NEPAL AND DEVELOPMENT REVIEW A collaboration between University, School of Arts & Tourism Board

Editorial Board • Mahesh Banskota Kathmandu University [email protected] • Pitamber Sharma [email protected] • Krishna R. Khadka [email protected] • Dipendra Purush Dhakal [email protected] • Padma Chandra Poudel [email protected]

Production & • Kashi Raj Bhandari Co-ordination [email protected] • Sunil Sharma [email protected] • Jitendra Bhattarai [email protected] • Khadga Bikram Shah [email protected] • Shradha Rayamajhi [email protected] STATEMENT OF PURPOSE

Nepal Tourism and Development Review (NTDR) invites contributors to present their analysis on pertinent issues in the tourism development of Nepal through research in tourism and related disciplines. NTDR encourages discussions on policies and practical issues on tourism and sustainable development. It invites contributions on sustainable development covering wide spectrum of topics in the diverse sectors that tourism influences and is influenced by. Nepal Tourism Board in conjunction with Kathmandu University, School of Arts has created this platform for enthusiastic academicians, researchers and tourism professionals to share their ideas and views. NTDR also aims to disseminate rigorous research and scholarly works on different aspects of the tourism and its development, as an impetus to further strenthening a development of knowledge-based tourism planning and management in Nepal. It is envisaged that this publication will be instrumental in bringing issues to the forefront through wide sharing of knowledge and ideas. NTDR seeks to be a catalyst for students, academicians, researchers and tourism professionals to conduct multidisciplinary research works and contributes towards evolution of tourism specific knowledge. NEPAL TOURISM & DEVELOPMENT REVIEW CONTENTS

Research Articles SANJAY K. NEPAL, PhD 1 Mountain Tourism and Climate Change: Implications for the Nepal Himalaya

PRANIL UPADHAYAYA 15 Peace through Tourism: A Critical Look at Nepalese Tourism MARTIN TRANDBERG JENSEN 41 The Bystander Effect of Trekking Tourism: Proposing a Typology of Environmental Ideal Types

BHIM P. SUBEDI & PREM SAGAR CHAPAGAIN 56 Tourism Development in Upper Manang Valley of Annapurna Region

Issues & Research Notes

LISA CHOEGYAL 71 The Great Himalaya Trail: A New Nepal Tourism Product with Both Trek Marketing and Development Rationale MARIA BOYD 77 Can Any Country Afford to Snub Chinese Tourists? RABI JUNG PANDEY 83 Capacity Building and Human Resource Development Initiatives: Community Based Tourism Development in Nepal RAM CHANDRA SEDAI 102 Tourist Accommodation Facilities in the Major Tourist Areas of Nepal Book Review

SUNIL SHARMA 124 Classic Hikes of the World

Nepal Tourism Year 2011 KASHI RAJ BHANDARI 127 Nepal Tourism Year 2011 GUIDE FOR CONTRIBUTORS

Nepal Tourism and Development Review (NTDR) seeks to provide a forum for highlighting evidence based discussions on sustainable tourism development and its policy implications. NTDR encourages discussions on the theory and applications of sustainable tourism management and development. It also seeks to mainstream the voices of those people at the grassroots level involved in tourism. It encourages contributions on all aspects related with tourism such as climate change, poverty alleviation, community-based tourism and other contemporary issues.

The articles should provide analytical, evidence-based, well- researched discussions focusing on current issues, case studies, evaluation reports, etc.

A panel of judges will review and evaluate the articles to be published in the journal. The editorial board is the final authority for the contents of Nepal Tourism and Development Review. However, the individual writers are solely responsible for the entire contents of their contributions. Both Kathmandu University and Nepal Tourism Board are not responsible for the contents of the individual writers.

All comments, queries, suggestions and contributions should be [email protected] to either one of the following: [email protected] [email protected] Nepal Tourism & Development Review (Volume 1, Issue 1, 2011) | 1

Mountain Tourism and Climate Change: Implications for the Nepal Himalaya

Sanjay K. Nepal, PhD [email protected] Abstract Despite the global nature of tourism industry and its economic contributions, scholars of climate change research have hardly acknowledged the threat of climate change to the tourism industry. Tourism scholars have rectified this situation to a certain extent by demonstrating how the industry has become vulnerable to climate change and drawing attention to the need for adaptation and mitigation strategies specific to this sector. This paper provides an overview of climate change challenges in tourism destinations in the mountains, with a particular emphasis in developing countries and with specific reference to the Nepal Himalaya. It outlines several adaptation strategies at the local, state and national levels. Climatic effects on high mountains are very specific; climate change is likely to trigger the rates and intensity of natural hazards such as landslides, avalanches and flooding with dramatic consequences for tourism destinations. Adaptation strategies in the context of natural hazards must consider the level of risks and weigh it against costs and benefits of adaptation. If benefits outweigh the costs, it is likely that the level of local responses to adaptation will be high. If the level of risk and associated costs is too high, local communities may be fatalistic in their attitude to climate change impacts. The paper outlines adaptation strategies for tourism stakeholders, resident communities and governments and emphasizes that climate change strategies in the tourism sector must be considered as a collaborative effort, with considerations for institutional development, diversification of opportunities, equity and sustainable economic growth.

Key words: Mountain tourism; Nepal Himalaya; Climate change; Natural hazards; adaptation strategies

Introduction Mountain regions worldwide are affected by climate change. Indeed, mountains represent unique areas for the detection of climate change and the assessment of climate-related impacts (Beniston 2003; Messerli & Ives 1997). The Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) has predicted dramatic impacts on mountain ecosystems as a result of climate change. Changing climates will potentially alter the seasonal patterns of tourism with consequences on the mountain environments. It is therefore critical to develop adaptation and mitigation strategies specific to mountain environments. The IPCC does not mention tourism as an area that could be impacted by climate change; various tourism scholars have 2 | Sanjay K. Nepal: Mountain Tourism and Climate ... recently raised concerns about impacts of climate change on the tourism industry, but their efforts have been limited to mountains in the developed countries. Therefore there is a critical need to systematically investigate specific impacts that climate change could have on mountain tourism in the developing countries and adaptation and mitigation strategies necessary for a successful transition to a post- warming world. This paper has three main objectives: 1) provide a definition of mountain tourism 2) provide a discussion of climate effects in the mountains with specific reference to the Nepal Himalaya 3) explore adaptation and mitigation strategies from the local and regional perspectives.

Mountain Tourism Nepal and Chipeniuk (2005) have argued that the definition of mountain tourism should expand to include, in addition to touristic developments, outdoor recreation and amenity migration. Many popular mountain destinations in North America (e.g., Whistler, Aspen, Vail) have evolved as local attractions for outdoor recreation, only to be discovered later on by tourists, and as major international tourism destinations. Mountain tourism destinations have quickly become second homes for many tourists and in some cases, have attracted amenity migrants who have chosen to settle permanently in and around areas with significant amenity values. In the developing countries such as Nepal, mountain tourism constitutes a significant part of tourism development (Nepal 2003). Tourism destinations in Nepal including the Mt. Everest and Annapurna region are highly popular climbing and trekking destinations. Therefore, any discussion of climate change impacts on mountain tourism destinations needs to consider the wide spectrum of recreation, tourism and amenity migration related activities and in the case of the Nepal Himalaya, very specific type of tourism activities such as and trekking expeditions. Mountainous regions have always attracted visitors - from ancient pilgrims, explorers and adventurers to modern-day tourists. Increasingly, mountain regions have become places to play and retire and invest in tourism-related services and facilities. Visitors to mountain communities may range from casual tourists, to ski- enthusiasts, second home owners, retirees and various types of amenity migrants. A significant and more current aspect of mountain communities in the West is the growth in second homes and resort accommodations. The developing world mountains are of significant importance to tourism development. For example, in Nepal, roughly one-fourth of all international tourist visits occur in mountain destinations (Nepal 2003). The combination of and tourism, second homes and amenity migration have fueled the economy of many mountain regions but it has also raised alarms about changing cultural values, lifestyles, Nepal Tourism & Development Review (Volume 1, Issue 1, 2011) | 3 sense of place, environmental degradation, economic inflation, housing and labor shortages and community cohesion. In particular, resort accommodations and second homes in the developed countries are seen as putting further pressure on existing home stock and driving real estate prices (Nepal & Jamalv). In the developing countries, the expansion of tourism to remote mountain locations has threatened the sustainability of mountain communities in areas such as energy (Nepal 2008), land use, trails (Nepal & Nepal 2004) and conservation of protected areas (Spiteri & Nepal 2008; Khadka & Nepal 2010). In the Nepal Himalaya, tourism is a major economic driver and one of the main sources of livelihood for mountain communities (Nepal et al. 2002). While the economic benefits are significant, the social and cultural benefits are not clear. Similarly, the environmental benefits of tourism are also questionable (Nepal 2008). It could be argued that given the current context of climate change and its implications for mountainous regions, the promotion of ecotourism as an alternative to other forms (i.e., mass) of tourism appears as a preferred choice. While mountain tourism in Nepal is still a low-scale activity, given the fragile characteristics of mountain regions, even ecotourism requires a proactive planning approach. In particular, serious considerations should be given to the type and scale of tourism developed, where and how it is developed, what support infrastructure is required and how they will be managed, how the development is linked with other social and economic sectors and what the likely implications are on its development from climate change and vice versa.

Effects of Climatic Changes on Mountain Tourism Climate change can affect tourism in a variety of ways. It could affect the appeal of a destination, disrupt transport and energy-related infrastructures, damage the natural resource base, affect tourist satisfaction, impact tourists’ health and safety and influence the overall sustainability of facilities and destinations (Becken and Hay 2007). Climate is one of the most important attributes of mountain tourism. Several types of mountain recreational activities are primarily dependent on climatic conditions. For example, temperature increases are detrimental for glacier walking, mountain climbing and skiing. Many tourists consider the level of climate- related comfort when making vacation decisions (Scott et al 2008). Generally, we could classify climate-induced impacts on mountain tourism into three broad categories: 1) natural hazards 2) health 3) biodiversity (Figure 1). These are inter-related, for example, natural hazards like floods and fires have a health implication which in turn will affect a mountain tourism destination’s capacity to address these issues. Similarly, fire will impact biodiversity. There are 4 | Sanjay K. Nepal: Mountain Tourism and Climate ... also short-term and long-term impacts. There could be sudden surprises like a mudflow, or more long-term effects, for example, glacier recession. Similarly, there could be subtle changes in elevation shifts of certain wildlife species and more long-term impacts on mountain wildlife population. For example, consistent dry weathers could give rise to fire hazards which in turn could impact endangered and threatened species important for the tourism industry. There could be indirect effects on tourism from these three sources which would impact people’s livelihood and cause displacement. These in turn will generate additional burden for the tourism destination. Many mountain communities in the Nepal Himalaya depend on tourism as their livelihood opportunity. If climate change will alter tourism development in a negative way, it implies that the local livelihood may also alter negatively. While climate change may seem like an abstract concept for a mountain resident, for those who are dependent on tourism directly or indirectly, any alteration in tourism patterns, whether climate-related or not, will impact their livelihood.

Figure 1: Conceptualizing climate-induced impacts on mountain tourism Climate can affect recreational choice by limiting time and space for tourism activities (Scott et al 2007). While climate change at tourists’ origins can change the demand for mountain destinations (Richardson and Loomis 2004), from a supply side perspective less than optimal conditions for mountain tourism can have disastrous consequences for local economy. For example, when ski hills at lower altitudes of the Swiss Alps became unreliable for snow, the number of tourists to these locations declined sharply, affecting local economies, while at higher altitudes the numbers increased significantly, putting tremendous pressure on the environment (Koenig and Abegg 1997). Similarly, it is estimated that Austria would lose 10 percent of its winter tourism revenues as a result of Nepal Tourism & Development Review (Volume 1, Issue 1, 2011) | 5 snow cover loss at lower altitudes (Scott et al 2006). Scott and Suffling (2000) have demonstrated that mountain parks in will potentially experience both horizontal and vertical shifts in ecotone resulting in a reorganization of species and habitat fragmentation. This applies to mountains in Asia, too, where substantial elevational shifts of ecosystems are projected, and rising temperature and seasonal variability in precipitation are expected to result in more rapid recession of Himalayan glaciers thereby impacting tourism infrastructure. Plant and animal species at higher altitudes are likely to be extirpated, as demonstrated by modeling studies conducted in Yellowstone National Park (Bartlein et al 1997). In Glacier National Park, 115 of 150 glaciers have disappeared while 35 glaciers are predicted to disappear in the next 30 years. Similarly, 67% of glaciers in the Himalaya are retreating at an alarming rate. In the high mountains of Nepal, it is estimated that 2.45 percent of species are on the verge of extinction due to climate change (Alam and Regmi 2004). In the mountains of South Asia, tourism- focused climate change studies are rare, but a number of studies have been conducted on glacial melt and natural hazards that have significant implications for tourism development (Table 1).

Types of impacts Geographical region Tourism implications

Long - term glacier Himachal, Uttaranchal and Visually less appealing melt and retreat Sikkim Himalaya in destination Khumbu and Langtang Exposure to natural hazard due regions in Nepal to glacial lake outburst and flooding (GLOF)

Seasonal wet Throughout High Himalaya, Periods of high snowfall weather most notably in Central Nepal triggering avalanches with loss of life and property and damage to roads and trails in surrounding areas More fuel-wood needs at higher elevations

Seasonal dry Mountains in Western Nepal, Exposure to fire hazard weather Southwest Threats to endangered wildlife affecting wildlife-based tourism Loss of agricultural productivity affecting linkages between tourism and farm productions

Table 1: Examples of climate-induced effects on mountain destinations in South Asia Sources: Compiled from various sources; more subtle changes in ecotones have not been documented well. 6 | Sanjay K. Nepal: Mountain Tourism and Climate ...

A more visible impact of climate change has been the rapid retreat of glaciers in the high mountains of Asia and loss of snow cover. Alam and Regmi (2004) estimate that an increase in temperature of 3-40 C could result in the loss of 60-70 percent of snow cover in the Himalaya. Loss of snow and ice cover, and melting of glacier often means expansion of glacial lakes. In Nepal where climate change is considered a trigger for high mountain avalanches and lake outbursts, loss of life and damage to properties has been frequently observed. Nine major glacial lake outburst flooding (GLOF) were recorded between 1935 and 1985 (Nyaupane and Chhetri 2009). Vuichard and Zimmermann (1987) provided a detailed account of the outburst of the moraine-dammed lake (Dig Tsho) in 1985 in the Everest region which resulted in an extensive damage to tourist infrastructure and killed five people. Heavy snow during Fall 1995 caused deaths in many tourist locations, for example, 28 people were killed in Gokyo Valley in the Everest region in the avalanches of November 9 and 10. Similarly, seven people in Kanchanjunga and five in Annapurna region died because of avalanches. Similarly, landslide and debris flow of November 9 swept away houses and 15 people in Bagarchhap in Manang district. On 25 March, 2001, five individuals returning from the Annapurna Base Camp were swept away by debris flow induced by snow avalanche at Deurali. The few examples cited above indicate the extent of damages that are likely to occur in the future. While the western world is geared to mitigate and adapt the impacts of climate change on their economies and the environments, in the developing countries the level of preparedness is less than adequate, especially in the mountains where climate change will have the most profound impact on local livelihoods dependent on agriculture and tourism. Therefore, it is essential that mitigation and adaptation measures are considered and integrated in national and local level environmental and economic policies. The following section provides an overview of some potential adaptation and mitigation strategies specific to mountain tourism destinations in Asia.

Adaptation Strategies in Mountain Tourism The tourism industry is complex and involves many stakeholders representing its various sectors, local entrepreneurs, other non-tourism agencies related to health, transportation and disaster preparedness and governmental and non-governmental entities. Because tourism transcends many aspects of the economy, it is critical that adaptation and mitigation strategies are viewed as a collaborative effort in which all critical segments of the tourism industry are included. In the context of the Nepal Himalaya, adaptation strategies must meet the livelihood needs of mountain communities. As early as 1996, Burton (1996) had argued why the world needs to seriously consider adaptation to climate change. Firstly, climate change is unavoidable and Nepal Tourism & Development Review (Volume 1, Issue 1, 2011) | 7 it is striking everywhere, regardless of the political and ecological boundaries. Secondly, anticipatory and precautionary adaptation is more effective and less costly than forced, last-minute, emergency adaptation or retrofitting. Thirdly, it is likely that climate change may be more rapid and pronounced than the current estimates. Indeed, the world has recently experienced debilitating effects of hurricanes, floods and wildfires at scales not anticipated before. These events have also exposed the vulnerability of even the most resourceful nations like the USA. Fourthly, immediate benefits may be gained from better adaptation, for example, increased investments in climate-neutral technologies can boost local economies. Fifthly, immediate benefits can also be gained by removing maladaptive policies and practices. Finally, climate change has its threats but also has opportunities. Communities that are most proactive to adapt to climate change are also likely to be primary beneficiaries of their actions. Adaptation can be defined as “action or activities that people undertake, individually or collectively, to accommodate, cope with, or benefit from the effects of climate change, including changes in climatic variability and extremes” (Becken and Hay, 2007: 225). Adaptation encompasses adjustments in ecological, social, or economic systems in response to actual or expected climate stimuli and their effects of impacts (Smit and Pilifosova 2007). It refers to changes in processes, practices, or structures to moderate or offset potential damages or to take advantage of opportunities associated with climate change. Adaptation and mitigation measures need to be realistic, depending on local conditions, but within the framework of national and regional strategies. Economic resources, technological development, information and data base, communication and access-related infrastructure developments, institutional developments and issues of equity determine the level of adaptive capacity of a destination. Likewise, there are limits to adaptation. These include the physical/ecological limits, for example, adaptation measures will be limited if mountain tourism facilities/destinations are located at extreme environments and are severely exposed to frequent avalanches or landslides. Similarly, large scale engineering may not be possible where resources are limited. For example, snowmaking may be too costly and economically unfeasible in ski destinations in Asian mountains. In the Nepal Himalaya, adaptation limitations may come in the form of lack of viable tourism products (not enough market to sustain the type of tourism activity), lack of technology and infrastructure to support new products, and general lack of knowledge about specific sectors. There may be financial barriers imposed by insurance companies, for example, tourism destinations in hazard-prone areas will likely have to pay huge premiums for protecting their assets and may not afford the payments. For some, the barriers could be context specific and may not be applicable in a wider context, in which case, the adaptation measures will have to come from a private initiative. There are also issues of social and cultural barriers. In some cultures in Asia, climate change may be considered an act of god and thus the communities may be predisposed to accept the consequences. These communities 8 | Sanjay K. Nepal: Mountain Tourism and Climate ... may consider strategies that make them resilient than adaptive. For example, when in 1995 a landslide wiped away several lodges and destroyed the main tourist trail in the village of Pahirothapla in the Annapurna region, local communities simply accepted the event as the god’s punishment (based on personal observation). They quickly built new lodges and repaired the trail, and were ready for the next tourist season. Not a single resident had thought about erecting structural barriers, either individually or collectively, to prevent future landslides. Some would argue that this is an example of a community’s resilience. In other cases, there could be natural limitations to adaptation. For example, adaptation to losses in wild ecosystems and biodiversity may be difficult or impossible. In the case of mountains, greatest adverse impacts will likely occur in areas with poor resource endowments, for example, if the tourism destination is dependent on a single attraction or activity, and if that is negatively affected by climate change then adaptation measures might be hard to implement. Parry (2009) suggests that the responses to climate change will depend on the magnitude and cost of impact, the cost of mitigation, and the cost of adaptation. The most optimal strategy will carefully consider a balance of the three critical elements. While many climate scholars argue that the best form of adaptation is often a proactive “no regrets” strategy, in reality, communities and governments must weigh the benefits and costs of adaptation. Community responses might often be influenced by psychological factors. Keeping these factors in mind, a hypothetical scenario in the implementation of adaptation and mitigation measures is illustrated in Figure 2. The propensity to respond to climate change by individuals or at the community level will be high if anticipated benefits from adaptation will exceed the risks associated with climate change (Equilibrium + 1). In the event of a high-risk situation Equilibrium ( – 1), individuals may simply become fatalistic. While in big tourism destinations, this scenario might not work, it nevertheless illustrates who amongst the tourism stakeholders may respond to or will lend support to Figure 2: Adaptive responses to climate change effects adaptation measures in mountain tourism initiated locally. Nepal Tourism & Development Review (Volume 1, Issue 1, 2011) | 9

Adaptation and mitigation strategies in the tourism sector can occur at several levels, starting with private entrepreneurs to resident communities and governmental and non-governmental entities at local, state and national levels. For the business sector, adaptation implies maximization of range of economic opportunities available. While some “niche” products or attractions could be lost due to climate change, newer opportunities and alternatives could become available. For example, in the ski sector, lack of snow has forced some ski-resort operators to adapt to non-ski activities, thus presenting opportunities for extending the non-ski market. Newer ski resorts are built as four-season playgrounds with a combination of ski, mountain biking, and other types of recreational opportunities. From the perspective of resident communities at tourism destinations, incentives to adopt climate or carbon-neutral technologies are viable options as adaptive strategies. Similarly, at the government level, policies on incentives and disincentives to facilitate adaptation strategies by the tourism industry need to be developed and integrated as part of the state and national environmental strategies on climate change. In the Nepalese context, environmentally friendly forms of tourism including ecotourism and adventure tourism which have a smaller ecological footprint locally (but not necessarily at the global level) should naturally be preferred over other commercial forms of tourism. During the author’s most recent visit to Shimla, interactions with the local government officials and tourism policy makers indicated their strong desire to pursue the development of ecotourism and other pro-environmental tourism activities. This, they argued, is the best course of action given the broader and long-term implications of climate change on mountain communities in the Indian Himalaya. Concrete examples of adaptation strategies in mountain tourism destinations in Asia are hard to find and that is primarily because the tourism sector has not really considered the direct threats from climate change. Figure 3 shows adaptation strategies that could be applied to ski destinations. In general, many mountain tourism destinations in Asia have shifted away from relying on fossil fuel-based energy sources to green technologies, for example, on the main tourist trails of the Annapurna and Everest regions the adoption of solar technologies is now widespread (Nepal 2008). Similar observations were noted during the author’s recent trips to Southwest China. However, for mega tourism projects such as the Qinghai-Tibet railway on the Tibetan Plateau at an altitude of 13,000 ft, risk assessments need to be carefully considered. The railway lines are built on permafrost zone; warming trends on the Tibetan Plateau would certainly make the lines unstable and would cost huge amounts of money on annual repairs and maintenance. While not directly related to tourism, in the Langtang National Park of Nepal, threat of GLOF from the dammed Tsho Rolpa glacier has been reduced to a lower level because of measures such as draining the lake and putting in place early warning systems in downstream villages (news.nationalgeographic.com). The total cost of these adaptation measures was $3.2 million, indicating that the cost of some adaptation 10 | Sanjay K. Nepal: Mountain Tourism and Climate ... measures will be very high. What Figure 3 implies is that a range of opportunities should be tapped and series of adjustments must be made if one were to adapt to climatic influences on tourism demand and destination characteristics. In the Nepal Himalaya, it might mean identifying and developing niche tourism products and destinations that will take advantage of climate adaptations. For example, it may require incorporating better environmental practices at the firm (enterprise) and destination levels and developing carbon-neutral services and products at the destination. Specific adaptation measures can be implemented for different types of tourism activities and overall changes in the tourism infrastructure. Many tourist destinations around the world are building facilities such as ice rinks and indoor spas as alternatives to natural experiences. Similarly, green technologies have been incorporated in the physical planning and building design of tourist facilities. Adaptation in business practices is also emerging, for example, the development of marketing alternatives to cope with either a shrinking or expanding market (Mather et al 2005). Governments will have to develop adaptation measures specific to vulnerabilities associated with tourist health issues like SARS. While the above examples are not very suitable to Nepal, the identification, determination, and development of alternative tourism products should be part of national level policies. There is no guarantee what has worked in the past (e.g., portraits of scenic, snow-capped, majestic mountains as part of the tourism marketing policy) will continue to work in the future. Therefore, there needs to be a focused marketing strategy in how to portray mountain tourism destinations in the context of climate change.

Figure 3: Adaptation strategies in ski resorts Source: Elsasser and Bürki 2002: 256 Nepal Tourism & Development Review (Volume 1, Issue 1, 2011) | 11

Strategies for Adaptation Overall, potential local adaptations in mountain tourism include sharing losses, modifying threats, preventing or decreasing effects, changing use, and changing location. This implies that adaptation measures need to be grounded in reality and practical. At the national level policy issues become more important.

Local level adaptation: Practical examples of local level adaptive responses would include locating new tourist facilities or relocating old facilities to low-risk areas. Through various protection measures (for example, on steep locations and high snowfall areas), the risks to tourism assets and operations can be reduced. Mountain tourism destinations must develop their capacity to respond to sudden catastrophic events and disasters, for example, by installing early warning systems and search and rescue stations, and they must be able to quickly adapt to rapidly changing ground conditions. Building codes and engineering design standards must be enforced to reduce damages due to hazards. Relief and insurance mechanisms are necessary to spread the burden and to support recovery and reconstruction. Preservation of buffer forests, parks, and other protective land use features is equally important to reduce underlying exposure and vulnerability (Travis 2009). In the event of inaction, tourism destinations will suffer from ecological, economic and social disruptions. The areas where mountain destinations need to strengthen include: 1) Establishment of social institutions and arrangements to tackle climate-related effects; the arrangements need to consider representativeness of decision- making bodies. 2) Encourage diversification of employment and income sources in the mountains; this is critical in the event of a collapse of the local tourism industry. Critical linkages must be built between tourism and other economic sectors like agriculture. 3) Formal and informal arrangements must be made for collective security against the effects of climate change. This means private and public entities need to build support mechanisms at the local level. 4) Identification and prioritization of local adaptation measures, based on adequate provision of knowledge, technology, policy and financial support. National and regional level climate adaptation in Nepal must be based on policies that are : 1) Strengthening and creating an enabling environment for adaptation of tourism sector 2) Diversifying tourism products and services 3) Disaster management and adaptive responses in tourism training curricula 12 | Sanjay K. Nepal: Mountain Tourism and Climate ...

4) Gearing towards poverty reduction 5) Establishing monitoring and communication systems 6) Encouraging local or community level adaptation and in the private sector 7) Pursuing sustainable economic growth 8) Linking tourism livelihood to climate influences

Conclusions There is a general lack of awareness among climate change scientists about the potential impact of climate change on the tourism industry. Tourism scholars have begun to address issues concerning tourism and climate change relationship. Climate and its impacts on the tourism industry have been discussed mostly in the context of the developed world. However very little research has been conducted in the developing world, and, particularly in the context of mountain destinations. Given the specific characteristics of the mountains, it appears that mountain tourism destinations are more vulnerable to climate change and more so in areas of high mountain communities such as those in Nepal. Evidence of the effects of climate change on mountain destinations are slowly emerging, especially in the context of natural hazards such as disappearing or retreating glaciers, glacier- induced flooding, landslides and avalanches. More subtle changes in the natural areas of high mountains are hard to document and take time, therefore the long- term impacts of these on the tourism industry is uncertain. As Figure 2 implies, the nexus between climate, tourism and livelihood for the mountain communities can be complex, and therefore requires concerted research efforts in documenting the ways in which climate is going to impact the mountain communities and their livelihood prospects. The impact of climate change and adaptation measures will vary depending on local conditions but broad-based adaptation measures need to be developed and integrated as part of the climate policy at national level. Mountain tourism destinations in Nepal must develop their capacity to diversify their tourism opportunities, discourage development of tourism facilities in risk-prone zones, protective barriers need to be built where facilities have been already built, early warning systems, and search and rescue stations need to be established. These actions need to be considered as a collaborative effort between various players in the tourism industry. Further research on location-specific threats of climate change should be conducted in order to develop specific actions, but these actions must be considered a part of a comprehensive package “climate ready” policy, both at a local and national level. Nepal Tourism & Development Review (Volume 1, Issue 1, 2011) | 13

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Nepal, S.K., Kohler, T. and Banzhaf, B.R. 2002. Great Himalaya - Tourism and the dynamics of change in Nepal. Berne: Swiss Foundation for Alpine Research, 92 pp. Nepal, S.K. and Nepal, S.A. 2004. Visitor impacts on trails in the Sagarmatha (Mt. Everest) National Park, Nepal. Ambio 33 (6): 334-40. Nyaupane, G. P. & Chhetri, N. 2009. Vulnerability to climate change of nature-based tourism in the Nepalese . Tourism Geographies 11: 96-119. Parry, M. 2009. Closing the loop between mitigation, impacts and adaptation. Climatic Change 96: 23-27. Richardson, R.B. & Loomis, J.B. 2004. Adaptive recreation planning and climate change: A contingent visitation approach.Ecological Economics 50: 83-99. Scott, D., Gossling, S. & Freitas, C.R. de. 2008. Preferred climates for tourism: Case studies from Canada, New Zealand and Sweden. Climate Research 38: 61-73. Scott, D., Jones, B. & Konopek, J. 2007. Implications of climate and environmental change for nature-based tourism in the Canadian Rocky Mountains: A case study of Waterton Lakes National Park.Tourism Management 28: 570-579. Scott, D., McBoyle, G., Minogue, A. & Mills, B. 2006. Climate change and the sustainability of ski-based tourism in eastern North America: A reassessment. Journal of Sustainable Tourism 14: 376-398. Scott, D. & Suffling, R. 2000. Climate Change and Canada’s National Parks. Toronto: Environment Canada. Smit, B. & Pilifosova, O. 2002. Adaptation to climate change in the context of sustainable development and equity. Chapter 18. IPCC Third Assessment Report on Climate Change 2001. Spiteri, A. & Nepal, S.K. 2008. Local benefits from conservation in Nepal’s Annapurna Conservation Area. Environmental Management 42 (3): 391-401. Travis, W. R. 2009. Going to extremes: Propositions on the social response to severe climate change. Climatic Change DOI 10.1007/s10584-009-9661-8 Vuichard, D. & Zimmermann, M. 1987. The 1985 catastrophic drainage of a moraine- dammed lake, Khumbu Himal, Nepal: Causes and consequences. Mountain Research & Development 7: 91-110. Nepal Tourism & Development Review (Volume 1, Issue 1, 2011) | 15

Peace through Tourism: A Critical Look at Nepalese Tourism

Pranil Upadhayaya [email protected] Abstract Tourism, the world’s largest and one of the fastest developing economic sectors, virtually affects every region and nation of the world due to its potential contribution to international understanding and poverty reduction. Nepal is no exception. The remarkable growth of tourism at present (peace time) has been progressing through its four progressive theoretical models/platforms (e.g., advocacy, cautionary, adaptancy and knowledge-based platforms) with each having both peace potential and limitation. In this scenario, there is likely growing attention and look at tourism with a passion for its peace prospective. ‘Peace’, a vital and most cherished dream of humanity, is a state that not only indicates the absence of direct violence but also sustains peaceful relationships among all levels and segments of society and between society and nature. Tourism is sensitive to conflict and responsive to peace. There are both opportunities and challenges for the peace responsiveness of tourism in Nepal. Nepalese tourism, which passed through a decade long (1996-2006) armed conflict, serves a concrete illustration of this nexus of tourism and peace with the dual attributes of tourism for conflict and peace. However, this paper envisages that it is a community-based village tourism supported by sustainable structures and actions, backed by proper implementations of tourism regulations, framed with appropriate codes of conduct and materialized by the integrated effort and partnership actions of all (non-scientific and scientific) stakeholders that can be the most viable option for achieving the noble goal of peace through tourism in Nepal. In this context, this paper exemplifies it with an innovative example of a research-linked and empirically executed case of Machhapuchchhre Model Trek (MMT) in Western Nepal. MMT is footed at the knowledge- based platform on transdisciplinary approach in which the scientific (e.g., researchers) and both academic and non-academic (e.g., local communities, local government, tourism practitioners, tourists, etc.) actors approached in an integrated effort to transform local tourism initiatives as peace promoting and conflict mitigating. This paper finally recommends the knowledge-based approach to Nepalese tourism as important not only for bridging the earlier three platforms but also for fulfilling the dual (mass as well as small-scale community-based village tourism) needs of Nepalese tourism at present and thus succeed on peace aspirations through tourism.

Key words : Tourism; Tourism Progressive Models; Peace through Tourism; Tourism Practices & Transdisciplinary Approach 16 | Pranil Upadhayaya: Peace through Tourism: A Critical ...

Introduction The success of Jana Andolan II (People’s Revolution II) followed by the signing of the Comprehensive Peace Agreement (CPA) between the then Communist Party of Nepal - Maoist (CPN-M), (note 1) and the government in 2006 have taken Nepal into a new era of peace process and paved the way for economic revolution. The unlimited endemic natural and traditional cultural attractions spread in foremost rural geographical areas of Nepal, unique hospitality attributes of Nepalese people, low capital intensive nature of Nepalese tourism and its high labor tilting and the resilient nature offer tremendous potentials and optimisms for post-conflict socio-economic transformation and peace dividends through tourism. However, the ups and downs (fluctuations) in Nepalese tourism during the heightening of the armed conflict from 2001-2005, political instabilities (e.g., changes of nine prime ministers in a period of ten years from 1991-2000) in the mainstream national politics in one-and-half decades of democracy from 1990- 2005 and the fragile peace process in the post-conflict period after the historical peace accord of 2006 at present coinciding with the recent major shifts in national tourism policies and programs (e.g., introduction of New Tourism Policy 2009, Home Stay Tourism Operation Work Procedure 2010 and the formal launching of Nepal Tourism Year 2011, a mega national tourism event to revive the Shangri- La image of Nepal as a tourist destination) have raised both curiosities (hopes) and question marks (doubts) about the role and upshot of tourism for prosperity and peace. This has further hyped the debate on peace through tourism with positive, negative and indifferent perceptions. With this background, having the state of a tripartite complex nexus between tourism, conflict and peace in the Nepalese context, this paper first provides a broad definition of peace and relates its role on tourism. In an attempt to explore the reciprocal relationship between tourism with peace and converse relationship between tourism and conflict, it evaluates some case studies underpinning. Methodologically, this paper has used qualitative and quantitative data collected through secondary and primary sources of information from the research-based work in the years 2009-2010 and analyzed accordingly (note 2 for supplementary information on methodology). In exploring the relationship of tourism with peace, this paper has particularly attempted to address the following questions: 1) What is the relationship between peace and tourism? How is the reflection of the peace prospective of tourism? Is this relation reciprocal? 2) What are their practical implications for peace through tourism inthe Nepalese context? 3) What are the innate opportunities and apparent challenges for peace- building through tourism in Nepal? What can be a rational model which is conflict mitigating and peace promoting through tourism in Nepal? Nepal Tourism & Development Review (Volume 1, Issue 1, 2011) | 17

While addressing the above questions, the author came across some remarkable positive insights, experiences and reflections on peace responsiveness of village tourism which is community-based. In this context and through the empirical learning experience of a community-based village tourism, Machhapuchchhre Model Trek (MMT) in Western Nepal under the knowledge-based platform, this paper envisages the high prospective of community-based village tourism on participatory and sustainable appearances for promoting peace through tourism in Nepal.

Peace Theory and its Role on Tourism Peace researchers and educators through various publications around the world at present are dealing with some major peace-related emerging issues such as structural violence, cultural violence, personal violence, racism, ethnic conflict, global warming, environmental destruction, north-south relations, sustainable development, debt and global poverty, population growth, resource scarcity, feminist perspective on peace, militarism, political violence and human rights, etc. (Arai, 2010; Bodhi, 2008; Galtung 1996; Moufakkir and Kelly, 2010; Rees, 2003; Salzar, 2006; Satani, 2003). Peace has been normally defined as negative and positive (Galtung, 1996; Moufakkir and Kelly, 2010). There is presence of structural and cultural violence in negative peace (Galtung, 1996). Positive peace is a state with neither overt violence nor the more subtle phenomenon of underlying structural violence. It emphasizes the presence of justice, harmony and equity within and between societies. Referring to the multifaceted nature of peace, Moufakkir and Kelly (2010) envisage peace as a hierarchical concept with participatory peace in the highest position (figure 1).

Participatory peace

Positive peace

Negative peace

Figure 1: The Peace hierarchy Source: Moufakkir and Kelly (2010) 18 | Pranil Upadhayaya: Peace through Tourism: A Critical ...

Peace is an essential precondition for travel and tourism and all aspects of human growth and development (IIPT, 2011a). The tourism industry, which is often known as a peace and development industry, thrives in a peaceful environment. It is found to have a close relationship with tourism (Adhikari, 2005; Bhattarai & Dahal, 2007; Grandon, 2007; NTB, 2008; Upadhayaya, 2008; Upreti and Upadhayaya, 2010). The relationship between tourism and peace has also been endorsed bya number of international initiations (e.g., The UN Declaration of Human Rights in 1948, International Bureau of Social Tourism in 1963, The Helsinki Accord in 1975, World Tourism Organization’s Tourism Bill of Rights & Tourist Code in 1985, United Nations World Tourism Organization’s Sustainable Tourism-Eliminating Poverty 2003, etc.). Amidst the various desires and commitments for peace through tourism, the United Nations (UN) has identified tourism as an important means of creating peace in the world. The UN has focused on Peace and Tourism in its conference on Environment and Development on June 14, 1992, and made a note in the Amman Declaration on ‘Peace through Tourism’ adopted at the Global Summit on Peace through Tourism on November 11, 2000 (IIPT, 2011a; IIPT, 2011b; Kunwar 2006). The view of Edgel (1990) emphasizing the demand of peace for tourism, even marking as ‘peace: passport to tourism’, supports the argument for peace through tourism. However, it is imperative that positive peace is largely supportive for the growth of tourism than negative peace. The role of sustainable and participatory tourism is important for the causal relationships of tourism for peace-building.

Peace-building through Tourism: Potentials and Limitations in Nepal As a universal phenomenon and integral part of globalization, tourism seeks peace, stability, and tranquility for its development and prosperity (Mihalic, 1996; Tarlow, 2006). On the other hand, tourism being a powerful socio-economic force and responsive to peace can also play a potential role of benefactor to mitigate conflict and support post-conflict peace-building. However, it not only has such potentials but also limitations for peace building which have been discussed in the works of a number of scholars by referring to case studies from , China-Taiwan, Croatia, Israel-Palestine, Rwanda, USA, etc. (Alluri 2009; Din, 1988; D’Amore, 1988 & 2007; Eriksson, Noble, Pattullo, & Barnett, 2009; Higgins- Desbiolles, 2006, Higgins-Desbiolles & Blanchard 2010; Issac, 2010; Leitner, 1999; Satani, 2003).

Potentials for peace through tourism availing in Nepal: The potential for peace through tourism in Nepal was realized in the past and it is envisioned for future too. The launching of a mega tourism project (e.g., a US$ 18.72 million project titled ‘Tourism for Rural Poverty Alleviation Programme’ launched during 2001-2005) in an effort for rural poverty alleviation, appearance Nepal Tourism & Development Review (Volume 1, Issue 1, 2011) | 19 of tourism as a small-scale uninterrupted activity and the responses (e.g., through various press conferences, press releases, industry interactions, etc.) of the private sector tourism actors for the destination image-building even during the armed conflict and collective roles of tourists and tourism entrepreneurs by showing solidarity through ‘Democratic Tourism Entrepreneurs Association’ for the restoration of peace and democracy during the 19 days of the successful Jana Andolan II are a few examples of the efforts for peace through tourism made in the past in Nepal (BBC, 2004; Dhakal, 2005; Dhakal, Khadka, Sharma, & Choegyal, 2007; Grandon, 2007; Pandey, 2008; Sherpa, 2005; Upadhayaya, Müller-Böker, & Sharma, 2010). The launching of the NTY 2011, a mega national tourism event with slogans like ‘Together for Tourism’, ‘Tourism for Prosperity’, and ‘Prosperity for Peace’ and also targeting to attract one million tourists in 2011, shows the soaring expectations of tourism for prosperity and peace in Nepal. Realizing poverty and inequality as the root cause of conflict and in aid of peace through tourism, the government has come up with some new initiations to widen the participations in tourism and give access to the benefits of tourism to rural communities, who are unsurprisingly much improvised. The diversification of tourism in villages through homestay provision by approving a Homestay Sanchalan Karyavidhi 2067 (homestay operation working procedure 2010) in July 2010 based on two modalities – community homestay and private homestay and the usual continuity of VolunTourism and Philanthropic travel are other potentials for peace-building through tourism in Nepal (MoTCA, 2010b).

Limitations for Peace through Tourism in Nepal The unequal structure of tourism: The spatial distribution of tourism in Nepal is not balanced and it ismainly concentrated on the comparatively few regions with tourist infrastructure (Müller-Böker, 2000). The ruling elites and merchant-class centered in Kathmandu dominate the hotel sector and other services catering to tourists. The industry remain highly centralized and focused in the Kathmandu Valley, comprising the country’s three culturally rich urban centers: Bhaktapur (Bhadgaun), Lalitpur (Patan) and Kathmandu (Kantipur) (Bhattarai, Conway, & Shrestha, 2005). The industry’s uneven growth, monopolistic class character, and neglect of rural impoverishment are preventing the promise of tourism on the notion of sustainability, fair participation and peace-building. Recognizing the domination of tourism by a small number of urban-based elite entrepreneurs at the central level, the government provisioned to plough back certain amount of the revenue to the areas where the revenue was initially generated (NTB, 2005). However, not all frameworks are really operational and it is also not clear how these investments have brought benefits to the local 20 | Pranil Upadhayaya: Peace through Tourism: A Critical ... people. These issues are resulting in local dissatisfaction and prolonged conflicts and even ensuing with occasional community oppositions (table 1), which are alarming signs for tourist destination image-building and peace perspective of tourism.

Case Date Place Nature of local community/workers' study No. oppositions and consequences 1. August Lomanthang, Dissatisfaction, and threat to bar tourists from 2010 Mustang entering Upper Mustang from October 2010 by the members of Upper Mustang Youth Society and other local inhabitants 2. July Sauraha, Warning to go in strikes by the members 2009 Chitwan of Middle Region management committee, forest conservation committee and other local stakeholders on the issue of the reopening of 7 resorts located inside the Chitwan National Park which were closed on July 16 after the expiration of their operating licenses. Table 1: Examples of community oppositions against unjust tourism practices Source: Primary information from the field visit in Chitwan (July–August 2009), The Himalayan Times (2009a) and The Himalayan Times (2009b) It would be relevant to get insights through a short analysis of the above case studies in tourism concerning the uprising of conflict.

Case study 1: Before the formal opening of the long restricted areas of Upper Mustang in northern Nepal, it was agreed to plough back 60 percent of the tourist revenue generated from Upper Mustang tourism with tourists’ fees of $ 700 (lowered later to $ 500) with assurance from political leaders and the then prime minister for its development and heritage conservation (Gurung, 1998, as in Sharma, 2000). The rationale behind the introduction of high-yield tourism to benefit conservation and local development through plough back could not be well effectuated as the assurances were not backed up by an executive order. Out of the total revenue of $ 537,600 earned from tourist entry fee, the government had channelized $ 322,560 for this region in 1993 (Kantipur Editorial, 2010). Similarly, only 4.1 percent of the entry fee could be used by Upper Mustang Conservation Area Development Project in 1998 (Sharma, 2000). It did not release even a penny after that. Nepal (2003, p. 150) mentions that “the idea of channeling a significant proportion of tourism revenue to finance local development projects hasnot materialized as initially envisioned.” The dissatisfied local people organized through Upper Mustang Youth Society decided to launch a movement and bar foreign tourists from entering the region from October 1, 2010 (Pokharel and Nepal Tourism & Development Review (Volume 1, Issue 1, 2011) | 21

Paudel, 2010). The Ministry of Home issues the permits to tourists to enter Upper Mustang, collects revenue from each tourist entrance fee and sends it to the Ministry of Finance (MoF). MoF is ultimately responsible for revenue distribution through the National Trust for Nature Conservation (Annapurna Conservation Area Project in case of Mustang).

Case study 2: The Dapha 3 (Article 3) of the National Park and Wildlife Conservation Regulation (NPWCR) 2030 (1973) has clearly mentioned to call for open tender to select jungle resort(s) to operate inside the national park through a 35-day tender process (DNPWC, 2004). National Parks and Wildlife Conservation Act (NPWCA) 2029 (1972) has also clearly mentioned to allow to operate resorts inside the national parks through fulfilling the standard working processes (DNPWC, 2004). The 15-year contracts (since the year 1993) of lease agreement between the government and seven jungle resorts, namely Tiger Tops, Island Jungle Resort, Gaida Wildlife Camp, Machan Wildlife Resort, Temple Tiger Jungle Resort, Chitwan Jungle Lodge and Narayani Safari Lodge located inside the Chitwan National Park (CNP), a UNESCO Natural World Heritage site that shelters endangered wildlife including one-horned rhinos in Chitwan district, expired on July 15, 2009. Prior to this context, a 6-member investigation committee formed under the leadership of Mr. Madhav Acharya, the joint secretary of Ministry of Forests and Soil Conservation, had submitted a study report to then Minister for Forests and Soil Conservation reporting several discrepancies against the legal guidelines laid down by conservation regulations of the NPWCA 2029 (1972) (Bhatta, 2009). There were following recommendations made regarding the jungle resort and conservation matters on January 30, 2009. • There should be no operation of jungle resorts inside the park. The permanent resorts structures inside the park have negatively affected the free movement and habitat of all kinds of wild animals. This could help to conserve the rare one-horned rhinos of Chitwan known as the “Brand” of Chitwan National Park. Hence, all operating resorts inside the park should be removed. • A total of 11 tented camps could be operated at a distance of 6 kilometers between two tented camps. An open conflict arose between those seven hoteliers with their employees (supported by others like Hotel Association of Nepal, Federation of Nepalese Chambers of Commerce and Industry) who demanded that they be allowed to run hotels without calling tenders and national park conservationists (supported 22 | Pranil Upadhayaya: Peace through Tourism: A Critical ... by others like Secretary of Ministry of Forests and Soil Conservation, members of Chitwan National Park middle region buffer zone management committee, forest conservation committees, all hoteliers outside the national park located in Sauraha, the director general of DNPWC, security forces, the DNPWC and other local stakeholders). The latter preferred free competition to allow hotels inside the park based on existing legal provisions. This row was well apparent at the policy level at the center in Kathmandu too when the Ministry of Forest and Soil Conservation (MoFSC) openly favored the earlier side and initiated to extend the operation permission of seven hotels, even violating the existing law, whereas the Secretary of MoFSC favored the latter side (Bhatta, 2009). The latter proposed for open competition guided by the jurisdiction of NPWCR 1973, NPWCA 1972 and Buffer Zone Management Regulation. The conflict between the two sides (inside hotels within the park versus conservationists) was long-drawn-out. Around 700 hotel workers of the seven hotels through a ‘Joint Labor Struggle Committee’ began agitation and even stopped tourists for some time who were entering the CNP via Tandi (East- West Highway) and Sauraha (Eyewitness by the author; Shrestha & Shrestha, 2008; The Himalayan Times, 2009b; Tripathi, 2009). The row ended in November 2009 with a special sub-committee formed by the Public Accounts Committee under the legislature-parliament to probe and submit the facts. It came with the following decisions after intense consultation with all stakeholders. • Renewal of the operating licenses of the hotels with doubling of their tax payable to the government for the space used till December 2011 considering the threat of negative image-building of park tourism with the shortly approaching NTY 2011 • Advice to shift those hotels to middle region. No increment in their royalty for operating license to the government for seven years in case of their relocation within six months. • Provision for monopoly to run only those seven hotels if they shifted to a new entry point of CNP within one year. A thorough analysis of the case study of conflict between park tourism and park conservation in CNP reveals that the local population residing in the buffer zone area of CNP has minimally benefited from natural resource use along with tourism in the national park as also revealed by Mishra (1982) and Müller-Böker (1999).

Fragile Peace Process Amidst New Forms of Conflict The post-conflict peace process of Nepal is passing through a fragile transition phase which has imposed a number of new structural challenges to the tourism sector to grow and sustain smoothly (Sharma & Upadhayaya, 2008). A Post Nepal Tourism & Development Review (Volume 1, Issue 1, 2011) | 23

Editorial (2008) covering a report issued by UN World Food Programme (WFP) states that there were a total of 755 banda (closures) and strikes in the year 2008 in Nepal. Nepal saw 125 days of banda (closures) in various parts of the country called by various political and non-political groups in 2010 (Adhikary, 2010). Because of the uninterrupted state of these internal conflict-related challenges too, the rate of growth in annual tourist arrivals, their average length of stay and the revenue earned from tourism in the post-conflict years, especially in 2008, was negative and/or after 2008 was slow and uneven (table 2).

Revenue % % % Number of generated Change Average Change Change international from Year from length of from from tourist tourism previous stay previous previous arrivals (in US$ year year year million) 1995 363,395 11.27 116.8

1996 393,613 8.3 13.50 1.98 116.6 -1.71

1997 421,857 7.2 10.49 -2.23 115.9 - 6.00

1998 463,684 9.9 10.76 2.57 152.5 31.58

1999 491,504 6.0 12.28 1.41 168.1 10.23

2000 463,646 -5.7 11.88 -3.26 166.8 - 7.73

2001 361,237 -22.1 11.93 4.20 140.3 - 1.59

2002 275,468 -23.7 7.92 - 3.36 106.8 - 2.39

2003 338,132 22.7 9.60 2.12 192.8 8.0

2004 385,297 13.9 13.51 4.07 179.9 -6.7

2005 375,398 - 2.6 - 9.09 - 3.27 148.4 -1.7

2006 383,926 2.3 10.20 - 1.22 162.8 9.7

2007 526,705 37.3 11.96 1.72 230.6 -4.2

2008 500,277 -5.0 11.78 -0.02 351.9 52.60

2009 509,956 1.89 11.32 - 3.90 372.30 5.48

Table 2: Tourism statistics reflecting peace responsiveness and conflict sensitiveness of tourism in Nepal. Source: MoTCA (2010a) 24 | Pranil Upadhayaya: Peace through Tourism: A Critical ...

In this context, the development of timely consensus among political parties in the present political transition phase is a must and utmost priority for peace and stability and to avoid the risk to tourism sector. Tourism may decline precipitously if political conditions appear unsettled (Ritcher and Waugh, as in Kunwar, 2006). The growing challenges of labor disputes and unionisms in tourism sector: The growing unionism amidst the laborers in tourism sector provoked by extreme political ideology, enduring affiliations of trade unions with national political parties, and their growing politicization by mainstream political parties on one side and the exploitative attitude of some monopolistic elite employers against the backdrop of the lack of appropriate labor law and industrial policy under the neo-liberal economic globalization domination on the other side, emerge as the significant structural barriers and hardcore issues in the intricacy of the relationship between employers and employees in tourism sector (Upadhayaya, 2009). Upadhayaya (2010) in this relation reveals a number of confronting incidences that occurred in the hotel sub-sector (table 3).

February 2009 More than a dozen workers were seriously injured in an inhuman attack with weapons by the management of Hotel Beijing China in Jyatha, Kath- mandu during peaceful demonstration and continuous negotiation with the management regarding the implementation of Labor Law.

Owner of Hotel Maharaja in Kathmandu was physically attacked thrice by December labor union members. 2008 Hotel laborers affiliated with the CPN-M took out a rally in Pokhara de- manding implementation of Minimum Wage Act.

January 2008 All Nepal Hotel and Restaurant Workers Union (ANHRWA) members of hotels in Pokhara halted work for three days on minimum wage row deal demanding a flat increment of Rs 1,300 for all in minimum wage given to hotel workers.

January 2008 ANHRWA affiliated to CPN-M restricted the entry of tourists for a day in Nagarkot, a hill spot with 42 hotels situated 32 km northeast of Kath- mandu. The agitators demanded that their 15-point demands be met and closed the hotels for four days. Tourists were forced to make a hasty retreat due to the prevailing uncertainty.

February 2008 Hotels in Chitwan remained closed for weeks owing to the disputes be- tween the hotels owners and the workers representing Nepal Free Ho- tel Workers Union affiliated to the General Federation of National Trade Union (GFONT). The workers' demands were to start levying 10% service charge on wildlife tourism package that includes elephant ride, boat ride, jungle safari, jungle tour, canoeing, bird watching and fee entry to the national park. Nepal Tourism & Development Review (Volume 1, Issue 1, 2011) | 25

December ANHRWA affiliated to the CPN-M closed Everest Panorama Resort at Da- 2008 man, situated between Kathmandu and Hetauda on the Prithvi Highway, alleging non-fulfillment of minimum salary as proposed by the govern- ment. It compelled tourists to leave the hotel prior to the completion of their stays.

November Fifty-eight hotels and resorts of the tourist hub at Nagarkot were shut 2008 down for almost four days demanding an increase of Rs 1,300 for all levels of workers by the CPN-M affiliated ANHRWA. Around 800 tour- ists staying in 36 hotels were forced to leave the hotels and/or canceled their earlier confirmed bookings for stays in the hotels. The hotels were opened after a negotiation at prime ministerial level in the presence of minister for home affairs, secretary of Ministry of Tourism and Civil Avia- tion, representative of Hotel Association of Nepal, ANHRWA representa- tive. Prior to this negotiation, president of ANHRWA’s Bhaktapur wing received a directive from the Minister for Tourism and Civil Aviation and followed it.

November Closure of Manakamana Cable Car, a famous pilgrimage for Hindu tour- 2008 ists, for a month by All Nepal Security Labor Union affiliated to the CPN-M demanding to confirm all temporary security guards.

March 2007 The owner of Hotel Woodland was injured after disputes with labor union.

December Hotels in Dhulikhel and Nagarkot were closed for three days demanding 2006 that minimum wage standard be maintained and fair treatment ensured.

October 2006 Five associations related to the tourism industry showing their solidarity to the business community, announced and participated in the shutdown of all their businesses on October 17, 2006 to oppose severe hardships from the rising donation drive, extortion and the unreasonable demand of the unions. The act was aimed at exerting pressure on the government to come out from its paralyzed state, protect the business community, and to take immediate measures to stop unfavorable behavior.

Feb-Aug 2006 Hotel Yak and Yeti was closed for almost 8 months due to a bitter row between the management and labor unions, and non–cooperation move- ment by CPN-M affiliated labor union and GFONT. The demands from the labor unions included fair wages, facilities and permanent status.

October 2005 Thirty workers of the Kathmandu office of the Indian Airlines demanding permanent status in line with the Labor Act (1992) started a relay hunger strike from October 19, 2005 for a month. This strike was backstopped by the GFONT.

Table 3: A short list of labor disputes-related incidences and unionization in hotel sub-sector Source: Primary information collection from the field visit (September 2008–July 2009) and Upadhayaya (2010). 26 | Pranil Upadhayaya: Peace through Tourism: A Critical ...

Amidst the above listed several disputes, the author would like to describe and analyze one case study of labor dispute in Nagarkot in November 2008 in the Kathmandu Valley with its nitty-gritty.

Case study of wage-related disputes at hotels in Nagarkot: Nagarkot is a beautiful hill-station situated northeast of Kathmandu at a distance of 32 kilometers. Putting forth their 13-point demand on December 16 , 2007, All Nepal Hotel and Restaurant Workers’ Union (ANHRWU) affiliated to CPN-M (which was in the government then) closed down around 58 hotels in Nagarkot from January 16-17, 2008. Club Himalaya, the biggest resort was forced to close from January 14-18, 2010. The closures of all these hotels forced tourists to beat a hasty retreat due to the prevailing uncertainty. Some 800 tourists were forced to leave Nagarkot unpredictably (primary information from the field). The demand for a flat increase of Rs 1,300 for all level of workers after the pay hike structure laid down by the government (table 4) was the major issue apart from other demands like permanent appointment of workers, minimum salary of Rs 4,600 in hotels of all categories (e.g., five star to non star), maximum 8 hours of every day normal duty, annual leave, medical allowance, gratuity, etc.

There is a rule to review salaries of all kinds of workers in the country in every two years.

The government proposed a new salary structure (table 4) for all workers in the country in September 2008.

Types of workers Basic salary Price hike allowance Total NPR

Non-skilled 3,050 1,550 4,600

Semi-skilled 3,100 1,550 4,650

Skilled 3,210 1,550 4,760

Highly skilled 3,400 1,550 4,950

For daily wage laborers NPR 190 as minimum salary

Table 4: A new wage structure with minimum salary and allowance Source: Kantipur, December 1, 2008

The government had earlier decided to raise the minimum salary of workers from NRs 3,300 (NRs 2,200 as basic salary + NRs 1,100 as allowance existed earlier for the lowest wage receiving workers) to NRs 4,600 (table IV) through a directive of the cabinet meeting held on December 8, 2008. The increment of a total of NRs 1,300 was only for those workers who received NRs 3,300 as the lowest income. Nepal Tourism & Development Review (Volume 1, Issue 1, 2011) | 27

The ANHRWU in Nagarkot itself divided the hotels into three categories – ‘A’, ‘B’ and ‘C’ – and set the minimum salaries at NRs 3,500, NRs 5,000 and NRs 10,000 respectively. The government had increased minimum wages of unskilled workers to NRs 4,600 (table IV) but workers in Nagarkot demanded that hotels not only increase the wages of the lowest income workers but of all workers, even the higher paid ones that fall under category ‘B’ and ‘C’ (Personal interview with Badri Makaju, Treasurer of Nagakot Naldum Tourism Development Committee on January 17, 2008). With this demand, they closed down the hotels and threatened majadurikaran (unionization) if the demands were not met. The stir was finally pulled back following prime minister-level talks in his office (Himalayan News Service, 2008).

Machhapuchchhre Model Trek: A case study of peace responsive tourism endeavor at village level The MMT, covering seven village development committees (VDCs), namely Lahachowk, Ghachowk, Machhapuchchhre, Rivan, Lwanghalel, Sardikhola and Dhital in Kaski district in Western Nepal, is developed as the alternative trekking and hiking route to the Round Annapurna Circuit Trek Route (RACTR) in the Annapurna Conservation Area in Western Nepal on two folds: (a) an organized trekking route with tented camping and (b) a local community-managed homestay tourism product. Although the construction of the road that started in RACTR in 2006 is supposed to be a lifeline for locals in the inaccessible region, the completion of the road construction is predicted to threaten the overall attraction of RACTR for tourists. The comprehensive analysis of the various insights and characteristics of the MMT would be relevant to understand and validate its peace responsive aspects.

Partnership Actions on Transdisciplinary Approach as the Peace Potential of Tourism The community-based tourism model on this route is executed by Trekking Agencies’ Association of Nepal Western Regional Chapter (TAAN WRC) under a yearlong ‘Partnership Actions for Mitigating Syndromes (PAMS)’, an interdisciplinary research-related small-scale local development project titled “Developing a community-based tourism model in Kaski district in Western Nepal”. The author along with senior researchers of Kathmandu University (KU) and the Swiss National Centre Competence in Research North-South (NCCR), engaged in exploring the relationship between armed conflict, peace and tourism in Nepal, acted as the scientific actors to address the peace perspective of tourism by applying research results to real situations. A number of non-scientific institutions and actors (note 3) were collectively involved in the transdiscilplinary approach for interactive and fruitful dialogues and action results. 28 | Pranil Upadhayaya: Peace through Tourism: A Critical ...

The development of the MMT route under PAMS provided an empirical basis for evaluating the potential of transdisciplinary research in triggering social learning processes through concerted actions (TAAN, 2010). Such concerted actions consisted with the organization of three workshops (e.g., the first at alocal level at Machhapuchchhre village, the second at regional level in Pokhara and the third at central level in Kathmandu), constructions of basic infrastructures for rural trekking tourism (e.g., five porters’ shelters and five trekking campsites at wilderness areas like Meshrom Kharka, Hile, Lalka, Khumai and Pilicho and 25 trail marking boards throughout the whole rural trekking routes), capacity- building to 94 women of seven villages on culinary and hospitality skills for offering homestays to visiting guests in community-based village tourism and sketching of a trekking route map and the production of a video documentary titled “Peace through Tourism” (figure 2) (Bechtel, 2010; TAAN, 2010).

Figure 2: A partnership endeavor for Peace through Tourism (A video documentary reflecting transdisciplinary approach for peace through tourism) Source: TAAN, WRC & NCCR North-South Nepal Tourism & Development Review (Volume 1, Issue 1, 2011) | 29

Bottom-up participatory planning process

This MMT route was first explored by TAAN WRC in association with Nepal Tourism Board and five VDCs in this region during Visit Pokhara Year 2007 to conduct a baseline study to check the potentiality for village tourism. This exploration visit was immediately followed by an interaction program organized on Appreciative Participatory Planning and Action (APPA) model at Ghachowk VDC on June 2, 2007. It was attended by 79 participants including local to regional stakeholders (Khatiwada, 2007). There are representations of grassroots people in all programs like infrastructure development, Codes of Conduct (CoC) (note 4) formulation, capacity building activities, and the management of infrastructure after the handover of the product to local communities.

Sustainable and inclusive structure with conflict-sensitive and peace-responsive approach of rural tourism

The development of the MMT is led by Machhapuchchhre Tourism Development Committee (MTDC) that represents males, females and other marginalized members of local communities with their inclusive representations. The board members of MTDC are represented by a tourism sub-committee of seven village development committees in balanced numbers. The five trekking campsites and porters’ shelters have been set up and fixed on five places along the hiking route under the environmentally friendly technical guidelines of ACAP (ACAP, 2009) to keep the impact on the natural environment to a minimum. The MMT route received a total of around 2,000 international tourists arrivals in the year 2010 (information from interview with Mr Rajendra Gurung, President of MTDC in Pokhara, January 2011). With these arrivals, the capacity building of local community to run homestay and rural tourism has started to supplement the meager incomes of around 16,000 mostly subsistence farmers who live in the trekking area.

Realizing the need of a careful indigenous planning and implementations framed with appropriate guidelines to ensure sustainability on the MMT, CoCs were formulated on MMTR after intense debate and discussions among all stakeholders during the KU and NCCR-supported PAMS project.

All local stakeholders have committed themselves to follow and apply conflict- sensitive and peace-responsible CoCs that cover five main aspects of tourism, namely planning and managerial, socio-cultural, economic, environmental and those related to safety and security of tourists under the notion of ‘peace through tourism’ (figure 3) (Upadhayaya and Upreti, 2009).

30 | Pranil Upadhayaya: Peace through Tourism: A Critical ...

Machhapuchhre Tourism Development Committee

Planning & Environmental Managerial CoC CoC

Private sector Tour/Trek Local Entrepreneurs Residents Tourist site on Machhapuchhre Economic Socio-cultural CoC Model Trek route CoC

Local Government Incoming (VDCs & ACAP) Safety & Security Tourists/Trekkers related CoC

Figure 3: Significant actors in the interlinked composition for the mutually agreed conflict-sensitive tourism CoC at Machhapuchchhre Model Trek route Source: Upadhayaya and Upreti (2009) The organization of three workshops, each one at local (Machhapuchchhre VDC), regional (Pokhara) and central (Kathmandu) levels, for discussions and presentations on CoC is remarkable for its commonly agreed formulation. For long-term sustainability, a Memorandum of Understanding (MoU) on the Directives for the Sustainable Management of Infrastructures has also been jointly signed and exchanged by MTDC and TAAN WRC during the infrastructures handover to MTDC ceremony, a mega event held in Kharpani, Kaski on December 10, 2010 (Sharma, 2009).

Discussions and Conclusions Tourism, one of the world’s fasted growing economic sectors at a global scale at present (peace time), has raised interest and debate on its potentiality for peace- building in its dual forms, viz. industry and/or social force. The state of this debate on peace through tourism linking with relevant case studies is reflected and analyzed. The industrial form of tourism as supported and advocated by advocacy platform commends the role of tourism for employment and income for third world countries like Nepal, but is silent on its equitable growth, a strong ground for sustainable peace-building through tourism. The succeeding cautionary and adaptancy platforms in latter periods followed by knowledge-based platform in recent times appear to replace and strengthen the role of tourism for sustainable Nepal Tourism & Development Review (Volume 1, Issue 1, 2011) | 31 development and thereby prospective for peace and prosperity. Much of the work from the other three platforms is subjective; the knowledge-based platform positions itself on a scientific foundation in a context where there is no tourism without damage due its resource-consumptive characteristics. Prolonged poverty, socio-economic injustice, unequal opportunities and marginalization were undeniably the root causes of various political movements (e.g., 1950, 1980 and 1990) and a decade long (1996-2006) armed conflict in Nepal. Neglecting such issues could trigger and re-kindle conflict and jeopardize the whole industry as argued by the cautionary platform of Jafari (1990 and 2005). For this reason, poverty reduction, equitable socio-economic growth and economic development are vital agendas for post-conflict reconstruction, socio-economic security and peace-building in Nepal. Tourism, a peace industry, is sensitive to conflict and responsive to peace. Long-lasting peace and security are vital for a sustainable tourism sector. As tourism is a beneficiary of peace and peace brings hope for travel boom, tourism reciprocally has a key role in peace- building by transforming itself in sustainable and participatory forms (Upreti and Upadhayaya, 2010). The economic viability of tourism to eliminate poverty of grassroots disadvantaged people, prevent conflict and violence, and effectuate the socio-economic transformation of the country can largely materialize through tourism by molding it in inclusive, participatory and sustainable characteristics against its longstanding traditional, centralized and monopolistic form as informed earlier by this paper. Molding tourism with such characteristics also requires a major shift (expansion) of the present centralized form of tourism to rural/village areas which are exotic and enormous but unable to benefit from tourism (Pradhanang, 2009). The prospective of community-based village tourism in its participatory and sustainable forms can be promising in transforming the post-war economy of Nepal into a socio-economy of peace. This is what peace through tourism should really mean. Apart from traditional tourists, the volunteering and philanthropic tourism, as agents of change, are holding promises for Nepal. ‘Room to Read’ and ‘Trek Nepal 2008’ can demonstrate such examples in Nepal (Mdfnepal, 2009; Wood, 2010). These need to be scaled up and diverted toward the disadvantaged. However, a careful and critical look on the state of art of Nepalese tourism shows not only various positive signs and future opportunities but also firm challenges for peace through tourism in Nepal. The state of peacelessness brought about by the unequal structure and complexity of tourism in cases of Upper Mustang, Chitwan and Nagarkot exemplify the rolling of tourism in Nepal through the state of cautionary platform. The remark of Ritcher (1984) on the earlier proposition of Jafari in this context that tourism can spawn divisive conflicts among proponents and opponents of tourism development is rightly related with these examples in Nepal. The case studies 32 | Pranil Upadhayaya: Peace through Tourism: A Critical ... on the disputes over reopening of jungle resorts inside the Chitwan National Park in 2009 and threats given by the local people to bar the entry of tourists in Upper Mustang in 2010 show the lapses on the implementation of the existing policies and provisions by the government to involve local people on sustainable approach, recycle the revenues of tourism locally and provide benefit to all local stakeholders (both tourists and non-tourists) impartially. The panicking labor unionization in the hotel sub-sector (example with detailed case study of Nagarkot) and lack of an amicable labor-management relation in the post-conflict period under the verge of its politicization by political parties are the other challenging agendas for lasting peace in tourism sector of Nepal. The strikes should be the last resort and the physical violence and vandalism should always be shunned which are not seen normally applicable in the post- conflict period (table III). As a result, there is not only the high prediction on the state of risk to create the negative destination image of Nepalese tourism but also of possible decline in national and international private investments that are crucial for Nepalese tourism to grow smoothly. However, conflict is not always pathological and dysfunctional but can also be a constructive social process. The institutional strengthening of labor unions in tourism sector by the backstopping of CPN-M led (armed conflict) during the latter phase of the armed conflict and in successive years not only raised greater awareness among the workers, but also provided a strong base for fighting for labor rights and implementing 10% service charge from January 1, 2007. It helped in introducing the provisions of job permanency after 240 work days, allocation of the minimum wage of NRs 4,600 for permanent staff and NRs 150 as daily wage for temporary wage employees in the tourism sector too, which are positive outcomes of the conflict for tourism and peace indeed. Nevertheless, the recent policy revisit on tourism by the post-conflict government to facilitate the alternative forms of tourism like private homestay in urban and rural areas and community-based homestay in villages of Nepal through the approval of homestay Sanchalan Karyavidhi 2067 (Homestay Tourism Working procedure 2010) under the policy guidelines of Paryatan Neeti 2065 (Tourism Policy, 2009) for the decentralization of village tourism on the 3Ps (diversifications with new product of village tourism, new people in village tourism and new place of village tourism) modes indicates Nepal’s formal entry into the adaptancy platform in the progressive theoretical models of tourism (MoTCA, 2009; MoTCA 2010b). It has attempted to materialize the peace responsiveness of tourism by provisioning to bring much-needed revenues to communities across the country. However, applications of sustainable and participatory tourism strategies integrating with local absorptive capacities and supply linkages to ensure the benefits for people at grassroots levels are indispensable to ensure peace in the real sense. Nepal Tourism & Development Review (Volume 1, Issue 1, 2011) | 33

In fact, Nepal’s enormous village tourism prospect coinciding with trekking and homestay potentials are the most viable forms of generating employments, increasing income and diversifying the benefits on village areas, which constitute a large proportion of the entire geography of Nepal. A number of other studies (Gautam, 2008; Shakya, 2009) also support the conventional wisdom of significant positive relationship between tourism at grassroots of village level and economic growth which (growth) can not only lift agro-based rural households out of poverty but also makes them more secure economically. However, it is not simply village tourism but also the sustainable village tourism, a product resulting from the partnership of different stakeholders in integrated approach, supported by the strategic role of state policies and its honest implementations that matter for peace through tourism in Nepal (Sharma, 2000). An integrated approach marked by this paper in this context also reveals a transdisciplinary approach by the collaboration of scientific and non-scientific actors based on the knowledge-based platform of the progressive theoretical model of tourism. The roles and actions of all actors (e.g., scientific and non- academic actors, public and private, academic and industry) in integrated manner can ever become a true peace-builder, both within and outside tourism. The community-based village tourism model on the MMT serves as an alternative example in this endeavor. The political stability, cooperation among political parties to manage their inter- party conflicts and stable governments are preliminary conditions anticipated by Nepalese tourism for smoothly materializing all these vital issues for peace through tourism. Since there remains little in-depth information on the debate of tourism and peace within its multidimensional interrelationships and difficult discussion issue, there is high need of the expansion of the science of its knowledge through increased research cooperation and interventions. Notes 1. CPN–M: The name of CPN-M was changed to the United Communist Party of Nepal (Maoist) or UCPN-M since January 2009 after the merger of the CPN-M with the Unity Center. However, CPN-M is used throughout this article to avoid any confusion about the frequent use of this abbreviation.

2. Methodology: The secondary source of information included a comprehensive review of published and unpublished literatures, reports and data made available by tourism-related institutions as well as content analysis of several national and international news coverage on conflict and tourism in Nepal. The primary source of information consisted of empirical observations through site visits in Nagarkot in Bhaktapur, Sauraha in Chitwan and Pokhara and its peri-urban 34 | Pranil Upadhayaya: Peace through Tourism: A Critical ... seven villages in the MMT area in Kaski district. The primary information also included the execution of the author’s ongoing PhD research-linked small-scale development project on the community-based tourism in the MMT area in Kaski, research-based paper presentations at workshops followed by interactions and the production of a video documentary titled “Peace through Tourism” (figure III) in 2009 and 2010.

This research-based project titled “Developing a community based tourism model in Kaski district in Western Nepal” covered seven villages (Lahachowk, Ghachowk, Machhapuchhre, Rivan, Lwanghalel, Sardikhola, and Dhital) inhabited by a population of 16,000 of mixed ethnic composition in the peri-urban areas of Pokhara city in Kaski district in Western Nepal. This community-based tourism model was executed on partnership actions between scientific and non-academic actors which made it an innovative model with transdisciplinary approach. In this context the author’s paper presentations at three workshops linking with ongoing PhD research in the field of ‘tourism, conflict and peace’ followed by a series of interactions and debates were relevant for accessing information and also making triangulation. Among these, the first workshop titled “Post- conflict tourism: Challenges and Opportunities” was held in March 2008in Kathmandu. The other such presentations were one at a regional level (figure V) interaction titled “Machhapuchhre Model Trek: Opportunity and Challenges for Community based Rural Tourism” held in July 2009 in Pokhara and the other as a national conference titled “Exploring Alternative Trekking Routes for Peace and Prosperity - An Experience of Machhapuchhre Model Trek route in Kaski District in Western Nepal”. The latter was focused on the conflict-sensitive and peace- responsive tourism codes of conduct. All these presentations were organized jointly by Kathmandu University (KU) and the Swiss National Centre Competence in Research North-South (NCCR) in association with Nepal Tourism Board (NTB) with the latter two interactions also in association with the Annapurna Conservation Area Project (ACAP), Trekking Agencies’ Association of Nepal (TAAN) and Machhapuchchhre Tourism Development Committee (MTDC).

3. Non scientific institutions and actors: The non-scientific institutions and actors on the MMT included the members of TAAN WRC in Pokhara as tourism entrepreneurs, Empowering Women of Nepal (Pokhara) as a non-governmental organization in the tourism sector, Annapurna Conservation Area Project (ACAP) and Nepal Tourism Board as facilitators of capacity-building for village tourism operation and environmental guidelines, and other local stakeholders (e.g., seven VDCs as the representatives of local governments, local communities, local mothers’ groups and Machhapuchchhre Tourism Development Committee as the core local representative body, etc.) as non-academic local beneficiary actors. Nepal Tourism & Development Review (Volume 1, Issue 1, 2011) | 35

4. Tourism Code of Conduct (CoC): A CoC for tourism is commonly agreed voluntary and self-regulatory (disciplinary) practical guidelines, core values and commitments of local level tourism. Its formulation, finalization with intense discussions, acceptance and applications are significant for the sustainability of tourism.

Acknowledgments The research for this publication was conducted within the framework of the Working Package 1 of the Swiss National Centre of Competence in Research (NCCR) North-South: Research Partnerships for Mitigating Syndromes of Global Change, co-funded by the Swiss National Science Foundation and the Swiss Agency for Development and Cooperation. The author would like to thank Dr. Mahesh Banskota of the School of Arts, Kathmandu University, Kathmandu for his valuable comment in reaching the final draft.

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The Bystander Effect of Trekking Tourism: Proposing a Typology of Environmental Ideal Types

Martin Trandberg Jensen [email protected]

Abstract Tourism impacts in fragile nature-based environments have repeatedly been investigated from a wide array of academic viewpoints. However, in order to improve future researches that aim at measuring and/or elaborating on the pro-environmental awareness and behavioral patterns of trekking tourists, it is of utmost importance to identify the present environmental ideal types of trekkers. This research sets out to create an environmental typology of international trekkers visiting the Annapurna Conservation Area in Nepal. This research was conducted in between February-August, 2010, and included an extensive three-month ethnographic fieldwork within the conservation area, applying quantitative and qualitative techniques in order to create a framework of environmental trekking rationalities. A preliminary comparative analysis shows that trekkers seem to perceive themselves as more pro-environmental when trekking in Nepal compared to when at home. There appears to be a ‘selective optimistic self-perception’ among trekking tourists that creates a discrepancy between environmental self-perception and actual behavior. This research argues that trekkers seem to be locked into unsustainable consumption patterns, characterized by the constant strive toward Western comforts and commodities. In order to illustrate this case, the following article presents a novel typology that defines a number of different environmental ideal types within trekking.

Keywords: Theory of Planned Behavior; Value-Action Gap; Bystander-Effect; Model of Responsible Environmental Behavior; Psychological Discrepancy; Environmental Ideal Typing; Typology

Introduction Mountains, with their remote and majestic beauty, are among the most popular destinations for ecotourism, and mountain tourism can be a key factor in the focal concern for both the overall improvement in people’s quality of life through sustainable development initiatives in economic development and environmental development. In both socio-economic and environmental terms, tourism in mountain regions is a mixed blessing; it can be a source of problems, but also offers many opportunities (Sanjay, K., 2002, p. 38). 42 | Martin Trandberg Jensen: The bystander effect of trekking ...

In Nepal, such development has taken the form of trekking, often described by those practicing or commercializing it as eco-tourism, which once and again is presented as a sustainable tourism form that makes up a positive alternative to mass tourism consumption (Sacareau, 2009; Fennel, 2000). Based on this perspective, it is not a bold statement to argue that trekking tourism canbe considered a rather ideal example of sustainable tourism. Relating this to Nepal, it is even reinforced by authors stating that trekking tourism in Nepal is one of the foremost examples of ecotourism operations (Gurung & DeCoursey, 1994). However, as the introductory citation states, mountain tourism is connected to a mixed blessing that can similarly be seen as the centrifugal axis of this research.

Trekking and environmental issues Trekking has been allowed in Nepal since 1964 when the Nepalese government first allowed foreign visitors to make multi-day hiking tours (Stevens, 2003) and in connection to the country’s diverse geographical features, adventure and trekking tourism were seen as viable strategies for rural development (Zurick, 1992). Mountain-related tourism activities are undoubtedly the core of tourism in Nepal, and around 43 percent of all international arrivals participate in trekking (MCTA, 2004). This fact alone indicates that it is of utmost importance to manage this sector with a delicate economical, social and environmental balance in mind.

Nowadays, tourism has brought major changes to the Nepal environment, which has altered traditional patterns of natural land and resource management and put increasing pressure on the general environment. According to Stevens (2003), diverse regionally varying linkages have been suggested between tourism and changing forest use; community management of forest and grazing; the local accumulation of rubbish and pollution from human waste, forest degradation and damage to alpine vegetation.

As a mountain destination experiences higher density of tourism development, the potential for conflict between maintaining a healthy natural environment and economic development also increases. This has urged planners and decision- makers to devise and adopt innovative approaches that seek to strike a balance between tourism (economic) development and nature conservation in the mountains Sanjay, K. (2000, p. 662).

This research presents a fundamental environmental typology which is regarded as a valuable tool for all actors within the Nepalese tourism sector that wish to increase their understanding of trekking tourists in connection to pro- environmental perceptions and beliefs. Nepal Tourism & Development Review (Volume 1, Issue 1, 2011) | 43

Presenting the methods Why the ethnographic approach? A large number of research and accounts from various decades identify trekking in Nepal as a key cause to negative environmental impacts (Mishra, 1973; Garratt, 1981; Zurick, 1992; Sanjay, 2002). This research’s literature review indicates that the primary design of existing environmental research is based on quantitative impact studies. That is, comparative statistical studies elaborating on past vs. present environmental numbers and figures. Although researches have been conducted from a host-perspective (Zurick, 1992; Nyaupane & Thapa, 2006), there seems to be insufficient research from the guest’s perspective. This lack of research became a main driver for conducting this research from the trekker’s perspective. Within adventure tourism, Weber (2001) and Beedie & Hudson (2003) both suggest that academic research on individual’s subjective experience and perception are under-researched. In the Nepalese context, Musa et al. (2004) and Pandey (1994) argue that there is an apparent neglect in researching the attitudes and needs of trekkers in Nepal. On the basis of this apparent absence of academic knowledge, the objective of this research is to shed light upon the environmental awareness and attitudes of international trekkers visiting Nepal from a first-hand ethnographic perspective.

Study site and period The formal research was undertaken from February to August 2010, with the fieldwork ranging from April-June. However, before the start of the research a wide-ranging literature and destination review was undertaken. The fieldwork took place in the Annapurna Conservation Area, which also makes up the geographical limitation of the research.

Sampling strategy Marshall & Rosmann (1995) argue that a qualitative research should explicitly describe its procedures and criteria for the research sampling. The primary information of this research is based on 87 completed surveys and 22 individuals as well as group interviews. In total, 43 respondents participated in the interviews. Both data collection processes have been based on the ‘convenience sampling strategy’ (Miles & Huberman, 1994) which is primarily based on the time and cost constraints of the research. Furthermore, since the research aimed at approaching trekkers during the trek, there was the constant chance that respondents would move. Hence, the researcher found it necessary to ‘strike while the iron was hot’ and approach respondents when the chance for an interview/survey would be there (during short breaks, acclimatization days, dinner times etc.). 44 | Martin Trandberg Jensen: The bystander effect of trekking ...

Questionnaire design The final questionnaire is based upon two existing frameworks which have been applied in similar studies (Özden, 2008; Miller et al., 2007). The questionnaire is applied because it fits with the theoretical review as presented in the following discussion of this article. It is made up of 30 environmental statements (Özden, 2008) which respondents reply upon based on a 5-point Likert scale. Finally, the questionnaire applies a minor segmentation typology (Miller et al., 2007) which is used to create an early comparative analysis. This part of the questionnaire asks respondents to choose one sentence that fit their environmental beliefs the most (1) At home and (2) While trekking.

Log observations An indispensable part of the study of any social institution, wherever this can be obtained, is deliberate and sustained personal observation of its actual operation (Dingwall, 1997). There seems to be a general academic acceptance that ethnography originates from anthropology and therefore often relates to observation studies (Gellner & Hirsch, 2001). This is also the case in this research in which the method of doing ‘log observations’ is based upon the researcher’s visual accounts which were documented through audio records as the fieldwork progressed.

Contextualizing the theories for research application Within the academic world, the idea of environmental awareness has grown steadily since the 1970s and during the 1980s people have come to understand that it is imperative to protect the environment (Amendah and Park, 2008). This green ideology is also supported by the massive number of academic articles which put focus on environmental issues, per se, and in connection to adventure tourism (Beedie & Hudson, 2003; Bhattarai, et al., 2005; Lee & Moscardo, 2005; Korhonen & Lappalainen, 2004; Miller et al., 2010; Moisander, 2007; Musa et al., 2004; Nyaupane & Chhetri, 2009; Nyupane & Thapa, 2006; Sacareau, 2009; Sanjay, 2000; Stevens, 2003; Williams & Soutar, 2009; Zurick, 1992; Özden, 2008). From this perspective, it is reasonable to argue that environmental issues in tourism represent a hot topic in present academic literature. In connection to this hot topic, Luo & Deng (2008) argue that a recent tendency shows that researchers are increasingly interested in segmenting eco-tourists by their social or environmental value. This is interesting to this research because the pure concept of trekking is often linked with an ecological and nature-based paradigm (Gurung & DeCoursey, 1994; Musa et al., 2004; Sanjay, 2002) which would eventually indicate that this research is in line with a present trend in tourism literature - in this case, segmenting and profiling trekkers by their environmental values. However, it was difficult to find a fitting theoretical construction that could be applied to do more than merely focus on knowledge based variables, Nepal Tourism & Development Review (Volume 1, Issue 1, 2011) | 45 which can be seen as simple quantitative measurements of people’s awareness of an issue. A theoretical basis which manages to capture the complex notion of environmental awareness is found in a newly conducted study by Lee & Moscardo (2005) who investigated the impacts of ecotourism experiences on tourist’s environmental attitudes and behavioral intentions. This research proposes an interesting framework by putting together elements from the theory of planned behavior and the model of responsible environmental behavior (Hines et al., 1986) to create a theoretical notion of what makes up environmental behavior. The model as illustrated below makes up the applied theoretical basis of this research.

Figure 1: A simple framework for understanding responsible environmental behavior (Adopted by Lee & Moscardo, 2005) As applied in this research, the practical use of this model is primarily focused on the boxes ‘Attitudes’, ‘Intentions to Act’ and ‘Responsible Environmental Behavior’. The linear way in which the boxes are presented should not be regarded as the way this research undertook its data collection. Rather, the researcher stresses that this is simply a plain illustration of the major issues of the research. In terms of extracting data in connection to the issues of ‘attitudes’ and ‘intentions to act’, the tools of survey and interview studies were applied. In order to elaborate upon ‘responsible environmental behavior’ the research used log observations to account (mis)matches between stated trekking attitudes and intentions and actual behavior.

Presenting the findings – A comparative analysis I think I am more aware when I trek, ’cause when you are home you just have habits, and it’s hard to break, and you do what everyone else does, but when you are trekking, you’re...for me I am in nature and I think a lot about what I do ’cause it seems, you are in new situations so you have to see everything in a new way, and you can make a choice more than you can at home with all your habits. 46 | Martin Trandberg Jensen: The bystander effect of trekking ...

The upper statement derives from an inexperienced Danish trekker who had just started his trek when the interview was conducted. Nevertheless, his quote presents a central and pivotal part of the reason for behaving differently while ‘at home’ and while trekking in Nepal. NCC & SDC (2006) concludes something very similar about sustainable consumption arguing that people often find themselves locked in to consumption patterns that are not sustainable when they are in their everyday environment. During the field research, it became clear that whether or not people actually behave differently is something which is extremely hard to conclude upon because it is a matter of respondent answers and the reliability of these answers. An issue which Jackson (2005, part 1, p. 5) stressed in a similar research; ‘For social and behavioral issues, the problem is compounded by the subjective nature of the evidence base’. As one elderly American trekker precisely puts it when asked if trekkers are as green as they think they are: “Yeah, in the main I think they are emotionally as green as they think they are. Whether or not that translates into reality is another question”. In order to elaborate further on this matter, the research constructed an early comparative analysis that proposes some general environmental characteristics of trekkers.

I will if you will During the fieldwork interviews, the primary denominators for environmental problems were often encapsulated by the use of words like ‘plastic’ and ‘rubbish’. The research identifies that those trekkers who perceive themselves as environmentally aware instinctively connect this to not overusing the natural resources and not throwing waste. Although it is better than showing no awareness, it might also constitute an inappropriate frame of reference. Similarly, NCC & SDC (2006) argue that the arrival of recycling bins on people’s doorsteps helps people take environmental actions, but also dominates their perception of pro-environmentalism to such an extent that people struggle to think about other ways in which they can make a difference. However, although the presence of plastic and rubbish might be the early starting point for pro- environmental idealism, the presence of garbage may also create a rather inappropriate effect in trekking behavior.

Uhm, when I trek in , if I see rubbish, I take it away…if you only see a little rubbish, you know that people don’t put the rubbish in the way, so if you see you take it…But here [Nepal], you see a lot, and I think it’s...you prefer not to do anything... Young Spanish woman

This statement is concerning because it directly correlates the will to behave environmentally friendly with the present environmental state of the Annapurna region. From such perspective, a thought of mind could sound, “If it does not Nepal Tourism & Development Review (Volume 1, Issue 1, 2011) | 47 make a big difference for the environment to take a piece of rubbish, why take it?” This correlates with the Theory of Planned Behavior (Ajzen, 1992) because a key element of this approach is to which extent people feel they can achieve the result they want. For some trekkers, it seems as if they simply do not feel their actions would create the results they want. As such, it seems that this specific trekking attitude correlates with another study in environmental issues; Anable, Lane and Kelay (2006) found that climate change is an issue within people’s sphere of concern, but not within their perceived sphere of influence. From this perspective, it becomes a matter of the local authorities to ensure a clean region to make sure people want to preserve it like that.

The real concern consists in the apparent fact that the locals and tourist’s perceived degree of environmental influence differs greatly. This causes a ‘bystander effect’ (Lowe et al., 2005) where mass paralysis of action takes place when people are confronted with something that demands intervention from each and every individual – in this case, protecting the fragile environment of the Annapurna region.

When we were on the bus from Kathmandu to Pokhara, we stepped out, and the first thing someone did was eating a banana and throwing all the lefties…the plastics on the floor…and we were like, well if you go to Nepal and you go hiking and you do it like that, that is rude, and I am not going to pick it up.

Young Dutch man

Even a seemingly environmentally aware Canadian woman appeared hopelessly affected by the current situation:

Yeah I think that, that, you know I have almost spent four months in Nepal and I start to feel that way, feel like, what’s the point? Like, you just look and it’s a total disaster in mess really everywhere as far as garbage and plastic. I have even had some Nepali friends and you know it’s like, he finishes his drink and he just throws it in the ditch and I am like ‘what are you doing?’ and he just laughs…

Middle-aged Canadian woman

The main thread in these arguments is that they show a desperate environmental attitude that is based on the paradox of ‘if they don’t do anything, then I won’t do anything’. However, simultaneously trekkers seem to consider themselves as very conscious when it comes to sustainable behavior. A main argument from many respondents seems to focus on the presence of an incorporated green awareness within trekkers:

Well you know, first of all, I think that trekkers are already nature lovers. So I think you are talking to a population that has a higher sense of nature and how to protect it

Elderly French man 48 | Martin Trandberg Jensen: The bystander effect of trekking ...

A lot of trekkers even seemed to perceive their own environmental awareness to such an extent that they divided them into a separate tourism group compared to other tourists:

…people who live here in nature are more connected to nature…are feeling more responsible for nature, differently than people who go to Spain, to the beaches and drink a lot of beer.

Young Dutch man

Or You’re not going to get the British chaps who go and soak themselves in the sun in Costa Brava and eat, you know, ham and chips, and you know, they are not the kind of people that come here to buy the scenery.

Young English man

Apparently, there exists a high degree of self-satisfaction in trekkers’ perception toward their pro-environmentalism. However, this self-perceived pro- environmentalism does not necessarily connect with the actual behavioral patterns, and when asked if it would make a difference to pick up rubbish, some respondents would honestly stress:

Absolutely makes a difference. Unfortunately I did not pick up one piece of rubbish, so I can’t really say that everyone should. But I think absolutely it would make a difference, I think, yeah, for everyone…I saw more people than I did rubbish, so if everybody picked up one or two pieces I think it would be done… solved.

Middle-aged American man

Or Everybody is talking about it, we are talking about it as well, but we are not really doing something against it. And as well at home, yeah, you try sometimes, you separate [rubbish]...but in fact you are not really doing something.

Young Swiss woman

Such statements made it clear to the research that awareness and intentions do not necessarily lead to action or a change in individual behavior. This fits with Owens (2000) critique that the level of a person’s awareness may not significantly affect the person’s behavior. This might give food for thought for tourism managers that primarily focus on the promotion of pro-environmentalism through guidelines, codes of conduct, information platforms etc. Making people aware of environmental problems is only an early step toward changing actual behavior. This researcher also stresses further focus on empowerment of Nepal Tourism & Development Review (Volume 1, Issue 1, 2011) | 49 trekkers, infrastructure development and voluntarism/participatory schemes that integrate trekkers and locals in larger environmental programs.

Trekking is good, trekking is bad and trekking is ugly In connection to trekkers’ perception of the trekking industry, per se, there appeared to be quite a large difference in attitudes. The fieldwork found that trekking is seen as everything from an environmentally harming industry to a green industry. This indicates that trekking and its environmental impacts make up a ‘grey area’ within trekkers’ frame of thoughts, which eventually makes it a complex matter to fully comprehend. When trekking is seen as a culture, and trekkers as products of this culture, some trekkers seem to represent ethnocentric-like values, perceiving trekking as a better form of tourism than most other tourism types. Oppositely others will appear more relative toward the culture of trekking, apparently either disinterested or relaxed and unconcerned about its impacts. As a consequence, it seems that trekkers can be defined on a theoretical axis based upon their apparent ‘cultural view’, which is a person’s perception of trekking and the actors connected to it (from a metaphorical point of view it represents how a person ‘sees’ trekking). Lacking more precise words, the research coined the two diametrical values on the continuum: ‘cultural relativism’ versus ‘cultural ethnocentrism’.

Commercializing the industry – An issue that divides trekkers The apparent demand for Western products has created an immense tourist- focused consumerism in the midst of the Himalaya, which seemed to frustrate some trekkers who found such commercialization to be a ‘cultural sell-out’, whereas others appeared to understand the business-oriented side of the industry. However, all in all, most trekkers seem to understand the problematic and delicate balance between preservation and development of the region.

Some trekkers would display what could be coined a ‘local lifestyle adapting’ attitude toward trekking, rather than supporting the commercialization of the industry, in contrast to the people who take their Western comforts and needs with them while trekking.

You know here they have good apple juice, they have all kinds of tea, they have all food, rice, vegetables, they have everything. I think if you come here and you don’t have all these products [Western commodities] jumping on your face, maybe…after three or four days you have new habits, habits of the trekkers in the middle of the Himalaya, not habits coming in from Paris or London. So I think it should be a very nice thing to cut all these products, and maybe…help the [local] people to have more products from the place.

Middle-aged Swiss man 50 | Martin Trandberg Jensen: The bystander effect of trekking ...

Interestingly, the upper statement actually encapsulates a main element of the research typology since it touches upon the contrast between ‘habits of the trekker in the middle of the Himalaya’ and ‘habits coming from Paris or London’. Dressed in other word this is similar to what is argued throughout the analysis; a trekker’s environmental attitudes seem to be influenced by the degree to which a trekker either adapts to local lifestyles or applies his/her own lifestyle to the trekking experience. This axis represents what trekkers actually ‘do’, and what can be observed. ...I mean the thing is that all trekkers are different. Some trekkers want to eat Dal Bhat [popular local dish] all the time, just like we were local. Other people want to have the Pringles and the Mars bars. And it depends very much on the mentality of the trekker, whether they can survive without the Mars bars and the Pringles. Middle-aged Scottish man

As the research progressed, the researcher came to understand the importance of what trekkers seem to do (their observable lifestyle), which made up the basis of creating a theoretical axis that defines trekkers based upon how they appear to live their lives as a trekker. The two diametrical contrasts of ‘adapting lifestyles’ versus ‘applying lifestyles’ became the main values of this continuum, and would eventually be connected to the previously mentioned ‘cultural view axis’ to form the typology. Proposing a typology of environmental trekking rationalities The primary element of the typology is the interrelationship between the two axes represented by the bold horizontal and vertical lines, which can be seen as what trekkers respectively ‘do’ and ‘see’. The vertical axis expresses the level of cultural immersion that a trekker accepts. That is, to which degree a trekker either applies his daily routine and lifestyle, or adapts the lifestyle and routines of locals while trekking. The horizontal axis represents the degree of ‘cultural relativism’ or ‘cultural ethnocentrism’ that a trekker expresses. In connection to this research, cultural relativism is typically expressed when trekkers do not see anything ‘right’ or ‘wrong’ with the local culture, but accept it for what it is without further thoughts about it. Oppositely, cultural ethnocentrism is when trekkers seem to make a clear division between ‘I’ and ‘them’ and clearly express the ‘rights’ and ‘wrongs’ of the local society.

In practice, it is difficult to determine a given level of a trekker’s attitudes, which is why it is important to stress that this is not the function of the typology. The typology merely illustrates ideal psychological rationalities that are based on the data analysis. According to this research, a trekker’s environmental attitudes are strongly related to these two axes. As such, this research proposes that by Nepal Tourism & Development Review (Volume 1, Issue 1, 2011) | 51 taking into consideration these continuums, one can define what environmental rationality a trekker seems to represent.

The four ideal types that are deduced from this fundamental model have been coined with plain names that are meant to encapsulate the fundamental psychology of the given type. The specific names should therefore neither be understood literally in a larger social or political context, nor should they be criticized for their generalizing sound. They should simply be perceived as metaphors for different trekking rationalities.

Finally, it is important to stress that this typology is not a fundamental social truth or an applicable and wide-ranging theory. It single- handedly represents the scope of this research field. This research argues that the proposed four ideal types cover the majority of trekkers in the region, and as such can be seen as being representative. However, trekkers might perceive themselves differently than what the researcher’s observations and experiences identify. Figure 2: The typology of trekkers based on their environmental attitudes and The upper typology is based upon awareness the major issues that are found to affect trekker’s environmental profiles in a considerable manner, and is the result of the researcher’s experiences within the fieldwork activities as well as the latter data analysis.

Describing the rationalities The environmental ‘hippies’: A trekker characterized by his/her apparent disinterest in how the conservation area is managed and which guidelines apply. The emotional and intrinsic interplay between the trekker and the pristine surroundings and local culture is the pivotal part of this trekker. The intrinsic value that the basic lifestyle, which is similar to the locals, brings to this ideal type is the main driver for his/her environmental profile. He changes his life to become an integral part of the culture and nature, and respects nature for the sake of nature. The environmental ‘greenpeacer’: This ideal type appears ethnocentric in the way that he/she ‘sees’ the surrounding culture, and seems interested in preserving the conservation area on the basis of what the person finds to be 52 | Martin Trandberg Jensen: The bystander effect of trekking ...

‘the right’ Annapurna. The profile is characterized by being skeptical about most issues concerning management of the conservation area and seems to blame the system and public authorities for the environmental problems. Another tendency within the ‘greenpeacer’ is that everything connected to commercialization and touristification of trekking is often regarded as negative per se. This type adapts to the lifestyle of the locals in the belief that the rural trekking lifestyle is the right trekking lifestyle.

The environmental ‘ethnocentrics’: Unlike the ‘greenpeacer’, the ‘ethnocentrics’ appear skeptical about the management and public/private bodies connected to the trekking industry. These arguments seem often based on some type of underlying cultural ethnocentrism and clear division between ‘us’ and ‘them’. As a contrast to the ‘greenpeacer’, this ideal type prefers to take his/her daily habits and routines and apply them while trekking. Cultural distrust and the demand for Western comfort characterize this profile.

The environmental ‘trekkists’: This profile is contracted through the two words ‘trekker’ and ‘tourist’ based on this ideal type’s apparent tourist-like behavior while trekking. ‘Trekkists’ seem characterized by their extrinsic motivation for trekking. This type of trekker does not seem to give much thought to the environmental state of the conservation area, but seems motivated by the personal enjoyment, social status and/or respect which his/her holiday might give in return. The ‘trekkist’ applies everyday life routines to his/her trekking behavior, and appears rather unconcerned with other issues apart from the personal enjoyment.

Conclusions In line with the research question, this paper has identified a typology that encapsulates a number of main characteristics that seem to influence the environmental profile of a trekker. This research has provided the academic and professional industry with an illustrative proposal on how trekkers can be understood in connection to pro-environmental behavior and attitudes. This fundamental typology might be helpful for future academics and tourism professionals who look to investigate similar research fields. This research stresses that the typology should not be looked upon as a categorical tool which can be applied to a wide range of cases. The four ideal types that are presented here should be perceived as four case-based exploratory rationalities that open up for further analytical possibilities. This research found that the four proposed ideal types of ‘trekkists’, ‘hippies’, ‘ethnocentrics’ and ‘greenpeacers’ represent the main environmental trekking rationalities within the Annapurna trekking industry. These profiles are constructed on the basis of two theoretical continuums. Firstly, what trekkers Nepal Tourism & Development Review (Volume 1, Issue 1, 2011) | 53 seem to actually ‘do’ (the observable behavior) which is expressed on an axis with the diametrical values; ‘adapting lifestyles’ and ‘applying lifestyles’. Secondly, the profiles are identified on the basis of how they seem to perceive - and ‘see’ – the trekking industry and the actors within it (the unobservable behavior). The interplay between ‘doing’ and ‘seeing’ makes up the heartbeat of the typology, and as such, works as the theoretical construction that forms the ideal types. This paper argues that further research should look into the opposing management visions in connection to ‘greening’ the industry and commercializing the industry. The apparent tendency to promote pro-environmental trekking behavior, while simultaneously liberalizing the trekking market before the fundamental infrastructure (roads, waste management, local education etc.) is present, seems to be opposing visions. This research stresses the need for a better cooperation between public and private stakeholders in the Annapurna region. Finally, the typology can be useful for tourism managers looking to improve their tourism activities. There exists considerable managerial benefit in understanding the psychology of the trekkers visiting the Annapurna conservation area, yet such understanding does not equal pro-environmental awareness. The findings from this paper must be converted to management actions, whether that is improving or redefining the present marketing and promotion programs with the proposed ideal types in mind; considering the level of commercialization of trekking; focusing on behavior-based development theories rather than awareness- based ones, or something completely different is left to be concluded upon. This research has tried to pave the way for a better understanding of trekkers, which is found to be the essential component of the continuous vision of improving pro-environmental trekking behavior.

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Tourism Development in Upper Manang Valley of Annapurna Region

Bhim P. Subedi & Prem Sagar Chapagain [email protected] [email protected]

The Context People have traveled throughout history as they have moved from one place to another for various reasons. However, as a business and as guided by individual and group’s voluntary activity, it flourished after the second half of the20th century, especially after the Second World War. Nepal followed a similar pattern as it was opened for outsiders only after 1950. Since then Nepal’s natural beauty within various ecological zones and its rich cultural heritage have attracted large number of tourists annually from around the world and particularly from Western Europe. The Annapurna Region is one of the notable tourist destinations, especially for trekking tourists. The region lies in the north-western part of Nepal. Popularly known as the Annapurna Trekking Route (Annapurna Circuit) boasting/ comprising some of the world’s highest peaks of above 8,000 m elevation and the world’s deepest valley, the Kali Gandaki Valley, it has attracted trekkers from many countries since the late 1980s in particular and since the 1970s in general (see Ives, 2006). Ecologically, the region comprises two high mountain districts and three hill districts. The region has unique ecological and cultural diversity. Such features include diverse climates, i.e. subtropical to alpine and diverse landscapes supporting 22 different forest types with 1,140 plant species, 21 species of amphibians, 32 species of reptiles, 478 bird species and 101 different mammals (KMTNC, 1997). In addition, its cultural diversity is demonstrated in its accommodation of people of different castes and ethnic groups such as Brahman, Chhetri, Gurung, Magar, Thakali, Tibetan and many occupational groups plus their own cultural and religious patterns and expressions. Moreover, the Annapurna Region has also been noted for its innovative work as early as in the 1980s in terms of participation of local community in activities and decision- making regarding tourism activities (see Sharma, 1989). This paper discusses development and salient features of tourism in the Upper Manang Valley of the Annapurna Region. Though evidences of foreigners visiting Upper Manang date back to early decades of the 20th century (see Kawakita, Nepal Tourism & Development Review (Volume 1, Issue 1, 2011) | 57

1957), it is only after 1970 that this valley became notable for tourists. This valley is part of the Annapurna Circuit and its tourism flourished especially after the initiation of the Annapurna Conservation Area Project (ACAP) in 1986. The main idea behind this is to conserve the unique diversity of the region while enhancing the livelihood of the people. Since its establishment, the project has implemented various programs related to agriculture, income generation, education and enterprise development so that the local people cooperate and feel the need of conservation for sustainable development. As the number of tourists have been increasing over time, it has been a challenge to protect the environment and to raise the living standards of the people.

Data and Methods Three main sources of data have been used in this paper. Firstly, for discussion on the general trend of tourist arrival in the country and in the Annapurna Region, the statistics available from the Ministry of Tourism and Civil Aviation have been utilized. This also includes data collected from the local office of ACAP in Manang, the largest and main settlement in Upper Manang. Data available from the local office particularly relates to the monthly flow of tourists in this area. Secondly, for specific data at a local level, records available from Humde Police Post have been utilized. The Police Check Post keeps the records of all visitors passing through the post. The visitors’ passport details including nationalities, sex and age are recorded at the minimum. Such records are not easily accessible to the commoners. We were able to collect such information through prolonged stay in their office premises. Thirdly, the author collected information about the existing hotels and their growth over the years in seven settlements of the Upper Manang Valley. Short interviews were also conducted with the hotel owners and some workers on case by case basis.

Organization of the Paper The paper is organized into four sections. The first section provides context and objective of the paper. It also briefly notes what kind of data has been utilized plus the methods of data collection. The second section describes the development of trekking tourism in the Upper Manang Valley beginning with the development of trekking tourism in general. It also discusses seasonality of the flow of tourists there. The third section presents some demographic characteristics of tourists visiting this area. The fourth section concludes the paper with a glimpse of the outlook of tourism in this area.

Trekking Tourism in Nepal Nepal is known for its natural and cultural diversity within its short north- south territorial extent. With the opening of the country for the foreigners in 1950, trekking tourism began to take shape. However, the number of visitors 58 | Bhim Subedi: Tourism Development in Upper Manang ... were limited before 1980. Despite some annual fluctuations, nevertheless, the number of West Europeans, North Americans and Asians visiting Nepal gradually increased. For example, the total number of tourists visiting Nepal in 1962 was 6,179 which increased to 45,970 in 1970, 156,123 in 1978 and 383,926 in 2006 (MCTCA, 2006). With the rising number of tourists, the number of trekkers also increased gradually. The total number of trekkers was only 556 in 1970, which went up to 27,460 in 1980, 61,471 in 1990 and 118,414 in 2000. Post 2000, the number of trekkers decreased due to conflict in the country. It was only after the peace negotiation in 2005 that trekking tourism witnessed its revival. There are many trekking routes in the country that attract foreigners. Three routes, namely Annapurna, Everest and Langtang cover about 95 percent of the trekkers visiting the country. Again, of the three routes, the Annapurna Circuit is the most common route capturing about 60 percent of the total trekkers. Everest stands second with its share of total trekkers in the country fluctuating roughly between 20 to 30 percent. Likewise, Langtang ranks third with its share of 9 to14 percent during normal years (Table 1).

Trekking Area Total number of Year Annapurna Everest Langtang trekkers in Nepal 1970 - - - 556 1980 52.19 21.25 14.98 27,460 1985 57.93 25.50 14.08 32,730 1990 59.15 18.41 12.73 61,472 1995 59.45 17.83 10.02 84,120 2000 64.53 22.53 9.22 118,414 2001 65.22 22.00 9.14 100,138 2002 64.79 23.44 8.04 59,644 2003 61.88 28.62 4.75 65,721 2004 60.98 28.87 4.35 69,442 2005 58.91 31.75 4.45 61,488 2006 56.63 30.92 6.82 66,931 Table 1: Trekkers by major trekking route in Nepal (in percent) Source: MoTCA, 2006. As noted earlier, the number of trekkers went up since 1980 and reached its peak in 2000. From then onwards, the number spiralled down, reaching its lowest in 2005. The decrease in the flow can be attributed to the security concerns among visitors since these were the peak years of conflict and political unrest in Nepal. Nepal Tourism & Development Review (Volume 1, Issue 1, 2011) | 59

The Dawn of Tourism in Manang Upper Manang is a part of the Annapurna Circuit. The whole district lies within the ACAP. Tourism in Manang started with the opening of the district for tourism in 1977 (Watkins, 1996; Koirala, 1981). The development of tourism is closely related with the entrepreneurship development such as trade, migration and tourism in the district. The local people of Manang have a very long history of their engagement in trade within and outside the country. Their visits to different parts of the subcontinent, South East Asia and Indo China have been recorded earlier (van Spengen, 1987). During the course of carrying out their business and procuring livelihood, they have long been engaged in various forms of mobility (Subedi, 2007). Their external mobility came to the forefront after they were provided special privileges in 1732, which continued till 1976. By 1980, not only had external trade become competitive, their special privilege had to be discontinued by the government because of parallel demands from other communities in the country. In such a competitive external trade-business it was not easy for many small-scale Manangi businessmen to thrive as in the past. Amidst these, Upper Manang was opened up for trekking and thus, some of the entrepreneurs with their skill and funds accrued during external trades found an avenue to carry on hotel management and other tourism-related activities back in Upper Manang. Moreover, the government’s decision to include the entire district as part of the ACAP in 1984 further reinforced the prospect of tourism development in this area. Upper Manang is a very pleasant valley. Inhabited by Manangis there are seven major settlements (Figure 1). Pisang is taken as the lowermost settlement of Upper Manag and the naming itself in Nyshang dialect reflects this. Likewise, Khangsar is the uppermost settlement and is located on the way and close to Tilicho Lake. These seven settlements of the valley together share more than 50 percent of the population of Manang district. The local people of the valley are believed to have migrated from different parts of Tibet long ago. The valley itself is characterized by physiographical diversity – from river basins to mountain peaks above 7,000 m, bio-diversity and offers unique Tibetan culture and localized agro-pastoral economy. Legend Settlement Major Trekking Route Trekking Route River Contour The Development of Trekking Upper Manang Tourism in Upper Manang Data on the number of tourists Figure 1: Major settlements and route of visiting the valley is officially Annapurna Circuit in Manang available since 1999. However, 60 | Bhim Subedi: Tourism Development in Upper Manang ...

Gurung (1995) has somehow managed to obtain earlier data on tourist arrival there from 1987/88 to 1993/94. Accordingly, a total of 5,816 tourists visited the valley in 1987/88. The number went down to 5,233 in 1990/91 but climbed back to 5,895 in 1993/94. Not all the tourists of the Annapurna Trekking Route visit Manang as the route consists of Jomsom, Manang and Ghorepani. Out of the total tourists in the Annapurna Circuit, about one-fourth trek via Manang. According to National Trust for Nature Conservation (NTNC), local office in Manang, some 11,234 tourists visited Upper Manang in 1999. The number of trekkers increased to 13,920 by 2001 (Table 2).

Months Number of tourists by year 1999 2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007 January 58 120 176 79 104 112 93 137 116 February 379 307 484 294 269 313 89 177 270 March 1469 1669 1980 1386 1552 1499 1081 1063 1485 April 1668 1126 2453 1476 1629 1771 1038 806 2229 May 427 179 731 433 601 423 394 316 674 June 139 132 74 88 122 65 107 64 136 July 284 239 181 177 119 109 104 68 175 August 197 247 207 107 165 183 172 207 300 September 1150 1367 1305 777 685 650 859 853 1250 October 3362 4334 3832 3060 3504 3339 3627 3627 4810 November 1841 2697 2222 1660 2029 1810 1720 1780 2339 December 260 306 275 304 357 252 306 262 408 Total 11234 12777 13920 9841 11136 10526 9590 9360 14192 Change No - 1543 1143 -4079 1295 -610 -936 -230 4832 % - 14 9 -29 13 -5 -9 -2 52 Table 2: Number of tourist arrival in Upper Manang Note: The year 1999 has been taken as the base year. Source: ACAP’s local office in Manang. From 2002 to 2006, the number of tourists visiting the valley decreased. The annual flow figure of about 14,000 went down to less than 10,000 in 2002. This figure increased to 11,000 the following year but again the downward spiral started, reaching the lowest in 2006. This decrease is not unique to Upper Manang but a common feature of Nepal as a whole. During these years, the total trekkers in the three major routes, namely Annapurna, Everest and Langtang decreased drastically from some 100,000 in 2001 to 67,000 in 2006. This being a reflection of the conflict, the figure increased after the Comprehensive Peace Accord between the government and the Maoist rebels in 2005. The number of trekkers in Upper Manang reached more than 14,192 in 2007, the highest over the last nine years. Nepal Tourism & Development Review (Volume 1, Issue 1, 2011) | 61

Since 1999, despite slowdown and fluctuations, the annual figure of trekkers visiting this valley did not go down from 9,300. This is a sizeable number. These trekkers need accommodation and other services. As a result, with the increase in number of tourists, it was imperative that the number of hotels in the valley also went up (Figure 2). According to Cooke (1985), in 1985 there were only five hotels in Manang village two of which were under construction. By 1990, however, there were 19 hotels in different villages in the valley. From 1990 to 2000, a total of 20 new hotels were added. Most of these additions took place in Manang village (including Tanki-Manang) and Humde. After 2000, 19 hotels were newly opened. The villages of Khangsar, Manang and Ngawal had the most additions in their total number of hotels after post 2000.

Source: Subedi, 2007. In general, the largest numbers of hotels were opened in the settlements along the main trekking route such as Manang, Pisang and Humde. The off-route villages such as Ghyaru, Ngawal and Khangsar have fewer hotels. In the case of Khangsar, only those tourists trekking to the Tilicho Lake pass through the village and such tourists are very few in number. Manang Village is the main settlement of the valley, not only from the present state of tourism development but also from the historical point of view. Manang village is epicenter of all social, political, cultural and administrative activities in the valley. The Gangapurna mountain peak and the Gangapurna Glacier are very close to Manang village. Also available in Manang village are cultural museum, movie theater, restaurants and other recreational facilities. The hotel owners in Manang sometime refer to this village functioning as Thamel of Kathmandu for tourists visiting this area. It is the little Thamel just beyond the Annapurna Range in the Central Himalaya. Table 3 provides the present distribution of hotels in various settlements. Of all the settlements, Manang has the largest number of hotels. This is also the largest 62 | Bhim Subedi: Tourism Development in Upper Manang ... settlement of the valley. Pisang ranks second in its share of total numberof hotels in the valley. Bhraka, Ghyaru and Khangsar have lower number of hotels. While Bhraka is very close to Manang, the main village of the valley, Ghyaru and Khangsar are primarily off-route villages.

Village/Settlement Distribution of Hotels Number Percent Khangsar 4 6.9 Manang 17 29.3 Bhraka 3 5.2 Ngawal 8 13.8 Ghyaru 3 5.2 Pisang 13 22.4 Humde 10 17.2 Total 58 100 Table 3: Distribution of hotels in Upper Manang by village/settlement, 2007 Source: Field Survey, 2006. There are at least three interesting and notable features of tourism development in Upper Manang. Firstly, the growth pattern of hotels in Upper Manang in the late 1980s and early 1990s reflects a parallel with the development of tourist- oriented (budget) hotels in Kathmandu, particularly in Thamel and Jhonchhe (see Moromoto, 2003). For example, in Thamel there were only seven hotels in 1970 but the number increased to 143 by 1997. Of the 143 hotels, the owners of 38 or 26.6 percent were from outside Kathmandu. Likewise, of the 38 owners from outside Kathmandu, 26 hoteliers or 68.4 percent were Gurungs. Furthermore, among the 26 Gurungs (hotel owners), 22 or 84.6 percent were Gurungs from Upper Manang. By 1997, Gurungs from Upper Manang had become the second largest group of hotel owners at Thamel in Kathmandu (Ibid, 2003). Secondly, all the hotel owners are from Upper Manang or are Manangis. Outsiders are not allowed to run such businesses. Even in case of the in-laws, the entire community is very particular, and if any, they are exceptions. They are proud of running the tourism business in their native land and express that such a business run by the natives further reinforces their bond with the land and their identity. Thirdly, almost all big hotels have links with hotels in Kathmandu that are run by their relatives or at times by themselves. The skilled human resource for the hotel business is hired from Kathmandu, whereas all family members participate in tourism activities. Meanwhile the labor demand in agriculture is fulfilled by the migrant laborers from Gorkha, Lamjung and nearby districts. Some of the skilled personnel work in Kathmandu and in Manang on a seasonal basis. Nepal Tourism & Development Review (Volume 1, Issue 1, 2011) | 63

The Seasonality Seasonality is an important feature of mountain areas. This is more so in terms of people visiting mountain areas from outside. Seasonality in the flow of tourist arrival from 2002-2005 is discussed elsewhere (see Subedi, 2007). However, to recapitulate and update the situation, Table 4 presents the distribution of tourists by months in 2007. Obviously, tourism activity in Upper Manang is highly seasonal. There are two tourist seasons, namely spring and autumn. The three months, namely March, April and May form the core of the spring season. Of the total visitors, about 31 percent come during these three months with April alone sharing 15.7 percent of the total annual flow. The autumn season comprises September, October and November and is by far the main tourist season in Upper Manang. Nearly 60 percent of the total annual flow takes place in these three months. More importantly, October alone shares more than one-third of the total annual flow there.

Months Tourist Arrival, 2007 Number Percent January 116 0.8 February 270 1.9 March 1485 10.5 April 2229 15.7 May 674 4.7 June 136 1.0 July 175 1.2 August 300 2.1 September 1250 8.8 October 4810 33.9 November 2339 16.5 December 408 2.9 Total 14192 100 Table 4: Tourist arrival by months in Upper Manang, 2007 Source: ACAP’s local office in Manang. Despite large concentration of tourists in two seasons, there were visitors in all twelve months in Upper Manang. January was recorded to have the least number of visitors. The other months with the least number of tourist arrivals are June, July, February, August and December, respectively. These high tourist arrival months also coincide with major agricultural activities (see also Subedi, 2004). Agricultural activities such as ploughing, sowing/planting takes place from the last week of March to the first and second week of April, and harvesting takes 64 | Bhim Subedi: Tourism Development in Upper Manang ... place during a fixed period from the last week of September to the first week of October in the valley.

NATIONALITY AND SOME DEMOGRAPHIC CHARACTERISTICS OF TOURISTS Tourist Nationality: Records available from the local ACAP office in Manang suggest that tourists from more than 64 countries visited Upper Manang in 2007. French citizens ranked highest. One out of every six visitors was French. They were followed by Israelis with their share of 13.5 percent. This ranking is a bit different from that of the 2002/03 record available from Humde which showed Israelis ranking highest with 19.6 percent followed by French with 16.4 percent (see Subedi, 2007). Germans ranked third and contributed about 12 percent to the total tourist arrival there. Britons ranked fourth. Both these rankings, i.e. third and fourth, are akin to that of 2002/03 figures. The other nationalities with their share of more than3.0 percent include Americans, Australians, Dutch, Spanish and Canadians. Together, these nine nationalities shared almost 75 percent of the tourist flow in Upper Manang in 2007 (Table 5).

Tourist Arrival Country of Origin Cumulative Number Percent percent 2378 16.8 16.8 Israel 1909 13.5 30.3 1672 11.8 42.0 1290 9.1 51.1 United States 840 5.9 57.0 Australia 780 5.5 62.5 Holland 626 4.4 67.0 Spain 546 3.9 70.8 Canada 519 3.7 74.5 Switzerland 397 2.8 77.3 Belgium 303 2.1 79.4 Czech Rep 297 2.1 81.5 277 2.0 83.4 Austria 232 1.6 85.1 Poland 224 1.6 86.7 Other Countries 1902 13.3 100 Total 14192 100 - Table 5: Tourists by their nationalities, 2007 Source: Compiled from ACAP’s local office in Manang. Nepal Tourism & Development Review (Volume 1, Issue 1, 2011) | 65

As elsewhere in the country, Europeans and North Americans are the main tourists in this area. Usually, tourists who complete the Annapurna Circuit spend two to three nights in Upper Manang. According to local hotel owners, visitors spend one night at Pisang and the remaining two nights at Manang village.

Tourist Demographic Characteristics: For analysis of demographic characteristics of tourists, such as sex and age, characteristics are based on 12 months’ record of visitors passing through Humde Police Check Post from December 2002 to November 2003. Other published records lack such details. This record misses those trekking through alternative route to Manang village via Ghyaru-Ngawal without passing through the check post. However, the missing figures are small and moreover, the demographic characteristics are not expected to be different from the ones represented by the available records of Humde Post. Sex selectivity is evident with males dominating the total flow of tourists in Manang. Of the total 7,492 tourists recorded in Humde, 62.4 percent were male and 37.6 percent female. The numerical dominance of male over female in the tourist arrival to Upper Manang remains the same for all twelve months (Table 6). A general tendency of higher sex ratio during lean months and relatively lower ratio during peak months is apparent. Of all the months, the number of female tourists is the highest in October and November.

Months Male Female Total Sex ratio December 123 70 193 175.7 January 43 16 59 268.8 February 115 70 185 164.3 March 354 239 593 148.1 April 791 407 1198 194.3 May 376 200 576 188.0 June 83 45 128 184.4 July 59 37 96 159.5 August 86 68 154 126.5 September 233 145 378 160.7 October 1522 940 2462 161.9 November 893 577 1470 154.8 Total No. 4678 2814 7492 166.2 % 62.4 37.6 100 Table 6: Tourist arrival by sex and by months in Upper Manang (Dec 2002-Nov 2003) 66 | Bhim Subedi: Tourism Development in Upper Manang ...

Note: The figure for December refers to December 2002. Data for the rest of the months refer to 2003. Source: Compiled from the record of Humde Police Check Post, Manang.

Tourist Age-Sex Distribution: The number of tourists visiting Upper Manang is age selective. The largest proportion belongs to the 20-30 years age group. In terms of specific age groups, the 25-29 years age group claims the largest proportion. The age group of 20-24 years comes next. Together, these two groups constituted 44.4 percent of the total tourist flow in Upper Manang. The age group of 30-34 years contributed 18.1 percent. These three groups combined contributed 62.5 percent (Figure 3). In all these three age groups, males far outnumber females. The share of age groups below 20 years and those 60 years and above are very small. Thus, overall young adults dominate the total figure.

Source: Compiled from the record of Humde Police Check Post, Manang. It is likely that this age selectivity has to do with adventure tourism in the high mountain areas. Normally those visiting Upper Manang intend to cross Thorung- La pass (5,416 m asl), one of the highest mountain passes of the world.

Conclusions Upper Manang is a special case of trekking tourism in Nepal. Since the 1980s, it has been able to attract more than 10,000 trekkers annually and the number is increasing in recent years. Even during the years of conflict, the number of visitors did not go down from 9,300 per year. With the increase in number of visitors, a parallel growth in the number of hotels have taken place and it is the Nepal Tourism & Development Review (Volume 1, Issue 1, 2011) | 67 residents of Upper Manang that are running the tourism business in the valley with their connection in the capital. The role of tourism for national development cannot be exaggerated in Nepal. The scope of adventure tourism and green tourism have been increasing over time. The Annapurna Circuit is a unique and one of the best trekking routes in the world for the unique diversity from geographical, biological, climatic, cultural and social aspects. It is the area where which has demonstrated the success of conservation along with local development by involving local people. With the increasing number of tourists in the region, some challenges have also emerged. The issue of mass tourism versus quality tourism becomes a concern when the number of tourists increases rapidly in such a small valley. Likewise, the issue of sustainability of tourism development is of prime concern and has already been noted in rural tourism destinations of developing countries (Nepal, 2008). In the meantime, there has been an increasing demand of infrastructure development such as road linking this area with Besisahar and the south. Whether motorable road linking Upper Manang with the south is good for tourism development and prolongation of tourist stay in this area is debatable, let alone environmental effects of such activities in the overall pristine landscape of the area. The Besisahar–Chame–Upper Manang road, which is under construction, is a case in point. It mainly follows the existing trekking route and has already compromised the trekking attraction of the route. The search of alternative route and the diversity of tourism products in the villages are essential for extending the length of stay of tourists. Climate change and receding glacier, abandoned agricultural fields and deserted households in most of the settlements are also major concerns for the sustainable development of tourism in the region.

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Subedi, B.P. 2007. Migration and Tourism in the Trans-Himalayan Region: Studies on Changing Livelihood Patterns of Upper Manang Community in Nepal. In Local Effects of Large Scale Global Changes: A Case Study in the Nepal Himalayas edited by Tor H. Aase, Ram P. Chaudhary, O. R. Vetaas and Bhim P. Subedi, Kathmandu: Tribhuvan University, Nepal and University of Bergen, Norway, pp.41-63.

2004. “Prasanga Upallo Manangko: Kura Manangko Bhaugolik Vishistatako” (Journey Around Upper Manang: Discussion of Geographic Uniqueness of Manang. Nepal Bhugol Patrika (a Nepali publication of Nepal Geographical Society) 1:22-26.

Watkins, J. C. 1996. Spirited women: Gender, religion and cultural identity in the Nepal Himalaya. New York: Columbia University Press. Nepal Tourism & Development Review (Volume 1, Issue 1, 2011) | 69

Issues Research Notes Book Review 70 | Sanjay K. Nepal: Mountain Tourism and Climate ... Nepal Tourism & Development Review (Volume 1, Issue 1, 2011) | 71

The Great Himalaya Trail: A New Nepal Tourism Product with Both Trek Marketing and Development Rationale Lisa Choegyal [email protected]

Figure 1: The Great Himalaya Trail map showing the 10 sections. Source: Himalayan Map House and Robin Boustead. What is the Great Himalaya Trail? The Great Himalaya Trail (GHT) is a new and challenging, long-distance trekking route through some of the most breathtaking mountain landscapes on earth. It is made up of a network of existing trails and trade routes that connect neglected valleys and ridges between and beyond the established trekking areas of Annapurna, Langtang and Sagarmatha (Everest). A major objective of the GHT concept is to bring tourism benefits and improve livelihoods in remote mountain communities. Potentially the longest and highest walking track in the world, the long-term aim of the GHT is to link the six Asian countries of Pakistan, China (Tibet Autonomous Region), India, Nepal, Bhutan and , a route that covers more than 4,500km of the Great Himalaya range. Its westernmost point is the world’s ninth highest peak, Nanga Parbat in Pakistan. Winding past the sacred headwaters of the Ganges in India, it traverses Nepal beneath Annapurna, Sagarmatha and Kanchenjunga, through Darjeeling and Sikkim, then Bhutan and eventually to India’s Arunachal Pradesh and Myanmar, ending at Namche Barwa in Tibet. Spectacular views include all of the world’s fourteen 8,000m peaks. 72 | Lisa Choegyal: The Great Himalaya Trail: A New Nepal ...

In Nepal, the 1,700-km GHT spans the entire length of the country from Darchula and Humla in the West to Taplejung in the East. The high-altitude route offers adventure trekking, combining high pass crossings, trans-Himalayan scenery and alpine valleys. Only a limited number of experienced adventurers are likely to undertake the iconic high trail, which takes some 150 days to complete. Figure 1 also shows the lower, green GHT route for less extreme trekkers, featuring an unrivalled diversity of scenery, peoples and cultures. This lower route is the major focus for development activities, where the most needy mountain villages are located, and with the widest appeal to softer nature and culture visitor markets. Divided into 10 sections, each section has its own characteristics of verdant valleys, agricultural settlements, mountain scenery, white peaks, wildlife, protected areas, or ancient Buddhist and Hindu cultures. These GHT sections are designed to attract the majority of trekkers, both domestic and foreign, who have only a few weeks for a holiday, encouraging repeat visits and interesting new circuits. Tourism and Development Opportunities Nepal’s GHT has already generated considerable stakeholder interest. Led by the Nepal Tourism Board (NTB), Treking Agencies Association of Nepal (TAAN) and Nepal Association of Tour Operators (NATO), it is being adopted by Nepal Tourism Year 2011 (NTY 2011), is offered in trek and adventure operators’ brochures, and has attracted extensive media coverage in Nepal, Australia, the USA, the UK, Germany and other major source markets. Robin Boustead has featured the high route in a pictorial guide, trekking guide (Trailblazer 2010) website “greathimalayatrail.com” and maps published in Kathmandu. Adventure activities in addition to trekking and lodge developments respond to market demand and could include biking, horse riding and upmarket fly-trek options using mountain airstrips. In 2010, American trail-runner Sean Burch ran its length in a record 49 days to help the people of Nepal, improving on Rosie Swales Pope’s time of 68 days in 2003. The Crane brothers first ran the Himalaya in 1983 and Peter Hillary led the first traverse in 1980. A GHT celebrity trek led by the veteran Everest climber, Apa Sherpa, is planned for NTY 2011 with the World Wildlife Fund (WWF) to promote trekking, conservation and climate change issues. Development agencies and non-governmental organisations are seeking to build on this marketing momentum and private sector commitment, grasping the unique opportunity for public-private partnerships to help the poor and disadvantaged people in the Nepal hills. The GHT has significant relevance to Nepal’s overall tourism context, government tourism policy and market trends, and responds to Millennium Development Goal (MDG) targets. Donor organisations involved include the Asian Development Bank (ADB), Department Nepal Tourism & Development Review (Volume 1, Issue 1, 2011) | 73 for International Development (DFID), International Centre for Integrated Mountain Development (ICIMOD), (SNV), The Mountain Institute, United Nations Development Programme (UNDP), (UNEP), United Nations World Tourism Organisation (UNWTO) and WWF amongst others. Existing Patterns of Tourism

Existing Patterns of Tourism

Tourist Flows by Air Tourist Flows by Road Trekking Areas Future Patterns of Tourism

Future Patterns of Tourism

Tourist Flows by Air Tourist Flows by Road Trekking Areas The “Great Himalaya Trail” Figure 2: Existing and future patterns of tourism showing “The Great Himalaya Trail” development concept 2001. Source: Developed during ADB Ecotourism Project TA No 3332 - NEP Final Report Volume 1, 2001 and published in National Ecotourism Strategy and Marketing Programme of Nepal, Nepal Tourism Board 2001 and 2004. 74 | Lisa Choegyal: The Great Himalaya Trail: A New Nepal ...

Providing a significant boost to Nepal’s tourism industry, the idea is to channel more tourists and pro-poor tourism investment to under-developed districts, stimulating a range of private sector business, employment and production opportunities for poor mountain communities and providing links with Nepal- based and international tourism operators. New and improved locally managed small and micro enterprises are likely to include lodges, campsites, visitor centres, local produce, handicrafts, porter organizations and guide services to take visitors to monasteries, temples and village homes.

Origins of the Concept The idea of the GHT first emerged in the late 1990s as having merit to achieve both marketing and development objectives. The idea came simultaneously from the Nepal tourism industry as a trek marketing tool and from The Mountain Institute (TMI) as a rural development mechanism to improve mountain livelihoods and reduce poverty. The twin concepts of marketing and development were first pulled together in the ADB Nepal Ecotourism Project in 2001, with a team led by Tourism Resource Consultants. Implementation was constrained by the insurgency that made it difficult for tourists or development workers to visit many parts of the country, but the planning concept remains relevant. The GHT development concept was featured in NTB’s National Ecotourism Strategy and Marketing Programme of Nepal 2001 and 2004 (Figure 2), and adopted as a sub-brand in Ministry of Tourism and Civil Aviation (MoTCA)’s Nepal Tourism Vision 2020. In 2004, trekking the GHT was confirmed as a pro-poor tourism initiative in the South Asia Subregional Economic Cooperation (SASEC) Tourism Development Plan, supported by the ADB with the governments of Nepal, Bhutan and India. With Nepal having the most to gain due to its geography, SNV and ICIMOD took up the concept in 2006. Following a series of consultations and workshops with tourism stakeholders from the public and private sectors, SNV Nepal developed the Great Himalaya Trail Development Programme Concept Document and succeeded in attracting support from DFID (UKAid) private sector funds. DFID has a track record in the sector, having funded MoTCA’s Tourism for Rural Poverty Alleviation Programme (TRPAP) with SNV and UNDP based in the NTB from 2001-2007. The TRPAP range of activities are rooted in pro-poor rural tourism development. With tourism arrivals restored following the 2006 Peace Accord, the Nepalese trek agents need fresh products and new trek circuits. Over 25 % of Nepal’s half a million annual visitors go trekking and mountaineering, and 92 % of these 133,000 trekkers are concentrated in the Annapurna, Langtang and Sagarmatha regions (MoTCA 2009). These traditional trek areas suffer from visitor management issues such as perceived overcrowding and new roads impacting on established trekking routes. Nepal Tourism & Development Review (Volume 1, Issue 1, 2011) | 75

The Current Situation The proposed Great Himalaya Trail Development Programme 2010 – 2012 harnesses tourism to improve livelihoods, create employment and bring sustainable development opportunities to remote communities. Nepal is a recognised leader in pro-poor tourism, with long experience using tourism as a driver for development. Designed in mid 2010, the inception phase of the programme is being managed by SNV Nepal with DFID funding, guided by a steering committee comprising representatives from a range of stakeholders chaired by MoTCA. The programme focus is on settlements along trekking routes in five districts, chosen for their accessibility and market appeal. Pilot developments in Humla and Dolpa are already underway. Three new districts are Gorkha (including Manaslu Conservation Area), lower Solukhumbu (south of Lukla) and Taplejung (including Kanchenjunga Conservation Area). These five areas have been selected as having great potential to attract trekkers off the beaten track, and thus help achieve the project’s purpose of spreading tourism benefits, particularly to poor people from excluded groups and women. If successful, other phases are likely to follow. The proposed Great Himalaya Trail Development Programme has three interrelated elements: (i) Marketing and promotion of the trail. (ii) Assisting new and enhancing existing micro and small enterprises along the trail, with improved linkages to tourism businesses. (iii) Building institutional capacity to better manage tourism at central and district levels.

Source: Dmitri Alexander National Geographic Traveller 76 | Lisa Choegyal: The Great Himalaya Trail: A New Nepal ...

The proposed activities will increase awareness and use of new trekking areas, strengthen the capacity of communities to engage in environmentally sound, pro-poor tourism businesses, improve responsible tourism best practice amongst Nepal trek agents and trek guides, improve market linkages and communication links through local government and ensure ongoing management of the Great Himalaya Trail. Nepal Tourism & Development Review (Volume 1, Issue 1, 2011) | 77

Can Any Country Afford to Snub Chinese Tourists?

Maria Boyd [email protected]

China outbound tourism industry has come a long way since 1997 when a handful of selected Asian countries were given “Approved Destination Status” (ADS) whereby the Chinese people could travel to these specific countries in groups. This marked the initial boost to China outbound tourism that had been initiated in 1983 when the Chinese citizens were allowed to visit relatives living in Hong Kong, Macau and other South-East Asian countries under the condition that their hosts (family relatives) had to pay for the entire stay and for their travelling expenses.

Staggering Outbound Tourism Figures Over the past 13 years, the effects of the rapid economic expansion of the Chinese economy has been staggering and have generated enormous changes, turning tourism into a major economic sector in China. Today, the outbound tourism industry is included in the “Chinese National Development Strategy Frameworks”. It is strongly supported by the government as it shows valuable impacts such as improving China’s international image, spreading Chinese culture, enhancing foreign perception of China, promoting better understanding of the foreign cultures by the Chinese citizens and easing possible trade tensions. As a consequence, no restriction on overseas travel is expected to take place in the years ahead and on the contrary, further development is expected. The key feeders are the loosening of China’s outbound tourism policies, the ever increasing number of countries granted ADS, the expected continuous high economic growth of the country and the strengthening of the Chinese currency. These factors are leading the Chinese tourism experts to forecast a steady average annual growth rate of China outbound tourists at around 10 % year-on-year over the next 10 years. The gradual entry of foreign travel agencies in the Chinese market resulting in the implementation of higher service quality standards across the industry is also expected to boost outbound travel. During the period 2005-2009, the number of Chinese outbound tourists jumped from 31 million to 47.7 million, an increase of 16.7 million or + 53.9%. According to the China Tourism Academy (CTA), 53 to 54 million Chinese travellers will go 78 | Maria Boyd: Can any country afford to snub Chinese Tourists? abroad in 2010 and the number of outbound tourists should be in the following range over the next 10 years: • 2010 53-54 million • 2015 75-80 million • 2020 100-110 million As such, China is expected to become the world’s fourth largest outbound market in 2020.

Source: Chinese Outbound Tourism Express 2010

Composition of Chinese outbound travel to foreign countries by region (2008– 2009)

Source: Chinese Outbound Tourism Express 2010 Nepal Tourism & Development Review (Volume 1, Issue 1, 2011) | 79

The World’s Biggest Tourist Spenders According to ACNielsen surveys, the Chinese tourists have become the world’s biggest spenders on shopping during foreign trips since 2007 overtaking the Japanese and the Americans. Here again, the figures are staggering. According to New York Tourism Board’s China office, some 1,200 Chinese tourists celebrated the Spring Festival in New York between February 14 and 20 year, spending an estimated US$ 6 million during their trip or an average of US$ 5,000 per person excluding travel, transportation and full board. Official figures compiled by FULL FORM (UNWTO) - from China’s balanceof payments’ data and the International Monetary Fund reveal that the average annual increase of spending is over 10% per annum since 2000 (as measured in US$). In 2009, the Chinese tourists splashed out US$ 43.7 billion on their travel abroad and ranked fourth in the world as top spending nations on international tourism lagging behind Germany, the US and the UK. This actually marks a 21% increase versus 2008 when the overall spending reached US$ 36.2 billion. Luxury goods are an important part of Chinese tourists’ shopping spree and according to the “China Luxury Forecast” released by Ruder Finn Asia and market research institution Albatross Global Solutions on July 22, 2010, the economic crisis affecting the rest of the world has limited impact on Chinese luxury consumers, with 40% of them planning to spend the same amount of money as they did in 2009, and another 38% of shoppers expecting to spend more.

Continuous Growth Irrespective of Economic & Travel Uncertainties Despite the global financial crisis and influenza H1N1 scare, the Chinese outbound market remained resilient in 2009 with the number of Chinese outbound travellers reaching 47.66 million (4% increase versus 2008), the highest ever number and a nine-fold increase from 1995 when around 5 million Chinese travelled overseas. The 2010 Visa and Pacific Asia Travel Association (PATA) Asia Pacific Travel Intentions Survey released on July 8, 2010 reveals that the mainland Chinese travellers are planning for 7.4 business and leisure trips in the next two years. The results also show that the Greater China travellers are less affected by the economic climate than last year. This year, 50% of the respondents said they will travel irrespective of economic uncertainties. However, the Chinese tourists are increasingly concerned about security issues and events like political turmoil in , repeat bombing attacks in Indonesia or terrorist threats in India have a direct negative impact on the growth of Chinese outbound tourism to these countries. 80 | Maria Boyd: Can any country afford to snub Chinese Tourists?

Increased sophistication Chinese outbound tourists are becoming more discerning and sophisticated and therefore it influences their preference towards more individualized and customized travel experiences, a greater variety of products and flexibility in terms of catering needs. The concept of leisure and relaxation is now shared by a growing number of travellers, which explains the growing success of wellness and spas. Quality tours are also on the rise for the Chinese upper class with first class travel, fine dining, international hotel brands, spas, golf, horse riding/polo, yachting and other fun-filled activities. The year 2010 was designated as the “Theme Year of Quality Upgrading for Tourism Services” and a new set of policies and regulations were issued by the China National Tourism Administration (CNTA) to this respect. The China Association of Travel Services also launched “China Outbound Tourism Quality Service Certification Program” (QSC Program) for its members. While in the 1990s, when the consumers tended to follow the footsteps of others (visiting places that their friends or relatives had already visited) or wentfor well-known destinations (at that time, mostly Asian countries), today, travellers are eager to set the trend and to discover new destinations. As such, the list of new ADS countries is eclectic and reflects this trend with, for example, countries like Guyana, Ecuador, the Dominican Republic, Cape Verde, Papua New Guinea, Montenegro and Uzbekistan. The concepts of experience and knowledge are also increasingly important for repeat outbound travellers. While visiting four to five countries in eight to ten days used to be popular 10 years ago, today a larger number of Chinese outbound tourists want in-depth tours enabling them to know more about each country they visit and covering several angles with qualified guides/escorts to have a meaningful experience.

Larger FIT Business The number of (FIT) travellers is on the increase and people in their mid thirties to mid forties form the core of this group. They are Internet savvy and use social networking sites to decide on a destination. Initially most FITs were either going to Hong Kong and Macau or to Asian countries. Today, the Chinese FITs travel globally. It must be noted that the FITs were expected to represent 50% of outbound travellers originating from Shanghai in 2010 (from over 46% in 2009), which shows the increasing importance of these travellers in the years ahead.

This audience is creating new tourism segments that were untapped several years ago such as cruises, exotic island vacation or religious tourism. Nowadays, the big players in the cruise business such as Carnival, Royal Caribbean, Star Cruise and MSC have all established branches in Shanghai. Together with the locally-based companies, they have started developing regional cruise tours with Shanghai as the home port using newly-constructed facilities like the International Passenger Nepal Tourism & Development Review (Volume 1, Issue 1, 2011) | 81

Transport Centre of Shanghai Port and the Wusongkou Cruise Wharf. It must be noted that this trend is also influencing domestic tourism products. On the Yangtze River, new luxury liners are being introduced to cater to the domestic and international markets.

Similarly, small and previously little-known-in-China islands are now recording high annual growth rates with, for example, an increase of 50% in Chinese visitors to Papua New Guinea, a rise of 44% to Tahiti and 23% to Tonga.

Finally, over the past five years, religion and culture travel has steadily increased with the loosening of the Chinese state control on religious matters. It focuses strongly on sites listed on the United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization (UNESCO) World Heritage List and on spiritual places ofmajor interest such as in Nepal or Bodh Gaya in India.

The Chinese Super Rich A new social class has also emerged over the past 15 years as a result of the economic boom the China’s “super-rich”. According to the 2010 Hurun Wealth Report published in April 2010, there are 875,000 people with a personal wealth of more than RMB 10 million (over US$ 1.5 million), which marks a growth of 6.1% on the previous year. According to the report, wealthy Chinese take an average of 16 days holiday and three foreign trips per year, and are developing distinctive tastes. In 2009, this particular segment bought 27.5% of the world luxury goods for a total of US$ 9.4 billion, according to the World Luxury Association. Today, China is the second largest consumer of luxury goods market after and is expected to become the leading market within the next five years (by 2015) reaching US$ 14.6 billion, according to the Chinese Academy of Social Sciences, or 29% of the world’s market for luxury goods. The latest “Super Toys” of interest to the top bracket Chinese multi-millionaires are private jets with a 25% increased estimated sales in 2010 versus 2009 and luxury yachts considering the 64 yachting clubs and marinas in China.

What Next? It is no surprise to notice that countries eager to substantially increase their shares of the Chinese outbound market are taking dramatic steps such as the implementation of relaxed visa requirements for the Chinese tourists and the introduction of one-year multiple entry-visa open to a larger range of new applicants. Similarly, the opening of “integrated” resorts in Singapore including casinos is a complete reverse to the City-State previous policy on gambling operations within the country. 82 | Maria Boyd: Can any country afford to snub Chinese Tourists?

Time will tell which countries benefit most from the Chinese tourist bonanza in the years ahead but Asian nations will, in any case, take the lion’s share. Over the first six months of this year, the current growth momentum of arrivals from China to the Asia Pacific region is estimated to have grown by 30% and could reach 45 million for the full year. In 2010, Taiwan and Singapore were expected to join the “one-million arrivals from Chinese mainland” club that presently only includes Japan, South Korea, and . The current members are working hard at keeping their lead and Japan, before the current political tension with China, was expected to spend up to a quarter of its 2010 annual tourism promotional budget on the China market alone with 1.5 million Chinese travellers expected in 2010 and as much as 6 million to visit the country annually in or before 2020.

References Annual Report of China Outbound Tourism Development [2009/2010], China Tourism Academy China Daily/Outbound Tourism Updates [01-10/2010] China Daily/UNWTO International Travel Report [ 04/30/2010] China Daily/Luxury Brands Update [ 07/22/2010] China Luxury Forecast, Albatross Global Solutions & Ruder Finn Asia CNTA Yearbook of China Tourism Statistics [2009] CNTA 11th five-year Plan for the China Tourism Industry China National Tourist Office, China Tourism Statistics [2009] Chinese Outbound Tourism Express [2010] Chinese Outbound Travel Market, UNWTO and EU Travel Commission Hurun Wealth Report [2010] PATA Asia Pacific Tourism Data for 2009 PATA Asia Pacific Tourism Forecasts for 2010 PATA Asia Pacific / AC Nielson Survey on China Outbound Tourism [2009] PATA and China Outbound Tourism Research Institute Report on Outbound Tourism [2009] Shanghai Municipal Government Tourism Office 2009 Survey on tours undertaken by Shanghai residents State Statistical Bureau Statistics [2009-2010] UNWTO, The Chinese Outbound Market [2009] Visa and Pacific Asia Travel Association (PATA) Asia Pacific Travel Intentions Survey [2010] Nepal Tourism & Development Review (Volume 1, Issue 1, 2011) | 83

Capacity Building and Human Resource Development Initiatives: Community Based Tourism Development in Nepal

Rabi Jung Pandey [email protected]

Abstract Community Based Tourism (CBT) in Nepal is considered one of the important industries for sustainable development and empowerment. The government is apprehensive on promoting this industry with higher priority. With a view, it being an employment- oriented industry there is a notion that it could solve the socio-economic discrepancies, if expanded to many areas of the country. Taking these facts into consideration, it has been initiated to develop community-based tourism with wider objectives. It is also argued that the impacts on livelihoods and not just income need to be assessed along with the variety of positive and negative effects. There is a strong belief that CBT capacitates and empowers local people as actors in tourism planning, development and management. There is a perception among the local stakeholders that CBT helps them understand how tourism could contribute to their well-being and take active roles to minimize the negative impacts of tourism. It is intended that the management, development and ownership of local tourism resources and products should be carried out by the local communities themselves to ensure maximum tourism benefits to the local stakeholders, making them more responsible. Despite the fact that there are numerous training courses being run particularly focused on the tourism development in Nepal, there is still a deficiency of more CBT related training manuals. Effective teaching and learning process, sharing knowledge and experiences amongst the trainers, participants as well as other stakeholders are still in high demand. Furthermore, proper monitoring and follow-up practices of executed training events are preferred to be ensured.

Keywords: Tourism Resource; Capacity Development; Empowerment; Training Manuals

Rural Tourism Initiatives Tourism development in Nepal has been visualized as a development tool – not just in promoting tourism growth but also in reducing rural poverty. Though poverty is widespread and pervasive, it is even more acute in the rural/ mountain areas. In the potential areas, tourism is expected to engage them in the higher productivity areas by linking to commercial process, and marketing chain beyond borders (Pandey 2003). 84 | Rabi Jung Pandey: Capacity Building and Human Resource ...

This is the reason the has given utmost priority to promoting CBT and it has also been perceived that this kind of tourism can play a significant role in the development of rural and mountainous areas of Nepal. With a view that it is an employment oriented industry, it is expected to solve the unemployment problems, if it is expanded to different areas of the country. Taking these facts into consideration, the government in partnership with private sectors and local community has initiated to develop community-based sustainable rural tourism with wider objectives (Pandey 1996, 2003). Nepal’s Seventh Plan (1985-90) represents the first attempt to formulate a distinct tourism programme with a long-term prospective for equitable socio-economic distribution. Subsequently, this became one of the major objectives of the Eighth Plan (1992-97) and the Ninth Plan (1997-2002). Consequently, the CBT took a momentum in a planned approach making it a relatively new paradigm for the Nepali tourism industry. Although the policies and strategies of the Ninth Plan (1997-2002) aimed at achieving broad-based growth and providing basic social services to address various aspects of poverty, this could not succeed to reach large segments of the rural community, notably the poorest of the poor and marginalized groups. As a result, the then government tried to tackle poverty through simultaneous strategies: broad-based economic growth; social sector development; and a set of targeted programmes with the Tenth Plan (2002-2007) and Interim Plan (2008- 2010) as well. Likewise, in the new Tourism Policy 2008 and Tourism Vision 2020, new directives were charted to overcome the problems of endemic poverty, unemployment, regional imbalances and economic and social deprivation and have set up a long-term perspective and twenty-year growth targets (HMG, 1997, 2002, 2003 and GON 2007, 2009). In order to reap tourism benefits at the community level, various governmental and non-governmental organizations have been working closely with the rural communities. Such organizations with emphasis on various ecotourism activities have established a new frontier in the Nepali tourism history by empowering local people to get involved in community-based ecotourism and thus helping to eradicate poverty from rural areas. Similarly, some institutions are also involved in researching poverty and poverty alleviation, income and employment impacts of tourism. Likewise, others have been engaged in measuring sustainability of mountain tourism, and tourism’s contribution to community development.

TRPAP Initiatives – A Pilot Community Based Tourism Programme Tourism for Rural Poverty Alleviation Programme (TRPAP) was designed in 2001 to support the government to formulate policies for sustainable tourism development and to create an environment for poverty alleviation in rural areas through community-based tourism. This pilot programme, which was focused on 48 Village Development Committees (VDCs) in six districts, had intended to serve as an appropriate vehicle to provide improvements in living standards Nepal Tourism & Development Review (Volume 1, Issue 1, 2011) | 85 and achieve sustainable tourism activity. It was focused primarily on the disadvantaged and discriminated sections of Nepal’s rural population, especially women, lower caste groups and ethnic minorities who lived below the poverty line. It also provided assistance for the development of institutional mechanisms to ensure sustainability of tourism development through local ownership in terms of decision-making, implementation and operation of tourism ventures/ activities. In order to gain the widest possible community support, the programme worked closely with the community as a whole. Hence, the model of ‘focus groups’ rather than ‘target groups’ was applied. The objective was to provide benefits to all members of the community and also to raise the living standards of the poorer sections. With a view that the benefits of rural-based tourism accrue to both tourists and local inhabitants, local level planning process had been initiated for tourism to create demand for locally produced goods and services and to raise the living standards of rural people by creating off-farm employment and income-generating opportunities. More interestingly the programme intervened on the following major four sectors (TRPAP 2001):

(a) Social Mobilization and Empowerment: The social empowerment of rural communities to manage their own tourism development was a key component of this programme. It proposed the social mobilization process within the tourism utilizing it as a vehicle for equitable socio-economic development and allowing communities to contribute to the development of their villages. TRPAP became the first pilot programme that used Appreciative Participatory Planning and Action (APPA) as a social mobilization tool in tourism development in Nepal. APPA was used to develop settlement- level five-year tourism plans by appreciating communities’ strengths and using positive thinking power. The local-level plans were prepared in active participation of communities, using the ‘5D’ cycle. The 5D stands for discovery, dream, design, direction and delivery. The APPA methodology not only involved local people in the decision-making process, but also empowered them in socio-economic development. Thus, the programme became the trend setter recommending that before any tourism project is initiated in a rural community, the community should assess and judge for itself whether it could manage the inevitable change that accompanies any project launched in or by the community. The Development Wheel framework was designed to ensure that the ‘top-down’ decision- making by external authorities was replaced by ‘bottom-up’ approach in the development process and a community’s involvement in tourism opportunities by the beneficiaries themselves. 86 | Rabi Jung Pandey: Capacity Building and Human Resource ...

(b) Decentralised Operational Modality: In order to sustain the programme, grassroots level Sustainable Tourism Development Committees (STDCs) were formed and members of them including many others were trained in various sectors to improve their capacity enabling them to understand the importance of tourism and environment, to run their businesses, to derive benefits from tourism and to get them engaged in remunerative employment. To help the local community achieve equitable socio-economic benefits through tourism development, at the village and district levels, the programme also established Sustainable Tourism Village Funds (STVF) and Sustainable Tourism Development Funds (STDF), respectively. These funds provided facility for investment in community-based tourism activities developing strong backward and forward linkages at different levels.

(c) Backward and forward linkages: The tourism development process initiated by TRPAP involved many stakeholders providing different products, services and facilities. Joining forces atthe community and district levels increased the opportunities for Functional Groups (FGs) to become leading partners in sustainable tourism development process. For this reason, Sustainable Tourism Development Committees (STDCs) at local levels were established to strengthen their linkages between FGs and the private sector. Similarly, backward linkages were strengthened through the social mobilization process (including local-level business-planning and skill development training). Forward linkages were also strengthened by supporting STDCs to develop and conduct marketing activities for the (national-level) private sector.

(d) Sustainable consumption and market linkages: TRPAP worked to create linkages between new products it had developed with outside markets. Special attention was paid to the emerging ‘responsible tourism’ sector including Nepal’s Sustainable Tourism Network and on familiarization visits to ground handlers such as tour operators and journalists in the new tourism product areas. In addition to that, various workshops and promotional initiatives were conducted to produce and distribute the promotional documentaries, posters, and brochures. Nepal Tourism Board (NTB) was pivotal in giving continuity to the promotion of new tourism products developed by TRPAP in Asian, European and American markets. In addition, TRPAP itself participated in international-level tourism fairs and marts. Thus, TRPAP had been successful to set a model community-based tourism, offering various experiences to tourists while contributing to the socio- economic development objectives of the government and the Millennium Nepal Tourism & Development Review (Volume 1, Issue 1, 2011) | 87

Development Goals. Local communities who had never witnessed a trace of tourism activity were now able to provide services transforming their villages into model tourism villages. Active participation of local communities, including women, disadvantaged groups and poor, in tourism development and benefit sharing at local level has thus become exemplary. The raised level of awareness and understanding, skills developed and institutional linkage established with local and national tourism institutions for forward and backward linkages, and mainstreaming tourism in the local self-governance system are some of the successful models of TRPAP (TRPAP 2007). It is evident that others are also replicating TRPAP’s community-based tourism model.

HRD Practices and Packages for CBT Under the CBT development process in Nepal, there have been efforts in developing CBT-focused training manuals. This is due to the demand of such type of tourism training events in the rural areas. However, the training institutes situated in the urban areas mainly focus on the training courses suitable for the urban/city areas as there is a huge demand for such trained human resources. The key trainings in the urban areas include cookery and bakery, housekeeping, tour guide, front office management, front office and hospitality management, waiter/waitress and air-ticketing et al. Further, the human resources developed by these established tourism colleges are mostly employed by the local tourism industry (hotels, travel/trekking/tour operating agencies) and some have migrated for overseas work opportunities. There are very few cases where tourism graduates actually go to the rural areas to practice their expertise/skills. This is due to the less attraction owing to the low payment rates, limited opportunities and demands as well as the less interest of the professionals to work in the rural and remote parts. Further, it could have been caused by the fact that most of the rural businesses are run by family members and they rarely require professional staff from outside. The rural entrepreneurs most often look for low or semi-skilled workers from the same locality or surroundings. This is in response to cost-saving mechanism and reducing the risk of over expenses on management. Considering this, there have been several demands for short training courses and in most cases they demand for practical problem-oriented (also called tailor-made) training events suitable to that particular locality. Such courses mainly include small hotel and lodge management, cooking, bakery, hospitality and management, front office management and entrepreneurship development et al. TRPAP during the programme period also made efforts towards developing tourism training manuals. The project developed different types of training manuals focusing on different subjects related to community-based tourism development in Nepal (Table 1). 88 | Rabi Jung Pandey: Capacity Building and Human Resource ...

SN Title of the Manual Tourism Education Pictorials (4 types/sets) with Facilitator's Manuals, 1. 2002

2. Sustainable Tourism Education Booklet in Nepali Language

3. Eco-Tourism & Biodiversity Conservation (Training Manual), 2005

4. Waste Management in the Rural : Training Manual -2005

5. Solar Drying Resource Manual in Nepali Language

6. Gender, HIV/AIDS and Tourism Training Manual in Nepali Language

7. Gender, HIV/AIDS and Tourism Resource Manual in Nepali Language

8. APPA Facilitator's Manual, 2006 in Nepali Language Tourism & Environment Awareness Training Manual, 2005 in Nepali 9. Language Management Capacity Enhancement, Training Manual, 2005 in Nepali 10. Language Small Hotel & Lodge Management Training Manual, 2005 in Nepali 11. Language

12. Cooking & Baking, Training Manual, 2005 in Nepali Language

13. Local Tour Guide (Training Manual), 2005

Table 1: Training Manuals Developed by TRPAP Source: TRPAP 2007 It is observed that, the manuals prepared by TRPAP being approved by the government, Ministry of Tourism and Civil Aviation (MoTCA), were considered to be the model manuals. While developing these manuals, the government- run tourism training institution called Nepal Academy of Tourism and Hospitality Management (NATHM) also got the opportunity to reorient its technical staff on rural tourism/CBT through various types of trainings, workshops, interactions and exposure visits provided by the TRPAP. Available literature shows that there are 32 types of training packages presently being run in the tourism areas also targeting the CBT development process in Nepal Tourism & Development Review (Volume 1, Issue 1, 2011) | 89

Nepal (Table 2). These training packages are offered by different institutions with different modular approaches (Pandey 2008). It is very interesting to note that the tourism education and training activities are drastically booming in Nepal. There are more than half a dozen colleges and dozens of private companies that offer tourism education and tourism-related short training courses. Some of the tourism colleges even offer the courses directly affiliating with international colleges. It is claimed that all types of training packages currently run by various institutions are focused on the local community/people, tourism entrepreneurs/ professionals and tourism development workers. However, these trainings can be broadly classified into six main disciplines related to tourism development and management, viz: I) Trekking, Mountaineering and Tour Guide (Nature, Culture, Heritage) II) Travel/Tour and Hospitality Management III) Food/Lodge (Accommodation) Services IV) Destination Planning, Development and Management V) Tourism Interpretation, Promotion and Marketing VI) Enterprise/Entrepreneurship/Leadership Development & Management Among the non-governmental organizations (NGOs), the Kathmandu Environmental Education Project (KEEP) had operated a few training programmes on tourism and environment in Nepal. It has been active for almost 12 years and still conducts various types of short-term tourism training programmes at different places of Nepal. So far, KEEP has conducted various training courses in Kathmandu, Rasuwa, Solukhumbu, Sindhupalchowk, Pokhara and Dolpa. The trainings mainly focus on sustainable and environmental issues in tourism, waste management and sanitation, visitor information centre management, first aid, English/German languages for guides, leadership development, heritage and hospitality management and eco-trekking. The training duration of the above mentioned courses is three to seven days, depending on the availability of resources, locality, and the types of training courses. Further, the duration is also determined by the level and other qualifications of the training participants. 90 | Rabi Jung Pandey: Capacity Building and Human Resource ...

S Name of the training Special target groups Duration Training providers N course of the training I. Trekking/Mountaineering/Tour Guiding (Nature, Culture, Heritage) Tour/Local Tour 2 weeks Interested persons in PTTC Guide guiding Mountaineering Various Climbers, Nepal duration Mountaineering Guides Mountaineering Instructors’ Association (NMIA) Training on Religions 5-7 days Guides TURGAN, to Guides Senior River Guide 1 week S.L.C. pass NATHM/NARA (Higher Level) Junior River Guide 2 weeks S.L.C. pass NATHM/NARA (Middle Level) River Guide (Basic 5 weeks Literate NATHM/NARA Level) II. Travel/Tour & Hospitality Management Front Office (Desk) 7 Months SLC PTTC, Private Operation/Hotel institutions Reception Travel Trade 1 to 9 months Graduates KATH, Private (Agency) Operations institutes Tour Package 1 week 10+2 pass KATH Designing and Costing Airlines Ticketing 1 week to 3 SLC PTTC, Private months institutions, KATH IATA Basic Training 1 week BA NATTA (Ticketing and Fare Construction) III. Food/Lodge (Accommodation) Services Cooking/Bakery 10 days to 1 8 class passed PTTC, Private (Food Preparation month institutions and Control) Hotel/Lodge 1-2 weeks SLC PTTC, Private Management* institutions Butchery 1 week Interested butcher/ KIHM kitchen staff Waiter/Waitress 2 weeks to 10 class passed PTTC, Private (Food and Bev. 6 months institutions Service) Dining Etiquette 1 day Parliamentarians, VIPs Silver Mountain Nepal Tourism & Development Review (Volume 1, Issue 1, 2011) | 91

Housekeeping 3-6 months Housekeeping staff PTTC, Private institutions Bartender 2 weeks 10 class passed PTTC, Private institutions Bell person (boy) 2 weeks 10 class passed PTTC Hotel Representative 1 week SLC PTTC Customer Care 1 week Hotel and Travel Agency KATH Staff Domestic Helper 8 weeks 8 class passed PTTC IV. Destination Planning, Development and Management Tourism and 2-3 days Local stakeholders NTB Environment Awareness (TEAP Training Sustainable Tourism 1 week Tourism development KATH Development and workers, professionals Management Tourism Development Various Tourism development KATH Planning duration workers/professionals Eco-tourism 15 days Development Workers, DNPWC and Biodiversity Trainers Conservation (ToT) Eco-tourism 1 month Development workers NCTTM Development Tourism Various Tourism professionals KATH Measurement duration V. Tourism Interpretation, Promotion & Marketing 29. Visitor Information 1 week Persons affiliated with KEEP Centre (VIC) VIC management Management 30. Tourism Marketing Various Tourism development KATH duration workers/professionals VI. Enterprise/Entrepreneurship/Leadership Development & Management 31. Hotel and Travel 3-5 days Hotel staff, Travel/Trade KATH Trade Account staff, other interested Keeping 32. Tourism Enterprise 5-7 days Tourism entrepreneurs, IIED Development development workers Training etc. Table 2: Tourism training packages offered by various institutions Source: Pandey 2008 Table 2 reveals that there are 32 types of training packages ranging from one day to nine months duration. The majority of the training courses are offered by 92 | Rabi Jung Pandey: Capacity Building and Human Resource ...

NATHM together with some private institutions that have opened recently. In addition to some of the tourism colleges and offered academic courses, they also offer a few specific tailor-made tourism trainings upon special demands. The academic courses being run by various colleges include 10+2 in Hotel Management (HM), Certificate in Food and Beverage Management (F&BM), Diploma/Post Graduate Diploma in HM/Tourism Management, Bachelors in Hotel Management (BHM), Bachelors in Travel and Tourism Management (BTTM)/ Bachelors in Travel and Tourism Studies (BTTS), Bachelors in Science (Honours) in Hospitality Management, B.Sc. (Honours) in Culinary Art Management, Bachelors in Business Administration in HM, Masters in Tourism Studies (at KATH), Masters in Tourism Management (proposed by NCTTM), Masters in Tourism and Hospitality Management (proposed by NATHM & ISTHM) (NATHM 2008, PTTC 2008, NTHMC 2008).

S.N. Title/Types of Courses Duration Minimum criteria for the participants A. Bachelors in Hotel 3 yrs 10 +2 or equivalent with minimum 45% in Management (BHM) aggregate marks B. Bachelor in Travel and 3 yrs 10 +2 or equivalent Tourism Management (BTTM) C. Hotel Sector Basic Training 1 Food Preparation & 9 months S.L.C. Pass Control 2 Food & Beverage 6 months S.L.C. Pass Service 3 Housekeeping 6 months Test Pass 4 Front Office Operation 7 months I.A. Pass or Equivalent In-service Training (Basic) 5 Food Preparation & 4 weeks Employed in industry & must have 1-year Control experience 6 Food & Beverage 4 weeks Employed in industry & must have 6 months Service experience 7 Housekeeping 4 weeks -do- 8 Front Office 4 weeks S.L.C. pass with 1-year experience in tourist standard hotel 9 Bar Man 2 weeks Employed in the hotel industry & must have 1-year experience Supervisor Training 10 Food Preparation and 3 weeks S.L.C. pass with 5-year experience in related Control field Nepal Tourism & Development Review (Volume 1, Issue 1, 2011) | 93

11 Food & Beverage 6 months 1-year experience with basic training from Service (Captain) NATHM or work experience as a waiter trainee captain or barman with S.L.C. pass 12 Housekeeping 6 months I.A. pass or S.L.C. with basic training from NATHM and 1-year experience in 3 to 5 star hotel D. Tour/Travel & Trekking Sector 13 Tourist Guide 10 weeks Graduate in any discipline 14 Tourist Guide Refresher 1 week Minimum 3 years of guiding experience Course 15 Travel Agency 24 weeks I.A. pass or equivalent Ticketing and Fare Construction 16 In-service Ticketing 2 weeks I.A. pass or equivalent with 1-year working for travel agency experience in travel trade area recommended personnel by NATA. 17 Trekking Cook & Waiter 4 weeks Able to understand and speak Nepali and English and should have 1 year of cooking experience in a trekking agency 18 Trekking Guide 6 weeks Able to understand and have basic knowledge of English communication with 2 years of work experience 19 Senior River Guide 1 week S.L.C. pass with 2-year work experience on (Higher Level) river as a trainee between 18-30 years of age, certified by NARA 20 Junior River Guide 2 weeks S.L.C. pass with 12 years of work (Middle Level) experience in rafting as a river guide or in the management position in Rafting Agency recommendation from NARA 21 River Guide (Basic 5 weeks Able to read, write and communicate in Level) English with 2 years of working experience, sound knowledge of swimming and recommendation from NARA E. Other Training 22 Mobile Outreach 10 days Working in related field Training (On-the-spot training in tourist area) 23 Housewife 2½ weeks Should be able to read and write Nepali 24 Hotel Maintenance 2 weeks Working in the same field in a hotel 25 Indian Cookery 3 months S.L.C. Pass 26 Chinese Cookery 3 months S.L.C. Pass Table 3: Training packages offered by NATHM (including academic courses) Source: Pandey 2008 94 | Rabi Jung Pandey: Capacity Building and Human Resource ...

NATHM, in addition to the two academic courses (BHM and BTTM), has special mandate from the government to run short training courses targeting towards rural destinations and the people from disadvantaged communities including women, Dalits and conflict-affected people from different parts of the country. As per the mandate, NATHM also provides training scholarships for women on small hotel/lodge management and trekking guide training et al. Among the institutions, NATHM runs a range of courses that include some two dozen tourism training courses available in Nepal (Table 3) (NATHM 2008). Indirectly-related training packages/courses offered As tourism is a vital, integrated and complex industry, it accommodates a wide range of subjects that compliment overall tourism development. There are a number of subjects which are not directly associated with the tourism business/ management but have vital supplementary role (milk, meat, vegetable, fruits, handicrafts, etc) to play for the environment-friendly sustainable tourism development of any destination. At present, for inclusive economic growth, it is found that there are many types of ‘indirectly’ related trainings that are seen to deliver in the rural tourism areas. The trainings under this category are broadly classified in four major themes viz.: 1) Agriculture and livestock-based products-focused trainings 2) Crafts productions and sales-related training III) Management capacity and leadership enhancement trainings 3) Conservation, waste management and other trainings as indicated in Table 4 below.

1. Agriculture & Livestock-based Products-focused Trainings 1. Vegetables and Fruits Production (organic) 2. Buffalo/Goat Farming 3. Poultry Farming 4. Milk Products Production (curd, khuwa, chhurpi etc.) 5. Bee-keeping 6. Fruits and Vegetables Processing and Packaging 7. Flower Production (floriculture) 2. Crafts Productions and Sales Related Trainings 8. Handicrafts/Souvenir Items Production and Selling 9. Cultural Show/Choreography 3. Management Capacity Enhancement Related Trainings 10. Computer/Internet Nepal Tourism & Development Review (Volume 1, Issue 1, 2011) | 95

11. English, Japanese, Chinese, Italian, French, Thai, Korean, Russian, Spanish, and other important languages 12. Managerial Skills 13. Leadership and Networking Skills 14. Conflict Management/Negotiation Skills 15. Savings & Credit/Micro-funds Management 16. Office Management Skills 17. Secretarial Services 4. Conservation, Waste Management & other Trainings 18. Waste Management Training 19. Guidelines for Biodiversity Monitoring in Protected Areas (NTNC) 20. Conservation Education (with Resource Book) 21. Alternative Energy/Improved Cooking Stoves 22. First Aid Training 23. Religion and Religious Sites (specific site-focused) Table 4: Indirectly related training packages/courses Source: Pandey 2008 Types of Training Manuals Developed and Institutions Involved: It is evident by now that there are limited institutions engaged in the development of tourism training manuals. Among the development organisations, the ICIMOD, SNV-Nepal, TRPAP, DNPWC, ACAP and KEEP have contributed significantly in this area in the past decade. Among the training institutes, NATHM has been active in developing tourism training manuals in the recent years, typically for its ‘mobile’ training courses, in partnership with TRPAP (2002-2007). This institution is still seen using the training manuals developed by ILO supports (in the late 1990s) and the new manuals developed in partnership with TRPAP (during 2005/06). All these training manuals include both the tourism-related and supportive-type of training courses (NATHM 2008). There are at least seven other types of training manuals which include trainers’ manuals and resource books (participants’ books) developed by various institutions other than that produced by TRPAP (Table 5). 96 | Rabi Jung Pandey: Capacity Building and Human Resource ...

Title of the Manual Developed/ S (including Guide Published Key Contents of the Manual N Book/Resource Book) by Responsible Trekking KEEP Basic codes of conduct for trekkers in the in the Himalayas Mountains and Himalayas; positive and negative (Resource Book) impacts of tourism, etc. Nepal Mountaineering NMIA and Equipment, Knots, Use of Equipment and Knots, Guide Book, in Nepali Eco-Himal Direction, Rescue Operation Techniques, Dangers Language and Safety, Avalanches, Awareness and Safety Measures, Acute Mountain Altitude Sickness (AMS), First Aid, GyamoCONFIRM Bag, Rules and Regulations, Minimum Impacts and Sustainable Tourism. Nepal The Living KEEP Importance of heritages, heritage sites, key issues Heritage (Resource of heritage preservation, etc. Book) First Aid and KEEP Introduction to first aid, techniques, wilderness Wilderness trekking, possible problems, their treatment etc. Medicines (Resource Book) Mountain Tourism for ICIMOD Overview of Tourism, Mountain Tourism Impacts Local Development: /CRES and Issues, Sustainable Mountain Tourism Training Manual for Development (SMTD), Planning and Management Policy Planners in of SMTD, Importance and Utility of Monitoring Tourism and Related and Evaluation, Educating Visitors, Questions for Areas Discussions, Reading Materials. Mountain Tourism for ICIMOD/ Overview of Tourism, Mountain Tourism Impacts, Local Development: CRES Sustainable Mountain Tourism Development Training Manual for (SMTD), Planning and Management of SMTD, Programme Designers Technologies for Mountain Environmental and Implementers Management, Promoting Community Participation in Mountain Tourism Planning, Participatory Planning, Information Needs and Designing Surveys, Monitoring and Evaluation, Educating Visitors, Questions for Discussions, Reading Materials. Mountain Tourism for ICIMOD/ Introduction and Tourism Awareness, Mountain Local Development: CRES Tourism Impacts, Opportunities and Limitations, Training Manual for Participatory Planning (PP) of Mountain Tourism, Local Community Grassroots Institutions for PP of Tourism at the Groups and Local Level, Use of Alternative Sources of Energy Organisations and Technology, Management of Solid Waste and Garbage and Management of Lodges and Campsites, Local-level Enterprise Opportunities, Monitoring and Evaluation Educating Visitors, Questions for Discussions, Reading Materials. Table 5: Types of training manuals developed by other institutions Source: Pandey 2008 Nepal Tourism & Development Review (Volume 1, Issue 1, 2011) | 97

Accordingly, the International Centre for Mountain Development (ICIMOD), in partnership with CRES (Centre for Resource and Environmental Studies) has developed a set of three training manuals entitled “Mountain Tourism for Local Development” (Baskota and et al 1998). These manuals have been taken as a useful tool for the tourism development process involving local people. These three sets of manuals were targeted to the policy planners, programme designers and implementers and to the local people who are directly involved for themselves through community-based organizations (CBOs). Similarly, ICIMOD (in partnership with SNV Nepal and Nepal Tourism Board) has developed a set of training manuals (in two volumes) entitled “Facilitating Sustainable Mountain Tourism” (ICIMOD 2008). The first volume is ‘Resource Book’ and, the second volume is ‘Toolkit’. These manuals have been developed after the experiences gained by implementing TRPAP project (MoTCA, UNDP, DFID, SNV, NTB, DNPWC) and after the successfully running of an International (ToT) Training in Kathmandu (ICIMOD premise), entitled “Managing Sustainable Tourism Development Projects” in June 2006. Similarly, SNV Nepal has developed a training facilitation manual in the year 2004 entitled, “Developing Sustainable Communities: A Toolkit for Development Practitioners” (SNV 2004). This manual, which is based on an appreciative inquiry (AI) model, was primarily focused on the rural development facilitators who need to be continuously involved in the community planning and development process. Major Problems and Gaps observed Pondering over the developed manuals and the training practices followed so far for CBT in Nepal, it is found that there exists a number of problems and gaps. The problems associated with the training management, manual development and their execution are summarized below: A. Training Management/Delivery/Effectiveness: • Lack of proper identification of training needs • Standard modular course/manuals and materials/equipment are lacking • Most of them are urban tourism-focused • Most of the packages and materials are old and they lack timely revisions • Lack of expertise, experience and confidence in trainers • Lack of awareness in public regarding training on tourism in overall • Less linkages, coordination and networking between the training institutes and job providers • Lack of trained human resources, practical approaches and laboratories • Monitoring/follow-up problems 98 | Rabi Jung Pandey: Capacity Building and Human Resource ...

• Lack of upgrading training courses • Poor exposure of the trainers to real world/new destinations • Problem with standardization/skill testing and certification

B. Training Manuals Development, Execution & Follow-up • Lack of trainers/resource persons to deal with CBT training and manuals in Nepal • No institution is giving priority to develop training manuals • No one knows who is doing (using) what • Present manuals are not covering the emerging issues such as social inclusion, responsible tourism products and services, product standardization et al Conclusions & Recommendations The study, reveals that the only national tourism organization, Nepal Tourism Board having multiple roles to play needs to take a crucial part of facilitating the concerned institutions/individuals in developing appropriate manuals/ learning materials focusing on CBT. This process would further help streamlining the tourism training (HRD) activities in close coordination with other leading tourism training institutions in Nepal. Below, recommendations are made in two categories: General and Specific. General: 1. Trainings must be tailor-made and as per the need of local tourism entrepreneurs/professionals. Participants’ feedback from each training programme should be the main basis for further polishing the training packages and manuals. Equally, there should be a continuity of identification, development and implementation of the training programmes in the rural parts where CBT initiatives have taken momentum. For such endeavours, effective coordination must be imparted for local community to identify training needs and relevant activities. Specific: 2. Tourism training manual-making initiatives and experiences of different institutions or organizations need to be encouraged and should be continued with a long-term partnership with Nepal Tourism Board. NTB should facilitate and streamline such activities as a national tourism organisation. Though TRPAP does not exist now, its best practices in training manual development processes should be continued with NTB and NATHM as both the organisations were in regular attachments during the TRPAP implementation processes (2002-2007). Further, the training manuals developed by TRPAP need to be revised and reprinted as there is a huge demand for such manuals from various organisations and individuals Nepal Tourism & Development Review (Volume 1, Issue 1, 2011) | 99

involved in tourism training. NATHM should make more efforts in marketing its 35-year experience in providing training as a pioneer college/training institute in Nepal. It has been almost 25 years since NATHM started its mobile training on cooking and hospitality in the rural and remote parts of the country. However, as anticipated, such experiences have not been fully exploited by NATHM. 3. Nepal Tourism Board should facilitate or provide support to tourism- related organisations in order to develop training manuals directly related to CBT. In the case of indirectly related training packages and manuals (for example: Effective Social/Community Mobilization, Basic English for Tourism Entrepreneurs and Professionals, Leadership Development Training Manual; Establishing, Operating and Managing Communication Centre, Organic Farming, Dairy Products, Conservation of Nature and Natural Resources, etc.) NTB should not be financially indulged as there are enormous possibilities of getting such packages and manuals from dozens of organisations through an appropriate outsourcing. Concerned District Development Committees (DDCs)/Village Development Committees (VDCs) or Community Based Organisations (CBOs) can locally/regionally or nationally consult for such packages without any difficulty as numerous NGOs and private companies offer the desired/tailor-made courses. Further, it is recommended with the justification that, tourism being a complex industry, there is no limit to be involved in indirectly related training packages/manuals development process. 4. Academic institutions, including NATHM, should play more active roles in developing appropriate manuals related to CBT trainings in Nepal. While doing so, collaborations with NTB and CTEVT are of paramount importance. Some NGOs and INGOs (as mentioned in many instances) have comparatively better experiences in this regard. Hence, their experiences should be fully utilized by the national authorities with appreciation and partnerships. 5. Provision of trainers’ training (if possible, Master ToT) on various subjects related to CBT through NTB and NATHM or other tourism institutions would be very fruitful to mainstream CBT in Nepal. Once such trainers and resource persons are developed, a systematic mechanism of needs assessment on CBT, curricula development, manuals development, effective implementation of the developed manuals and their proper follow-up/ monitoring could be ensured. This will obviously help enhance the quality of CBT trainings in Nepal.

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UNDP (2006), Nepal: Readings in Human Development, Kathmandu 102 | Ram Chandra Sedai: Tourist Accommodation Facilities in the ...

Tourist Accommodation Facilities in the major Tourist Areas of Nepal

Ram Chandra Sedai [email protected]

Abstract Accommodation sector constitutes one of the major components of tourism industry globally out of its popular 4 ‘A’ i.e. Attractions, Accessibility, Accommodation and Ancillary facilities. Accommodation sector, which is also considered as one of the major sub-sectors of tourism industry globally, has a huge potential to generate employment and income through the addition of values within its multiple layers of chains. Tourism accommodation is also one of the determinants of tourist choice for their destination. The overall objective of this article is to analyze and interpret the outcomes of the research study on tourist accommodation inventory carried out by NTB in June 2010, focusing on the capacity of tourism accommodation enterprises available in the major tourist areas of Nepal. More specifically, the article analyzes and interprets the findings of the research outcomes in the following aspects: Status of accommodation facilities by number of tourist enterprises, tourist rooms and tourist beds. Status of accommodation facilities by type and standard. Status of accommodation facilities by the status of registration.

Keywords: Accomodation; Atractions; Accessibility; Ancillary Facilities; Tourism Rooms and Standards

Introduction The tourism industry in Nepal has been flourishing and growing primarily due to its incomparable tourist attractions despite having very basic and even inadequate accommodation, accessibility and other ancillary facilities and services. Endowed with an unparalleled combination of natural, cultural and historical attractions, Nepal has been one of the popular tourist destinations in the global tourist market and has been offering unique tourist activities like mountaineering, adventure and soft trekking and cultural tours, jungle safari, wilderness trek and other various sports and adventure tourist activities. Nepal Tourism & Development Review (Volume 1, Issue 1, 2011) | 103

Tourism in Nepal started with the camping accommodation since the very beginning of the 1950s when Maurice Herzog and his team scaled Mt Annapurna on June 3, 1950 and Tenzing N Sherpa and Edmund Hillary first ascended Mt Everest in 1953. The formal growth of accommodation facilities in Nepal started with the establishment of ‘Royal Hotel’ by a Russian national, Mr Boris Lissanevitch, in February 1955 (Satyal, 2004). However, the planned development of tourism in Nepal started after 1956 with the starting of the first five-year plan (1956-1961 AD) and subsequent establishment of Tourist Development Board in 1957 under the Department of Industry (DoI). Within the jurisdiction of Ministry of Tourism and Civil Aviation (MoTCA), Tourism Industry Division (TID) has been designated to oversee all activities including registering, renewing, maintaining the inventory and monitoring the activities relevant to tourism-related enterprises including accommodation enterprises in Nepal. Besides expanding and upgrading the accommodation facilities and services in the existing tourist destinations, the Government of Nepal is consistently working with other stakeholders including the Nepal Tourism Board (NTB), private sectors, local government bodies, NGOs and development partners for the development and promotion of new tourism destinations for which the availability of reliable and consistent accommodation facilities and services become always a prerequisite. The need for the expansion and upgrading of these facilities are more pertinent in the special context when the Government of Nepal and the entire tourism industry has launched ‘Nepal Tourism Year - NTY 2011’ as a national campaign targeting one million tourists in the year 2011 as one of its aims. As of 2009, a total of 736 hotels of various standards and categories have been registered at TID/MoTCA offering 14,272 tourist rooms and 28,485 tourist beds. The accommodation facilities in Kathmandu alone comprise 422 hotels, 8,813 tourist rooms and 17,646 tourist beds, or 61.94% of the total capacity (NTS/ MOTCA, 2009). However, it has been widely realized that the actual capacity of accommodation facilities in Nepal is larger than that of formal records maintained at TID/MoTCA. By considering the possible data gap in the accommodation sector and by also intending to establish a destination-level database on accommodation sector, Research Planning and Monitoring Department of NTB designed and carried out a research study on tourist accommodation enterprises entitled, ‘Inventory of formal accommodation facilities in the major selected tourist areas of Nepal’ from April to June 2010 by outsourcing the technical services of Centre for Environment and Sustainable Tourism Development Nepal (CEST Nepal). This research article aims to highlight the overall inventory scenario of accommodation facilities in Nepal primarily based on the findings of the accommodation research work carried out in June 2010. 104 | Ram Chandra Sedai: Tourist Accommodation Facilities in the ...

Literature Review There is no universal system of classification and standard of accommodation facilities throughout the world. It varies with the location, types of tourist products. ITRS 2008 provides a comprehensive methodological framework for collection and compilation of tourism statistics in all countries irrespective of the level of development of their statistical systems. UNWTO/ITRS (2008) has simply classified the accommodation into two basic forms such as commercial (market/paid) or non-commercial (non-market), that is, as a service provided by family, friends or relatives, without charge, or on own account (owner-occupied vacation homes) (UNWTO/UNDP ITRS, 2008). In the context of Nepalese tourism, Tourism Act 2035 BS (1978 AD) and Hotel, Lodge, Restaurant, Bar and Tour Guide Regulation 2038 BS (1981 AD), provide legal basis for the establishment and operation of all forms of tourism-related enterprises including accommodation enterprises in Nepal. Within the framework of Tourism Act 1978 and Regulation 1981, Internal Working Procedure 2064 provides procedure for the establishment, classification, operation, renewal and monitoring of all forms of tourist accommodation enterprises. Furthermore, the government’s notification published in the Nepal Gazette dated Ashadh 4, 2055, provides basic criteria to be fulfilled for the registration of tourist enterprises under the category of tourist resorts and star hotels. The Homestay Operating Procedure 2067 (2010) prepared as per the aspiration of Tourism Policy 2009, provides bases for the registration and operation of homestay on an individual as well as community basis. National Parks and Wildlife Conservation Act 1973, Buffer Zone Management Regulation 1996, Conservation Area Management Regulation 1996 and Conservation Area Government Management Regulation 2057 BS, provide bases for the operation of any services including establishment of accommodation enterprises inside the protected areas (PAs). Procedure for the Registration of Tourist Accommodation Enterprises Under the provisions made in the Regulation 1981, Internal Working Procedure 2064, Government’s notification published on Ashadh 4, 2055, and Homestay Operating Procedure 2010, following procedure should be followed to register any accommodation enterprise as tourist standard accommodation enterprise: i. Any potential entrepreneur willing to register a tourist standard accommodation should first resister an accommodation enterprise either at the Company Registration Office or at the Department of Industry (DoI) or the Cottage and Small Industry Development Board (CSIDB) and should get a registration certificate. Nepal Tourism & Development Review (Volume 1, Issue 1, 2011) | 105 ii. Then the entrepreneur should submit an application at the Tourism Industry Division (TID), Bhrikutimandap, Kathmandu or respective tourism offices in Kakadbhitta, , Birgunj, Pokhara, Bhairahawa and , in a prescribed format and by enclosing prescribed documents including a recommendation letter from either the Department of Industry (DoI) or the Cottage and Small Industry Development Board (CSIDB). iii. After submitting a field verification report by the prescribed officer, the enterprise can be registered as a tourist standard accommodation enterprise. iv. For the case of homestay, both the individual homestay as well as community homestay can be registered at the TID or tourism offices. For community homestay, an agreement paper signed by at least five homestay members operating on a community basis should be enclosed with the application. Whereas for the individual homestay, a recommendation letter from the respective VDC or municipality along with the land ownership certificate should be enclosed with the application. v. Accommodation enterprises within the territory of protected areas can be run by getting permission from and registered at the respective PAs. However, such enterprise should be registered at the TID if they are to be run as tourist standard hotels. vi. All categories of tourist accommodation enterprises are entitled to submit the progress report to the TID and respective tourism offices on an annual basis and should renew the enterprise every five years.

Classification/Standardization of Tourist Accommodation Enterprises Based on the provisions set in the existing Act, Regulation, Directives and Procedures, any tourist accommodation enterprise (hotels/lodges) can be registered under the categories of (i) Tourist standard hotel (TSH) or tourist class hotel (TCH), (ii) Lodge, (iii) Resorts (jungle resort, mountain resort, tourist resort and safari camp), (iv) Star hotels (1 star to 5 star hotels) and (v) Homestays. Both physical criteria (Table 1) and subjective criteria (quality and hospitality level etc.) are taken into consideration while classifying the enterprises. 106 | Ram Chandra Sedai: Tourist Accommodation Facilities in the ...

Criteria Classification Non-star category Star category Homestay TSH Lodge Resorts 1 star 2 star 3 star 4 star 5 star Physical Homely Any Any Far from Any suitable place with good views, location environment suitable suitable dense adequate spac e, drainage facilities etc. place place settlement Room size 1* 10 5 Flexible 15 20 30 50 70 (Minimum) Bed size At least 2 (Minimum) Bathroom 1 25% 25% 2 to 3 25% All All All All and Toilet room** room** room (Minimum) *** *= Maximum room per homestay is 4; **= Additionally, there must be 1 toilet and bathroom for every 4 rooms; ***= Also equipped with fixture and amenities. Additional restroom, separate for men and women, at the nearby areas of reception. Table 1: Basic physical criteria set for the classification of tourism accommodations

Brief trend of tourist accommodation enterprises development in Nepal The formal tourist accommodation development in Nepal started with the enactment of the five-year development plan in 1956. The first hotel, Royal Hotel was established by a Russian national with 40 rooms and 50 tourist beds, followed by the establishment of Hotel Snow View comprising 23 rooms and 38 tourist beds, making altogether 78 tourist beds by the year 1959 (Satyal, 2004). During the 2nd five-year plan period (1962-66), tourism activities were also expanded to Pokhara and Lumbini and the total number of tourist beds reached 177 by the year 1964 (Satyal 2004). More emphasis was given to the establishment of hotels of international standard in Kathmandu, Pokhara and Biratnagar during the 3rd five-year plan period (1966-1970) along with the establishment of Hotel Association Nepal (HAN) in 1967. During the same period, Hotel Soaltee was established in 1965 and Hotel Annapurna in 1966. By the year 1965, the total number of beds reached 356 with 56 tourist beds outside Kathmandu (8 in Kakani, 4 in Nagarkot, 30 in Pokhara, 12 in Lumbini, and 2 in Daman) (Satyal 2004). By the end of 1970, the total number of beds reached 1,500 (Satyal 2004). During the 4th five-year plan (1970-1975) period, the accommodation enterprises expanded in both numbers and geographical coverage with the formation of the first Tourism Master Plan in 1972 and the establishment of Hotel Management & Tourism Training Centre (HMTTC) in 1972. More adventure, ecotourism and Nepal Tourism & Development Review (Volume 1, Issue 1, 2011) | 107 safari-based tourist accommodations were also established in Sagarmatha National Park (SNP), Chitwan National Park (CNP), Langtang National Park (LNP) and other protected areas (PAs) after the enactment of the National Parks and Wildlife Conservation Act 1973. The need for the classification of hotel enterprises was taken into consideration during the 1970s. A total of 15 classified (star) hotels comprising 461 room and 1,069 tourist beds were established in Kathmandu by 1971. Among them, Hotel Soaltee Oberoi was the only five star hotel whereas Annapurna was the only four star hotel in Nepal (Satyal 2004). Likewise, there were six tourist hotels with 74 room and 1,444 beds outside Kathmandu including one in Biratnagar (Birat Hotel), two hotels in Pokhara (Fish Tail Hotel and Snow View Hotel), one in Chitwan (Tiger Tops), one in Nagarkot (Mt Everest Lodge) and one in Syangboche/Everest (Everest View Hotel). The more planned and systematic development of tourist accommodation enterprises received a momentum after the establishment of Ministry of Tourism on February 23, 1977 and subsequent enactment of Tourism Act 1978. As of 1997, the total hotel number was 706 with 14,214 tourist rooms and 27,612 tourist beds. The number of hotels declined slightly almost throughout the 9th and 10th five-year plan periods due to a decade long political conflict in the country and again crossed the 1997 level by the end of 2009 as a result of the signing of the Comprehensive Peace Accord in 2006.

Kathmandu Valley Out of Kathmandu Grand Total No. of No. of No. of No. of No. of No. of No. of No. of No. of

Category Hotel Room Bed Hotel Room Bed Hotel Room Bed 5 Star 8 1539 2897 2 283 566 10 1822 3463 4 Star 2 190 362 0 20 0 2 210 362 3 Star 11 372 774 6 265 509 17 637 1283 2 Star 27 1138 2263 4 128 238 31 1266 2501 1 Star 26 564 1374 11 174 386 37 738 1760 TSH 348 5010 9974 291 4609 9140 639 9619 19114 422 8813 17646 314 5459 10839 736 14272 28485 Table-2: Hotel accommodation as of 2009 (NTS 2009) Source: NTS/MoTCA, 2009

Methodology of the Research Work Selection of tourist sites for the inventory work: Following 15 major and five minor areas which have been already recognized as popular tourist destinations/sites or lie en-route to the popular destinations 108 | Ram Chandra Sedai: Tourist Accommodation Facilities in the ... have been selected for the research work. Tourist areas which still need to rely on camping accommodation for the lodging and food facilities on a mandatory basis have been excluded in the research.

SN Destinations/Sites Major places covered

1 Kathmandu and Lalitpur Kathmandu and Lalitpur urban areas, Godavari, Hattiban, Gokarna

2 Bhaktapur, Nagarkot, Nagarkot, Bhaktapur, Dhulikhel, Panauti, Namobuddha Dhulikhel 3 Pokhara Valley Pokhara city and nearest surroundings

4 Annapurna Region Ghandruk route, Ghorepani route, ABC trek, Jomsom, Lomangthang, , Manang, Ghalegaun areas 5 Chitwan Area Chitwan NP and surroundings, Kurintar, Bharatpur, Nawalparasi

6 Everest Region Junbesi, Salleri, Lukla, Namche, Everest Base Camp

7 Rolwaling, Numbur, Charikot, Rolwaling, Jiri, Shivalaya, Bhandar, Numbur, Sailung Sailung –Lubughat (IP Trail) 8 Langtang, Helambu Tamang Heritage Trail, Langtang/Kanjin trail, Goshaikunda trail, Region Chisapani-Helambu region 9 Biratnagar, Jhapa, Ilam, Biratnagar, Itahari, Kakadbhitta, Damak, Ilam, Phikkal, Dharan, Dharan and Dhankuta Bhedetar, Dhankuta, Hile 10 Kanchenjunga Region Phungling, Suketar, Phungling-Ghunsa route

11 Hetauda, Birgunj, Hetauda, Birgunj, Simara, Janakpur Janakpur 12 Trishuli, Gorkha, Trishuli, Manakamana, Gorkha, Bandipur, Damauli, Besisahar Bandipur, Besisahar 13 Lumbini, Palpa, Butwal Tansen, Butwal, Bhairahawa, Sunauli, Siddharthanagar, Lumbini

14 Nepalgunj, Bardiya and Nepalgunj, Gulariya, Thakurdwara, Surkhet Surkhet 15 Dhangadhi and Dhangadhi, Mahendranagar, Shuklaphanta Mahendranagar 16 Other miscellaneous Kodari Highway (Sindhupalchowk), Kakani, Daman, Khandbari, areas Sirubari, Barapak

Table 3: Major tourism areas covered in the research work 2010 Collection of primary and secondary data: Following methods were used to collect primary and secondary data: Collection of secondary data from the reliable sources Available reliable secondary data were gathered from the following relevant sources: Nepal Tourism & Development Review (Volume 1, Issue 1, 2011) | 109

Responsible SN Major source of data Major tourist sites covered Institutions 1 Registered Tourism Related Tourism Industry All tourist accommodation enterprises Enterprises 2008 Division/MoTCA registered at TID/Kathmandu and all tourism offices

2 Detailed list of tourist IT/Computer Section All tourist accommodation enterprises enterprises maintained at TID/MoTCA registered at TID/Kathmandu and all IT/Computer Section TID tourism offices

3 Hotel Directory 2008 Published by Hotel All star hotels, resorts and tourist Association Nepal, standard hotels affiliated to HAN till HAN, 2008 2008.

4 Letter written by Langtang Langtang NP All permitted/registered hotels inside NP to NTB Langtang National Park

5 List of hotels, lodges and ACAP Head Office, Lwang, Ghorepani, Ghandruk, homestays provided by Pokhara and Unit Jomsom, Upper Mustang, Manang, ACAP Conservation Khudi, Ghalegaun, Sikles Offices, Ghandruk and Jomsom

6 ILO/EmPLED Tourism Report, ILO/EmPLED, Numbur-Cheese Circuit and 2010 Kathmandu Indigenous Peoples Trail, Ramechhap

7 Experiencing Eco-Lodge Eco-Himal, Rolwaling areas - Dolangsa, Bigu, Trekking in the unspoilt Baluwatar, Loting, Laduk, Orang, Simigaun areas Gauri Shankar Area, Kathmandu, 2007 of Dolakha Brochure, 2007

8 Database provided by Ms Adventure Rural Barapak homestay village, Gorkha Dil Kumari Ghale, Barapak, Development Gorkha Programme, Nepal

9 Database provided by Mr Sirubari Tourism Sirubari tourism village, Syangja Jum Bahadur Gurung, Development Sirubari, Syangja Committee

10 Tourism Plan of NTB/CEST Nepal Manakamana areas Manakamana, Betini and 2008 Bakreshwori

Table 4: Sources of information and institutions for secondary data Key stakeholders such as TID/MoTCA, RPMD/NTB, Department of National Parks and Wildlife Conservation (DNPWC), National Trust for Nature Conservation (NTNC), Hotel Association Nepal (HAN) and relevant tourism committees were consulted to ensure the conceptual clarity on the registration, operation and controlling process for tourist accommodation enterprises as well as to ensure the credibility of the data obtained from the respective institutions. 110 | Ram Chandra Sedai: Tourist Accommodation Facilities in the ...

Field visit and accommodation enterprise survey: Detail field visits and accommodation enterprise survey was carried out in the above 10 research sites (Table 3). i. The list of tourist accommodation enterprises obtained from the secondary sources (Table 4) was verified at the field by the researchers. The expansion or deduction in the tourist bed capacity was detected and corrected accordingly. Likewise, the hotels/lodges which were shut down in the real ground were marked and deleted from the inventory list. ii. All newly established and/or additional tourist accommodation enterprises which were not listed in the TID/MoTCA inventory list but were offering accommodation services and facilities to the visitors were surveyed by using a standard format by the enumerators. Accommodation enterprises which were registered at the local authorities like VDCs, municipalities and PAs other than the TID/MoTCA were also surveyed by the enumerators during the research.

Major places covered for the SN Research sites Major features of the inventory inventory during survey 1 Rasuwa, Nuwakot, Tamang Heritage Trail, Langtang Detail inventory of individual Sindhupalchowk and Helambu region hotels, field verification 2 Kathmandu and Kathmandu and Lalitpur Only verification of new hotels Lalitpur and hotels which are shut down 3 Palpa, Rupandehi, Palpa, Lumbini, Nepalgunj, Detail inventory of individual Kapilvastu Surkhet, Bardiya, Dhangadhi, hotels, field verification Mahendranagar 4 Sunsari, Jhapa, Biratnagar, Jhapa, Ilam, Dharan, Detail inventory of individual Morang, Ilam, Dhankuta hotels, field verification Dhankuta 5 Dhading, Gorkha, Gorkha, Bandipur, Damauli, Detail inventory of individual Tanahun, Lamjung Besisahar, Pokhara, Beni-Tatopani hotels, field verification 6 Chitwan, Chitwan, Hetauda, Birgunj and Detail inventory of individual Makawanpur, Janakpur hotels, field verification Parsa, Dhanusha 7 Dolakha, Everest region- Charikot, Jiri, Detail inventory of individual Solukhumbu Bhandar-Junbesi-Salleri-Namche hotels, field verification 8 Kavre Dhulikhel, Panauti, Namobuddha, Detail inventory of individual Balthali hotels, field verification 9 Bhaktapur, Kavre Bhaktapur, Changunarayan and Detail inventory of individual Nagarkot hotels, field verification 10 Taplejung Kanchenjunga region –Phungling, Detail inventory of individual Suketar, Phungling-Ghunsa trail hotels, field verification

Table 5: Major tourist sites covered during the accommodation enterprise survey, 2010 Nepal Tourism & Development Review (Volume 1, Issue 1, 2011) | 111

Scope of the Research Work The scope of the research findings lies under the considerations of the followings aspects: Selection of tourist sites for the research work: These research findings cover the tourist accommodation enterprises available only in the selected 15 major and five minor tourist sites (Table 3) of the country. 1. Selection of tourist accommodation enterprises by its types: Accommodation enterprises in this research work refer only to all forms of tourist hotels, lodges, resorts, homestays etc. which primarily provide lodging and food facilities to the visitors. But this inventory report does not cover other forms of accommodation enterprises such as restaurants, bars etc. This inventory also does not cover any facilities and services for camping form of accommodation and other associated facilities and services such as parking facilities, conference facilities etc. 2. Categorization of tourist accommodation enterprises by their status of registration: Besides making the inventory of formal tourist accommodation enterprises which are registered at the Tourism Industry Division and respective tourism offices, following accommodation enterprises have also been covered in this research: i. Accommodation enterprises registered only at the Department of Industry or the Cottage and Small Industry Development Board or its district offices and offering lodging and food services to the visitors. ii. Accommodation enterprises permitted by and registered only at the respective protected area authorities such as national parks (PAs), wildlife reserves (WRs), hunting reserves (HRs) and conservation areas (CAs), and offering lodging and food services to the visitors. iii. Accommodation enterprises registered only at the local government bodies like village development committees (VDCs) and municipalities and offering lodging and food services to the visitors. iv. Accommodation enterprises registered only at the local community institutions like cooperatives, tourism committees etc. and offering lodging and food services to the visitors. v. Accommodation enterprises which were actually offering services and facilities to the visitors in the trekking/tourism destinations but were not registered in any government institutions and local community institutions. 3. Classification of tourist accommodation enterprises: During the time of research (by June 2010), only four categories of tourist accommodation i.e. TSH, lodges, resorts and star hotels prevailed in the country. The provision 112 | Ram Chandra Sedai: Tourist Accommodation Facilities in the ...

regarding the establishment of homestay enterprises only came into action in August 2010. However, this inventory report comprises the following additional categories of enterprises as tourist accommodation enterprises: i. Tea house lodge: All unregistered lodges built and offering services for the visitors in the major trekking routes/destinations. For the purpose of this research, all tea house lodges have been listed under the broader category of lodge. The non-registration status of these tea house lodges separates them from the formal/registered lodges. ii. Homestay: Any household offering accommodation facilities and services to the visitors as a paying guest and in a completely homely environment. iii. Community/Monastery lodge: Any formal or informal enterprises which are offering accommodation facilities and services tothe visitors in a collective manner and in a public platform like community building or monastery etc. with or without being registered at the government institutions. Moreover, tourist rooms and beds have been further classified into the five different categories i.e. (i) Suits, (ii) Deluxe, (iii) Standard, (iv) Normal (Generally having no attached bathroom and toilet) and (v) Dormitory (Generally having more than four beds per room) based on the general practices and subjective judgment of the physical facilities available in the tourist rooms.

Limitations of the Research Work The research findings are subjected to the following two major limitations:The primary data collected through the accommodation enterprises survey are primarily based on the word of mouth information provided by the enterprise owners, operators and associated staff combined with some very limited access to legal documents and physical observation. Neither have all operators showed their valid documents demonstrating the legal entity and accommodation capacity nor have they permitted the enumerators to inspect and count the rooms and tourist beds. For two major sites i.e. Kathmandu and Lalitpur districts and the Annapurna region, the inventory outcomes are largely dependent on the secondary information. For Kathmandu and Lalitpur districts, the database was taken from the TID/MoTCA and field verification was made to incorporate new hotels/lodges and delete those which are already shut down. The inventory outcome for the Annapurna region totally relied on the database provided by the ACAP Regional Office, Pokhara, Unit Conservation Office, Jomsom and Unit Conservation Office, Ghandruk. Physical observation and accommodation enterprise survey was made in very few areas like Jomsom and Muktinath to verify the status of enterprises in the Annapurna region. Nepal Tourism & Development Review (Volume 1, Issue 1, 2011) | 113

Data Analysis, Results and Discussion The collected primary and secondary data was segregated into 15 spatial areas (major tourist sites) and the total capacity of tourist accommodation enterprises along with their types/standards and registration status was then calculated by using very simple statistical tools under the following three sub-headings: i. Capacity of tourist accommodation facilities and services in the major selected tourist sites. ii. Status of tourist accommodation enterprises based on their types and standards iii. Status of tourist accommodation enterprises based on their status of registration While calculating the capacity of accommodation enterprises in the Annapurna region, the following two assumptions were made to calculate the total tourist room and tourist bed capacity in the region: i. By taking into consideration the existing lower and upper limits of average tourist bed size per tea house lodge available at Lower Mustang (20.90 beds), Ghorepani (14.35 beds) and Ghandruk (12.80 beds); on an average, 16 tourist beds (8 rooms @ 2 beds) per tea house lodge was assumed to prevail throughout the Annapurna region. ii. Likewise, in case of homestay, on an average, 2 tourist beds (1 room @ 2 beds) per homestay were assumed to prevail in the Annapurna region.

Capacity of Tourist Accommodation Facilities and Services in the Major Selected Tourism Areas of Nepal: A total of 2,604 tourist accommodation enterprises, comprising all lodges, TSH, resorts, star hotels, homestays and community lodges, were recorded in the selected 15 major tourist sites and five minor tourist areas of Nepal. These enterprises offer a total of 35,789 tourist rooms and 69,040 tourist beds a day for the visitors in the selected tourist sites. While comparing the outcomes of present research with the 2009 tourist statistics of Nepal, it simply figures 2.42 times more by tourist beds, 2.51 times more by tourist rooms and 3.54 times more by the number of enterprises than that of the hotel accommodation capacity maintained at TID/MoTCA as of December 2009. Of the total selected areas, Kathmandu and Lalitpur districts comprise the largest number of tourist beds with 259 enterprises, 8,679 tourist rooms and 16,606 tourist beds. After Kathmandu and Lalitpur districts, Pokhara Valley comprises the second largest number of tourist beds with 254 enterprises, 7,213 tourist rooms and 11,577 tourist beds. Annapurna region comprises the third largest number of tourist beds with 821 tourist enterprises, 5,590 tourist rooms and 11,114 tourist beds (NTB/CEST Nepal, 2010).

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Accomodation Capacity by no. of tourists beds

The Everest region comprises a total of 7,299 tourist beds followed by Chitwan and Nawalparasi (4,172 tourist beds); Langtang and Helambu region (3,587 tourist beds), Bhaktapur, Nagarkot and Dhulikhel (2,805 tourist beds), Biratnagar, Jhapa, Ilam, Dharan, Dhankuta (2,344 tourist beds), Palpa, Butwal, Bhairahawa and Lumbini (2,207 tourist beds), Nepalgunj, Bardiya and Surkhet (2,051 tourist beds), Trishuli, Gorkha, Manakamana, Bandipur, Lamjung (1,544 tourist beds), Hetauda, Birgunj and Janakpur (1,203 tourist beds), Rolwaling, Numbur, Sailung (1,087 tourist beds) and Dhangadhi and Mahendranagar (570 tourist beds). The Kanchenjunga region comprises the least number of tourist beds, having only 324 tourist beds, amongst the selected tourist areas (NTB/CEST Nepal, 2010). By the number of accommodation enterprises, the Annapurna region comprises the largest number of enterprises (821 tourist enterprises) followed by the Everest region (313 tourist enterprises), Kathmandu and Lalitpur (259 tourist enterprises), Pokhara Valley (254 tourist enterprises), Langtang and Helambu region (221 tourist enterprises), Biratnagar, Jhapa, Ilam, Dharan, Dhankuta (146 tourist enterprises), Bhaktapur, Nagarkot and Dhulikhel (105 tourist enterprises), Chitwan and Nawalparasi (97 tourist enterprises), Trishuli, Gorkha, Bandipur, Lamjung (73 tourist enterprises), Rolwaling, Numbur and Sailung (72 tourist enterprises), Palpa, Butwal, Bhairahawa and Lumbini (52 tourist enterprises), Kanchenjunga region (31 tourist enterprises) and Hetauda, Birgunj, Janakpur (23 tourist enterprises). Dhangadhi and Mahendranagar comprise the least number of enterprises (17 tourist enterprises) amongst the selected tourist sites (Table-6). Amongst the selected tourist sites, Kathmandu and Lalitpur districts score the highest figure for the average number of rooms per hotel (33.50 rooms per hotel) and average number of beds per hotel (64.11 beds per hotel). Kanchenjunga Nepal Tourism & Development Review (Volume 1, Issue 1, 2011) | 115 region scores the highest figure for the average number of beds per room (2.84 beds per room) amongst the selected tourist sites (NTB/CEST Nepal, 2010).

S Place Total Tourist Room Tourist Bed N Hotels/ Lodges Suites Deluxe Standard Normal Dormitory Total Suites Deluxe Standard Normal Dormitory Total 1 Kathmandu and Lalitpur 259 369 2,509 5,545 256 8679 738 5,018 10,360 490 16,606 2 Bhaktapur, 105 41 384 779 276 2 1,482 74 730 1,468 523 10 2,805 Nagarkot, Dhulikhel 3 Pokhara Valley 254 35 2,373 3,753 1,052 7,213 71 3,928 5,949 1,629 11,577

4 Annapurna Region 821 1,834 3,756 5,590 3,648 7,466 11,114

5 Everest Region 313 2 75 802 2,754 108 3,741 4 102 1,287 5,394 512 7,299

6 Rolwaling, 72 0 4 130 247 49 430 0 8 260 525 294 1,087 Numbur and Sailung 7 Langtang and 221 0 0 76 1,333 94 1,503 0 0 164 2,967 456 3,587 Helambu Region 8 Chitwan and 97 92 607 964 222 8 1,893 198 1,329 2,109 522 14 4,172 Nawalparasi 9 Hetauda, Birgunj 23 40 184 282 88 6 600 87 396 521 167 32 1,203 and Janakpur 10 Biratnagar, Jhapa, 146 12 216 366 612 18 1,224 18 379 670 1,199 78 2,344 Ilam, Dharan, Dhankuta 11 Kanchenjunga 31 25 89 114 63 261 324 Region 12 Trishuli, Gorkha, 73 40 44 299 402 1 786 77 82 531 850 4 1,544 Bandipur, Besisahar 13 Palpa, Butwal, 52 17 202 502 117 83 921 31 369 949 269 589 2,207 Bhairahawa, Lumbini 14 Nepalgunj, 72 5 139 664 237 2 1,047 10 274 1,264 493 10 2,051 Bardiya, Surkhet 15 Dhangadhi and 17 23 88 131 49 291 44 172 255 99 570 Mahendranagar 16 Miscellaneous areas a Kodari Highway 4 77 77 142 142 (Sindhupalchowk) b Kakani/Nuwakot 3 63 63 140 140

c Daman 1 30 30 60 60

d Khandbari 3 46 46 79 79

e Sirubari 37 59 59 129 129

Grand Total 2604 676 6855 16338 11549 371 35789 1352 12847 29859 22983 1999 69040

Table 6: Summary of accommodation enterprises capacity in the major selected tourism areas of Nepal Source: Accommodation research report/NTB/CEST Nepal, 2010 Tourist Accommodation Enterprises by Standard and Types: Of the total 2,604 enterprises recorded in the major tourist sites, 106 enterprises (4.07%) fall under the star hotel and 2,479 enterprises (95.92%) fall under the non-star hotel category. Of the total star category hotels, Kathmandu and Lalitpur comprise 63 hotels, or about 59.45% of the total star hotels, followed 116 | Ram Chandra Sedai: Tourist Accommodation Facilities in the ... by Pokhara Valley which comprises 18 star hotels (16.98%). Of the total 2,604 accommodation enterprises, 64 are tourist resorts (2.45% of the total and 2.58% of the non-star hotels), 385 are tourist standard hotels-TSH (14.78% of the total and 15.53% of the non-star hotels), 1,716 are lodges (65.58% of total and 69.22% of non-star hotels), 297 are homestays (11.40% of total and 11.98% of non-star hotels), and 16 are community/monastery lodges (0.61% of total and 0.64% of non-star hotels) (Table 8), (NTB/CEST Nepal, 2010). Homestay Accommodation Services and Facilities: The inventory report also reveals that a total of 1,020 tourist beds are available at the 297 homestays developed in eight various rural villages of Nepal including Sirubari (Syangja), Gurung Heritage Trail (Ghalegaun-Pasgaun-Nagidhar), Barapak homestay (Gorkha), Tamang Heritage Trail (Rasuwa), Indigenous Peoples Trail (Ramechhap), Numbur Cheese Circuit (Ramechhap), Shree Antu (Ilam) and Olangchung Gola (Taplejung). Amongst the available homestay villages, Shree Antu, Ilam comprises the largest number of tourist beds (403 beds) whereas Olangchung Gola comprises the least number of homestay tourist beds (12 beds) (Table 7), (NTB/CEST Nepal, 2010).

No. of No. of No. of SN District Village Tourism Products Homestays Rooms Beds

1 Ilam Shree Antu 63 167 403 L a m j u n g / 2 Gurung Heritage Trail (Ghalegaun) 124 124 248 Kaski 3 Syangja Sirubari village tourism 37 59 126 4 Rasuwa Tamang Heritage Trail (THT) 27 39 99 5 Ramechhap Numbur Cheese Circuit (NCC) 11 20 52 6 Ramechhap Indigenous Peoples Trail (IP Trail) 11 18 40 7 Gorkha Barapak village tourism 20 20 40 8 Taplejung Olangchung Gola cultural village 4 4 12 Total 297 451 1,020

Table 7: Summary of homestay accommodation facilities in the major selected tourist sites Source: Accommodation research report/NTB/CEST Nepal, 2010 Nepal Tourism & Development Review (Volume 1, Issue 1, 2011) | 117

Star category S Non-star Category Grand Destinations/Hubs/Routes N 5 S 4S 3S 2S 1S Total Resort TSH Lodge Homestay C/ML Total

1 Kathmandu and Lalitpur 8 2 14 20 19 63 5 179 12 259 2 Bhaktapur, Nagarkot, Dhulikhel 0 0 2 1 1 4 9 33 59 0 0 105

3 Pokhara Valley 2 4 11 1 18 7 77 152 254

4 Annapurna Region 697 124 821

5 Everest Region 0 0 0 0 0 0 4 11 298 0 0 313

6 Rolwaling, Numbur and Sailung 0 0 0 0 0 0 2 5 35 22 8 72

7 Langtang and Helambu Region 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 193 27 1 221

8 Chitwan and Nawalparasi 0 0 0 0 0 0 16 15 66 0 0 97

9 Hetauda, Birgunj and Janakpur 0 0 1 4 3 8 11 4 23

10 Biratnagar, Jhapa, Ilam, Dharan, 1 1 1 3 4 20 56 63 0 146 Dhankuta

11 Kanchenjunga Region 3 24 4 31

12 Trishuli, Gorkha, Bandipur, Besisahar 0 0 0 0 0 0 6 2 45 20 0 73

13 Palpa, Butwal, Bhairahawa, Lumbini 0 0 1 1 2 4 0 16 25 0 7 52

14 Nepalgunj, Gulariya, Thakurdwara, 0 0 0 0 3 3 5 8 56 72 Surkhet

15 Dhangadhi and Mahendranagar 0 0 1 0 1 2 5 10 17

16 Miscellaneous areas a Kodari Highway (Sindhupalchowk) 3 1 4

b Kakani/Nuwakot 3 3

c Daman 1 1 1

d Khandbari 3 3

e Sirubari 37 37 Grand Total 10 2 25 38 31 106 69 390 1,726 297 16 2,604

Table 8: Summary of accommodation facilities and services by types and standards Note: S-Star Hotels, C/ML-Community/Monastery Lodge Source: Accommodation research report/NTB/CEST Nepal, 2010

Tourist Accommodation Enterprises by Status of Registration: Out of the total 2,604 tourism accommodation enterprises recorded in the selected major tourism sites, only 637 enterprises (24.46%) are registered as tourist accommodation enterprises at the Tourism Industry Division (TID) and the respective tourism offices in Kakadbhitta, Biratnagar, Birgunj, Pokhara, 118 | Ram Chandra Sedai: Tourist Accommodation Facilities in the ...

Bhairahawa and Nepalgunj under the Ministry of Tourism and Civil Aviation. Furthermore, 403 enterprises (15.47%) are registered only at the respective Cottage and Small Industry Development Board/Committee and/or Department of Industry/District Industry Offices as formal accommodation enterprises. Likewise, 704 enterprises (27.03%) are registered and/or recorded only at the respective protected areas (PAs). The largest volume under this category falls in the Annapurna Conservation Area (650 enterprises) with Langtang NP claiming the second largest volume with 47 enterprises. A total of 64 enterprises (2.45%) are registered only at local municipalities and VDCs, while 759 enterprises (29.14%) are registered nowhere (Table 9) (NTB/CEST Nepal, 2010). Principally, all star hotels (106 enterprises), resorts (64 enterprises) and tourist class hotels (385 enterprises) are formally registered as tourist accommodation enterprises. Both formal (registered) and non-formal (non-registered) enterprises have been included in the lodge category (1,716 enterprises) for this inventory. All homestays (297 enterprises) and community/monastery lodges fall under the non-registered enterprises. Most of the formal accommodation enterprises are also affiliated with Hotel Association Nepal (HAN), Kathmandu and respective regional and district chapters. Almost all of them are also affiliated with the Federation of Nepalese Chambers of Commerce and Industries (FNCCI). Some accommodation enterprises which are registered at the respective protected areas (PAs), particularly in Chitwan NP and Sagarmatha NP, have also been registered at TID and tourism offices as formal tourist accommodation enterprises. Most of the homestays are registered at the local tourism management committees (Briddim, Sirubari, Indigenous Peoples Trail (IP Trail), Numbur Cheese Circuit (NCC), Shree Antu (Ilam) and some of them are registered at the local cooperatives (Rolwaling area) (NTB/CEST Nepal, 2010).

SN Destinations/Hubs Registered Registered Registered Registered Registered Total Remarks at TID/ only at only at only at no where TOs DoI/CSIDB PAs municipality 1 Kathmandu and Lalitpur 259 0 0 259 196 affiliated with HAN 2 Bhaktapur, Nagarkot, Dhulikhel 44 51 0 3 7 105 3 Pokhara Valley 150 54 17 33 254 4 Annapurna Region 25 64 650 82 821 Registered/recorded at ACAP 5 Everest Region 13 15 0 0 285 313 6 Rolwaling, Numbur and 4 13 0 0 55 72 6 registered in Sailung cooperatives, 22 in HS 7 Langtang and Helambu Region 3 4 47 0 167 221 8 Chitwan and Nawalparasi 31 66 0 0 97 7 also registered in Chitwan NP 9 Hetauda, Birgunj and 16 7 0 0 0 23 Janakpur Nepal Tourism & Development Review (Volume 1, Issue 1, 2011) | 119

10 Biratnagar, Jhapa, Ilam, 26 16 0 40 64 146 63 registered in Dharan, Dhankuta Homestay Com. 11 Kanchenjunga Region 3 5 0 0 23 31 12 Trishuli, Gorkha, Bandipur, 10 19 0 1 43 73 20 registered in Besisahar Homestay Com. 13 Palpa, Butwal, Bhairahawa, 20 25 7 0 0 52 Lumbini 14 Nepalgunj, Gulariya, 16 56 0 0 0 72 Thakurdwara, Surkhet 15 Dhangadhi and 6 8 0 3 0 17 1 also registered Mahendranagar in WR 16 Miscellaneous areas a Kodari Highway 4 4 (Sindhupalchowk) b Kakani/Nuwakot 3 3 c Daman 1 1 d Khandbari 3 3 e Sirubari 37 37 registered in 37 STDC Grand Total 637 403 704 64 796 2,604 0 Table 9: Summary of accommodation enterprises by status of registration Abbreviated form (Table 9): TID: Tourism Industry Division, TOs: Tourism Offices, CSIDB: Cottage and Small Industry Development Board/Committee, DOI: Department of Industry, PA: Protected Areas, CNP: Chitwan National Park, ACAP: Annapurna Conservation Area Project, VDC: Village Development Committee, HAN: Hotel Association Nepal. Source: Accommodation research report/NTB/CEST Nepal, 2010

Conclusions 1. The research finding has presented a generally expected but quite different scenario of tourist accommodation capacity, revealing the presence of more than two-and-half times more tourist bed capacity than that of formally registered tourist accommodation in the country. The study has also revealed the overwhelming number of enterprises coming up in tourist areas like the Pokhara Valley, Annapurna region, Everest region, Langtang region, Rolwaling-Sailung areas and upcoming tourist sites. The findings of the research can be a useful baseline data in the changed scenario for the policy makers, supervising agencies, entrepreneurs, development agencies and local communities in performing the following tourism tasks: i. Setting expansion, upgrading and development strategy and action plan for accommodation infrastructure on a priority basis. 120 | Ram Chandra Sedai: Tourist Accommodation Facilities in the ...

ii. Undertaking capacity enhancement and quality upgrading activities in the major tourism areas iii. Enhancing the effectiveness of tourism regulatory activities suchas monitoring and supervision mechanism for ensuring the standard of accommodation services and facilities. iv. Setting appropriate tourism forecasting and marketing strategies based on the accommodation facilities and services available in the major tourism areas 2. Out of the total tourist accommodation enterprises recorded in the inventory report, the vast majority of the accommodation enterprises fall under the non-star category. By considering the fact that most of the lodges, especially the tea house lodges, are non-registered, it can be interpreted that the accommodation facilities and services in the major tourist areas may be of inadequate qualities, in the absence of any controlling mechanism, demanding efforts for upgrading and improvements. 3. In the meantime, the huge presence of lodges, especially the tea house lodges, and the emerging trend of homestays and community lodges reflects that more rural and ecotourism-based accommodation enterprises are coming up in the country demanding efforts for strengthening and institutionalizing the new forms of accommodation enterprises. 4. Out of the tourist accommodation enterprises recorded by the inventory, less than a quarter of the total enterprises are formally registered at TID and tourism offices as tourism accommodation enterprises. Accommodation enterprises which are now registered only at the CSIDB/DoI can be considered as potential enterprise to be registered at TID. Furthermore, enterprises which are registered/ recorded only at the protected areas (PAs), particularly in the ACAP region, can be considered as most vulnerable in terms of legal aspects, revenue generation and controlling mechanism. Overall, there is a huge potential for tourism industry to upgrade and strengthen the larger number of formal and informal accommodation enterprises to be upgraded and registered as formal tourist accommodation enterprises. 5. The very poor number of accommodation enterprises registered at the TID could possibly be due to the lack of awareness about the tourism rules and regulations among the operators, poor enforcement of rules and regulations compounded by the poor supervision and monitoring mechanism and impractical administrative procedure of registration, particularly forthe enterprises running in the remote trekking destinations. Throughout the whole inventory, no uniform and standard format was found being used by any government agencies for keeping and maintaining the records of registered accommodation enterprises. Moreover, there is a very poor and Nepal Tourism & Development Review (Volume 1, Issue 1, 2011) | 121

inadequate information sharing, partnership and collaboration mechanism among the CSIDB, municipalities, Nepal Tourism Board, TID/MoTCA and tourism offices for maintaining and sharing the database on tourism enterprises. 6. Altogether 2,604 accommodation enterprises, 35,789 tourist rooms and 69,040 tourist beds were recorded in the 15 major and five minor tourism sites of Nepal. However, findings of this inventory largely exclude the enterprise database on other new and upcoming tourist sites, database on the other services and facilities such as conference facilities etc. associated with the hotel/lodge enterprises and the quality aspects of the accommodation enterprises.

Recommendations 1. Tourist Industry Division/Ministry of Tourism and Civil Aviation and Nepal Tourism Board (NTB) together with Hotel Association Nepal (HAN) should develop a standard and uniform format for maintaining the records of tourist accommodation enterprises throughout the country. NTB and TID should enhance and strengthen the capacity of protected areas authority, CSIDB/DoI, VDCs, municipalities and other local tourism committees by providing orientation training and appropriate software package etc. for ensuring updated database keeping, management and sharing system on tourism accommodation enterprises. 2. TID/MoTCA together with NTB and HAN should prepare a comprehensive tourist accommodation inventory on a periodic basis by also incorporating the following missing attributes of tourist accommodation enterprises: i. The new inventory research should cover other accommodation- related enterprises such as restaurants, bars, camping sites, safari tents etc. ii. The new inventory research should also cover other associated facilities and services such as parking facilities, conference facilities and other entertainment facilities available in the hotels/lodges/resorts. iii. The new inventory research should also cover the facilities available at other new, upcoming and promising tourist destinations such as Hile- Basantapur-Gufapokhari, Makalu-Barun area, Helambu-Panchpokhari- Chautara route, Manaslu region, Dhorpatan and Lower Dolpo region, Jumla and Simikot region, Khaptad areas and all upcoming areas. 3. Special campaign should be initiated to bring all potential tourist accommodation enterprises under the jurisdiction of TID/MoTCA by encouraging and helping them to register their enterprises in the prescribed 122 | Ram Chandra Sedai: Tourist Accommodation Facilities in the ...

agencies. TID/MoTCA and Nepal Tourism Board in association with Trekking Agencies Association of Nepal (TAAN) should develop a separate policy and operating procedure to register, operate and regulate following tourist accommodation enterprises under the special categories: i. Tea house lodges (in the major trekking trails) ii. Homestays (already covered in the Home-stay Operating Procedure, August 2010) iii. Community-managed public accommodation enterprises (Monastery lodges, community lodges/guesthouses, cooperative lodges, Dharmashala, community camping sites etc.) 4. TID/MoTCA, Nepal Academy of Tourism and Hotel Management (NATHM) and NTB together with HAN should initiate tourist accommodation enterprise upgrading and strengthening program, particularly in the trekking destinations and upcoming new areas. Special emphasis should be given to the physical facilities of the tourist hotels (room, bed, toilet, lighting, space etc.), hygiene and sanitation conditions, and quality of food offered to the visitors.

References

GoN, 1998, Gazette published by the Government of Nepal dated Ashwin 4, 2055 regarding the setting up of criteria for the classification of resorts and star hotels, Ministry of Tourism and Civil Aviation, Kathmandu Nepal.

Eco-Himal (2007), Experience Eco-Lodge Trekking in the Unspoilt Gauri Shankar Area (a promotional brochure), Eco-Himal, Kathmandu Nepal.

HMG/N, 1996, Conservation Area Management Regulations 1996 (2053 BS), Kathmandu Nepal.

HMG/N, 2000, Conservation Area Government Management Regulations 2000 (2057 BS), Kathmandu, Nepal.

HMG/N, 1996, Buffer Zone Management Regulation 1996 (2052 BS), Kathmandu, Nepal.

HMG/N, 1999, Buffer Zone Management Directive 1999 (2056 BS), Kathmandu, Nepal.

HMG/N, 1973, National Parks and Wildlife Conservation Act 1973 (4th amendment, 1993), Kathmandu, Nepal.

HMG/N, 1978, Tourism Act 2035 (3rd amendment, 1997), Kathmandu, Nepal.

HAN, 2008, Hotel Directory 2008, Hotel Association Nepal, Gairigaun, Kathmandu, Nepal

Kanel, CN, 2010, Homestay Management in Nepal: Some practical Aspects, Treasures of Dolakha, Dolakha Tourism Development Committee, Dolakha, Nepal. Nepal Tourism & Development Review (Volume 1, Issue 1, 2011) | 123

MoTCA (2006), Tourism Policy 2065 (2008), Ministry of Tourism and Civil Aviation (MoTCA), Kathmandu, Nepal.

MoTCA (2009), Nepal Tourism Statistics 2009, Ministry of Tourism and Civil Aviation, Kathmandu, Nepal

NTB/CEST Nepal (2010), An Inventory of formal accommodation facilities in the major selected tourist areas of Nepal, Nepal Tourism Board and Centre for Environment and Sustainable Tourism Development Nepal, Kathmandu, Nepal.

NTB/CEST Nepal (2008), Tourism Development and Management Plan of Manakamana, Betini and Bakreshwori, Gorkha, (2008/09 to 2012/013), Nepal Tourism Board and Centre for Environment and Sustainable Tourism Development Nepal, Kathmandu, Nepal.

Satyal Y.R. (2004), Tourism in Nepal: A Profile. India: Adroit Publication.

Sedai, R.C. (2010), Tourism Value Chain Upgrading in Ramechhap: Task completion report, International Labor Organization/Employment Creation and Peace Building Based on Local Economic Development (ILO/EmPLED), Kathmandu, Nepal.

TID/MoTCA, 2007, Internal Operating Regulation 2064 published by Tourism Industry Division/Ministry of Tourism and Civil Aviation, Bhrikutimandap, Kathmandu Nepal.

TID/MoTCA, 2008, Registered Tourism Related Enterprises 2008, Tourism Industry Division/Ministry of Tourism and Civil Aviation, Bhrikutimandap, Kathmandu, Nepal.

UNWTO (2008), International Recommendations for Tourism Statistics, United Nations World Tourism Organization, Madrid, New York. 124 | Book Review : Classic Hikes of the World

Book Review Classic Hikes of the World

Classic Hikes of the World by Peter Potterfield New York, W. W. Norton & Co., 2005 224, pp., US$ 39.95 (hardcover) ISBN 9780393057966

Seattle-based Peter Potterfield is a highly acclaimed award-winning writer with a passion for adventure travel. His highly acclaimed works have been published in many magazines such as the National Geographic Adventure, the Conde Nast Traveler, Outside, Backpacker and the Reader’s Digest. He is also the author of High Himalaya and In the Zone, among other books. In his most recent book Classic Hikes of the World; he covers the world’s best hiking routes across seven continents, making this a bible for intrepid trekkers. In order to maximize hiking trip, Potterfield has rounded up 23 classic itineraries (adrenaline outposts). As the author himself hails from North America, he has obviously devoted most of his energy in highlighting 11 classical hikes of North America while rest of the continents are given their share of two to three classical hikes each. Each chapter contains invaluable advice, both for novices and seasonal trekkers, including level of difficulty, both in physical effort and psychological challenge; details on trail conditions and recommended seasons; notes on potential hazards or difficulties; detailed route descriptions; maps of all hiking routes; and resources for information, staging, accommodation and transportation. The collection spans the whole world and the author in his choices has tried his best to be comprehensive. From the great Himalayan peaks of Nepal to the lush green hills of New Zealand, hiking is becoming popular, and the book has made an attempt to document a vast array of choices that are available. Hiking amidst different cultures, different natural and environmental settings and different degrees of difficulties requires sound planning and loads of information to choose the right combination before setting out for hiking. This book really scores well in this particular area. This adrenaline-soaked book introduces Dingboche, a sleepy hamlet on the way to the Everest Base Camp, where the author himself is disarmed by the landscape Nepal Tourism & Development Review (Volume 1, Issue 1, 2011) | 125 and lost in the wilderness that reminds him of his professed goal: “to spend time in the places that remain wild, to see the beauty of the world”. The introduction chapter dwells on structure and on how to use the book. Each hiking chapter begins with pertinent information noting the particular route’s appeal and unique features, along with some historical notes. However, Potterfield recommends that the best way to use the book is for the readers themselves to go on those hikes. In order to have experience of these trekking routes, the author has a simple advice: Dream it, plan it, just do it! Under the North America section, Potterfield lucidly and succinctly explains the John Muir Trail (Southern California, USA), a trail which every trekker dreams of traversing someday, akin to the Annapurna Circuit of Nepal. The trail officially runs for 354 km from the summit of Mt. Whitney to Happy Isles in the Yosemite Valley. It takes between 18-24 days to cover the trail. The author also provides information on how to replenish food along the route by providing names of resupply points along the trail. The jewel in the crown of hiking is none other than hiking in the Antarctic region – the Shackleton Crossing. In fact, it is one of the most gripping survival stories where Shackleton made an ambitious plan to cross Antarctica but his ship sank on the way and both Shackleton and his team members struggled to survive after being left adrift on a frozen sea for 18 whole months. Nonetheless, this remains an undiscovered gem. Equally stunning is the Routeburn Track in New Zealand, a country known as an adventure enthusiast’s dreamland. The Routeburn Track is for those who love to explore and enjoy natural wilderness. The track is one of the Great Walks of New Zealand, a collective name given to the country’s eight premier walking tracks and one river journey. The track takes four days to complete traversing along the flank of the Ailsa Mountains, the southwestern corner of New Zealand’s Southern Alps, taking in scenic splendors where one can explore two of the country’s largest national parks – Fiordland and Mt. Aspiring – in the heart of a World Heritage Area. Nepal, known as a hiker’s paradise, where there is an extensive range of treks to choose from, has been well-documented in this book: the Everest Base Camp (EBC) and the Royal Trek. The EBC is known as the most popular trekking route besides the Annapurna Circuit. Although the author warns of high climb resulting in altitude sickness, he is quick to add that the trek has many intangible rewards: spectacular natural beauty and rich cultural experiences of the Sherpa people. Among adventure-hiking aficionados, EBC is one of the most talked about hikes in the world. For those who really want to be lost in the natural splendor and physical beauty of Everest, the EBC trek can become an experience of a lifetime. The jewel in the crown is the majestic view of Everest. Compared to the EBC, the Royal Trek is a soft trek. Those who enjoy a laid-back lifestyle attitude are 126 | Book Review : Classic Hikes of the World surely going to enjoy this hiking. The crowning glory of the Royal Trek is that it is a low-level trekking with easy-going people from picturesque villages of Gurung, Chhetri and Newar communities. The trek can be enjoyed during fall, winter or spring but not during monsoon. While trekking in Nepal there is always a reward in the form of a sense of achievement and closeness with the nature. Overall, Nepal offers a warm welcome to visitors, a good place to bunk where one can mix at ease with the locals. Those who have been to Nepal would be shocked to find the Annapurna Circuit, regarded as one of the world’s best trekking routes, missing from the book. Another big surprise is to see soft treks such as the Royal Trek being billed as classic hikes. The Everest Base Camp is explained in a very clear manner. However, one thing the author has surprisingly failed to mention in the chapter is the iconic monument of the EBC – Tangboche Monastery. Peter Potterfield is a leading authority on the subject of trekking. He could have done more justice to the book had there been mention of Bhutan’s Snowman trekking – considered one of the hardest treks in the world lasting around 24 days and having altogether 11 passes. The book also disappoints with its use of ordinary photographs. For people who really love trekking and are intrepid adventurers, this is armchair reading at its best. The book appeals to anyone with a healthy dose of adventure. The book is a treasure trove for adventure enthusiasts and offers an unforgettable lifetime escape into the wilderness.

Reviewed by: Sunil Sharma [email protected] Nepal Tourism & Development Review (Volume 1, Issue 1, 2011) | 127

Nepal Tourism Year 2011

Background The Government of Nepal in consultation and comprehending the voice of the Nepalese tourism stakeholders decided on October 25, 2008 to launch a national tourism campaign “Nepal Tourism Year 2011 (NTY 2011)”. The announcement of the campaign reflects the recognition of the tourism sector as one of the economic mainstays of the Nepalese economy by the government. It is also analogical to the various interactions and consensus among the Ministry of Tourism and Civil Aviation (MoTCA), the Nepal Tourism Board (NTB), tourism entrepreneurs and other stakeholders in launching a special tourism promotion campaign, in order to further enhance the image of Nepal as a safe and pleasant tourist destination in the international tourism arena. With the badge of adventure destination glittering and the adage “Atithi Devo Bhava” (Guests are Gods) embedded in our culture, the assortment of our tourism products never ceases to mesmerise the visitors from around the world. The unparalleled and unique cultural, geographical, ethnic and bio diversities of the country allure visitors to Nepal time and again, which truly substantiates the spirit of the Nepalese tourism brand “Naturally Nepal, once is not enough!” The essence of tourism and its role lies in contributing to economic growth, poverty alleviation and overall social development. The NTY 2011 envisions harnessing these opportunities and strengths and bringing together the commitment of the government, expertise and experiences of organizations like the NTB, aptitude and dynamism of the private sector and aspirations of the local communities for further development of tourism in the country. Representation and active participation from awide spectrum of tourism stakeholders is taken into prominence in order to make the campaign inclusive and participatory in modus operandi and effective in delivering results. The campaign will also focus on mobilizing the networks of the Non-Resident Nepalese (NRN) communities, Nepalese diplomatic missions abroad, non-governmental organisations, airline companies and the media. Similarly, friends and well-wishers of Nepal, tourism academicians and celebrities are approached in order to highlight the campaign internally and internationally.

Quantified Targets (Output) The primary goal of the campaign is to bring in one million international tourists to Nepal, almost double of the current figure of slightly over half a million tourists in a year, in 2011. Apart from this overarching goal, the campaign targets to: 128 | Nepal Tourism Year 2011

1. At least 40% of the international tourists travelling beyond the present tourism sites. 2. Encourage additional investment on tourism infrastructures by 50%. 3. Promote and maintain the record of domestic tourism. The campaign seeks to accomplish these outputs by adopting appropriate strategic interventions in partnership with the concerned tourism stakeholders. Diversifying the tourism products, capacity building of tourism stakeholders, enhancing air and land connectivity, exploring new tourism segments and focusing on the regional markets with right product and promotional mix are the planned strategic moves during the campaign.

Institutional Arrangements Main Organising Committee: Considering the magnitude of the campaign, the Government of Nepal has formed the Main Organising Committee with the Honourable Minister for Tourism and Civil Aviation as its convener. . The committee boasts 61 members, which also includes the Honourable Vice Chairman of National Planning Commission serving as its joint convener. The Secretaries of various line Ministries; Chiefs of Metropolitan, Sub-Metropolitan cities and Municipalities; travel and trade associations serve as the members. The Chief Executive Officer (CEO) of NTB has been designated as the Member-Secretary of the committee.

Scope of work The Main Organising Committee has been authorised to carry out tourism programmes and activities within the following Terms of Reference: 1. The Committee may draft working modalities by itself. 2. The Committee shall prepare and determine the programs for NTY 2011. 3. The Committee shall form sub-committees and task forces as and when required. 4. The Committee shall draft an action plan and budget estimate and submit to the Government of Nepal. 5. The Committee shall prepare and design the promotional slogan and logo of the campaign. 6. It shall obtain and mobilize political, governmental, non-governmental and foreign support and resources. 7. The Committee shall allocate a separate fund to finance the programme and activities (Funds shall be collected from government, non-governmental and other sources). Nepal Tourism & Development Review (Volume 1, Issue 1, 2011) | 129

8. The Committee shall establish its secretariat. 9. The Committee shall prepare the human resource requirement at the secretariat and submit to the Government of Nepal for approval.

Program Implementation Sub-Committee To implement the decision of the Main Organising Committee and to ensure maximum participation from the private sector, communities and other stakeholders, a programme implementation sub-committee has been formed under the Chairmanship of the Secretary, MoTCA and Yogendra Shakya as its convener. While the membership at the Main Organising Committee is based on institutional representation, most of the members of this committee, including the convener are individual tourism entrepreneurs.

Functional Sub-Committees The Main Organising Committee of NTY 2011 has formed the following 14 thematic sub-committees. These sub-committees are mandated to draft and implement specific strategies, programmes and activities. Each sub-committee is required to be headed by a private sector entrepreneur, high ranking government official or tourism expert in the concerned field. The purposes behind forming these sub- committees are to rope in necessary support and contribution from all relevant sectors and agencies related to tourism and to encourage wider participation from tourism stakeholders. 1. Policy Advocacy 2. Physical Infrastructure and Coordination 3. Product Improvement and Development 4. Events, Festivals and Activities 5. Marketing, Promotion and Publicity 6. Human Resource and Capacity Building 7. Aviation and Transport Coordination 8. Resources Mobilization and Monitoring 9. Natural and Culture Heritage 10. Political Coordination 11. Crisis Management and Security Coordination 12. Mountain Tourism Coordination 13. Legal Affairs Coordination 14. Diplomatic Affairs Coordination 130 | Nepal Tourism Year 2011

Regional Sub-Committees Besides the above mentioned thematic sub-committees, there are five regional sub-committees in each of the five development regions of Nepal. Headed by the Regional Administrator, each regional sub-committee includes representatives of political parties, local tourism entrepreneurs, Local Development Officer, security officials and media personnel as its members.

Secretariat The NTB has been entrusted to function as a secretariat of NTY 2011 as per the decision of the cabinet. A senior director serves as the Member Secretary to the Program Implementation Committee who looks after the administrative and day- to-day affairs related to the campaign.

Present Status It is observed that the Main Organising Committee and the Program Implementation Sub-Committee have been working in close association with the relevant tourism stakeholders in order to achieve the targets and objectives of NTY 2011. National and international tourism promotion programmes are underway in partnerships with the government bodies, the NTB, private sector, Nepali diplomatic missions abroad and NRN communities in line with the new slogan of the campaign “Together for Tourism”.

Posted by: Kashi Raj Bhandari [email protected]