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US/UK Government and Politics GNICSDAITINLPORSTEDNU Understanding US/UK government and politics DUNCAN WATTS UNDERSTANDING US/UK GOVERNMENT AND POLITICS UNDERSTANDING POLITICS Series editor DUNCAN WATTS Following the review of the national curriculum for 16–19 year olds, UK examining boards introduced new specifications, first used in 2001 and 2002. A-level courses are now divided into A/S level for the first year of sixth-form studies, and the more difficult A2 level thereafter. The Understanding Politics series comprehensively covers the politics syllabuses of all the major examination boards, featuring a dedicated A/S-level textbook and four books aimed at A2 students. The books are written in an accessible, user-friendly and jargon-free manner and will be essential to students sitting these examinations. Already published Understanding political ideas and movements Kevin Harrison and Tony Boyd Understanding British and European political issues Neil McNaughton Understanding American government and politics Duncan Watts Understanding A/S level government and politics Chris Wilson Understanding US/UK government and politics A comparative guide DUNCAN WATTS Manchester University Press Manchester and New York distributed exclusively in the USA by Palgrave Copyright © Duncan Watts 2003 The right of Duncan Watts to be identified as the author of this work has been asserted by him in accordance with the Copyright, Designs and Patents Act 1988. Published by Manchester University Press Oxford Road, Manchester M13 9NR, UK and Room 400, 175 Fifth Avenue, New York, NY 10010, USA www.manchesteruniversitypress.co.uk Distributed exclusively in the USA by Palgrave, 175 Fifth Avenue, New York, NY 10010, USA Distributed exclusively in Canada by UBC Press, University of British Columbia, 2029 West Mall, Vancouver, BC, Canada V6T 1Z2 British Library Cataloguing-in-Publication Data A catalogue record for this book is available from the British Library Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data applied for ISBN 0 7190 6721 9 paperback First published 2003 111009080706050403 10987654321 Typeset by Northern Phototypesetting Co. Ltd, Bolton Printed in Great Britain by CPI, Bath Contents Political leaders of the post-1945 era page ix 1 The context of political life in Britain and the United States 1 Political culture in Britain 3 Political culture in the USA 7 Political ideas, institutions and values in Britain and the United States: similarities and differences 16 2 Constitutions 26 General developments concerning constitutions 27 What are constitutions? 27 Characteristics of the two constitutions 28 Constitutional principles 34 The ease of constitutional change 39 Recent experience of constitutional reform 40 Conclusion 43 3 Protecting liberties, advancing rights 46 The protection of liberties in Britain and the United States in theory and practice 48 The proclamation of positive rights in recent years in Britain and the United States 57 Conclusion 62 4 Executives 66 THE POLITICAL EXECUTIVE 67 The functions of executives 67 The increase in executive power 69 Strength and weakness in political leaders: changing fashions 74 The case of the British Prime Minister 78 The case of the USA 80 Prime Minister and President compared 82 Support for the Prime Minister and President 86 vi Contents THE OFFICIAL EXECUTIVE 93 The bureaucracy 93 The bureaucracy in Britain and the United States 94 Conclusion 103 5 Legislatures 106 Structure and purpose 107 The work and importance of the British Parliament and the American Congress 110 The decline of legislatures: British and American experience 119 Elected representatives in Britain and America: their role 123 The social backgrounds of members of legislatures 125 The pay and conditions of legislators 134 Conclusion 136 6 Judiciaries 139 The functions of judiciaries 141 The independence of the judiciary 143 The political involvement of judges in Britain and America 148 Conclusion 151 7 Governance beyond the centre 155 Types of governmental systems 156 Developments in the British unitary state: the move towards devolution 158 Developments in American federalism 164 The British unitary and American federal systems compared 169 Conclusion 174 8 Political parties 178 The varying significance of parties in modern democracies 179 The functions of parties 180 Party systems 181 Third and minor parties 187 The Labour and Conservative, Democrat and Republican Parties: ideas, attitudes and approaches 191 Party membership 203 Party organisation 205 Party finance 207 The decline of political parties – do they still matter? 211 Conclusion 215 9 Pressure groups 219 The growth of group activity 220 Classification of groups 221 How groups operate 228 Trends in recent years: the changing pressure-group scene 235 Conclusion 240 Contents vii 10 The mass media 243 Organisation, ownerships and control in Britain and America 244 Political coverage in the media in Britain and America 250 The effects of the media 256 Televised politics in Britain and the USA compared: the Americanisation of British politics? 263 Conclusion 266 11 Voting and elections 269 Types of election 272 Electoral systems 272 Turnout in elections 278 Voting behaviour 286 Election campaigning 289 The role of money 291 Referendums and their value 294 Conclusion 302 12 Democracy in theory and practice 305 Democracy across the world 305 The meaning of the term ‘democracy’ 306 The health of democracy on both sides of the Atlantic 313 Conclusion 324 Index 329 THE POLITICS ASSOCIATION is a registered educational charity, committed to the diffusion of political knowledge and understanding. It produces a wide range of resources on government and politics, and on citizenship. Members receive the journal, Talking Politics, three times a year. Further details can be obtained from the Politics Association, Old Hall Lane, Manchester, M13 0XT, Tel./Fax.: 0161 256 3906; email: [email protected] ix Introduction Political leaders of the post-1945 era Britain United States Prime minister Party Term President Party Term C. Attlee Labour 1945–51 F. Roosevelt Democrat 1945 W. Churchill Conservative 1951–55 H. Truman Democrat 1945–53 A. Eden Conservative 1955–57 D. Eisenhower Republican 1953–61 H. Macmillan Conservative 1957–63 J. Kennedy Democrat 1961–63 A. Douglas-Home Conservative 1963–64 L. Johnson Democrat 1963–69 H. Wilson Labour 1964–70 R. Nixon Republican 1969–74 E. Heath Conservative 1970–74 G. Ford Republican 1974–77 H. Wilson Labour 1974–76 J. Carter Democrat 1977–81 J. Callaghan Labour 1976–79 R. Reagan Republican 1981–89 M. Thatcher Conservative 1979–90 G. Bush Republican 1989–93 J. Major Conservative 1990–97 W. Clinton Democrat 1993–2001 T. Blair Labour 1997– G. W. Bush Republican 2001– The context of political life in Britain and the United States* 1111 Political systems are shaped by the societies in which they function. For this reason, it is helpful to know something about the historical, geographical, social and economic settings against which they operate, and to understand something of the values and ideas which have mattered and continue to matter to those who inhabit any individual country. In this introduction, we examine the background factors that help to shape the way in which political life and processes operate in Britain and America. In particular, we examine similarities and differences in the political culture of the two countries, for some commentators have attempted to identify broadly shared attitudes, belief systems and values that characterise the people of a country. Inevitably, this is to some extent an impressionistic topic and analysts tend to fall back on generalisations about national characteristics. People’s beliefs and values are based on the different experiences to which they are exposed throughout their lives. Growing up in Birmingham (Alabama) is different from growing up in rural Wyoming or New England, just as growing up in Birmingham (West Midlands) is different from growing up in Cornwall or the Lake District. Growing up in Birmingham on either side of the Atlantic is also very different, even if they are both large conurbations with a substantial ethnic mix. These different experiences reflect regional differences and affect what people believe and care about. Further differences derive from such matters as class, ethnicity, gender, language and religion. The term ‘culture’ refers to the way of life of a people, the sum of their inherited and cherished ideas, knowledge and values, which together constitute the shared bases of social action. In assessing the attitudes and way of life of a people, it is easy to fall back on generalisations as a shorthand means of describing what they are like. Sometimes, these are related to ideas * Strictly speaking, Great Britain is comprised of England, Wales and Scotland, and the United Kingdom is made up of Great Britain and Northern Ireland. Throughout this book, however, we use ‘Britain’ and ‘United Kingdom’ interchangeably. Similarly, US, the USA and America are all used to mean the United States of America. 2 Understanding US/UK government and politics about national or group character. When in the 1960s the Beach Boys referred to ‘California girls’, the image they intended to convey was of a sun-tanned, lithe, fun-loving and easy-going category of young women. This is a stereotype, but many members of their audience probably had a clear impression of what such girls were like. However, generalisations such as these have obvious limitations and are insufficient for those who want to analyse the culture of
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