Geography and STEM

Susan Caldis Director, AGTA and President of GTA NSW Dr Grant Kleeman Director, Immediate Past Chair and Treasurer, AGTA

One of the questions being asked in schools is The status of Geography vis-à-vis STEM is the extent to which Geography can be considered ambiguous for two principal reasons. a STEM subject. While such a question might be driven by those strategic opportunists seeking 1. There continues to be debate about what to elevate the status of the subject within the actually constitutes STEM. Does it, for school’s curriculum, or as a means of leveraging example, include Geographical Information an increase in funding, it is a question worth Systems (GIS) and Cartography? Does the serious attention. field of Geosciences (and by definition most of physical geography) qualify as STEM? This paper argues that Geography has the 2. Geography is a broadly interdisciplinary potential to play an important role in advancing discipline that now embraces at least four the objectives of STEM (Science, Technology, sub disciplines – two of which (Physical or Engineering, and Mathematics) in the Australian Environmental Geography) are clearly STEM. educational context. In doing so, Geography’s The other two, which are firmly grounded place within the humanities is in no way in the humanities, are Human and Cultural diminished. The humanities remain central to our Geography. understanding of the social world in which we live. It also provides important insights into the context within which science gains its significance In search of definitional clarity and from which it draws its authority. Geography, Any discussion regarding Geography’s given that it straddles both the physical and contribution to STEM requires some degree of human sciences, can advance both the humanities contextual and definitional clarification. What and STEM. is Geography and how has it been traditionally positioned within the total school curriculum? STEM is defined as a national strategy promoting a cross-disciplinary, multidisciplinary and Geography has been defined by Australia’s integrated approach to learning. The focus National Committee for Geographical Sciences on STEM aims to build Australia’s future (2018) as a wide-ranging and dynamic discipline competitiveness in a rapidly changing global where phenomena from the natural world, social economy through using the lenses of STEM world, and the humanities are integrated and to develop individual and national capacity to studied through the perspectives of place, space, respond to challenges around productivity and and environment. As a discipline, Geography economic wellbeing. There is an emphasis on provides us with an understanding about the critical and creative thinking to solve real-world world around us, for example through exploring challenges (Australian Curriculum, Assessment the diversity of environments, places, peoples and Reporting Authority (ACARA), 2016; and cultures, the inequalities existing within and Education Council, 2015; Office of the Chief between places, dependence on the environment Scientist, 2013, 2014; Seikmann & Korbel, 2016). for survival, attachment to place, and connections In short, the focus on STEM is being driven by an between places and people throughout the world. economic imperative. Furthermore, Geography offers students the opportunity to develop literacy and numeracy The emphasis on STEM is not unique to the skills in context together with an understanding Australian educational context. In the United about the significance of the environment, a set of States of America, for example, authorities have personal capabilities including critical and creative assessed STEM as being critical to the future thinking, and distinctive ways of thinking (Maude, growth of the economy and essential for the 2019). nation’s global competitiveness. It has also been identified as a field in which American students Implicit in this definition of Geography is the don’t excel. As a result, funding has been integrating nature of the discipline. Geography increased for STEM, often at the cost of support spans both the physical and human sciences. for other subject areas. As such, it provides a unique conceptual lens

GEOGRAPHICAL EDUCATION VOLUME 32, 2019 5 through which to study, and better understand, a for the National Committee for Geographical diverse range of physical and human phenomena. Sciences, a number of science-based topics covered by the Australian Curriculum: Geography In terms of its curriculum positioning, Geography (and its HASS replacement) but not in the is, at a national scale, typically identified as Australian Curriculum: Science, or not at the a subject within the Humanities and Social same depth. These topics are also identified in Sciences (HASS) learning area with a focus on Geography: Shaping Australia’s Future (National inspiring curiosity and wonder about the diversity Committee for Geographical Sciences, 2018). of the world’s places, peoples, cultures and environments, and encouraging active citizenship These topics include: towards creating a socially just and sustainable future (ACARA, 2013a; Ministerial Council on • climate types (Year 3) – in Science the only Education, Employment, Training and Youth mention of climate is in relation to climate Affairs (MCEETYA), 2008; National Committee for change; Geographical Sciences, 2018). • vegetation types and the effects of vegetation on the environment (Year 4) – vegetation is HASS is defined in the Australian Curriculum not mentioned in Science; structure as a learning area comprised of several subjects including Geography, History, Civics • quantity and variability of Australia’s water and Citizenship, and Economics and Business. resources compared with other continents Learning focuses on consideration of future (Year 7); challenges through the study of human behaviour • nature of water scarcity and ways of and interaction in social, cultural, environmental, overcoming it (Year 7); economic, historical and political contexts, from • causes, impacts and responses to an the personal to global scale (ACARA, 2013b; atmospheric or hydrological hazard (Year 7); MCEETYA, 2008). It should be noted that across • causes, impacts and responses to a states and territories the name and inclusion of geomorphological hazard (Year 8); HASS-identified subjects varies slightly. • characteristics and distribution of biomes An integrated curriculum refers to the purposeful (Year 9); connection or links being made between what • human alteration of biomes to produce food, is being learnt in one subject with another – i.e. industrial materials and fibres (Year 9); meaningful teaching, learning and assessment • environmental, economic and technological activities are designed across several subjects factors that influence crop yields in Australia or disciplines (Dowden, 2014; Smith & Lovat, and across the world (Year 9) – Science has 2006). An integrated curriculum allows complex this elaboration in Year 8 describing how real-world problems to be solved through critical technologies have been applied to modern and creative thinking using a cross-disciplinary or farming techniques to improve yields and multi-subject lens (Acedo & Hughes, 2014). sustainability; The literature suggests that Geography provides • challenges to food production, including land a bridge between the social sciences and and water degradation, shortage of fresh biophysical sciences but is characterised by the water, competing land uses, and climate analytical, critical and speculative methodologies change for Australia and other areas of the of the humanities through determining the impact world (Year 9); of place, space and environment on the human • capacity of the world’s environments to condition (ACARA, 2013b; Sorensen, 2009). As sustainably feed the projected future global the national curriculum development process population (Year 9) – the only mention of continued, and further research emerged, the agriculture in the Science curriculum is this Foundation to Year 10 Australian Curriculum: elaboration in Year 8: describing the impact of Geography was written to have specific points plant cloning techniques (asexual production) of connection and complementarity to the in agriculture such as horticulture, fruit Foundation to Year 10 Australian Curriculum: production and vineyards; Science and the Foundation to Year 10 Australian Curriculum: Mathematics (Caldis, 2019). • human-induced environmental changes that challenge sustainability (Year 10) – Science has this elaboration in Year 7: considering Science-based content unique to the how human activity in the community can Australian Curriculum: Geography have positive and negative effects on the Alaric Maude, the Lead Writer of the Shape Paper sustainability of ecosystems; and Australian Curriculum: Geography (ACARA, 2011), • study of environmental change in a particular identified, in an undated briefing paper prepared type of environment (Year 10).

6 GEOGRAPHICAL EDUCATION VOLUME 32, 2019 Note that the Geography content is from content • Learning to construct, interpret and use descriptions, which are mandatory while the maps helps to develop children’s spatial Science content is in elaborations, which are not. intelligence. It is now well established that this is a separate type of intelligence, additional Some scientific concepts and terms are taught to mathematical intelligence and verbal in the Geography curriculum but not in Science. intelligence (Ness, Farenga, & Garofalo, These include: 2017). Spatial intelligence, or the ability to think spatially, is important in everyday life, • climate; but is also used in mathematics, several • evaporation and evapotranspiration; fields of science, architecture, engineering, • water balance; urban planning and geography. Geography • vegetation; has a significant role to play in developing these spatial skills. Liben (2007, p. 221), for • biomass; example, argues that ‘geography education • biome; in general, and map education in particular, • net primary productivity; and can have an important place in developing • land and water degradation. spatial thinkers’. Mapping is therefore much more about developing spatial thinking skills Maude, in the same briefing paper, identifies than learning how to find places and navigate a number of skills featured in the Geography from one place to another. Spatial thinking is curriculum that are mathematical or technological. defined as: These include: … the use of spatial concepts, spatial • representing data in a range of appropriate representations, and processes of forms, for example, climate graphs, reasoning to conceptualize and solve compound column graphs, population problems. Following this definition, spatial pyramids, tables, field sketches and annotated thinking involves the ability to visualize diagrams, with and without the use of digital and interpret data about space that is and spatial technologies (Years 7 and 8); then encoded and stored in memory. • representing multi-variable data in a range of This definition emphasizes language appropriate forms, for example scatter plots, (knowing and using spatial concepts such tables, field sketches and annotated diagrams, as location, distance, scale); being able with and without the use of digital and spatial to understand spatial representations technologies (Years 9 and 10); such as maps, graphics, and diagrams; and the application of these to problem • representing spatial distribution of different solving, both personal and academic. types of geographical phenomena by This is related to the development constructing appropriate maps at different of a spatial habit of mind. This is the scales that conform to cartographic predilection to think spatially and to apply conventions, using spatial technologies as the skills required to engage in reasoning appropriate (Years 7 and 8); with concepts of space and visual • representing spatial distribution of representations. (Bednarz 2018, p. 3) geographical phenomena by constructing special purpose maps that conform to Also worthy of note is the inquiry-based cartographic conventions, using spatial foundations of the Australian Curriculum: technologies as appropriate (Years 9 and 10); Geography (and the Geography components of • interpreting geographical data and other HASS). This methodological framework parallels information, using qualitative and quantitative that underpinning scientific inquiry, commonly methods, and digital and spatial technologies referred to as the scientific method. The step- as appropriate, to identify and propose by-step approach progresses from identifying explanations for spatial distributions, patterns and defining a problem or issue, formulating a and trends, and infer relationships (Years 7 tentative hypothesis, gathering data to test the and 8); hypothesis, and interpreting results objectively. The skills set developed by students engaged in • interpreting and analysing multi-variable data inquiry are generic in the sense that they can be and other geographical information using applied in a range of contexts, including those qualitative and quantitative methods, and beyond school. digital and spatial technologies as appropriate, to make generalisations and inferences, Geographical inquiry is defined in the Australian propose explanations for patterns, trends, Curriculum: Geography as “the process by which relationships and anomalies, and predict students learn about and deepen their holistic outcomes (Years 9 and 10). understanding of their world”. It is described as

GEOGRAPHICAL EDUCATION VOLUME 32, 2019 7 involving individual or group investigations that studying a related discipline. There is, as Hay start with geographical questions and proceed argues, a degree of “vocational and economic through the collection, evaluation, analysis and pragmatism” in the decisions made by students, interpretation of information to the development reinforced by the encouragement of the political of conclusions and proposals for action. The class and parents. Governments see STEM- inquiries undertaken may vary in scale and related subjects as central to the future economic geographical context. wellbeing of nations. This, at least in part, is driven by the need to remain internationally The skills students deploy in these inquiries competitive in an increasingly integrated global or investigations, both within the classroom economy. and during fieldwork, are developed from K (Foundation) to Year 12. They include formulating The focus on STEM has resulted in a decline in questions and research plans; recording and public and private funding of the humanities, presenting data skills; and using a variety of especially in the area of research. At the same spatial technologies. In applying these skills, time, funding for mathematical and physical students learn to think critically about the sciences, biological sciences, medical sciences methods used to obtain, represent, analyse and and engineering has grown (Hay, 2016). This shift interpret information, and communicate findings. in funding has been cheered on by conservative commentators who fuel the devaluing of the By Years 7 and 8, students are able to present humanities for their own ideological ends. findings, arguments and ideas in a range of communication forms selected to suit a particular Maude (2019) argues that the lack of formal audience and purpose, using geographical recognition of Geography as a STEM subject is terminology and digital technologies as a contributing factor to the declining student appropriate. By Years 9 and 10, students progress candidature in the discipline and a confused from the presentation of ideas to the formulation understanding about rigorous career pathways of explanations. The means of communication related to Geography. To counter this, the National used is selected based on its effectiveness and its Committee for Geographical Sciences (2018) suitability to the audience and purpose. suggests that the discipline’s profile should be The stages of the investigations students extended beyond the humanities and that it be complete are: observing, questioning and formally acknowledged that its significant science planning; collecting, recording, evaluating content qualifies geography as a partial STEM and representing; interpreting analysing and subject. An expanded lens of understanding about concluding; communicating; and reflecting Geography will increase its visibility, integrity and responding. As noted above, these stages and profile. In so doing, geographical knowledge mirror the inquiry sequence applied in science. and understanding will be enhanced within the In this regard Geography can be seen to make Australian population, together with a greater an important contribution to the development of appreciation about the important university these STEM-related competencies. pathways and career trajectories offered by the study of geography to support the productivity and relevance of Australia in a changing world In defence of the Geography’s status and (Caldis, 2019). positioning within the humanities The study of Geography in schools and at Any discussion of Geography’s contribution to university requires students to increasingly STEM in no way diminishes the discipline’s status develop their capacity to access, use and interpret, within the social sciences and humanities. This is and communicate through a range of constantly an important point to make because, as Professor emerging technologies related to datasets and Iain Hay (2016) notes, the humanities are under GIS. Augmented reality sandboxes provide an assault from an increasingly utilitarian worldview example of how a technology-enabled teaching and from conservatives preoccupied with cultural tool can be used to connect learning about terrain conflict. The latter argue that the humanities and topography (Geography) with atmospheric have been captured by the progressive left who see them as a vehicle for the transformation of processes and climate (Science, Geography), soil society. attributes and crop yields (Science, Agriculture, Mathematics), and infrastructure considerations The trend towards a more utilitarian educational for a community (Engineering, Geography, environment is reflected in the choices students Mathematics). Geospatial technologies allow make. Many students choose vocationally-focused students to show connections between subjects, degrees that hold the offer of financially rewarding demonstrate their holistic interpretations about careers. This is contrary to the flexibility of the place and spatial patterns, and make predictions humanities and skills set developed by those about future environmental events.

8 GEOGRAPHICAL EDUCATION VOLUME 32, 2019 The Federally-established Science and Research sciences, social sciences and the humanities. Priorities encourage users of GIS-related It emphasises spatial thinking and the creation technologies and data to make connections of new knowledge via the study of places. It between food, soil and water, transport, energy recognises the fundamental importance of the and resources, health, and population to environment to human welfare and promotes develop innovative solutions to the so-called an awareness of the interconnections between wicked problems of a connected world. Such phenomena and processes both within places and technologies are currently being introduced for across space. Places and people are increasingly use in schools, within Geography classrooms interconnected globally, and society’s challenges and across STEM education projects. Therefore, require answers that integrate different fields of a formalised statement where Geography also knowledge. In a world in which inequalities within becomes recognised as a STEM education and between places can threaten social cohesion, subject will promote the development of the so- and where the pressure of human impacts on the called 21st Century skills or general capabilities. environment is a growing concern, Geography has Understanding Geography to be within the key much to offer. learning area of HASS, and as part of the STEM education repertoire, will allow educators and References students to grasp what is both new and important for effective participation in, and contribution to, Acedo, C., & Hughes, C. (2014). Principles for a rapidly changing and globally connected world. learning and competencies in the 21st century (Caldis, 2019; GTANSW-ACT, 2018; Kerski, 2015; curriculum. 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The humanities cast a from https://www.australiancurriculum.edu. light on the ideas and practices that shape the au/f-10-curriculum/humanities-and-social- nature of the society in which we live. They allow sciences/ us to better share experiences and gain an insight Australian Curriculum, Assessment and Reporting into the lived experience of others. They enrich Authority. (2013b). Humanities and social lives by nurturing creativity. They make our lives sciences learning area. Retrieved from https:// more rewarding and enjoyable. They provide us www.australiancurriculum.edu.au/f-10- with the skills that enable us to make meaning curriculum/humanities-and-social-sciences/ from all that is around us – skills that will hold us in good stead in an unpredictable future. Australian Curriculum, Assessment and Reporting Authority. (2016). ACARA STEM Connections The humanities complement and nurture STEM in Project Report. Retrieved from https://www. a variety of ways. They provide, for instance, an australiancurriculum.edu.au/resources/stem/ understanding of the context within which science gains its significance and from which it draws Bednarz, S. W. (2018). Spatial thinking: A its authority (Hay, 2016). In a rapidly changing powerful tool for educators to empower and technology-focused world, the humanities youth, improve society, and change the provide balance and perspective. They strengthen world. Boletim Paulista de Geografia,99 , our worldview and broaden our intellectual 1–20. Retrieved from https://agb.org.br/ foundations. They promote critical thinking skills publicacoes/index.php/boletim-paulista/article/ and creativity, enhance our communication and view/1458. problem-solving capacity, and contribute to the Caldis, S. (2019). STEM or HASS: Where is development of engaged citizens and thinkers Geography – enabled or constrained? (Reiter, 2017). 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