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COPYRIGHT AND USE OF THIS THESIS This thesis must be used in accordance with the provisions of the Copyright Act 1968. Reproduction of material protected by copyright may be an infringement of copyright and copyright owners may be entitled to take legal action against persons who infringe their copyright. Section 51 (2) of the Copyright Act permits an authorized officer of a university library or archives to provide a copy (by communication or otherwise) of an unpublished thesis kept in the library or archives, to a person who satisfies the authorized officer that he or she requires the reproduction for the purposes of research or study. The Copyright Act grants the creator of a work a number of moral rights, specifically the right of attribution, the right against false attribution and the right of integrity. You may infringe the author’s moral rights if you: - fail to acknowledge the author of this thesis if you quote sections from the work - attribute this thesis to another author - subject this thesis to derogatory treatment which may prejudice the author’s reputation For further information contact the University’s Copyright Service. sydney.edu.au/copyright Stone, Sources and Social Networks Tracing Movement and Exchange Across Dharawal Country, Southeastern Australia. Karen Stokes 2015 University of Sydney Cover: Condons Creek. (1848). Lithograph published in 1848 based on sketches by Captain R. Westmacott. (Note: Location is listed as East Corrimal Beach with note that location could be Shellharbour). (Reproduced with permission from the collections of the Wollongong City Library and the Illawarra Historical Society. Ref: P01/P01603). Karen Stokes Thesis submitted in fulfillment of the degree of Bachelor of Arts (Honours) in Archaeology University of Sydney © 2015 ii Certificate of Authorship of Thesis Except as specially indicated in citation, quotations and the bibliography, I certify that I am the sole author of the thesis submitted today entitled— Stone, Sources and Social Networks: Tracing Movement and Exchange Across Dharawal Country, Southeastern Australia. in terms of the Statement of Requirements for a Thesis issued by the University Higher Degrees Committee. Signature of Author Date _______________ iii Abstract Historical evidence suggests that at the time of European settlement in the NSW Illawarra region, Dharawal groups, who came together for ceremonies, had an established regional network with movement of people, and items, via pathways linking the highlands west of the Illawarra escarpment and the coastal plain. The degree to which the established network described in European accounts reflects pre- colonial patterns or activity affected by early colonial settlement is unclear, however. This thesis examines this topic by comparing archaeological and historical evidence. Ground edged hatchets, and raw material for their manufacture, are known to have moved within Aboriginal social networks and several sites in the Dharawal region have been identified as likely sources of stone for hatchets and other tools. Non- destructive archaeological provenancing of 148 ground edged hatchets from coastal plain and inland findspots in and adjacent to the Dharawal study area provides an opportunity to characterise pre-colonial patterns of raw material use, and movement of artefacts from source to find-spot. Matches to sources within Dharawal country, as well as beyond the region, trace the local and inter-regional social network within which these artefacts and/or raw materials moved. This provenancing research is a component of a broader, Australian Research Council funded, study of Aboriginal exchange systems and social networks in Southeastern Australia 2012-14: Axes, Exchange, Social Change: New Perspectives on Australian Hunter Gatherers (DP12010393), directed by Peter Grave (University of New England) and Val Attenbrow (Australian Museum). Spatial reconstruction of Early European observations of movement and gathering of Aboriginal people across, and into and out of Dharawal country between 1788 and 1850, allows archaeological and historical social network patterns to be directly compared. Results suggest significant correlation between the two, as well as consistency in the historical pattern over time. This evidence suggests pathways linking Dharawal groups socially and economically, in place prior to the arrival of Europeans, continued to be used throughout the first fifty years of European iv colonisation. These results that support and enhance previous research findings in the region. Evidence that this cultural pattern may have remained stable through a period of known social upheaval suggests that the network of pathways interconnecting Dharawal groups, pathways aligned with the distinctive physiography of country, may have also been stable through earlier times of change. If so, this may also shed light on the nature, and function, of this network in the culturally, socially and environmentally dynamic, deeper past. v Acknowledgements Acknowledgement and thanks go, first and foremost, to my Honours supervisors Martin Gibbs (formerly University of Sydney, now University of New England), Val Attenbrow (Australian Museum) and Pat Faulkner (University of Sydney). As my teacher and then supervisor Martin provided encouragement, unwavering support and insightful guidance through a long journey. I’m grateful not only for the time and effort Martin invested in teaching and mentoring me, but for having had the opportunity to be his student. The opportunity to work under the supervision of Val Attenbrow at the Australian Museum and have access to her guidance and practical assistance has been inspirational, both academically and personally. Val’s wisdom, knowledge and enthusiasm for archaeological research are well known. It is her generosity and gift for mentoring that I wish to acknowledge and thank Val for, foremost, here. Completion of this project owes much to her support and confidence in its success. Pat’s offer to step in as supervisor following Martin’s departure, deserves thanks in its own right – not, I imagine, an easy task. Pat’s expertise and substantial contribution in guiding this thesis to completion is greatly appreciated. Thank you to the Australian Museum, and volunteers and staff who assisted with this project. Tessa Corkill, a font of wisdom, generously shared her time, knowledge and expertise. Thank you to Rebecca Bryant for her many contributions, and to Marika Lowe, who assisted with pXRF analysis. A special note of thanks to Hugh Watt, who’s assistance with pXRF analysis and artefact recording, management of artefact photography and editing was a major contribution. Thank you also to Australian Museum geologists Ross Pogson and Lin Sutherland, and to staff Robin Torrence and Alison Dejanovic for advice and assistance. Thank you to the University of Sydney and staff, in particular Roland Fletcher and Lesley Beaumont. A note of thanks also to members of archaeological and aboriginal communities that provided advice, discussion, recommendations, reference material, access to reports and publications and general support and guidance – Caryll Sefton, Gwenda Happ, Paul Irish, Steve Paxton, Robert Lester and others. Thank you to Wollongong Library for permission to publish images and generosity in providing a high-resolution copy of the cover artwork. Thanks in particular to Marisa and vi Lisa for arranging access to reports and images. Thank you also to the National Library of Australia for permitting images and maps from their collection to be included. The ground-edged hatchet provenancing component of this research was funded by Australian Research Council Discovery Grant DP120103993. Thank you to Axes ARC project directors Peter Grave (University of New England) and, again, Val Attenbrow (Australian Museum), for the opportunity to be a part of this project and for training, assistance and support provided. Bruce Kaiser, Chief Scientist, Bruker ASX, assisted with various aspects of this project. Acknowledgement is due also to all those whose previous research laid groundwork for this study. Michael Organ’s compilations of historical accounts relating to Aboriginal people in the Illawarra and Shoalhaven made this research design feasible. The work of Paul Irish and co-authors, Michael Bennett and Caryll Sefton in the study area and the publication Wesson (2005 were also central. No reference to laying of groundwork for this research topic can be made without also pausing to acknowledge, respectfully and with some awe, the work of Isabel McBryde. There are many others – for the sake of brevity, acknowledgement in citation will need to suffice. On a personal note, thank you to my children Jay, Cassy and Zac for patient, self-sufficient loveliness, and other forms of loveliness, throughout this project. Thank you to Euan, for too many things to start mentioning here. Thanks also to extended family with too many people to start mentioning here either. Finally, and importantly, the author acknowledges and pays respect to the traditional owners of country and custodians of knowledge referred to in this thesis – an acknowledgement extended not only to the Dharawal groups of the study area, but to all those whose connections to, and links with the Dharawal are examined herein. vii Table of Contents Abstract iv Acknowledgements vi Table of Contents viii List of Figures xii List of Tables xviii CHAPTER 1 - INTRODUCTION AND RESEARCH AIMS 1 Introduction 1 Case Study – Dharawal Country 5 Research Aims