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Free Roaming Dog Population, Community Perception and Control of Dog Related Rabies: the Indian Story

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Free Roaming Dog Population, Community Perception and Control of Dog Related Rabies: the Indian Story Free roaming dog population, community perception and control of dog related rabies: the Indian story Harish Kumar Tiwari A thesis presented in fulfilment of the requirement for the Degree of Doctor of Philosophy School of Veterinary Medicine Murdoch University Western Australia September 2019 Declaration I declare this thesis is my own account of my research and contains as its main content work which has not previously been submitted for a degree at any tertiary education institution. Harish Kumar Tiwari ii Abstract Most human deaths from rabies in India are caused by the bites of free roaming dogs (FRD), however studies on the demography of FRD and the community perception of rabies and FRD are virtually lacking in the country. This study was conducted in rural and urban India to: recommend a reliable enumeration method for FRD; describe the demography of FRD; assess the knowledge, attitudes and practices (KAP) of communities towards rabies and FRD; and assess the KAP of rural para-medical staff on dog-bite wound management. The Application SuperDuplicates online tool was found to reliably enumerate the FRD population size with minimal resources. In the rural site fewer dogs were sighted within 20 metres of garbage points (OR 0.3) than more distant; while in the urban site more FRD were sighted near garbage points (OR 1.6) than away from these sites. The re-sight probability (β = 0.3) and de-sexing status (β = -0.07) of FRD had a positive and negative influence, respectively on urban FRD forming groups. The tendency to form groups in the rural FRD was influenced by frequency of being re-sighted (β = -0.1) and presence of garbage within 20m (β = 0.2). The FRD in the rural setting that were sighted in groups had a larger home-range (>0.11 ha) than those sighted alone (≤0.11 ha). Rural respondents with a smaller family size (OR 2.1) were more knowledgeable about rabies, than those with bigger families and older respondents (OR 2.6) had a more positive attitude towards FRD than did younger respondents (<35 years). Urban respondents from high/middle socio-economic sections were more knowledgeable (OR 3.03) with positive attitudes and practices (OR 3.4) towards rabies than those from lower socio-economic sections. Urban households containing children (≤ 14 years) (OR 0.5) had a lower level iii of knowledge about rabies compared to households with older or no children. Experienced and graduate paramedical staff were more aware (OR 3.4) and adopted adequate practices (OR 5.6) regarding the management of dog-bite wounds than less experienced or non-graduate staff. It is recommended that control of dog-related rabies in India requires: enumeration and interpretation of the demographic characteristics such as tendency to form groups and the spread of home ranges of FRD to strategically adopt mass-immunisation; concerted efforts to promote knowledge and adoption of healthier practices in rural communities; educational outreach directed towards the lower socio-economic sections in the urban community; and the development and implementation of compulsory training modules for rural paramedical staff on dog-bite wound management. iv Table of Contents Declaration ....................................................................................................................... ii Abstract ........................................................................................................................... iii Acknowledgements ....................................................................................................... xiv Abbreviations ............................................................................................................... xvi List of Figures ................................................................................................................ xx List of Tables ............................................................................................................... xxii Chapter One .................................................................................................................... 1 Literature review ............................................................................................................. 1 Prologue ................................................................................................................ 2 1.1 Introduction ..................................................................................................... 2 1.1.1 A history of a shared environment ................................................... 2 1.1.2 Domestication of dogs ...................................................................... 3 1.1.3 Dogs and zoonoses ........................................................................... 4 1.2 Rabies .............................................................................................................. 5 1.2.1 Definition and Aetiology ................................................................. 5 1.2.2 Rhabdovirus: structure and characteristics....................................... 5 1.2.3 Transmission .................................................................................... 6 1.2.4 Incubation ......................................................................................... 7 1.2.5 Epidemiology ................................................................................... 8 1.2.6 Diagnosis .......................................................................................... 9 1.2.7 Prevention and control ................................................................... 11 1.3 Burden of Rabies in India ............................................................................. 14 1.3.1 Mortality ......................................................................................... 14 1.3.2 Economic burden of rabies in India ............................................... 15 1.3.3 Burden in DALYs .......................................................................... 16 v 1.3.4 Burden due to the loss of tourism .................................................. 17 1.4 Population dynamics of FRD in India ........................................................... 19 1.4.1 Domestication of dogs in India compared with Western countries 19 1.4.2 Carrying capacity and estimates of the dog population in India .... 20 1.5 Population size estimation of dogs ................................................................ 24 1.5.1 Enumeration of owned dogs........................................................... 24 1.5.2 Enumeration of unowned or FRD .................................................. 25 1.6 FRD enumeration techniques ........................................................................ 26 1.6.1 Direct counts .................................................................................. 26 1.6.2 Capture – recapture studies ............................................................ 28 1.6.3 Regression method ......................................................................... 30 1.6.4 Beck’s method ................................................................................ 31 1.6.5 Methods based on variations/modifications of capture-recapture procedures ............................................................................................... 32 1.6.6 Method based on distances ............................................................ 36 1.7 Dog demographics and rabies control ........................................................... 39 1.8 Home ranges and Social behaviour of FRD .................................................. 42 1.9 Studies on Knowledge, attitudes and practices (KAP) of rural and urban communities on rabies, free roaming dogs (FRD) and their impact ................... 45 1.10 Strategies for the prevention and control of rabies in India ........................ 48 1.11 Aims, scope and relevance of the present study ......................................... 49 1.12 Objectives of the current study ................................................................... 51 1.14 The layout and format of this thesis ............................................................ 51 Chapter Two .................................................................................................................. 54 A comparative study of enumeration techniques for free roaming dogs in rural Baramati, District Pune, India ..................................................................................... 54 Preface ................................................................................................................. 55 Abstract ............................................................................................................... 59 vi 2.1 Introduction ................................................................................................... 60 2.2 Materials and Methods .................................................................................. 62 2.2.1 Study area ....................................................................................... 62 2.2.2 Field methodology ......................................................................... 62 2.2.3 Animal identification and capture histories ................................... 64 2.2.4 Data analysis .................................................................................. 65 2.2.5 Population estimation methods ...................................................... 65 2.2.6 Capture-recapture (C-R) techniques .............................................
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