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New Hebridean Mobility : a Study of Circular Migration

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NEW HEBRIDEAN MOBILITY : A STUDY OF CIRCULAR MIGRATION NEW HEBRIDEAN MOBILITY : A STUDY OF CIRCULAR MIGRATION R. D. BEDFORD RESEARCH SCHOOL OF PACIFIC STUDIES Department of Human Geography Publication HG/9 ( 1973 ) AUSTRALIAN NATIONAL UNIVERSITY · CANBERRA c The Australian Nat ional Un iversity 1973 This publication is copyright . Apart from any fair dealing for the purposes of private study, research , criticism, or review, as permitted under the Copyright Act , no part may be reproduced by any process without wr itten permission . Inquiries should be made to the publisher , Department of Human Geography , Australian Nat ional Un iversity, Canberra National Library of Australia Catalogue Card no. and ISBN 0 7081 0098 8 Library of Congress Catalogue Card no . 73-83346 Registered in Au stralia for transmission by post as a book Distributed by Austral ian Nat ional Un iversity Press P.O. Box 4, Canberra, A.C.T. , 2600 Printed by authority of the Registrar , The Aus tralian National Un iversity 1973 iii ACKNOWLEDGMENTS This is a revised vers ion of a Ph .D. thesis submitted to The Australian National Un iversity in Decemb er 1971 under the title 'Mob ility in transition : an analysis of population movement in the New Hebrides'. The extensive field research required for the study was only made possible by generous financial assis tance from this institution. Sections of the thesis have appeared in print elsewhere, and I would like to acknowledge permis sion grant ed by Edward Arnold (Publishers) Ltd to reproduce certain figures and tables wh ich they have published in a book of essays edited by H.C. Brookfield entitled The Pacific in transition: geographical perspectives on adaption and change. In preparing both the thesis and this monograph considerable advice and assis tance has been received from the academic and technical staffs of the Department of Human Geography , Research School of Pacific Studies , The Au stralian Nat ional University. Harold Brookf ield (now at McGill University) and Godfrey Linge in particular connnented extensively on drafts of th e thesis. During the preparation of this monograph , the latter has provided continuous constructive criticism and editorial advice for wh ich I am extremely grateful. A numb er of people connnented on a draft of this publicat ion and I would like to thank Gerard Ward , Wilbur Zelinsky , and Peter Pirie for their very helpful suggestions. Several people have helped me to prepare this publication. In particular , I would like to mention the following whose assis tance has been greatly appreciated : in Christchurch Noelene Frew typed the drafts ; in Canberra Pauline Falconer prepared the final script, Ian Heywood drafted some of the diagrams , Nancy Clark proof read the manuscript and the staff of Central Printing at The Australian National University supervised its reproduction . Finally, I would like to express my gratitude to the Department of Human Geography for the opportunity of pub lishing my thesis . R.D. Bedford Christchurch , 10 Au gust 1973 v TABLE OF CONTENTS ACKNOWLEDGMENTS CONTENTS List of Tables vii List of Figures ix Conventions x CHAPTER 1 INTRODUCTION 1 Circular Migration: definition and general characteristics 2 Some methodological considerations 5 The New Hebrides 9 Analysis of New Hebridean mobility 11 1800-1970 14 CHAPTER 2 A TRANSITION IN CIRCULAR MIGRATION , Mobility in pre-contact society 15 Mobility and ceremonial occasions 17 Inter-island trade 18 Pre-contact mobility as oscillation 20 Phase one: overseas labour migration 21 Origins of recruits: the diffusion of phase one 23 Motives for moving 25 Effects on New Hebridean society 28 Phase two: internal contract lab our migration 30 The volume of plantation labour migration , 1870-1940 30 Origins and destinations of migrants 33 The changing pattern of circular migration 37 Phase three: intensive short-term circular migration 38 Migration during the Second World War 38 Plantation emp loyment and cash cropping 40 Fish and manganese industries 43 The drift to towns 43 Some general comments on contemporary circular 48 migration A partial explanation of circular migration 54 CHAPTER 3 CONTEMPORARY CIRCULAR MIGRATION: A VIEW FROM THE VILLAGE 57 Aspects of land availability and use 62 Titles and land ownership 62 Some effects of changes in land utilisation 64 The relationship between roles and migration 68 vi TABLE OF CONTENTS - Continued Village ab senteeism, 1969-19 70 71 The extent of ab senteeism 72 Absentees ' destination choices 73 Ab senteeism and life in the village 77 Structural aspec ts of New Hebridean migration 78 The duration of ab sences from villages 79 Circularity in migration networks 83 Reasons for circular migration 89 Mobility of New Hebridean men 89 Mob ility of New Hebridean women 93 94 An explanation of contemporary circular migration CHAPTER 4 MIGRANT S IN VILA : ASPECTS OF NEW HEBRIDEAN RESIDENCE 96 IN AN URBAN AREA Some general characteristics of migrant settlement 97 Tongoans , Emaeans , and Makurans in Vila 99 Accommodation in migrant communities 105 Stabilisation and involvement in the town 109 Re sidence in Vila : measures of stab ilisation 110 Social relationships and involvement in town life 113 Commitment to residence in Vila 116 CHAPTER 5 CONCLUS ION 119 The circular migration transit ion in a wider context 120 Migration in Melanes ia and other parts of the Pacific 120 Migration in sub-Saharan Africa 126 Circular migration and modernisation 132 Migration and modernisation : some general comments 134 New Hebridean circular migration and the mobility 136 transition APPENDIX I SOME METHODOLOGICAL CONSIDERATIONS 142 Definition of 'a migration' 142 Migration histories 143 The population surveyed 144 BIBLIOGRAPHY 149 vii LIST OF TABLES Tab le Page 1. 1 Population of the New Hebrides , 1967 9 2.1 Methods of and mo tives for recruiting , 1873 and 1881 25 2.2 Contract labour and plantation wages , 1945-1950 40 2.3 Population growth of Vila and Santo , 1955-1972 44 2.4 Distribution of schools , hospitals , and wage 51 employment, 1967 2.5 Internal air traffic , 1961-1969 54 3.1 Population, location, languages , and religions of 61 villages surveyed 3. 2 Land availability and alienation , 1969 65 3.3 Distribution of customary titles among adult male 67 population 3.4 Roles, age , and mobility experience, 1966-1969 70 3.5 Residence of title-holders 71 3.6 Av erage duration of absences from home village: 83 age groups 3.7 Variations in the circulation index 87 3.8 Male circular migration: a schematic representation 88 3.9 Female circular migration: a schematic representation 92 4.1 Migrant communities : characteristics of their 101 populations , January 1970 4. 2 Sex ratios of migrant and village populations , 1970 102 4.3 Variations in household structure ; Vila communities 104 and rural villages 4.4 Purchase of land and residence on Tongoa Local Council 107 Lots, Seaside , 1970 108 4.5 Residential arrangements; adult males 4.6 Duration of residence 111 4.7 Proportion of working life spent in urban areas by 113 town and village residents viii LIST OF TABLES - Continued Table Page 4.8 Duration of residence and location of family 114 I The stayer sample and the mover-stayer population 145 interviewed II Tests for the valid ity of household samples 147 III Aggregations of the samp le population 148 ix LIST OF FIGURES Figure Page 1.1 The New Hebrides 8 2.1 Some pre-contact trading networks 19 2.2 Labour migration and the sandalwood trade 22 2.3 Labour migration to Australia, 1863-1869 24 2.4 Recruitment for and repatriation from Aus tralia, 27 1812-1939 2.5 Recruiting licences and recruits , 1912-1939 32 2.6 Duration of contracts , 1912-1939 33 2.7 Origins of labourers, 1912-1939 34 2.8 Destinations of labour recruits , 1912-1939 36 2.9 Migration to Efate and Espiritu Santo , 1942 39 2.10 New Hebrideans employed by the SPFC , 1957-1959 42 2.11 Vila and Santo; urban and periurban areas , 1967 46 2.12 Origins of immigrants in Vila and Santo , 1967 47 2.13 Labour migration to New Caledonia; movements by sea, 49 1969-19 71 2.14 Inter-island migration streams , 1967 50 2.15 Migration fields of selected islands , 1967 52 3.1 The south-central New Hebrides 58 3.2 Villages and language groups on Tongoa, Emae, and 60 Makura, 1969 3 . 3 Age structure of residents and absentees , 1969-1970 74 3.4 Location of absentees, 1969-1970 75 3.5 Mobility experiences; sex and age groups 80 3.6 Duration of absences from home village 82 3.7 Circularity in New Hebridean migration networks 86 4.1 New Hebridean settlements in Vila , January 1970 100 4. 2 Population structure of migrant and village 103 communities, 1970 4.3 Land ownership and settlement in Seaside, January 1970 106 x CONVENTIONS Orthography The spelling of island and place names used in the 1971 census has been adopted in this study because it corresponds to the orthography in common usage by English-speaking citizens in the New Hebrides. The town on Espiritu Santo is termed Santo , and not Luganville. With few exceptions the spellings used here are similar to those advocated by the Royal Geographical Society in its 'Fourth List of Oceanic Names' in 1931. Where terms in a New Hebridean language or pidgin-English have been cited, they have been given in italics. Currencies , weights, and measures of area Unless otherwise stated all currencies are given in Australian dollars at the rate of exchange operative at the date to which the data refer . In the case of data prior to 1967 , $Al .OO = $US1.125 = 8/- stg. Since December 1967 $Al .OO = $US1.125 = 9/4 stg. In the case of weights, measures in metric tons (1 metric ton = 2204.6 lb ) are used throughout.
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