Cetacean Behavioral Responses to Noise Exposure Generated by Seismic Surveys: How to Mitigate Better? Clara Monaco1,2,*, Jesús M

ANNALS OF GEOPHYSICS, 59, 4, 2016, S0436; doi:10.4401/ag-7089

Cetacean behavioral responses to noise exposure generated by seismic surveys: how to mitigate better? Clara Monaco1,2,*, Jesús M. Ibáñez3,4, Francisco Carrión3,4, L. Mario Tringali1

1 Ketos Cultural Scientiﬁc Association, Catania, Italy 2 Università di Catania, Dipartimento di Agricoltura, Alimentazione e Ambiente, Catania, Italy 3 Instituto Andaluz de Geofísica, Universidad de Granada, Granada, Spain 4 Istituto Nazionale di Geoﬁsica e Vulcanologia, Sezione di Catania, Osservatorio Etneo, Catania, Italy

Article history Received January 12, 2016; accepted June 3, 2016. Subject classiﬁcation: Seismic surveys, Cetaceans, Behavioral responses, Monitoring, Mitigation protocol.

ABSTRACT human-generated that significantly contribute to noise Cetaceans use sound in many contexts, such as in social interactions, as in the marine environment. well as to forage and to react in dangerous situations. Little information Seismic surveys are characterized by intermittent exists to describe how they respond physically and behaviorally to in- sound pulses that are more intense than the continuous tense and long-term noise levels. Effects on cetaceans from seismic survey noise emitted by most industrial noises in the ocean, with activities need to be understood in order to determine detailed acoustic peak frequency bands overlapping those used by cetacean exposure guidelines and to apply appropriated mitigation measures. in many contexts, such as in social interactions, as well This study examines direct behavioral responses of cetaceans in the as to forage and in dangerous situations [Finneran et al. southern Mediterranean Sea during seismic surveys with large airgun 2000; Southall et al. 2007; Heide-Jørgensen et al. 2013]. arrays (volume up to 5200 ci) used in the TOMO-ETNA active seismic Noise generated by seismic surveys may overlap experiment of summer 2014. Wide angle seismic and multi-channel with the low frequency sounds of baleen whales, mask- seismic surveys had carried out with refraction and reflection seismic ing long distance communication between individuals methods, producing about 25,800 air-gun shots. Visual monitoring un- and precluding the detection of other feeble sounds dertaken in the 26 daylights of seismic exploration adopted the protocol [Evans and Nice 1996]. Moreover odontocetes generally of the Joint Nature Conservation Committee. Data recorded were ana- show some form of avoidance during survey operations lyzed to examine effects on cetaceans. Sighting rates, distance and ori- by vacating the area [Stone and Tasker 2006; Castellote entation from the airguns were compared for different volume categories et al. 2012]. Temporal avoidance of cetaceans could be of the airgun arrays. Results show that cetaceans can be disturbed by also a consequence of avoidance reaction of fish during seismic survey activities, especially during particularly events. Here we seismic surveys. These factors may induce in cetaceans propose many integrated actions to further mitigate this exposure and different stress responses and behavioral alterations implications for management. [Gordon et al. 2004] but little information exists to describe how they respond physically and behaviorally 1. Introduction to intense and long-term noise levels. Strengthen miti- Seismic surveys used for monitoring reserves of gation measures and investigate their effectiveness is an fossil-fuel and also to study tectonics and dynamics of urgent need to safeguard cetaceans and the entire ma- the seafloor crust, are anthropogenic noise sources that rine environment. Effects from seismic survey activities may interfere with natural functions of cetaceans, pro- need to be better understood in order to regulate de- ducing different behavioral reactions in relation to the tailed acoustic exposure guidelines and to apply miti- context, the species and their sex or age [Gordon et al. gation measures appropriated to species and areas of 2004; Hildebrand 2005]. investigation. For this reason, direct observation is very Marine mammals have a great ability to perceive important to detect cetaceans and take action when biologically important sounds in water, but this capac- necessary. Visual monitoring can ensure that the source ity is endanger in presence of acoustic disturbance is shut down whenever an animal is observed within or

S0436 MONACO ET AL. about to enter the safety zone, furthermore it allows to was included in the MEDiterranean SUpersite Volca- understand behavioral boundaries of a population in noes (MED-SUV) and EUROFLEETS-2 European proj- relation to the space, the environment and certain life ects [Coltelli et al. 2016, in this volume; Ibáñez et al. functions that can result in response to a losing access 2016a, 2016b, in this volume]. to its optimal conditions [Stone 2000; Beckman 2012; In this study, we examine data recorded during the Stone 2015]. Observing cetaceans during seismic sur- TOMO-ETNA research cruise in order to investigate fur- veys is essential to develop precautionary approaches ther the effects of seismic airgun activity on cetaceans. in order to undertake these, following appropriate reg- The expedition has provided both shooting times and ulations as mitigation measures. Dedicating right effort moments with airguns silent, so it was possible to com- and tools to monitor populations it is possible to col- pare the different phases of firing occurred. lect important information on animals, improving the capability to understand phenomena, predict potential 2. The area effects, and minimize impacts in the future [Stone 2015; Transects carried out for the research have affected Castellote and Llorens 2016]. Comparing different be- the Ionian Sea, closeness to the eastern coast of Sicily, havioral responses during periods of airguns-firing and and the southern Tyrrhenian Sea, in the Aeolian Islands periods when airguns are silent allow also investigating area (Figure 1). These zones have a high level of primary short-term responses [Gordon et al. 2004]. and secondary productivity despite they are subjected In summer 2014, the Granada University (Spain) to a strong anthropogenic impact deriving from human and the National Institute of Geophysics and Volcanol- activities such as different categories of fishing, coastal ogy (INGV) - Section of Catania (Italy), in collaboration engineering, marine traffic, waste and litter dumping, with the Italian Navy and other academic institutions, causing habitat alteration, resources over-exploitation and conducted the active seismic experiment TOMO-ETNA noise pollution [Halpern et al. 2008; Vindigni et al. 2016]. which has foreseen seismic surveys on eastern Sicily Thermosalinograph parameters recorded in the and Aeolian Islands (Italy) in order to investigate tec- period June 25 - July 18, 2014, on board the “Sarmiento tonic structures extending from the southern Tyrrhen- de Gamboa” oceanographic vessel (CSIC-UTM, Spain), ian Sea towards the Ionian Sea and their interaction indicate the following minimum and maximum values with the Etna volcano plumbing system. The research of water in Ionian and Tyrrhenian Sea: sigma T 25-27.5 sinU; salinity 37.1-38.2 psu; temperature 19.2-26.8°C. From the morphological point of view, the area is highly heterogeneous. Within the volcanic archipelago of the Aeolian Islands a number of submarine secondary eruptive centers rise from depths ranging between −400 and −1100 m. Submerged shelves are also located along the western flanks of Vulcano and Lipari, the western and northern flanks of Alicudi, the north-eastern and the south-western flanks of Stromboli, on the whole submerged summit of Panarea and in most of the coastal sec- tor of Filicudi and Salina. Narrower in- sular shelf borders the islands coastline (down to 100-120 m b.s.l.). An irregular seabed is characterized by alternating ridges and gullies that extend to −2000 m depth, and depressions bound by es- carpments and shallow-water saddle with minimum depth at −50 m that connects different volcanic edifices. In the Aeolian Arc are also recognizable Figure 1. Map of the area under study with covered transects. outcropping volcanic features and prod-

2 CETACEANS’ RESPONSES TO SEISMIC SURVEYS

the presence of coastal and pelagic species of cetaceans, some of which are presents in the International Union for Conservation of Nature (IUCN) red list and are protected by many international agreements such as the Agreement on the Conservation of Cetaceans in the Black Sea Mediterranean Sea and Contiguous Atlantic Area (ACCOBAMS; 1996), the Habitats Directive (Coun- cil Directive 92/43/EEC of May 21, 1992), the Conven- tion on the Conservation of Migratory Species of Wild Animals (Bonn Convention or CMS; 1979), the Conven- tion on the Conservation of European Wildlife and Nat- ural Habitats (Bern Convention; 1979), the Convention Figure 2. Fin whale during survey in Ionian Sea. (Photo by Ketos for the Protection of the Mediterranean Sea Against Pol- association). lution (Barcelona Convention; 1976), the Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Fauna ucts of recent submarine eruptive activity. However, and Flora (Washington Convention; 1975), the United smaller-scale mass-wasting processes on the submarine Nations Environment Programme (UNEP; 1972). flanks of all the islands contribute to transport large Fin whale (Balaenoptera physalus; Figure 2) is pres- amounts of volcaniclastic sediments towards the base ent along the north and eastern coasts of Sicily, espe- of the volcanic edifices [Romagnoli et al. 2013]. cially during the summer period, because of the After the semi-enclosed basin of the Messina passage through the Strait of Messina [Tringali et al. Channel reaching up to −1000 m of depth, on the Ion- 2008; Sciacca et al. 2015]. Bottlenose dolphin (Tursiops ian side, from Cape Taormina to Riposto, the coast is truncatus; Figures 3 and 4) occupies the whole coastal characterized by pebble beaches interposed with bays strip, partly in conjunction with the striped dolphin and inlets in which imposing calcareous cliffs run out. (Stenella coeruleoalba) that makes also daily offshore mi- Here, the continental shelf is almost absent and the bot- grations. In the proximity of the continental slope there tom slopes steeply down to −100 m within a mile from the coast. The central region, up to Ognina di Catania, presents high depths closeness its jagged coastline com- posed by vulcanites and igneous rocks. Because of a large continental shelf, the southern area of the Gulf of Catania is distinguished by the wide sandy strip of the Playa littoral zone and shallow-water with maximum depth at −20 m until 3 miles from the coast. The platform has a narrow and elongated shape, it slopes quietly up to about −90 m, beyond the slope in- creases. In the far south of the area, close to Brucoli, the continental shelf shrinks and limestone cliff of the Figure 3. Bottlenose dolphin in the Gulf of Catania with Etna vol- carbonatic Hyblean Plateau prevails. Offshore the Gulf cano shape. (Photo by Ketos association). of Catania the bottom extends from −1000 to −2000 m depth. The variety of environments described, in particular the presence of a reduced continental shelf and submarine canyons in the Tyrrhenian Sea; the rivers that flow into the Ionian Sea (Alcantara, Fiumefreddo, Simeto, San Leonardo); upwelling and currents that arise from hydrodynamic phenomena that occur in the Messina Channel, involving Aeolian water and generating a residual flow in favor of the eastern coast of Sicily; positively affect the biological richness of the area and help to maintain an equitable distribution of marine life during the year [Amore et al. 1982; Cognetti et al. 2008; Carrà et al. 2014]. Figure 4. Bottlenose dolphin mother and cub in Ionian sea during This, together with the other factors, favours also summer. (Photo by Ketos association).

3 MONACO ET AL. are the Risso’s dolphin (Grampus griseus; Figure 5), the 3. Methodology Cuvier’s beaked whale (Ziphius cavirostris) and rarely Data were collected during the TOMO-ETNA ex- also the pelagic common dolphin (Delphinus delphis; periment where seismic explorations at Etna volcano’s Figure 6) [Tringali et al. 2008] but most present in Aeo- roots and surrounding areas were conducted from June lian region. Bioacoustics data of the National Institute 24 to July 20, 2014. for Nuclear Physics (INFN-LNS) demonstrate the pres- The seismic survey vessel “Sarmiento de Gamboa” ence of sperm whale (Physeter macrocephalus; Figure 7) using airguns to release pulses of compressed air into all year round, especially offshore [Internullo et al. the water column, was capable to determine substrata 2008; Caruso et al. 2015]. structure due to the creation of sound pressure waves capable to penetrate the seafloor. The escaping com- ponent of the generated compressed air contains en- ergy converted to sound thereby generating a seismic signal capable to travel into the Earth’s surface. The research required wide angle seismic (WAS) and multi-channel seismic (MCS) surveys using refraction and reflection seismic methods. Airguns had a total volume up to 5200 cubic inches generated at about 2000 p.s.i. (1.382 ×107 Pa) pressure. The array was com- posed by two batteries, each having 8 guns (Sercel, G- GUN II). During WAS surveys they were kept at a Figure 5. Risso’s dolphin during survey offshore the Gulf of Cata- depth of 15 m below the sea level and the shots were nia. (Photo by Ketos association). carried every 90 seconds. For MCS surveys the depth was 7,5 m and the range shots 20 seconds [Ibáñez et al. 2014; Ibáñez et al. 2016a, 2016b, this volume]. During 26 survey days on board the vessel, we conducted visual marine mammals monitoring, traveling at a speed of less than 5 knots. Observations were aimed to ensure the implementation of the Joint Na- ture Conservation Committee (JNCC) guidelines, in order to reduce the potential risk of injury or death to cetaceans in close proximity to blasting operations to negligible levels. Before the start of the experiment, the scientific team (mainly students and geophysicists), has been subjected to an anonymous questionnaire in order to Figure 6. Common dolphins during survey in Ionian Sea. (Photo understand their degree of experience in cetacean by Ketos association). monitoring. Consequently, some lessons about the implementation of the JNCC guidelines, data recording and marine mammal identification have been given. Therefore one experienced marine biologist, with the support of the members that have received training, carried out visual monitoring by naked eye and using binoculars. All days, observers, located simultaneously on bridge deck and weather decks of the survey vessel, conducted observational scans covering a range of 360° during daylight and in good sea condition (≤ 3 of the Douglas scale). An observation survey was completed recording data on time, survey vessel (position, route, speed, seismic activity), weather conditions (sky, visi- bility, sea, wind, precipitation), water (temperature, Figure 7. Sperm whale during survey offshore the Gulf of Catania. salinity), marine traffic and notes (presence of animals, (Photo by Ketos association). large litter, fishing gears, buoys, etc.). These informa-

4 CETACEANS’ RESPONSES TO SEISMIC SURVEYS tion were recorded at the beginning and at the end of CODE BEFORE AFTER the observation activity, hourly, and each time a change AA High power shooting High power shooting occurred. Furthermore vessel position was track auto- matically and continuously by the GPS integrated sys- AR High power shooting Medium power shooting tem on-board. During cetacean sightings the Ad libitum AD High power shooting Airguns turned off sampling method [Altmann 1974; Mann 1999] was applied adding information on time and position (coordi- SS Soft start Soft start hold steady nates, distance, radial angle and direction of swim from SR Soft start Lower Soft start the vessel). Therefore an additional survey was com- Sighting pleted collecting data on species, group size, presence SD Soft start Airguns turned off of juveniles, behavior (approaching, leaving, indifferent DS Airguns turned off Soft start towards the vessel, surface behavioral patterns accord- DD Airguns turned off Airguns turned off ing with Shane et al. [1986], Weaver [1987] and Monaco [2006]), other vessels, airguns status, associations with SA Medium power shooting High power shooting other animals or human activities. Sightings have been recorded in order to understand any behavioral response Table 1. Classification of power changing events of noise source. to seismic surveys. For this reason, changes in volume of airguns arrays have been classified according to frequently animals were at far distance. Furthermore the Table 1 for identifying any ambiguous or avoidance re- geo-scientific team was not very specialized to distin- action comparing airguns power shooting. Distance guish cetacean species. Consequently, a lot of animals and orientation from the airguns were also compared (51% of total sightings) were not classified by species for different powers of the airguns. Data on cetacean (2 sighting of unidentified big cetaceans and 24 uniden- occurrence were also analyzed using the percentage of tified small cetaceans). encounter (number of sighting case for each behavioral Sighting rates for fin whales, sperm whales and Cu- category *100/total number of sighting case during a vier’s beaked whale did not decrease when airguns were specific seismic activity) as sighting rate. off despite they were on, but, considering their normal aerial of distribution, a general avoidance of the area was 4. Results remarked. Instead, cetacean sightings at low distance During the 26 survey days, 2454 nautical miles were from the vessel increase when airguns were turned off covered, generating approximately 24,800 airgun blasts. (Figure 8). During seismic shooting, smaller odonto- On about 180 hours of observation we sighted about 400 cetes appeared to be feeding; often when they were individuals during 21 sighting of identified species (1, closed to the vessel, within the 500-meter mitigation Balaenoptera physalus; 1, Physeter macrocephalus; 1, Ziphius zone (MZ), they seemed to swim faster moving away. cavirostris; 3, Tursiops truncatus; 15, Stenella coeruleoalba). The percentage of encounter calculated in good sea Sightings often lasted few seconds or minutes and conditions (sea state ≤3 of the Douglas scale) increase

Figure 8. Distance sighting in relation to airguns power. HP = high power; SS = soft start; MP = medium power; Off = source off.

5 MONACO ET AL.

Figure 9. Cetacean responses within the 500 m MZ, according with classiﬁcation on power changing in Table 1.

Figure 10. Cetacean responses beyond the 500 m MZ, according with classification on power changing in Table 1. with reducing volume (0.53 cases with airguns off; 0.24 occurred during a line turn phase that, normally, was with airguns on). Furthermore, during the soft start realized as a SS. In this case, because of a bad commu- (SS) or other phases with medium power shooting nication between the observers on the bridge deck and (MP) animals travelled towards the vessel or adopted technicians in the control’s room, when four small an indifferent behavior (Figures 9 and 10). odontocetes were approaching the vessel, airguns vol- Big cetaceans probably vacate the area during ex- ume was modified from 1700 ci to 3000 ci and then to posure to seismic since contemporary marine mammal 4000 ci, so dolphins have disappeared immediately. surveys, made in proximate areas, verified the presence We highlight that during seismic activities and in of fin whales. In fact, phone and radio communications months after their end no stranding occurred [Podestà on cetacean occurrence come from the Navy, fisher- et al. 2015]. Ketos, the local research association that since man, pleasure boaters and local research organizations 1997 studies cetaceans of the investigated area, had also (Ketos association, MPAs). continued its monitoring activities to control cetacean Smaller odontocetes may remain in the area but population dynamics and their potential long-term re- increasing their distance from the noise in relationship sponses to noise exposure (results will be showed in to their activities, e.g., small cetaceans were observed other studies). during feeding several times in the same zone. Proba- bly, they have not completely avoided the area in order 5. Discussion to continue to respond to their life needs, anyway re- Since seismic surveys are used not only for aca- maining at a certain distance from the noising source. demic researches but ever more mainly by oil companies It is important to underline that the JNCC proto- to find and monitor reserves of fossil-fuel, is important col doesn’t prevue power changing of airguns in pres- to establish standardized plans to mitigate better im- ence of cetaceans as the SA event reported in Table 1, pact from generated noise. that is a variation of the volume from medium power Existing protocols were not applied in all the oceans shooting to high power shooting. This recorded episode and not always the implemented strategies are adapted

6 CETACEANS’ RESPONSES TO SEISMIC SURVEYS to survey areas. cialized MMOs must be increased in the morning and However, appropriately conducted long-term mon- firing activities must be stopped at night or during ad- itoring studies were strongly recommended in order to verse weather conditions (Douglas sea state ≥4, heavy investigate cetacean populations and to measure, with rain or fog). standardized methods, effects deriving from seismic surveys and in general from noise pollution. Adapted measures Results of this study, according with other works, - Seismic surveys must be approved by supporting show that cetaceans can be disturbed by seismic explo- scientific basis, as it has been the case in this experiment ration [Hermannsen et al. 2015]. Seeing as behavioral TOMO-ETNA. At the same way, duration of the pre- responses to noise exposure can be also highly variable firing observation and extent of the MZ should be in- and context dependent, on-board mitigation measures creased according with species distribution and migration represent the primary method to protect them. in proximity of the surveys areas, with particularly at- Based on the TOMO-ETNA experience and on the tention to critical habitats. dynamics that usually emerge within seismic studies, here we suggest some potential broader measures for Only if national and international authorities rec- cetacean protection in order to mitigate better impacts ognize seismic airgun noise as a serious marine envi- of noise exposure during next seismic surveys. ronmental pollutant, it will be possible to apply ad hoc actions and mitigation measures for cetacean conser- The protocol vation. Divulgation of works on seismic surveys is nec- - Marine mammal mitigation guidelines should be essary to encourage their intervention. adopted by all types of research that require use of airguns. Whilst alternative seismic technologies must be Acknowledgements. This paper has been partially funded by developed. the following research projects: the European project MED-SUV funded by the European Union’s Seventh Framework Program for - It is needed that each Country recognizes the crit- research, technological development and demonstration under ical importance of precautionary on-board mitigation grant agreement No. 308665; the Spanish COCSABO project (COC- measures, regulating with laws and mandatory proto- DI-2011-08); the European project EUROFLEETS2 (Seventh Frame- cols access to their marine areas. work Programme, grant agreement No. 312762) through transna- tional access to the research vessels “Sarmiento de Gamboa” oper- - The start of firing activities must be always pre- ated by CSIC (Spain) and “Aegaeo” by HCMR (Greece); the Geo- ceded by a SS event. The period of increasing power physical Instrument Pool Potsdam (GIPP) from GFZ (Potsdam) shooting must provide all the intermediate possible vol- with the project (Seismic TOMOgraphy of ETNA volcano and Eo- ume of airguns during not less than 20 minutes. lian Islands, Italy, using active and passive seismic data). We would like to thank the following supporting institutions: Dipartimento - In case of cetacean sighted within the MZ when Regionale della Protezione Civile, Regione Siciliana; Dipartimento air guns are firing, the source must be shut-down imme- Azienda Regionale Foreste Demaniali, Ufficio Provinciale di Catania; diately. If animals leave the security area after more than Ente Parco dell’Etna; Unidad de Tecnología Marina-CSIC in Barcelona 5 minutes, new firing activities have to be preceded by (Spain); Stato Maggiore Marina (Italian Navy General Staff), CINC- NAV (Command in Chief of the Fleet) and Marisicilia (Navy Com- a full SS that require also a pre-firing observation. mand of Sicily); Coastal Guard of Messina and Riposto; to obtain support and navigation permissions for the oceanographic cruises: Marine mammal observers (MMOs) Spanish Foreign Office and Italian Foreign Office. This paper has been - MMOs must be specialized and motivated. They partially supported by the Spanish projects TEC2015-68752-R (MINECO/FEDER), KNOWAVES and CGL2015-67130-C2-2. This have to monitor during firing activities with shifts of 1-2 manuscript has been largely improved by the insightful comments hours to avoid excessive fatigue of the observer and with- of Dr. Arcangeli and De Domenico by the editor José Morales. out stopping monitoring when guns are firing. Moni- toring has to be realized also during pre-firing phases. References - Every MMO must have available essential per- Altmann, J. (1974). Observational study of behavior: sonal equipment such as binocular and radio to commu- sampling methods, Behaviour, 49(3). 227-266. nicate directly with the crew working on the firing. Amore, C., G. Cantone, A. Castagna, B. Costa, I. Di - A minimum of four MMOs should be simultane- Geronimo, G. Fassari, F. Sarro and F. Sinatra (1982). ously in observation; they must cover a range of 360°. Primi dati sui popolamenti bentonici, sui sedimenti e sulle caratteristiche fisico-chimiche delle acque del Passive acoustic monitoring Golfo di Catania, Naturalista Siciliano, 6, Suppl. 3, - Visual monitoring should be integrated with pas- 547-552. sive acoustic monitoring (PAM) by specialized operators. Beckman, D. (2012). Marine Environmental Biology - When PAM is not possible, the number of spe- and Conservation, Jones & Bartlett Publishers.

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8 CETACEANS’ RESPONSES TO SEISMIC SURVEYS

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*Corresponding author: Clara Monaco, Ketos Cultural Scientiﬁc Association, Catania, Italy; Università di Catania, Dipartimento di Agricoltura, Alimentazione e Ambiente, Catania, Italy; email: [email protected], [email protected].