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דוקטור לפילוסופיה Doctor of Philosophy עבודת גמר )תזה( לתואר Thesis for the degree דוקטור לפילוסופיה Doctor of Philosophy Submitted to the Scientific Council of the מוגשת למועצה המדעית של Weizmann Institute of Science מכון ויצמן למדע Rehovot, Israel רחובות, ישראל מאת By יותם אשר Yotam Asscher תארוך תקופת המעבר ברונזה/ברזל בדרום הלבנט באמצעות C 14 Dating the Bronze to Iron Age Transition in the Southern Levant: A Radiocarbon Study מנחה: :Advisor פרופ' סטיב ויינר Prof. Steve Weiner ד'ר אליזבטה בוארטו Dr. Elisabetta Boaretto אלול תשע"ה August 2015 1 Acknowledgements First and foremost, I would like to thank my two supervisors – Prof. Steve Weiner and Dr. Elisabetta Boaretto. I couldn’t have asked for better role models, having both of you as supervisors is the best thing I could have asked for enjoying my research. Steve – You are a driving force: I am constantly inspired by your vast knowledge, dedication, and tireless drive to initiate new projects. I admire your ability to get excited about any good result and your encouragement when the results aren’t looking so good. You have built an empire for on-site archaeological science that I am privileged to be part of. I’m grateful for your encouragement, support and guidance, all of which helped me develop into an “archaeo- chemist” able to ask archaeological questions and develop the research methods to solve them. Above all, I thank you for giving me opportunity to do MA in archaeology during my PhD, and for having the patience to help me develop my writing skills, which I know must not have been easy. Lastly, I’ll always cherish the moment we learned that Eppendorf is the best container to dissolve phytoliths (Friday morning 14/6/13). Lisa – You taught me everything about 14C, politics in the academic world, and how to work hard and have fun at the same time. This last aspect is very important to me: to have fun while working. Your enthusiasm for understanding the mechanisms of processes has greatly influenced my own research approach, highlighting the importance of uncovering all of the little details in a system in order to maintain the highest quality of research. And of course, there’s your messy desk method which I’ve unwittingly adopted (I think my desk shows it) and since Einstein said messy desks lead people to think more clearly, I’m pretty content with that. Lastly, I admire your courage to come to Midburn and to see the desert in a new perspective: not everyone has the open mind, energy and curiosity to do that! I’ll cherish the many moments in the corridors of Kimmel when we joked about nothing. I would also like to thank Prof Gunnar Lehman, Prof Aren Maeir, Prof Daniel Master and the PhD advisory committee for fruitful discussions and helpful comments. To Genia Mintz and Lior Regev, for their understanding even when I did some pretty crazy things. And to all the Kimmel people for making this research center a special place to come to every day. And of course, to the most important person in my life: my lovely wife Rachel for her support. 2 Title Page Acknowledgements 2 Table of Contents 3 List of abbreviations 4 Abstract (English) 5 Abstract (Hebrew) 6 Chapter 1: Introduction 7 Chapter 2: Methods 15 Chapter 3: Determining the age range of the Bronze to Iron Age transition in the 17 southern coastal Levant Chapter 3.1 – Absolute Dating of the Late Bronze to Iron Age Transition and the 17 Appearance of Philistine Culture in Qubur el-Walaydah, Southern Levant Chapter 3.2 – Radiocarbon Dating Shows an Early Appearance of Philistine 18 Cultural Material in Tell es-Safi/Gath, Philistia Chapter 4: Discussion 19 Chapter 4.1 – The LB|Ir Absolute Transition Dates in Canaan 25 Chapter 4.2 – The LB|Ir Absolute Transition Dates around the Eastern 40 Mediterranean Chapter 4.3 – Broader Implications for Associating the Early Aegean-like Pottery 49 to the Sea Peoples from the 13th century BC Main Conclusions of this Research 50 Chapter 5: Appendix 51 Chapter 5.1 - Radiocarbon Data for Survey of Bayesian Models (Chapter 4) 51 Chapter 5.2 – Towards Dating Phytoliths: a New Method to Extract the Occluded 59 Carbon for Radiocarbon Analysis Chapter 5.3 - A Rapid On-site Method for Micromorphological Block 79 Impregnation and Thin Section Preparation Chapter 5.4 - Towards Identifying Burning Events in Situ: Using Density 98 Separation to Purify Charred Micro-Particles in an Iron Age Pyrotechnological Pit at Qubur el-Walaydah, Israel Publications 117 Bibliography 117 3 List of abbreviations AMS – Accelerator mass spectrometry FTIR – Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy FWHM – Full width at half maximum pMC – Percent modern carbon BP – Before present BC – Before Common Era Et al. – et al.ii (Latin, and others) LB – Late Bronze Ir – Iron Age RTD – Rehovot AMS RTT/K – Rehovot and Tucson 4 Abstract Archaeological records of the transition from the late Bronze to Iron Age period show a major political change in the Ancient Near East. During this transition in the southern Levant, the dominant political entity of the Egyptians weakened and smaller groups became more dominant, such as the Israelites and the Philistines. The historic date of this transition is mainly based on historical records mentioning the Philistines in relation to Egyptian kings. The current archaeological/historical understanding is that the Philistines arrived after 1200 BC, and settled the region following warfare with the Egyptian kingdom. Radiocarbon dating provides an independent chronological record for this transition. However, the precision of a single measurement is significantly lowered due to wiggles in the calibration curve that form a 200 year long plateau. Our methodology of dating archaeological records before, during and after the transition, using many radiocarbon dates from secure contexts in a clear stratigraphic sequence, makes it possible to achieve high resolution dating. This methodology required us to develop new tools to study stratigraphic relations and new materials for dating to increase the number of radiocarbon dates from secure contexts. This methodology was applied in two Philistine sites: Tell es-Safi/Gath and Qubur el- Walaydah. Radiocarbon dates show the Bronze to Iron transition and the appearance of Philistine pottery began during the 13th century BC (1300-1200 BC), which is before the historical dating. These transition dates in comparison to dates available from other sites in the Southern Levant and the Ancient Near East show that the cultural transition is not contemporaneous between different sites. The inconsistency between the radiocarbon transition dates and the historical dating changes our understanding of the arrival of the Philistines to the southern Levant. The historical implications are that the early material culture that is associated to the Philistine entity should now be associated to the presence of other foreign groups of people in this region mentioned in Egyptian historical texts during the 13th century BC. It also shows that the Philistines became a political entity after foreign groups were already settled in the region. The variability of about 100 years of the Late Bronze to Iron Age transition date has implications regarding the use of relative dating in archaeology. Relative chronology assumes that similar pottery assemblages are dated to the same time, even if found in different regions. This study shows that for high resolution dating, this assumption may be incorrect. 5 תקציר תקופת המעבר בין הבורנזה המאוחרת לברזל מלווה בשינויים פוליטים בכל המזרח התיכון הקרוב. במהלך תקופה זו, ישנה ירידה בהשפעה הפוליטית של האימפריות ועלייה בהשפעה המקומית של קבוצות אתניות חדשות כמו הישראלים והפלישתים. תארוך בתקופה זו מבוסס ברובו על כתבים היסטוריים שמציינים פרעונים מצרים ופלישתים, המתארכים את המעבר בין הבורנזה המאוחרת לברזל לקצת אחרי 1200 לפנה"ס. תארוך אבסולוטי המבוסס על הדעיכה הרדיואקטיבית של פחמן 14 , הוא בעייתי בתקופה זו בגלל הרזולוציה הנמוכה שנובעת מישורת בעקומת הכיול של 200 שנה. מתודולוגיה חדשה של תארוך חומר תרבותי לפני, במהלך ואחרי תקופת המעבר, עם הרבה תאריכים ממקומות לא מופרעים, מאפשרת להשיג רזולוציה גבוהה לזמן המעבר. מתודולוגיה זו עזרה לקבוע את תאריך המעבר בשני אתרים המכילים תרבות פלישתית בישראל: קובור אל- וולדיה ותל צאפי/גת. התאריכים מאתרים אלו מראים שקרמיקה "פלישתית" הופיעה כבר במהלך המאה ה13- לפנה"ס, לפני התארוך ההסטורי של הגעת הפלישתים, וגם שתאריכי המעבר התרבותי בין אתרים שונים שונים ב100- שנה. תוצאות אלו נתמכות בסקר ספרות של תאריכי פחמן 14 מאתרים רלוונטים בכל המזרח התיכון הקרוב. חוסר ההתאמה בין תאריכי פחמן 14 והתארוך ההסטורי משפיעים על הבנת הגעת הפלישתים לאזור המזרח התיכון. אחת ההשלכות היא ששיוך הקרמיקה ה"פלישתית" לפלישתים לא מדוייקת, ושקירמיקה זו צריכה להשתייך לזרים אחרים שהיו באזור בזמן זה. שיוך התרבות החומרית עם הקבוצה האתנית הפלישתית מבוסס על שילוב הממצאים הארכיאולוגים עם מקורות מקראיים, שאמינותם ההסטורית מוטלת בספק. כאשר משייכים את הקרמיקה ה"פלישתית" לזרים באופן כללי )כי הקרמיקה בהחלט לא מקומית(, יש התאמה בין המקורות ההיסטורים לתאריכי פחמן 14, כיון שיש עדויות להגעת זרים לאזור המזרח התיכון בתקופת המאה ה13- לפנה"ס. אחת ההשלכות היא שהפלישתים הפכו ליישות פוליטית דומיננטית לאחר שזרים כבר היו באזור. השלכות ארכיאולוגיות נוספות הם בנוגע לתארוך יחסי, המבוססת על ההנחה שקרמיקה דומה בצורתה וסגנונה צריכה להיות מתוארכת לאותו הזמן. תארוך תקופת המעבר מתארכת את הזמן בו היה מעבר סגנוני בין קרמיקה המשוייכת לברונזה ולברזל. תארוך זה בוצע בין אתרים שונים, והשוני בין האתרים הוא כ100- שנה. תוצאות אלו מראות שההנחה שקרמיקה דומה מבחינת הסגנון מתוארכת לאותו הזמן היא לא מדוייקת בפחות מ100- שנה ויכולה לשמש רק כקוים מנחים בהבנת הזמן של התקופות השונות ולא כשיטת תארוך מדוייקת. 6 Chapter 1: Introduction The Late Bronze to Iron Age transition at the end of the second millennium BC, involved complex cultural, social and political changes in the eastern Mediterranean region. During and after this transition, dominant political entities in the Ancient Near East, such as the Hittites, Cypriots and Egyptians, weakened and disappeared from the historical and archaeological records (Ward and Joukowsky 1992; Gitin et al.
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