yrs) were manual and videotape treatment programs. interviewed using a setting event inventory. Some (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2003 APA, all rights setting events (e.g., being in a crowded room) reserved) For reprints: Thomas R. Kratochwill, were reported as strongly associated with School Psychology Program, 1025 West Johnson St., challenging behavior, some (e.g., one-to-one University of Wisconsin-Madison, WI 53706; email: support) as strongly associated with its absence. [email protected]. Some (e.g., day of week) were reported to be largely "inert"; many were idiosyncratically associated with occurrence, absence, or inertness. Different categories of setting events contributed different amounts to reported variation in challenging behavior. The inventory described University of Florida Behavior Analysis Services Program Page 20

Behavioral Parenting 2003, Volume 2, Number 2 here, or modified versions, may help identify relationships between setting events and This study evaluated the effects of a parent- challenging behaviors. The relationships reported in conducted functional analysis and treatment this study suggest ways in which service provision consisting of differential reinforcement of an might be modified to help prevent challenging alternative behavior, escape extinction, and behavior. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2003 APA, demand fading on food selectivity in a young child all rights reserved) For reprints: Peter McGill, with autism. Increases in food acceptance at home Tizard Centre, University of Kent at Canterbury, and in a restaurant were obtained. (PsycINFO Canterbury, Kent, UK CT2 7LZ; email: Database Record (c) 2003 APA, all rights reserved) [email protected]. For reprints: Michele D. Wallace, Department of Psychology/296, University of Nevada, Reno, Reno, Nevada 89557; email: [email protected].

Morrell, J., & Murray, L. (2003). Parenting and the development of conduct disorder and hyperactive symptoms in childhood: A prospective longitudinal Noell, G. H., Whitmarsh, E. L., VanDerHeyden, A. study from 2 months to 8 years. Journal of Child M., Gatti, S. L., & Slider, N. J. (2003). Sequence Psychology and Psychiatry, 44, 489-508. instructional tasks: A comparison of contingent and noncontingent interspersal of preferred academic Investigated the early processes involved in the tasks. Behavior Modification, 27, 191-216. development of symptoms of conduct disorder (CD) and hyperactivity. The study employed a This study compared two strategies for increasing prospective design, over a period from 2 mo to 8 accurate responding on a low-preference academic yrs, on 59 mothers and their children. Detailed task by interspersing presentations of a preferred observational data of early and later mother-child academic task. Five children attending a preschool interactions were collected, infant prefrontal program for children with delayed language function (A and not B task) was assessed, and development participated in this study. Preferred symptoms of child CD and hyperactivity were rated and nonpreferred tasks were identified through a by maternal report at age 5 and 8 yrs. Emotional multiple-stimulus, free-operant preference dysregulation on the A not B task at 9 mo predicted assessment. Contingent access to a preferred symptoms of CD at 5 and 8 yrs, and delayed object academic task was associated with improved reaching times on the same task predicted response accuracy when compared to hyperactive symptoms at 5 yrs. These 2 noncontingent access to that activity for three developmental trajectories were associated with students. For one student, noncontingent access to distinct patterns of early parenting that were the preferred activity led to improved response strongly influenced by infant gender. Thus, in boys accuracy, and one student's analysis suggested the early emotional dysregulation was predicted by importance of procedural variety. The implications rejecting and coercive parenting, and delayed of these findings for use of preference assessments reaching on the A not B task by coercive parenting, to devise instructional sequences that improve whereas in girls only continuity from earlier infant student responding are discussed. (PsycINFO behaviour could be demonstrated. There was Database Record (c) 2003 APA, all rights reserved) strong continuity between these early infant No reprint information available. behaviours and later child disturbance that was partially mediated by parenting for CD symptoms (maternal hostile parenting in boys, and maternal coercive parenting in girls). (PsycINFO Database Peterson, L., Tremblay, G., Ewigman, B., & Record (c) 2003 APA, all rights reserved) For Saldana, L. (2003). Multilevel selected primary reprints: Julian Morrell, Winnicott Research Unit, prevention of child maltreatment. Journal of Department of Psychology, University of Reading, 3 Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 71, 601-612. Earley Gate, PO Box 238, Reading RG6 6AL, UK; email: [email protected]. Few treatment studies and even fewer primary prevention studies have demonstrated successful reduction of child maltreatment. Successful preventive interventions have often been lengthy Najdowski, A. C., Wallace, M. D., Doney, J. K., & and expensive; shorter programs have been Ghezzi, P. M. (2003). Parental assessment and didactic and ineffective. The present investigation treatments of food selectivity in natural settings. relied on a 7-level model of successful parenting to Journal of Applied Behavior Analysis, 36, 383-386. mount a time-limited, "selected" prevention effort University of Florida Behavior Analysis Services Program Page 21

Behavioral Parenting 2003, Volume 2, Number 2 with high-risk mothers. This program included Checklists and Teacher's Report Forms were modeling, role-playing, Socratic dialogue, home completed by parents, foster parents, and teachers practice, and home visits. The study demonstrated on 95 foster children between ages 5 and 16 during effective intervention at every level of the model, 1990-1991. Depressive symptoms in biological including improvements in (a) parenting skills, (b) parents were assessed using the Center for developmentally appropriate interventions, (c) Epidemiologic Studies Depression Scale. Structural developmentally appropriate beliefs, (d) negative equation modeling was used to estimate the affect, (e) acceptance of a responsible parent role, relation between parental depressive symptoms (f) acceptance of a nurturing parent role, and (g) and the discrepancies between their reports and self-efficacy. Directions for future research are those of two other informants. Results: In both the considered. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2003 internalizing and externalizing behavior models, a APA, all rights reserved) For reprnts: George significant relation was found between parents' Tremblay, Department of Clinical Psychology, depressive symptoms and their discrepancies in Antioch New England Graduate School, 40 Avon reporting, but not with child behavior. This relation Street, Keene, NH, 03431; email: was stronger for internalizing than externalizing [email protected]. models. Conclusions: Using foster parents (and teachers) as informants offered a unique opportunity to view the reports of biological parents in comparison to two independent reports. Piazza, C. C., Patel, M. R., Gulotta, C. S., Sevin, B. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2003 APA, all rights M., & Layer, S. A. (2003). On the relative reserved) For reprints: Dr. Randazzo, 1375 contributions of positive reinforcement and escape Surfwood Lane, San Diego, CA 92154; email: extinction in the treatment of food refusal. Journal [email protected]. of Applied Behavior Analysis, 36, 309-324.

We compared the effects of positive reinforcement alone, escape extinction alone, and positive reinforcement with escape extinction in the Reid, D. H., DiCarlo, C. F., Schepis, M. M., treatment of the food and fluid refusal of 4 Hawkins, J., & Stricklin, S. B. (2003). Observational children who had been diagnosed with a pediatric assessment of toy preferences among young feeding disorder. Consumption did not increase children with disabilities in inclusive settings: when positive reinforcement was implemented Efficiency analysis and comparison with staff alone. By contrast, consumption increased for all opinion. Behavior Modification, 27, 233-250. participants when escape extinction was implemented, independent of the presence or Numerous investigations have demonstrated means absence of positive reinforcement. However, the of assessing preferences among students and adults addition of positive reinforcement to escape with disabilities. In contrast, there has been little extinction was associated with beneficial effects attention on preference identification among young (e.g., greater decreases in negative vocalizations children. We evaluated a preference assessment and inappropriate behavior) for some participants. with 7 toddlers and preschoolers with disabilities in (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2003 APA, all rights inclusive programs. First, identification of toy-play reserved) For reprints: Cathleen C. Piazza, Marcus preferences was compared across three Institute, 1920 Briarcliff Road, Atlanta, Georgia assessments that varied in amount of toy-play 30329. behavior sampled and time required for implementation (5-, 10-, and 15-session assessments). Second, results of the assessments were compared to staff opinion. Results indicated Randazzo, K. v. D., Landsverk, J., & Ganger, W. the most efficient assessment identified (2003). Three informants' reports of child behavior: preferences that generally were consistent with Parents, teachers, and foster parents. Journal of preferences identified with the less time-efficient the American Academy of Child and Adolescent assessments. Results also indicated staff reports Psychiatry, 42, 1343-1350. did not consistently indicate which toys were played with most frequently. Overal, results Objective: To evaluate whether disagreements in demonstrate an efficient means of determining reporting child behavior problems between preferences among young children with disabilities biological parents and foster parents and teachers in inclusive settings. Results also suggest that staff are related to depressive symptoms in the opinion should not be relied on exclusively to biological parent. Method: Child Behavior determine preferences. (PsycINFO Database Record University of Florida Behavior Analysis Services Program Page 22

Behavioral Parenting 2003, Volume 2, Number 2

(c) 2003 APA, all rights reserved) For reprints: measured changes in their mothers' adjustment and Dennis H. Reid, Carolina Behavior Analysis and perceptions of child and family functioning. Parent Support Center, P.O. Box 425, Morganton, NC suspicions of stealing and lying by their sons 28680. decreased during the intervention and were absent at a 10-week follow-up. Mothers reported reduced depression, anxiety, and stress, and increases in their sense of parenting competence following Tang, J.-C., Patterson, T. G., & Kennedy, C. H. training. The number and intensity of reported (2003). Identifying specific sensory modalities child behavior problems decreased to nonclinical maintaining the stereotypy of students with levels for one family but remained elevated for the multiple profound disabilities. Research in other. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2003 APA, all Developmental Disabilities, 24, 433-451. rights reserved) For reprints: The Haworth Document Delivery Service: 1-800-HAWORTH; In Experiment 1, analogue functional analyses were email: [email protected]. conducted to identify the functions of stereotypy for six students with multiple profound disabilities. Results indicated that stereotypy (a) occurred ~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~ across conditions, (b) occurred primarily when alone, or (c) occurred during all sessions except in ~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~ the Control condition. Experiment 2 analyzed stereotypy while masking visual, auditory, or tactile sensory consequences. Results showed that Behavioral Parenting Featured stereotypy was maintained by visual stimulation, tactile stimulation, or was undifferentiated across Article Review conditions. In Experiment 3, we showed that stereotypy could be reduced by providing Project SafeCare competing sensory stimulation. In Experiment 4, stereotypy that was undifferentiated in Experiment 1 was analyzed using a concurrent operants Claire St. Peter procedure. Results showed that stereotypy was not multiply determined, but occurred to produce Gershater-Molko, R. M., Lutzker, J. R., & visual sensory stimulation. Our findings are Wesch, D. (2003). Project SafeCare: discussed in terms of the sensory and social reinforcers that maintain stereotypy, assessment Improving health, safety, and procedures used to identify those reinforcers, and parenting skills in families reported the interpretation of assessment results. (PsycINFO for, and at-risk for child Database Record (c) 2003 APA, all rights reserved) maltreatment. Journal of Family For reprints: Craig H. Kennedy, Depatment of Violence, 18, 377-386. Special Education, Box 328, Peabody College, Vanderbilt University, Nashville, TN 37203; email: [email protected]. Gershater-Molko, Lutzker, and Wesch (2003) evaluated the effectiveness of a 4-year program called Project SafeCare. This program was aimed at Venning, H. B., Blampied, N. M., & France, K. G. (2003). Effectiveness of a standard parenting-skills reducing or preventing child program in reducing stealing and lying in two boys. maltreatment, and was a systematic Child & Family Behavior Therapy, 25, 31-44. replication of a long-term intervention program, Project 12-Ways. Although Children's stealing and lying are problems several factors have been shown to affect commonly experienced by families. If persistent, these behaviors have negative consequences for the probability of child abuse or the children, their families, schools, and the maltreatment, Project SafeCare targeted community. Despite this, there is a paucity of three factors specifically related to research into effective interventions for stealing parenting skills: child health care, parent- and lying. This study examined the effectiveness of child interactions, and home safety. a standard parent-training program (Triple-P Level 4) in reducing stealing and lying in two boys, and University of Florida Behavior Analysis Services Program Page 23

Behavioral Parenting 2003, Volume 2, Number 2

Families referred to Project Planned Activities Training (PAT; Sanders SafeCare had either recently been & Dadds, 1982). Second, observers reported for child maltreatment to the recorded several topographies of parent Department of Children and Family and child responses during a variety of Services (DCFS), or were identified by a activities, including eye contact, touching, local hospital as at-risk for child appropriately giving instructions, and the maltreatment. To participate in the child’s compliance with instructions. project, the family must have had target The results showed that the training children between infancy and age 5, lived used in Project SafeCare increased in the local service area, and been at risk appropriate identification and treatment for physical abuse or neglect. Although 266 of common childhood illnesses, decreased families initially participated in the children’s access to unsafe items, and project, 245 of these families failed to increased positive parenting skills for the complete the training. The authors did not families that completed the program. The provide a thorough explanation for the data showed a clear differentiation high dropout rate, but they suggested that between the mean levels of the dependent it may be due to certain population variables before and after training. As the characteristics of families at risk, such as authors mentioned, little empirical work increased stressors or decreased resources. has been conducted on the efficacy of All caregivers were trained to these caregiver training packages. This identify and treat child health problems, study demonstrated that simple modeling, make the home environment safer, and practice, and feedback procedures, increase appropriate parent-child conducted over a relatively short period of interactions. Each training phase involved time, are effective at changing parenting baseline observations followed by a behavior. maximum of six training sessions, which The attrition rate during this study consisted of modeling, parent practice, is a substantial concern, as only 10% of the and feedback. initially-enrolled participants completed The dependent variable of interest all phases of the training. High attrition changed across phases, although all rates pose a problem for the large-scale dependent variables were related to implementation of effective behavioral parent behavior. For the health phase, parenting programs, as each dropout may parental responses to different health cost the program significant amounts of situations during three role-playing both time and money, yet the family does scenarios were scored as the percentage of not gain the full benefit of the service. correct responses completed. For the Future research should examine the safety phase, the authors used changes in factors contributing to attrition, so that scores on the Home Accident Prevention changes could be made to promote Inventory-Revised (HAPI-R; Mandel et al., program participant retention. 1998) as the primary dependent measure. Future research should also examine The HAPI-R is a checklist of common the effects of this training procedure using household hazards, and includes categories a single-subject design. Although the such as sharp objects, fire hazards, and authors were careful to operationally poisonous substances. Two dependent define and directly observe responses in measures were used for the parent-child this study, the data were aggregated interaction phase. First, the authors across participants and presented in terms recorded the percentage of appropriate of percentages. Analyzing the changes in engagement in activities, according to an individual parent’s behavior as a

University of Florida Behavior Analysis Services Program Page 24

Behavioral Parenting 2003, Volume 2, Number 2 function of the training package may yield useful additional information. For example, an analysis of performance trends for individuals could be a useful tool for determining the appropriate length for a particular phase. In the present study, all phases included a maximum of six training days. It would be interesting to note at what point in the training the parents acquire the necessary skills; it could be the case that fewer sessions are required, or that including more training sessions would increase the percentage of parents who meet a competency criterion.

References

Mandel, U., Bigelow, K. M., & Lutzker, J. R. (1998). Using video to reduce home safety hazards with parents reported for abuse and neglect. Journal of Family Violence, 13, 147- 162. Sanders, M. R., & Dadds, M. R. (1982). The effects of planned activities and child management procedures in parent training: An analysis of setting generality. Behavior Therapy, 13, 452-461.

University of Florida Behavior Analysis Services Program Page 25