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Home , Ahwat, Canaan, Chariot, Immanuel, Naharin

, and : History, Imperialism, Ideology and Literature Culture and History of the Ancient

Founding Editor M.H.E. Weippert

Editor-in-Chief Thomas Schneider

Editors Eckart Frahm W. Randall Garr B. Halpern Theo P.J. van Hout Irene J. Winter

VOLUME 52 Egypt, Canaan and Israel: History, Imperialism, Ideology and Literature

Proceedings of a Conference at the University of , 3–7 May 2009

Edited by S. Bar, D. Kahn and JJ Shirley

LEIDEN • BOSTON 2011 Graphics and design: Sapir Haad.

This book is printed on acid-free paper.

Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data

Egypt, Canaan and Israel : history, imperialism, ideology and literature : proceedings of a conference at the University of Haifa, 3–7 May 2009 / edited by S. Bar, D. Kahn and JJ Shirley. p. cm. — (Culture and history of the , ISSN 1566-2055 ; v. 52) Includes bibliographical references and index. ISBN 978-90-04-19493-9 (hardback :alk. paper) 1. —Civilization—Congresses. 2. Palestine—Politics and government—Congresses. 3. Palestine—Antiquities—Congresses. 4. Egypt—Civilization—Congresses. 5. Egypt—Politics and government—To 332 B.C.— Congresses. 6. Egypt—Antiquities—Congresses. 7. Canaanites—History—Congresses. 8. Canaanites—Politics and government—Congresses. 9. —History—To 1200 B.C.— Congresses. 10. Jews—History—1200–953 B.C.—Congresses. 11. Jews—History—953–586 B.C.— Congresses. 12. Egypt—History—Middle Kingdom, ca. 2180–ca. 1551 B.C.—Congresses. 13. Egypt—History—New Kingdom, ca. 1550–ca. 1070 B.C. 14. Egypt—Relations—Palestine— Congresses. 15. Palestine—Relations—Egypt—Congresses. I. Bar, Shay. II. Kahn, ’. III. Shirley, Judith J. DS112.E28 2009 933—dc22 2011015791

ISSN 1566-2055 ISBN 978 90 04 19493 9

Copyright 2011 by Koninklijke Brill NV, Leiden, The Netherlands. Koninklijke Brill NV incorporates the imprints Brill, Global Oriental, Hotei Publishing, IDC Publishers, Martinus Nijhoff Publishers and VSP.

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Authorization to photocopy items for internal or personal use is granted by Koninklijke Brill NV provided that the appropriate fees are paid directly to The Copyright Clearance Center, 222 Rosewood Drive, Suite 910, Danvers, MA 01923, USA. Fees are subject to change. CONTENTS

Abbreviations ...... VII

Introduction ...... 1

Conference Program ...... 5

Conference Images ...... 6

ARTICLES

Shirly Ben-Dor Evian – Shishak’s Karnak Relief – More Than Just Name-Rings ...... 11

Daphna Ben-Tor – Egyptian-Canaanite Relations in the Middle and Late Bronze Ages as Reflected by Scarabs ...... 23

Susanne Binder – ’s Rewarding and Investiture (Genesis 41:41-43) and the Gold of Honour in New Kingdom Egypt ...... 44

Michael G. Hasel – The Battle of : Identifying New Kingdom Polities, Places, and Peoples in Canaan and ...... 65

James K. Hoffmeier – ’s Triumph Over : 1 17:54 and Ancient Near Eastern Analogues ...... 87

Susan Tower Hollis – Two Hymns as Praise Poems, Royal Ideology, and History in Ancient Israel and : A Comparative Reflection ...... 115

Dan’el Kahn – One Step Forward, Two Steps Backward: The Relations Between Amenhotep III, King of Egypt and , King of ...... 136

Amihai Mazar – The Egyptian Garrison Town at Beth-Shean ...... 155

Kerry Muhlestein – Levantine Thinking in Egypt...... 190

Marcus Müller – A View to a Kill: Egypt’s Grand Strategy in her Northern Empire ...... 236 VI $ON5&/5S Boyo Ockinga – ’s Appointment as Crown Prince and the Egyptian Background to 9:5 ...... 252

Bernd U. Schipper – Egyptian Imperialism after the New Kingdom: The 26th Dynasty and the Southern ...... 268

JJ Shirley – What’s in a Title? and Civil Officials in the Egyptian 18th Dynasty Military Sphere ...... 291

Carola Vogel – This Far and Not a Step Further! The Ideological Concept of Ancient Egyptian Boundary Stelae ...... 320

Adam Zertal – The Arunah Pass ...... 342

INDEX

Index ...... 357 Abbreviations

Abbreviations Used in the Text

CG Catalogue General du Caire JE Journal d’Entrée TT Theban Tomb EA El Amarna

Journal and Series Abbreviations

ÄA Ägyptologische BACE Bulletin of the Australian Abhandlungen Centre for Egyptology ÄAT Ägypten und Altes BAR Testament, Wiesbaden Review AEO Gardiner, A. H. Ancient BASOR Bulletin of the American Egyptian Onomastica, 2 vols., Oxford, 1947 Schools of Oriental Research AfO Archiv für Orientforschung BdE Bibliothèque d’Études, AION Annali dell’Istituto IFAO Orientale di Napoli BES Bulletin of the AJA American Journal of Egyptological Seminar Archaeology BMSAES Studies ÄL Ägypten und Levante in Ancient Egypt and ANET Pritchard J. (ed.), Sudan Ancient Near Eastern BSFE Bulletin de la Société Texts Relating to the Old française d’Égyptologie Testament, 3rd ed. with supplement. Princeton, CAA Corpus antiquitatum 1969 Aegyptiacarum AnSt Anatolian Studies CBQ Catholic Biblical Quarterly AOAT Alter Orient und Altes Testament CdÉ Chronique d’Égypte ARCE American Research Center CHANE Culture and History of Reports in Egypt Reports the Ancient Near East ASE Archaeological Survey of DE Discussions in Egyptology Egypt GM Göttinger Miszellen AV Archäologische HÄB Hildesheimer Veröffentlichungen ägyptologische Beiträge BA Biblical Archaeologist HAR Hebrew Annual Review VIII ABBREVIATIONS

IEJ Israel Exploration Journal MÄS Münchner IFAO Institut Française ägyptologische Studien d’Arcéologie Orientale MDAIK Mitteilungen des IOS Israel Oriental Studies Deutschen Archäologischen JAOS Journal of the American Instituts, Abt. Kairo Oriental Society MDOG Mitteilungen JARCE Journal of the American der Deutschen Research Center Orientgesellschaft JBL Journal of Biblical MIO Mitteilungen des Instituts Literature für Orientforschung JCS Journal of MRTO Schulman A. Military Rank, Title, and Studies Organization in the JEA Journal of Egyptian Egyptian New Kingdom, Archaeology Münchner Ägyptologische Studien 6, Berlin, 1964 JEgH Journal of Egyptian History N.A.B.U. Nouvelles Assyriologiques Brèves et Utilitaires JESHO Journal of the Economic and Social History of the OBO Orbis Biblicus et Orientalis, Freiburg Orient OIP Oriental Institute JHS Journal of Hellenic Studies Publications JNES Journal of Near Eastern OLA Orientalia Lovaniensa Studies Analecta JSOT Journal for the Study of OLP Orientalia Lovaniensia the Periodica JSS Journal of Semitic Studies Or Orientalia JSSEA Journal of the Society of PdO Probleme der the Study of Egyptian Ägyptologie Antiquities PEQ Palestine Exploration KRI K. A. Kitchen, Ramesside Quarterly Inscriptions: Historical PJ Palästina-Jahrbuch and Biographical, 7 vols. Oxford, 1968 – 1988 PMMA Publications of the Metropolitan Museum KS Kleine Schriften zur of Art Egyptian Geschichte des Volkes Expedition Israel, München RdÉ Revue d’Égyptologie LÄ Lexikon der Ägyptologie, Wiesbaden, 1975-1987 ABBREVIATIONS IX

RecTrav Recueil de traveaux ThLZ Theologische relatifs à la philologie et à Literaturzeitung l’archéologie TZ Theologische Zeitschrift SAGA Studien zur Archäologie UF Forschungen und Geschichte Altägyptens Urk. Sethe K. et al., Urkunden des ägyptiscen Altertums, SAK Studien Zur Leipzig, 1906 Altägyptischen Kultur VT Vetus Testamentum SAOC Studies in Ancient WB Erman, A. and Grapow, Oriental Civilization H. Wörterbuch der SBL Society of Biblical Ägyptischen Sprache Literature ZA Zeitschrift für Assyriologie SBLM Society of Biblical und Archäologie Literature Monographs ZÄS Zeitschrift für SMEA Studia Miceni ed Egeo- ägyptische Sprache und Anatolici Altertumskunde SSEA Society for the Study of ZAW Zeitschrift für die News letter Egyptian Antiquities Alttestamentliche Newsletter Wissenschaft TA ZDPV Zeitschrift des Deutschen TAVO Tübingen Atlas der Palästina-Vereins Vorderer Orient

Introduction

It was during one of the coffee Egypt and Canaan have occurred. breaks at the 9th International Con- Encounters of various sorts, mili- gress of Egyptologists in Grenoble tary as well as diplomatic, admin- in 2004 that Dr. Yossi Mizrachi istrative and economic occurred raised the idea of hosting a confer- in this , presently the north ence about the interconnections of Israel, formerly the heart of between Egypt and Canaan at Canaan. These encounters, some the University of Haifa. The con- of them among the most famous ference materialized when Prof. events in Egyptian history, are con- Zertal of the Department sistently studied all over the world of Archaeology saw the opportu- and included in every elemen- nity to introduce his unique finds tary program for Egyptologists. of the Manasseh Hill Survey with Regrettably, scholars who deal with their Egyptian background to the these aspects of Egyptian history Egyptological scholarly world. Dr. only rarely experience directly the Shay Bar from the Department of environ ment in which these events Archaeology and Prof. Nili Shupak occurred. of the Department of Biblical Stud- The date for the conference was ies soon joined the organizing com- carefully chosen. Even though the mittee. date almost coincided with the One could rightly ask: “Why annual ARCE meeting held in the have another conference about USA, we decided that the confer- Egypt, Canaan and Israel?” The ence would be held at the beginning number of these types of meetings of May 2009. The reason was that is impressive, and no doubt the the attending scholars went on an organizers always mean the best. excursion in the footsteps of Thut- However, many of these gatherings mose III, who crossed the Arunah suffer from an overburden of talks, Pass on his way to Megiddo (as nar- speeches, lectures, etc. – and little rated in the Annals of Thutmose time left for discussions and free III), on almost the exact day that exchange of opinions. the Egyptian armies marched in The conference was held at a order to fight against the Canaanite perfect location – on top of the coalition in 1457 BCE. Carmel Mountain, with a view over The lectures were divided the- the , Akko Plain and matically. The first day dealt with the – the pre- the question of border delineation cise in which some of the and the setting of boundary ste- most crucial interrelations between lae during the Middle Kingdom 2 INTRODUCTION (Carola Vogel) and the Egyptian- (the investiture of Joseph) and Canaanite relations in the Second the Egyptian pictorial and textual Intermediate Period as reflected by sources from the New Kingdom. scarabs (Daphna Ben-Tor). Susan Tower Hollis explored the The 18th Dynasty Session parallelism between II Samuel 22 dealt with Hatshepsut’s economic and the Israel Stela of . endeavors in Sinai and the Levant, Boyo Ockinga considered the pos- the Aegean and Punt (Yossi Miz- sibility of an Egyptian influence rachi – not published in the pro- (the account of the proclamation of ceedings), the Levantine women Hatshepsut’s kingship by her father in Egypt ( Sweeney – not Thutmose I) behind the names of published in the proceedings) and in .5, as well as the oscillating relations between the context in which they are pro- Amenhotep III and the Kingdom claimed. Nili Shupak explained the of Mitanni (Dan’el Kahn). identity of the enigmatic figure of the personified Wisdom in Prov- The Session about Rames- erbs in the light of Egyptian sources side archaeology and topography (not published in the proceedings). dealt with the significance of the Way of Horus during the Amarna During the afternoon session Period and the beginning of the Shirley Ben-Dor Evian challenged 19th Dynasty (James Hoffmeier – the conventional chronology of the not published in the proceedings), campaign of against Israel and . Bernd while Hasel dealt with the Schipper examined the literary issue of scribal convention in writ- and archaeological evidence for the ing foreign names and their deter- Egyptian influence on the Southern minatives. Eliezer Oren dealt with Levant and the the administration on the Way of during the 26th Dynasty, while Horus during the end of the 19th Gunar Lehman discussed the pres- Dynasty and the events during the ence of Egypt in the time between reign of Sety II (not published in the the Assyrian and the Neo-Babylo- proceedings). Adam Zertal showed nian Empire based on the archae- the results of the digging campaigns ological evidence (not published at el-, where a fortified city in the proceedings). Adam Zertal was identified as a settlement of the ended the day by presenting the , and dated to the reign of recent discoveries by the Manasseh Ramesses III. Survey in the . Several The second day of the confer- “foot-shaped” enclosures, dating to ence was devoted to Egypt and the the Early were excavated . Susanne Binder presented and identified as the Biblical “Gil- the parallels between Genesis 41 galim”. INTRODUCTION 3 None of the main subjects of meter high weeds were cut down to the convention was left without a ease our walk through the Pass. All tour, so the participants were able this was done by Adam’s innumer- to walk in the footsteps of the able friends. Many thanks! ancients and the modern explorers The Wednesday morning ses- alike and add yet another dimen- sion concentrated on literature and sion to their scholarly debate – the . Kerry Muhlestein climate and geography of the Land advocated for a Levantine origin of Canaan. Thus, on the third day of, or a strong influence upon the the regular mode of scholarly dis- well-known Egyptian story of the cussion and occasional dozing off Shipwrecked Sailor. Daniel von in formal, faint-lighted lecture halls Recklinghausen dealt with the ques- was exchanged for a field trip, with tion of how political and military extreme-sport challenges to recre- events are presented in the official ate the physical conditions of the (mainly religious) Egyptian texts Egyptian army on the march to during Ptolemaic rule (not pub- Megiddo as much as possible. The lished in the proceedings). Marcus scholars experienced the hardships Müller investigated Egypt’s grand of the Egyptian soldier as described strategy during the New Kingdom so aptly by the Egyptian scribes: the towards its enemies on all fronts: seasonal Khamsin with tempera- unbeatable empires like Mitanni 0 tures reaching 40 c (although, luck- and Hatti, and those enemies who ily enough, we only experienced hot could be beaten and whose territory discussions in the air-conditioned was incorporated into the Egyptian lecture hall on that day), climbing Empire. Zadok Kraim considered xAs.t the hills of the foreign land, the structure of logistical units and and the high vegetation and weeds supply of the Egyptian army dur- in the Arunah Pass, which grow ing its military campaigns based on during the spring and hinder the modern analogies (not published easy crossing of the Pass. The par- in the proceedings). JJ Shirley dis- ticipants were surprised that a fort- cussed the role of the civil servants night before the trip, our 4wd who participated on military cam- got stuck in the impassable Arunah paigns. Ayelet Gilboa, head of the Pass and was towed out at night by Department of Archaeology at the a tractor. On the day of trip road- University of Haifa, presented the blocks against car-thieves were tem- Egyptian finds from her excavation porarily removed and immediately site at Tell Dor on the Mediterra- replaced afterwards after our 4wd nean Coast (not published in the Jeeps with Adam’s team of vol- proceedings), while Amihai Mazar, unteer drivers passed by. The 1.5 who was awarded the Israel Prize 4 INTRODUCTION in archaeology several days ear- co-edit the volume with us. Thanks lier, summarized the excavations at also go to Xavier, her newborn son, Beth-Shean. who enabled her to keep on edit- The conference was concluded ing (especially during the nights). on Thursday with an excursion to Thanks go also to our graphical the Jordan Valley to see the site of editor, Sapir Haad. Beidet esh-Sha‘ab, one of the “foot- Hoping that the goals of the con- shaped” enclosures, and the ancient ference have been, at least partly, site of Beth-Shean. achieved – we are proud to present this book to the readers, together We are grateful to the partici- with hopes for future meetings in pants who attended the conference, the same spirit. and to the authors who submit- ted their papers almost on time During the preparation of the proceedings, a dear friend and despite the short deadline. I whole- sponsor of the Conference, Mr. heartedly thank the co-organizers Danny , met an unfortunate of the conference, without whom and tragic end. This volume is ded- it would not have materialized: icated to his memory. Prof. Adam Zertal, our powerful locomotive, Prof. Nili Shupak, Dr. Yossi Mizrachi, Dr. Shay Bar and Dan’el Kahn, Mrs. Tami Lavyel. I also would Head of the Department of Bibli- like to thank Dr. JJ Shirley, a true cal Studies, University of Haifa, friend, who accepted our request to September 2010 CONFERENCE PROGRAM 5

JJ Shirley,

JJ Shirley, 6 CONFERENCE IMAGES

1. A group photo of the participants of the conference at the Baha’i Gardens, Haifa

2. A visit to the Iron age enclosure of Beidet esh-Sha‘ab (Ancient ‘Gilgal’ in the Jordan Valley) CONFERENCE IMAGES 7

3. A visit to the Baha’i Gardens with view over Haifa

4. Walking through the Arunah Pass in the footsteps of Thutmose III 8 CONFERENCE IMAGES

5. In front of Megiddo’s Late Gate

6. Visit of the participants to Beth-Shean, next to a replica of Sety I’s Stela 5IF#BUUMFPG,BEFTI*EFOUJGZJOH/FX,JOHEPN 1PMJUJFT 1MBDFT BOE1FPQMFTJOCanaan and Syria1

Michael G. Hasel

Institute of Archaeology, Southern Adventist University

Abstract ary Record,” “Bulletin,” and “Reliefs” indi- cates that the were remarkably In 1950 J.A. Wilson published a footnote consistent in their designation of these for- citing the “notorious carelessness” of Egyp- eign entities. Further suggestions are given tian scribal convention in assigning deter- on establishing the Egyptian perspective of minatives to foreign names in the standard foreign names through textual analysis in reference work Ancient Near Eastern Texts. comparison with archaeological data. This note influenced numerous scholars outside the field of Egyptology without Introduction any careful study of the evidence. This brief study readdresses the issue of scribal con- Ever since the first documenta- vention in writing foreign names from the perspective of the most widely published tion of Egyptian monuments by event during the Egyptian New Kingdom: Napoleon’s Commission for the the Battle of Kadesh. A statistical analysis of Arts and Sciences, Egypt’s contacts foreign names in the copies of the “Liter- with foreign polities, places, and peoples have captivated Egyptolo- 1  This study was conducted while the gists and historians of the ancient author was a Fulbright Senior Scholar Near East. The military campaigns at the Cyprus Archaeological Research of Egypt against surrounding areas Institute (CAARI), Nicosia, Cyprus (2005). Special thanks are extended to produced vivid depictions of their 2 Thomas Davis, director of CAARI and exploits. Here was a source of staff; Daniel Hadjitoffi, director of the new information that could elu- Cyprus Fulbright Commission and staff; cidate these ancient peoples from the library staff of the Cyprus Department an Egyptian perspective. Libyan, of Antiquities, American Research Center Kushite, and Asiatic people groups, in Egypt, École Biblique et Archeologique Français; and the W.F. Albright Institute of and even empires such as the Hit- Archaeological Research. Appreciation is tites, were now accessible. Scenes extended to the following individuals for showing the Egyptian king smit- reading and commenting on earlier drafts of this paper: Thomas Davis, Kenneth 2 On Egyptian military activity in gen- Kitchen, and Peter Brand. The author eral, see Lundh, Actor and Event; Spalin- accepts responsibility for its content and ger, War in Ancient Egypt; Gundlach and conclusions. Earlier versions of this paper Vogel, Militärgeschichte des Pharaonischen were read at the annual meetings of the Ägypten; on specifically the 19th and 20th American Oriental Society and the Ameri- Dynasties, see Hasel, Domination and can Schools of Oriental Research. Resistance. 66 MICHAEL G. HASEL ing his enemies became ideological a sensation in biblical scholarship, symbols for expressing his restora- for many believed it contained tion of ma’at,3 and the depiction the first extra-biblical reference to of the Nine Bows on the footstools Israel.8 The first translation by W. and sandals of illus- Spiegelberg of the toponym made trated vividly his domination and note of the fact that the designation power.4 The Egyptian description was followed by the determina- and representation of these new tive for people.9 Its designation as entities led to several detailed stud- a people or socioethnic entity was ies. From 1925 through 1931, H. widely accepted by Egyptologists Gauthier produced seven volumes for almost a century.10 on Egyptian geographical names.5 8 Four years later W. Wreszinski Petrie, Temples of Thebes, pls. X-XIV. 9 Seated man and woman over three conducted his detailed art histori- strokes indicating the plural (Gardiner, cal study in which he attempted to Egyptian Grammar, A1, 442), Spiegelberg, further define the ethnicity of vari- “Der Siegeshymnus des Merneptah,” 23; ous Asiatic groups.6 Alan Gardiner’s Spiegelberg, “Zu der Erwähnung Israels in Ancient Egyptian Onomastica con- dem Merneptah-Hymnus,” 404 n. 5. 10 tinues to be a standard reference Steindorff, “Israel in einer altägyp- 7 tischen Inschrift”; Breasted, “The Israel work. But in the last 30 years many Tablet”; ARE 4:258; Erman, Literatur der of these widely accepted identifica- Aegypter, 346 n. 3; Williams, “‘Israel Stele’ tions based on the Egyptian textual of Merneptah,” 140; Kitchen, “Historical and iconographic evidence have Method”; Kitchen, Ancient Orient and been challenged. By way of intro- Old Testament, 59-60; Lichtheim, Ancient duction, two of these entities are Egyptian Literature, Vol. 2, 77; Ebach, “Israel, Israelstele”; Hornung, “Israelste- addressed here. le,” 232; Kaplony-Heckel, “Die Israel- The discovery of the des Mer-en-ptah,” 552; Goedicke “A stela in 1896 by W.F. Petrie caused Comment on the Name ‘Israel’”; Yurco, “Merneptah’s Canaanite Campaign,” 190 3 Hall, The Pharaoh Smites His Enemies: A n. 3; Yurco, “Merneptah’s Wars,” 498-500; Comparative Study. Murnane, “,” 351; Red- 4 Eaton-Krauss, The Thrones, Chairs, ford, “ Relief at Karnak,” 188-90; Stools, and Footstools from the Tomb of Tut- Redford, “Merneptah,” 701; Hoffmeier, ankhamun, 215, pl. LXV; 216, pl. LXVII; Israel in Egypt, 30; Hoffmeier, “(Israel) 217, pl. LXVIII. Stela of Merneptah,” 41; Bietak, “Der Auf- 5 Gauthier, Dictionnaire des noms enthalts ‘Israels’ in Ägypten,” 194; Görg, géographiques contenus dans les textes hiéro- “Israel in Hieroglyphen,” 21; Morenz, glyphiques. “Wortwitz – Ideologie – Geschichte,” 1-2. 6 Wreszinski, Atlas zur altägyptischen For an overview of the interpretation of Kulurgeschichte. Israel, see Hasel, “Israel in the Merneptah 7 Gardiner, Ancient Egyptian Onomostica; Stela”; Hasel, “Merneptah’s Inscription see also the work by Ahituv, Canaanite and Reliefs”; Hasel, “The Structure of the Toponyms in Ancient Egyptian Documents. Hymnic-Poetic Unit on the Merneptah THE BATTLE OF KADESH 67 However, as early as 1950, J.A. loose application of determinatives Wilson stated in a footnote to his in connection with names of foreign translation of the Merneptah stela regions and peoples with which he that the interpretation of Israel as a was not personally familiar.”13 In people was good “but not conclu- 1990 O. Margalith posited that sive, because of the notorious care- “the denominator for people and lessness of Late-Egyptian scribes not town might be a scribe’s error and several blunders of writing in of the kind which is common in the stela.”11 Although the conven- Egyptian epigraphy.”14 Although tion of the scribal use of determina- this reinterpretation has met with tives had never been systematically opposition,15 the view continues studied, the footnote by Wilson in to be perpetuated. Most recently, the influential first through third T. Thompson and I. Hjelm have editions of Ancient Near Eastern restated similar sentiments and pro- Texts (ANET) continued to have a posed a variety of new meanings for wide influence on biblical schol- the toponym commonly identified ars, many of whom had a limited as Israel.16 I have dealt with these knowledge of the Egyptian lan- interpretations elsewhere.17 The guage and sources. Wilson’s senti- result of these reinterpretations has ment was echoed by R. de Vaux had a major bearing in the current and others.12 In 1985 an article debate surrounding the origin of published by G. Ahlström and D. ancient Israel. Edelman built on this assump- A second toponym has also tion by presenting an entirely new received considerable interest. By interpretation of the designation “Israel” in the Merneptah stela. 13 Ahlström and Edelman, “Merneptah’s The conclusion was reached that Israel,” 60; cf. Ahlström, Who Were the Isra- the “Israel” of the Merneptah stela elites?, 40; Edelman, “Who or What Was was not a socioethnic entity but a Israel?” 72-73. geographical territory that encom- 14 Margalith, “On the Origin and Anti- passed the central hill country of quity of the Name ‘Israel’,” 229. 15 Emerton, “Review of Ahlström”; Bim- . The main argument in son, “Merneptah’s Israel,” 13-14; Hasel, favor of this interpretation was that “Israel in the Merneptah Stela,” 46-47; “the use of the determinative for Hasel, Domination and Resistance, 198-99; people instead of land may be insig- Kitchen, “Victories of Merneptah and the nificant, resulting from the author’s Nature of their Record,” 271-75. 16 Hjelm and Thompson, “The Victory Stela”; Hasel, “Merneptah’s Reference to Song of Merneptah,” 13-14. Israel.” 17 Hasel, “Merneptah’s Reference to Isra- 11 Wilson, “Egyptian Hymns and el,” 49; see also the evaluation by Kitchen, Prayers,” 378 n. 18. “Victories of Merneptah and the Nature of 12 De Vaux, Early , 390. their Record,” 271-75. 68 MICHAEL G. HASEL the 1960s a general consensus had imprecise and ambiguous Egyp- emerged regarding the nature and tian use of the geographical name extent of the land of Canaan, its Canaan and the likewise imprecise boundaries and geographical area.18 understanding of Canaan displayed The primary sources for the recon- by the inhabitants of Western struction of this geographical area themselves.”21 In the conclusion to include: (1) the Mari letters, (2) his study of the , he the Amarna Letters, (3) writes, “Evidently the inhabitants texts, (4) texts from Aššur and Hat- of the supposed Canaanite territory tusha, and (5) Egyptian texts. The in had no clear idea term Canaan is found 16 times in of the actual size of this Canaan, New Kingdom Egyptian sourc- nor did they know exactly where es.19 Most scholars have concluded Canaan was situated.”22 In essence, that Canaan in a number of these “the Canaanites of the ancient Near texts, particularly during the 19th East did not know that they were Dynasty, referred to the entire themselves Canaanites.”23 Lemche’s area of Palestine synonymous with conclusions have been challenged the toponym Kharu.20 This view by N. Na’aman, A. Rainey, and was recently challenged by N.-P. others,24 but he has maintained his Lemche, who stated that there is interpretation of historical sources a “correspondence between the which he calls “imprecise” and “ambiguous.”25 In 2001 O. Tam- 18 Na’aman, “The Canaanites and Their muz built on the assumptions of Land,” 397; see also Aharoni, The Land Lemche but only dealt with the of the Bible, 61-70; de Vaux, “Le pays Egyptian material briefly in his de Canaan”; de Vaux, The Early History 26 of Israel, 125-139; Weippert, “Kanaan”; lengthy article. In both studies Stolz, “Kanaan.” one is left with an open question 19 Görg, “Der Name ‘Kanaan’ in ägyp- concerning the meaning of this tische Wiedergabe”; Ahituv, Canaanite toponym to the Egyptians them- Toponyms in Ancient Egyptian Documents, selves and what, if any, connection 83-85. 20 Miller and Hayes, A History of Ancient 21 Lemche, Canaanites and Their Land, Israel and Judah, 68; Helck, “Hurriter,” 50. 87; de Vaux, The Early History of Israel, 22 Lemche, Canaanites and Their Land, 125-39; Stolz, “Kanaan,” 541; Na’aman, 39. “Canaanites and Their Land,” 404; Hasel, 23 Lemche, Canaanites and Their Land, “Israel in the Merneptah Stela,” 56 n. 10; 152. Hasel, Domination and Resistance, 258; 24 Na’aman, “Canaanites and Their 270 n. 9; Hasel, “Merneptah’s Inscrip- Land”; Na’aman, “Four Notes on the Size tions and Reliefs”; Hasel, “Structure of the of the Land of Canaan”; Rainey, “Who Is a Hymnic-Poetic Unit on the Merneptah Canaanite?”; Rainey, “Amarna and Later.” Stela”; Rainey, “Amarna and Later: Aspects 25 Lemche, “Greater Canaan.” of Social History,” 179. 26 Tammuz, “Canaan,” 509-11. THE BATTLE OF KADESH 69 it has with contemporaneous Near cal questions. They impinge on Eastern sources.27 whether it is possible to establish In fact, these examples – Israel (1) that the communication system and Canaan – demonstrate the used (written language and iconog- problem in recent scholarship over raphy) was able to provide such Egyptian foreign names and, by distinctions, and ultimately (2) extension, designations of polities, whether the communicators (writ- places, and peoples of the eastern ers and artists) knew what these Mediterranean world. The wide- names meant and the reality they reaching impact on our historical represented. One of the reasons for understanding of the geography of the present impasse, as R. Merrillees the ancient Near East is apparent. correctly pointed out in his study 28 Yet an even larger question looms on the identification of Alasiya, before those interested in this part is that no detailed, comparative of the world: Do these reinterpre- analysis had yet been conducted tations truly represent the Egyptian on the defining characteristic of perception of meaning? Indeed, the Egyptian language that allows the very nature of Egyptian scribal such distinctions: the determina- 29 practices and tradition, as well as tive. For some years now, and the Egyptian ability to understand during my appointment as a Ful- the world around them, is brought bright Senior Scholar at the Cyprus into sharper focus and scrutiny. American Archaeological Research Were the names in ancient Egypt Institute, I have been completing intended as ethnic, sociocultural, a comprehensive study of foreign or geographical designations, or names and their determinatives in were they simply loose designa- the Egyptian New Kingdom, which tions given with little reference to I hope will add significantly to the meaning? Can we be certain that understanding and definition of the authors (scribes) of these texts the peoples, places, and polities in knew what they were recording? the eastern Mediterranean world. How accurate were they, and with To accomplish such a monumental what consistency did they record task, a database of over 120 differ- their perceptions of the world ent foreign names in the area of the around them? These are significant eastern Mediterranean was com- epistemological and historiographi- piled from the reign of Thutmose 28 Merrillees, Alashia Revisited, 69. 27 On the identification of Canaan, see 29 On the use of determinatives, see Hasel, “Pa-Canaan in the Egyptian New Giveon, “Determinatives in the Hiero- Kingdom: Canaan or Gaza?”; Hasel, “The glyphic Writing of Canaanite Names”; Identification of Canaan in New Kingdom most recently Spalinger, “A Garland of Egyptian Sources.” Determinatives.” 70 MICHAEL G. HASEL III to Ramesses III. These names of all Egyptian military campaigns are used over 1,200 times. In this by Ramesses II against the article I am addressing one aspect is also one of the most successful of this broad topic which may illu- examples of the propaganda of an strate some of the insights that can event known in the ancient world. be gained. While I have dealt with The strategic location of Kadesh Israel and Canaan in other publica- in the Eleutheros Valley was the tions, for this essay I have chosen to key to the territory of and focus on the accounts of the Battle provided the entryway into the Syr- of Kadesh. ian plain.31 It was the crucial role of Kadesh, and already the buildup Perspectives on the from earlier attempts to control Battle of Kadesh the region, that made it one of the most important battles.32 Although During the New Kingdom, one the outcome of the battle is still a event stands out above all others matter of intense debate,33 impor- in its vivid portrayal in reliefs and in written form repeated numerous pretation of the Kadesh Record”; Bruyn, times throughout Egypt: the Battle “Battle of Kadesh”; Healy, Qadesh; Mayer of Kadesh.30 This most celebrated and Mayer-Opificius, “Die Schlacht bei Qadeš”; Santosuosso, “Reconstructing the 30 Studies include: (1) on literary analysis, Battle”; Spalinger, “Battle of Kadesh.” Spalinger, Aspects of the Military Documents 31 Goedicke, “The ‘Battle of Kadesh’: A of the Ancient Egyptians, 153-73, 182-85; Reassessment,” 84 n. 35. Fecht, “Ramesses II. und die Schlacht bei 32 The religious and political motivations Qadesch”; von der Way, Die Textüber- are discussed by Ockinga, “On the Inter- lieferung Ramesses’ II zur Qadeš-Schlacht; pretation of the Kadesh Record”; on the Spalinger, “Remarks on the Kadesh earlier campaigns by Sety I, see Murnane, Inscriptions”; Morschauser, “Observations Road to Kadesh. on the Speeches of Ramesses II”; von der 33 As Goedicke points out, there have been Way, Die Textüberlieferung Ramesses’ II. scholars who doubt the historical veracity zur Qadeš-Schlacht; Spalinger, P. Sallier III of the texts altogether (Otto, Ägypten. Der and the Battle of Kadesh; (2) on interpre- Weg des Pharaonreiches, 177; Helck, Bezie- tation: Breasted, Battle of Kadesh; Burne, hungen, 197). Others take the position that “Some Notes on the Battle of Kadesh”; Ramesses II changed an ambush and possi- Alt, “Zur Topographie der Schlacht bei bly overwhelming defeat into a respectable Kades” and “Noch einmal zur Schlacht bei draw (Wilson, Culture of Ancient Egypt, Kades”; Sturm, Der Hittiterkrieg Ramesses’ 246; Hayes, The Scepter of Egypt, 339; II; Faulkner, “Battle of Kadesh”; Schul- Desroches-Nobelcourt, Ramsès le Grand, man, “The n‘rn at the Battle of Kadesh” xxiv; Hornung, Grundzüge der ägyptischen and “The n‘rn at the Battle of Kadesh Geschichte, 104; Kitchen, “A Note on the Once Again”; Helck, Beziehungen, 195- Bandeau Texts,” 62), while others see these 208 and “Eine Bemerkung”; Goedicke, accounts as political propaganda to cover “Considerations”; Kuschke, “Das Terrain up Egypt’s defeat by the Hittites (Helck, der Schlacht bei Qadeš”; Ockinga, “Inter- Geschichte des Alten Ägypten, 185; von Bec- THE BATTLE OF KADESH 71 tant details in matters of geography “highly idealized and sometimes – both place and people names – purely imaginary . . . the creation are apparent. This battle alone and, of a poet.”35 Wilson characteristi- more importantly, its recording cally intoned that the actual reason from in the far south for the text was to glorify Ramesses all the way to Abydos in the north, “to the sacrifice of accuracy.”36 And provides one of the most important it is true, as Morschauser’s recent test cases for the authenticity and detailed analysis of the “Literary consistency of scribal tradition in Record” concludes, that the literary the use of determinatives. accounts are “highly finished liter- ary compositions.”37 “Literary Record” Kitchen’s Ramesside Inscriptions, of the Battle of Kadesh which serve as the basis for the sta- The longest written version of tistical analysis that follows, records the Battle of Kadesh is known as seven complete or partial copies of the “Literary Record.” Six copies are the “Poem” or “Literary Record.” 38 It “has been seen as a more pro- found in Thebes and one at Aby- pagandistic version of the con- dos in the temple of Ramesses II (A). Three other copies were writ- flict, whose supposed emphasis 39 is upon the bravery of the king ten in hieratic on papyri. Twenty 34 in combat.” Breasted called it different from other accounts of their vic- tories left by ” (ARE, 3:6). Most kerath, Abriss der Geschichte des Alten Ägyp- Egyptologists today prefer the title “Lit- ten, 43; Simpson and Hallo, The Ancient erary Record” (Gardiner, Kadesh Inscrip- Near East, 279; Mayer and Mayer-Opifi- tions, 2; Morschauser, “Observations on cius, “Die Schlacht bei Qadeš”). However, the Speeches of Ramesses II”; Kitchen, as I have argued elsewhere, the unity and “Battle of Qadesh: The Poem, or Literary remarkable detail of the account testifies Record”). to an actual campaign in Syria, regardless 35 ARE, 3:141, 313. of the question of outcome (Hasel, Domi- 36 Wilson, “Battle of Kadesh,” 266. nation and Resistance, 155; cf. Gardiner, 37 Morschauser, “Observations on the Kadesh Inscriptions, 52; Goedicke, “Battle Speeches of Ramesses II,” 197. of Kadesh,” 78). 38 KRI II; RITA II; RITANC II. The 34 Morschauser, “Observations on the abbreviations of Kitchen are as follows: K1

Speeches of Ramesses II,” 124. The des- and K2 = Karnak; L1, L2 and L3 = ; R ignation “Poem” is somewhat misleading. = Ramesseum. According to Gardiner, “There is no jus- 39 They are abbreviated as follows: Rf tification for thinking that any part of it = Papyrus Raifé; S = Papyrus Sallier III; was written in verse” (Kadesh Inscriptions, ChB1 = Chester Beatty Papyrus III, verso,

2), echoing the sentiment of Breasted, 2-3 and ChB2 = Chester Beatty Papy- who believed that “the entire so-called rus III, verso, 1. The most extant copy is Poem does not differ in form from the Papyrus Sallier III; Kuentz, La bataille de Record [Bulletin] and is not essentially Qadech, 199-220; see most recently Spa- 72 MICHAEL G. HASEL toponyms are mentioned in the var- Of all the copies available today, ious copies of the “Literary Record” foreign place names were employed and two additional designations, a total of 60 times in the “Liter- one for the elusive “Sherden” with ary Record.” Of those sixty place a unique determinative of a “seated names, we find that there were 380 man with headdress” and another actual occurrences in the various of “Kharu” consistently determined copies studied, of which 367 had with the “enemy, captive” sign. All surviving determinatives. Of those of the 20 place names are those of 367, only three scribal inconsisten- the various territories and cities cies were found. That is an accuracy forming the coalition with Hat- of 99.182%. Furthermore, all three ti.40 The contextual framework of the inconsistencies occurred in of each of these occurrences indi- two papyrus copies (Rf, ChB1). cates that none of these toponyms This means that in the surviving can be conceived in their contexts copies of the “Literary Record,” the as referring to a specific people or monumental inscriptions at Thebes representing an ethnicon. Thus, and Abydos were 100% consistent for example, while individuals are in the determination of foreign singled out, this is usually done in place names and the designation of the following manner: wr n Hatti, Sherden and Kharu. “chief of Hatti,”41 where it is appar- ent that this is the “chief of the land “Bulletin” of the Battle of Kadesh of Hatti.” Other names fit into the categories of city-states (Alep- A second version of the battle that po, , Kadesh, Ugarit), was recorded has become known while others represent regions or territories (Amurru, Arzawa, Kiz- Grammar, T14, 513), which indicated the zuwadna) and, finally, a foreign concept of “foreign,” need not be applied country (Hatti). It is fitting, given to toponyms accompanied by the “hill- these types of polities, that the country” sign, since the “hill-country” sign determinative employed would be inherently indicated a foreign territory, land, or city (Gardiner, Egyptian Gram- the “hill-country” sign occasionally mar, N25, 488). Perhaps Egyptian top- 42 accompanied by the “throw stick.” onyms did not receive the “hill-country” sign for the very reason that such a desig- linger, P. Sallier III and the Battle of Kadesh. nation could not apply to Egyptian topo- 40 For description and locations, see ARE, graphy but certainly would be suitable for 3:136 n. c, 306; Gardiner, Kadesh Inscrip- western Asia with its hills and mountains. tions, 57-59; “Battle of Qadesh,” 33 n. 3; Nevertheless, it is worth pointing out that RITANC II, 15-21; on the Hittite allies, the “hill-country” determinative is almost see RITANC II, 51-55. always accompanied by the “throw stick” 41 KRI II, 89. 11-15. in the hieratic versions of the “Literary 42 The “throw stick” (Gardiner, Egyptian Record” (Rf, S, ChB). THE BATTLE OF KADESH 73 as the “Bulletin” or “Report.”43 or its factual reliability.49 Moreover, It is shorter than the “Literary the present study indicates that the Record” (P) and generally consid- consistency or inconsistency of the ered, with the reliefs, to be primary scribal use of determinatives is also when reconstructing the events unaffected. If anything, the consis- of the campaign.44 The account is tency of determinative usage is even straightforward and focuses pri- more significant when compared to marily on the king’s heroic deeds.45 the flexibility in copying activities A textual-critical approach was from one location to another. begun by A. Gardiner,46 with a According to Kitchen’s Rames- much more detailed study com- side Inscriptions there are currently pleted by A. Spalinger.47 Spalinger seven copies on monumental build- concentrated on the “information- ings.50 An eighth was found by B. al aspect of the textual side to the Murnane and is now being pub- Kadesh accounts.”48 Major differ- lished by P. Brand at the University ences were noted among the vari- of Memphis and is not included ants. The different spellings and here.51 There are a total of 17 top- alternate writings indicated that onyms mentioned in the various the scribes possessed a certain copies of the “Bulletin” and one flexibility in recording the “Bul- additional designation for the spies letin” on various temple walls. In from the tribe of , with the particular, Abu Simbel contained consistent, appropriate determina- a summary account confined to a tive of the “enemy, captive” sign. single wall that was then generously Again, as in the “Literary Record,” supplemented by reliefs. Spalinger the 17 place names are those of the is careful to conclude that the varia- various territories and cities form- tion among the versions, including ing the coalition with Hatti.52 The spellings and the omission of certain contextual framework of each of sections or phrases, does not affect the flow of the historical narrative 49 Spalinger, “Remarks on the Kadesh Inscriptions,” 62. 43 Goedicke, “Battle of Kadesh”; Spa- 50 These include three copies at Luxor linger, “Remarks on the Kadesh Inscrip- = L1 and L2 and an earlier version which tions”; cf. Gardiner, Kadesh Inscriptions, Kitchen designates as Lp, over which L1 is 3-4; Faulkner, “The Battle of Kadesh.” written. There is also one from Abu Sim- 44 Morschauser, “Observations on the bel = I; one fragmentary version from the Speeches of Ramesses II,” 123. temple of Ramesses II at Abydos (A); and 45 Goedicke, “Battle of Kadesh,” 115. two from the Ramesseum (R1 and R2). 46 Gardiner, Kadesh Inscriptions. 51 Peter Brand, personal communication. 47 Spalinger, “Remarks on the Kadesh 52 For the description and locations, see Inscriptions.” ARE, 3:136 n. c, 306; Gardiner, Kadesh 48 Spalinger, “Remarks on the Kadesh Inscriptions, 57-59; Kitchen, “Battle of Inscriptions,” 43. Kadesh,” 33 n. 3. 74 MICHAEL G. HASEL these occurrences indicates that “Reliefs” of the Battle of Kadesh none of these toponyms should th be conceived in their contexts as Beginning with the 19 Dynas- referring to a specific people or ty, reports of military campaigns representing an ethnicon. The top- abroad were accompanied with onyms in this version also fit into artistic representations of the king 54 the categories of city-states (, going forth in battle. These com- Carchemish, Kadesh, Ugarit), memorative reliefs provided a while others represent regions or direct mode of communication on territories (this time Djahy) and, a grand scale.55 Together, the textu- finally, a foreign country (Hatti). al material and the reliefs served the Of all the copies available today, purpose of communicating their foreign place names were employed intended message to both liter- 48 times in the “Bulletin.” Of those ates and illiterates during the New 48 place names, we find that there Kingdom, giving them a sense of were 177 actual occurrences in the the military prowess of their king, various copies studied, 158 with his victory over foreign lands, and, surviving determinatives. Of those ultimately, his protection of Egypt.56 158 occurrences, only one scribal These records worked in tandem so inconsistency was located. The that “nearly all Egyptian accounts included a pictorial representation scribal error was found in R1 at the Ramesseum, where the “garden with the hieroglyphic narrative.”57 pool” sign is used for the toponym The accounts of the Battle of Kadesh Hatti instead of the otherwise con- are no different, and with them are sistent use of the “hill-country” preserved some of the most detailed sign. Of 196 occurrences of Hatti in all three versions (Literary Record, ignation of the Shasu spies, which were Bulletin and Reliefs) and 14 copies, determined with the “enemy, captive” sign (Gardiner, Egyptian Grammar, A13, 443). this is the only scribal error. This is 54 The most recent studies on reliefs of perhaps the most striking example the New Kingdom include Heinz, “Wie of the uniformity of Ramesside wird ein Feldzug erzählt?”; Schulz, “Der scribal convention from a geo- Sturm auf die Festung”; Müller, “Rekon- graphical perspective. Going back struktion zerstörter Schlachtenreliefs” and to the “Bulletin,” from a statistical “Bildliche Quellen zur Militärgeschichte.” Specifically on the Battle of Kadesh, see standpoint, there is an impressive Heinz, Die Feldzugsdarstellungen des Neuen rate of accuracy within the various Reiches, 126-46; Müller, König als Feldherr. copies of the “Bulletin” – 99.371% 55 Gaballa, Narrative in Egyptian Art; Tef- – a percentage even higher than the nin, “Image, écriture, récit. A propos des “Literary Record.”53 représentations de la bataille de Qadesh.” 56 Hasel, Domination and Resistance, 21. 53 It is important to note that the scribes 57 Spalinger, “Remarks on the Kadesh were completely consistent in their des- Inscriptions.” 44. THE BATTLE OF KADESH 75 representations of New Kingdom made even more explicit.62 Here military art.58 The wider inter- the inscription reads: “the city of est of this study is to compare the Kadesh.” This is in contrast to the iconographic information with the enemy soldiers engaged in battle, associated names and their deter- which are labeled by the Egyptians minatives, for the pictorial record “fallen ones of Hatti.” The same can provide further details in dis- is true of the Ramesseum relief of tinguishing between countries, Kadesh, although only partially regions, cities, and people. Here I preserved.63 The contrast and com- will focus specifically on the use of parison are important. Both employ determinatives. the same hill-country determina- A total of eight copies of the tive, but one is clearly designated as “Reliefs” survive,59 but many of a city within the larger territory of the scenes and place names are Hatti. missing.60 Nonetheless, from those There are a total of ten place that are preserved, much informa- names designated in the “Reliefs.” tion can be gained. For example, All of the place names occurring in several copies of the reliefs, the in the “Reliefs” are also found in city of Kadesh is depicted. The the “Bulletin,” with the excep- relief from Luxor61 depicts soldiers tion of rTnw , “Retenu,” and qbsw. from the Hittite coalition occupy- Djahy appears in the “Bulletin” and ing the city’s towers, and a Hittite “Reliefs” but not in the “Literary fleeing into the city. The Record.” All of the names among fact that this is the city of Kadesh the reliefs are known to be place is made clear from the inscription names and not people names; thus on the wall of the city identifying the use of the “hill-country” deter- it. In another similar scene from minative is consistent. Once again, Abu Simbel, the identification is in harmony with the other versions, these place names include cities 58 The relief scenes in standard edition are found in Gaballa, Narrative in Egyptian (Kadesh, Ugarit, Carchemish), ter- Art, 113-19; Wreszinski, Atlas, Taf. 16-24; ritories or regions (Retenu, Djahy), Kuentz, La bataille de Qadech, pls. 17-23; and land polities (Hatti). The ten Naville, Détails relevés, pls. 5-22; cf. Spa- place names were employed 85 linger, “Battle of Kadesh,” 163-64. times, of which 79 had surviving 59 Following the collation by Kitchen determinatives. All 79 occurrences (KRI II, 125-28), these include reliefs at used the “hill-country” determina- Karnak (K1 and K2), Luxor (L1 and L3), the

Ramesseum (R1 and R2), Abydos (A), and Abu Simbel (I). 62 James, Ramesses II, 104-05; KRI II, 60 See drawings in KRI II, 125-28. 140.16. 61 Wreszinski, Atlas, pl. 83, 84; KRI II, 63 Wreszinski, Atlas, pl. 100, 101; KRI II, 140.14. 140.15. 76 MICHAEL G. HASEL tive so that there is 100% consis- conclude that this would carry over tency among the reliefs. This is the to other records as well – including highest level attested in the various the Merneptah stela – where a high versions. degree of accuracy in the writing of the text has already been noted.65 Conclusion Of course, other aspects must also be addressed. How is the determi- Through the limited glimpse of the native used over time in the New various accounts of the Battle of Kingdom? Are there differences in Kadesh, several important questions monumental inscriptions and in concerning the consistency of Egyp- papyri copies (we have here noted tian scribes in the usage of determi- some differences for the Battle of natives become clearer. Such a case Kadesh accounts)? Are there local study is important because of the scribal conventions that vary from multiple copies and versions of the place to place?66 account found throughout Egypt depicting one particular battle. The There is a further aspect that is overall consistency in the usage of often not addressed by many Egyp- determinatives is remarkable, given tologists and textual scholars. How the total number of place and peo- does the Egyptian perspective of ple names mentioned. This is being these polities, places, and peoples borne out as well in the wider sur- correspond to the archaeological vey of Egyptian literature from the data on the ground? As we exca- New Kingdom. vate sites mentioned in these texts, do they provide evidence that can Given this limited snapshot of help us in identification? The ear- one, albeit widely recorded, event lier sources cited above are virtually in history, could it be that the silent concerning the archaeologi- scribes were indeed more consis- cal data. With some sites, such as tent than we give them credit for? Beth-Shean, we have comparative In a most recent article on deter- evidence both on Sety I’s reliefs at minatives, Spalinger concludes, Karnak and on stelae, and other “The various determinatives are texts found directly at the site.67 not as haphazard as one might at first believe.”64 The implication is 65 Kitchen, “Physical Text of Merneptah’s that if the Egyptian scribes were Victory Hymn.” this meticulous in their consistent 66 In my study I am also addressing scribal use of determinatives in reporting conventions at Thebes over the entire New one event in Egypt, then one might Kingdom in order to find patterns and perhaps reasons behind their use. 67 On the first Beth-Shean stela and the 64 Spalinger, “Garland of Determina- archaeological evidence for the campaign tives,” 163. at this site, see Hasel, Domination and THE BATTLE OF KADESH 77 In other cases we have the Egyp- Bibliography tian textual evidence and histori- cal geography to guide us. As we Aharoni, Y. The Land of the Bible: continue to raise new and, indeed, A Historical Geography. Trans. A.F. interdisciplinary questions, it is my Rainey. Philadelphia: Westminster, hope that our understanding will 1967. be broadened. Ahituv, S. Canaanite Toponyms Abbreviations in Ancient Egyptian Documents. : Magnes, 1984. ARE Breasted, J.H. Ancient Records of Egypt: Histori- Ahlström, G.W. Who Were the Isra- cal Documents. Vol. 1-4. elites?. Winona Lake, Ind.: Eisen- Chicago: University of brauns, 1986. Chicago, 1906. Ahlström, G.W. and D. Edelman. KRI II Kitchen, K.A. Ramesside “Merneptah’s Israel.” JNES 44 Inscriptions: Historical (1985): 59-61. and Biographical. Vol. II. Oxford: Blackwell, Alt, A. “Zur Topographie der 1979. Schlacht bei Kadeš.” ZDPV 55 RITA II Kitchen, K.A. Ramesside (1932): 1-25. Inscriptions: Translated and Annotated. Vol. II. ———. “Noch einmal zur Schlacht Oxford/Cambridge, bei Kadeš.” ZDPV 66 (1943): 1-20. Mass. Blackwell, 1996. Beckerath, J. von. Abriss der RITANC II Kitchen, K.A. Rames- Geschichte des Alten Ägypten. side Inscriptions: Trans- Munich: Oldenbourg, 1971. lated and Annotated: Notes and Comments Bietak, M. “Der Aufenthalt ‘Israels’ II. Oxford/Cambridge, in Ägypten und der Zeitpunkt der Mass. Blackwell, 1999. ‘Landnahme’ aus heutiger archäo- logischer Sicht.” ÄL 10 (2000): 179-186.

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Names Literary Bulletin Reliefs Determinatives Consistency Record Amurru 1(7) None None hc =7; ts =1 100.00% Arnaim 1(4) None None hc =7 100.00% Arzawa 4(19) 1(2) 1(1) hc =19; ts =7; [ ]=3 100.00% Ilium 2(11) 1(2) None hc =11; ts =3; NP=2 100.00% Ugarit 2(9) 1(2) 1(1) hc =9; ts =2; NP=1; [ ]=1; ///=1 100.00% Pedasia 3(15) 1(2) None hc =15; ts =3; NP=1; [ ]=1 100.00% Mysia 4(17) 1(2) None hc =17; ts =4; NP=1; [ ]=1 100.00% Mushanth 2(8) 1(2) None hc =8; ts =2; NP=1; [ ]=1 100.00% Nuges 1(5) None None hc =4; ts =2; NP=1 100.00% Naharin 2(10) 1(4) 1(7) hc =19; ts =1; [ ]=1; people =1 95.00% Retenu None None 1(2) hc =1; NP = 1 N/A Aleppo 1(7) 4(15) 1(3) hc =21; ts =5; NP=2; [ ]=1; ///=1 100.00% Hatti 16(81) 19(82) 62 hc=196; ts =20; NP=15; [ ]=11; ///=1; 99.55% garden pool [N38] sic =1 Shasu None 1(5) None captive =5; ts =3; pl =5 100.00% Shabtun 1(6) 2(10) None hc =13; ts =1; NP=1; [ ]=1; composite 92.85% river =1 sic Sherden 1(4) None None seated man/headdress =4; pl =4hc/ts 80.00% =1 Kizzuwadna 1(6) None None hc =6; ts =3 100.00% kbsw None None 1(2) hc =2; ts =2 100.00% Kode 2(8) 1(2) None hc =10; ts =1 100.00% Kadesh 9(42) 8(29) None hc =65; ts =10; NP=4; [ ]=2; ///=1;vil- 98.48% lage=1 sic Carchemish 3(16) 1(2) 2(2) hc =18; ts =3; NP=2 100.00% Keshkesh 1(5) 1(2) None hc =8; ts =5 100.00% Tunip None 2(7) None hc =7; ts =3; [ ]=2 100.00% Tharu 1(4) None None hc =3; ts=1; [ ]=1 100.00% Dardinia 3(10) 1(2) 2(2) hc =13; ts =3; [ ]=1 100.00% Djahy None 1(5) 2(3) hc =8 100.00%

Fig. 1 Comparison table of names and determinatives. %