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Modern and Future Colliders Modern and Future Colliders V. Shiltsev Fermilab, PO Box 500, MS339, Batavia, IL 60510,USA F. Zimmermann European Organization for Nuclear Research, CERN, 1211 Geneve, Switzerland (Dated: March 23, 2020) Since the initial development of charged particle colliders in the middle of the 20th century, these advanced scientific instruments have been at the forefront of scientific discoveries in high energy physics. Collider accelerator technology and beam physics have progressed immensely and modern facilities now operate at energies and luminosities many orders of magnitude greater than the pioneering colliders of the early 1960s. In addition, the field of colliders remains extremely dynamic and continues to develop many innovative approaches. Indeed, several novel concepts are currently being considered for designing and constructing even more powerful future colliders. In this paper, we first review the colliding beam method and the history of colliders, and then present the major achievements of operational machines and the key features of near-term collider projects that are currently under development. We conclude with an analysis of numerous proposals and studies for far-future colliders. The evaluation of their respective potentials reveals tantalizing prospects for further significant breakthroughs in the collider field. CONTENTS 2. Linear e+e− colliders for Higgs sector: ILC and CLIC 30 + − I. Introduction 1 3. Circular e e colliders for the electroweak sector: FCC-ee and CEPC 34 II. Development of colliders 5 C. Energy frontier colliders (HE-LHC, FCC-hh, A. Basic technologies and beam physics SppC, Muon Colliders) 37 principles 6 1. Post-LHC hadron colliders 37 1. Magnets and RF structures 6 2. Muon colliders 42 2. Beam dynamics 8 3. Beam dynamics impediments to and V. Advanced collider concepts 45 evolution of luminosity 11 A. Acceleration in plasma and plasma-based B. Past advances of e+e− colliders 14 collider proposals 45 C. Past advances of hadron colliders 17 B. Other advanced approaches for colliding beam D. Past advances of lepton-hadron colliders 17 schemes 46 III. Modern colliders 18 VI. Conclusions 49 A. Modern e+e− colliders 18 1. VEPP-4M and BEPC-II 18 Acknowledgements 52 2. VEPP-2000 18 3. DAΦNE 19 References 53 4. SuperKEKB 19 B. Modern hadron colliders 20 1. RHIC 20 I. INTRODUCTION 2. LHC 22 Particle accelerators are unique scientific instruments IV. Future Colliders 24 which offer access to unprecedented energy per con- arXiv:2003.09084v1 [physics.acc-ph] 20 Mar 2020 A. Ion, e-A and e-p colliders 25 stituent, using well-focused high density beams of elec- 1. NICA 25 trons (e−), positrons (e+), protons (p), antiprotons (¯p), 2. Low energy electron-ion collider proposals: ions, muons (µ+, µ−), mesons, photons and gamma ELISe at FAIR, EicC at HIAF 25 quanta (γ), among others [1{3]. They have been widely 3. High-energy electron-ion collider (EIC) used for physics research since the early 20th century proposals: JLEIC at TJNAF and eRHIC and have greatly progressed both scientifically and tech- at BNL 26 nologically since. Analysis of all Nobel-Prize winning re- 4. LHeC, HE-LHeC and FCC-eh 29 search in physics since 1939 [4] | the year the Nobel B. Lepton colliders studying Higgs boson and Prize was awarded to Ernest O. Lawrence for invention electroweak sector 30 of the first modern accelerator, the cyclotron [5] | re- 1. Super τ-Charm Factories 30 veals that accelerators have played an integral role in 2 max influencing more than a quarter of physics-prize recipi- Species Eb, GeV C, m Lpeak Years ents by either inspiring them or facilitating their research. AdA e+e− 0.25 4.1 1025 1964 On average, accelerators have contributed to one Nobel VEP-1 e−e− 0.16 2.7 5 × 1027 1964-68 Prize for Physics every three years [6]. Four Nobel prizes CBX e−e− 0.5 11.8 2 × 1028 1965-68 have directly honored breakthroughs in accelerator sci- VEPP-2 e+e− 0.67 11.5 4 × 1028 1966-70 + − 29 ence and technology; aside from E.O. Lawrence, John ACO e e 0.54 22 10 1967-72 + − 29 Cockcroft and Ernest Walton received the prize in 1951 ADONE e e 1.5 105 6 × 10 1969-93 CEA e+e− 3.0 226 0:8 × 1028 1971-73 for their invention of the eponymous linear accelerator 32 [7], and Simon van der Meer in 1984 for conceiving and ISR pp 31.4 943 1:4 × 10 1971-80 SPEAR e+e− 4.2 234 1:2 × 1031 1972-90 developing the novel method of stochastic cooling [8]. DORIS e+e− 5.6 289 3:3 × 1031 1973-93 To gain an insight into the physics of elementary par- VEPP-2M e+e− 0.7 18 5 × 1030 1974-2000 ticles, one accelerates them to very high kinetic energy, VEPP-3 e+e− 1.55 74 2 × 1027 1974-75 lets them strike other particles, and detects products of DCI e+e− 1.8 94.6 2 × 1030 1977-84 the ensuing reactions that transform the particles into PETRA e+e− 23.4 2304 2:4 × 1031 1978-86 new particles, such as the Higgs boson, which was discov- CESR e+e− 6 768 1:3 × 1033 1979-2008 ered in the debris of proton-proton collisions at the Large PEP e+e− 15 2200 6 × 1031 1980-90 Hadron Collider (LHC) [9] and celebrated with the 2013 Spp¯S pp¯ 455 6911 6 × 1030 1981-90 Nobel Prize in Physics [10, 11]. Recently, accelerator- TRISTAN e+e− 32 3018 4 × 1031 1987-95 based synchrotron radiation sources were instrumental Tevatron pp¯ 980 6283 4:3 × 1032 1987-2011 for a number of Nobel-Prize winning research achieve- SLC e+e− 50 2920 2:5 × 1030 1989-98 ments in chemistry and biology, recognized in 1997, 2003, LEP e+e− 104.6 26660 1032 1989-2000 31 2006, 2009, and 2012. At present, about 140 accelerators HERA ep 30+920 6336 7:5 × 10 1992-2007 + − 34 of all types worldwide are devoted to fundamental re- PEP-II e e 3.1+9 2200 1:2 × 10 1999-2008 + − 34 search [12]. In the United States alone, the Department KEKB e e 3.5+8.0 3016 2:1 × 10 1999-2010 VEPP-4M e+e− 6 366 2 × 1031 1979- of Energy (DOE) Office of Science is supporting 16 large + − 33 accelerator-based user facilities open for basic research BEPC-I/II e e 2.3 238 10 1989- DAΦNE e+e− 0.51 98 4:5 × 1032 1997- | such as colliders, light sources and neutron sources | RHIC p; i 255 3834 2:5 × 1032 2000- with a total annual budget for operation and construc- LHC p; i 6500 2669 2:1 × 1034 2009- tion exceeding $2B [13]. These facilities enable scientific VEPP2000 e+e− 1.0 24 4 × 1031 2010- research to be carried out by about 20,000 users from S-KEKB e+e− 7+4 3016 8 × 1035 ∗ 2018- academia, industry, and government laboratories. Eu- rope's leading particle physics laboratory, CERN, with TABLE I. Past and present particle colliders: their particle an annual budget of about 1.15 BCHF [14], operates the species, maximum beam energy Eb, circumference or length world's largest accelerator complex and brings together C, maximum luminosity L, and years of luminosity operation 17,000 physicists, engineers, and technicians from more (i is for ions; ∗ design; luminosity is in units of cm−2s−1, it is than 110 different countries. defined in Eq.(3) and discussed below.) Colliders are the most sophisticated of all accelera- tor types and employ the most advanced technologies and beam physics techniques to push the envelope of charged particles accelerated with a particle accelerator their performance. What makes them the instruments hit a stationary target set into the path of the beam. In of choice for particle physics is their kinematic advan- this case, as follows from Eq. (1), for high energy acceler- tage of a high center-of-mass energy resulting in larger p ators E mc2, E ≈ 2E × mc2. For example, the momentum transfers. Indeed, the center of mass energy cme p collision of E =7000 GeV protons with stationary pro- (c.m.e.) E (also often cited as s, the square root of b cme tons mc2 ≈1 GeV can produce reactions with E of one of the Lorentz-invariant Mandelstam variables in the cme about 120 GeV. A more effective colliding beam set-up, kinematics of reactions | see, e.g., [15]) for the head- in which two beams of particles are accelerated and di- on collision of two particles of masses m and m with 1 2 rected against each other, offers a much higher center of energies E1 and E2 colliding at a crossing angle θc is p mass energy of Ecme ≈ 2 E1E2, assuming a typically small or zero crossing angle θc ≈ 0. In the case of two 2 2 4 Ecme = 2E1E2 + (m1 + m2)c + equal masses of colliding particles (e.g., protons and pro- tons, or protons and antiprotons) with the same energy q q 1=2 of 7000 GeV, one obtains E = 2E or 14 000 GeV. +2 cos θ E2 − m2c4 E2 − m2c4 ; (1) cme b c 1 1 2 2 Several machines operate with beams of unequal ener- gies, either because the colliding particles have different where c denotes the speed of light. masses (electron-proton collisions at HERA) or because For many decades throughout the first half of the of the need to generate new short-lived particles, such 20th century, the only arrangement for accelerator ex- as B mesons, with a Lorentz boost so as to more easily periments involved a fixed-target setup, where a beam of detect and analyze their decays (asymmetric B-factories 3 KEKB, PEP-II, and SuperKEKB).
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