Explorations the Journal of Undergraduate Research and Creative Activities for the State of North Carolina

Volume XI 2016 Explorations The Journal of Undergraduate Research and Creative Activities for the State of North Carolina

http://uncw.edu/csurf/Explorations/explorations.html

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Cover photographs: Mountains: Logan P. Prochaska Ladybug: Logan P. Prochaska Crab: Logan P. Prochaska

ISBN: 978-0-9908932-3-3

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Editor-in-Chief Katherine E. Bruce, PhD Director, Honors College and Center for the Support of Undergraduate Research and Fellowships Professor of Psychology University of North Carolina Wilmington Visual Arts Editor Edward Irvine, MPD Associate Professor of Studio Art University of North Carolina Wilmington Layout Designer Logan P. Prochaska Assistant Editor Communication Studies Major University of North Carolina Wilmington Copy Editor Nathan Grove, PhD Associate Professor of Chemistry Assistant Director of CSURF, Honors College University of North Carolina Wilmington Consultants Jennifer Horan, PhD Associate Professor of Political Science Assistant Director, Honors College University of North Carolina Wilmington Bill Atwill, PhD Associate Professor of English Honors College University of North Carolina Wilmington Assistant Copy Editors Katie Dyer Psychology Graduate Student CSURF Graduate Assistant University of North Carolina Wilmington Kaitlyn Proctor Psychology Graduate Student CSURF Graduate Assistant University of North Carolina Wilmington Erika Winnie Psychology Graduate Student CSURF Graduate Assistant University of North Carolina Wilmington 2016 Board of Reviewers

Acchia Albury, PhD Wade Dudley, PhD Department of Biology Department of History Wingate University East Carolina University

Ryan Anderson, PhD John Fear, PhD Department of History Deputy Director University of North Carolina at Pembroke North Carolina Sea Grant

Bill Atwill, PhD Candace Gauthier, PhD Department of English Department of Philosophy and Religion University of North Carolina Wilmington University of North Carolina Wilmington

Brad Barlow, PhD Nathaniel Grove, PhD Department of Physics Department of Chemistry and High Point University Biochemistry University of North Carolina Wilmington

Elizabeth Blue, PhD Jeanne Kemppainen, PhD, RN, FAAN Department of Chemistry and Physics School of Nursing Campbell Universtiy University of North Carolina Wilmington

Banita Brown, PhD William Kimler, PhD Dean of the College of Liberal Arts and Department of History Sciences North Carolina State University University of North Carolina at Charlotte Stephen Kinsey, PhD Rick Bunch, PhD Department of Biology and Marine Biology Department of Geography University of North Carolina Wilmington University of North Carolina at Greensboro Yaqin Li, PhD Department of History and Political Science Fred DeAngelis, PhD Meredith College Department of Mathematics and Physics Queens University of Charlotte Michele Longino, PhD Department of Romance Studies John Dogbe, PhD Duke University Department of Chemistry and Physics Barton College

James Martin, PhD Lee Phillips, PhD Department of History, Criminal Justice Director of the Undergraduate Research, and Political Science Scholarship and Creativity Office Campbell University University of North Carolina at Greensboro Beverley McGuire, PhD Department of Philosophy and Religion Jordan Poler, PhD University of North Carolina Wilmington Department of Chemistry University of North Carolina at Charlotte Steve McNamee, PhD Department of Sociology and Ann Schreier, PhD Criminology College of Nursing University of North Carolina Wilmington East Carolina University

Siddhartha Mitra, PhD Brandon Schwab, PhD Professor of Geological Sciences and Associate Provost for Academic Affairs Organic Chemistry Western Carolina University East Carolina University

Lynn Mollenauer, PhD Roy Schwartzman, PhD Department of History Department of Communication Studies University of North Carolina Wilmington University of North Carolina at Greensboro

Thomas Mueller, PhD Christy Simmerman, MSN, RN Department of Communication Studies School of Nursing Appalachian State University University of North Carolina Wilmington

Rebecca Muich, PhD Jaclyn Stanke, PhD Lloyd International Honors College Department of History, Criminal Justice University of North Carolina at and Political Science Greensboro Campbell University

Gloria Payne, PhD Susan Thananopavarn, PhD Department of Natural Sciences, Department of Humanities Pharmacy and Health Professions Duke University Elizabeth City State University

Micah True, PhD Gina Peterman, PhD Department of Modern Languages and Department of English Cultural Studies Campbell University University of Alberta Jill Waity, PhD Taek You, PhD Department of Sociology and Department of Biological Sciences Criminology Campbell University University of North Carolina Wilmington

Margaret Young, PhD Jennifer Ward, PhD Department of Natural Sciences Department of Biology Elizabeth City State University University of North Carolina Asheville

Ellen Welch, PhD With special thanks and appreciation to the Department of Romance Studies faculty mentors and volunteer reviewers. University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill Table of Contents

1 Letter from the Editor

3 Humanities & Fine Arts

5 Robert H. Jackson and the Nuremberg Trials: Justice and Diplomacy Emma Caterinicchio, East Carolina University

16 La dualité de l’Etat et de l’Église : Des missions socioreligieuses, économiques et politiques des jésuites français en Nouvelle France dans les années 1630 Walter Kearnan, University of North Carolina Wilmington

30 “Grinding up the Seed Corn of the Confederacy”:The North Carolina Junior Reserves Jordan Pearce, East Carolina University

42 “The Orange and Navel”: Transgenerational Transmission of Trauma in Hanan al-Shaykh’s The Story of Zahra Francesca Quigley, Guilford College

50 Creative Work “M.Y.O.B. Rd” Courtney Hockett, University of North Carolina at Pembroke

55 Natural Sciences & Engineering

56 Sea Level Rise Hazard Assessment for New Hanover County, North Carolina Sydney Bohn, University of North Carolina Wilmington Evan Hill, University of North Carolina Wilmington

77 The Chip ‘n’ Ship: A Prototype Rock Chip Sampling Tool for Use on Microgravity Bodies Jacob Brooks, High Point University Michael Cantor, High Point University Matthew Ickowski, High Point University Simeon Simeonides, High Point University Hallie Stidham, High Point University Alan Vasquez Soto, High Point University 93 An in situ study of seasonal dissolved organic carbon and nutrient fluxes from a Spartina alterniflora salt marsh in North Carolina, USA Derek Detweiler, University of North Carolina Wilmington

112 Age and Growth of the Invasive Lionfish: North Carolina, USA vs Bonaire, Dutch Caribbean Samantha Farquhar, University of North Carolina Wilmington

122 Caffeine’s Effects On Skeletal Muscle Bioenergetics In Vitro Brian Gottwalt, University of North Carolina Wilmington 136 Binding Of Earth Abundant Metal Coordination Complexes As Molecular Spacers To Single-Walled Carbon Nanotubes Chauncey McNeill, University of North Carolina at Charlotte 144 Sensitivity Analysis of Nanoparticle Concentrations in Wastewater Treatment and Biosolid Application for Environmental Risk Assessment Sarah Wu, North Carolina School of Science and Mathematics

163 Comparison of Seed Profiles Using Attenuated Total Reflectance Fourier Transform Infrared Spectroscopy in a Stress-Tolerant Zea mays Genotype, Mo276, from Control and Low-Nitrogen Field Conditions Christine Zuelsdorf, University of North Carolina Wilmington

173 Social Sciences

174 Perceptions of Social Mobility in the Country of the Year: an examination of globalization and consumerism in Uruguay Andrew Byrum, University of North Carolina at Greensboro

191 Perceptions of Charitable Giving: Discovering and Understanding Societal Views to Maximize the Ability to Build Homes, Hopes, and Futures Jenna Carpenter Friday, Appalachian State University Sarah Meyer, Appalachian State University

204 The Association between Women Empowerment and Child Nutrition in Bangladesh Anika Hannan, University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill

216 About the Student Authors

221 About the Faculty Mentors

225 Submission Process Letter from the Editor

e are pleased to present volume UNCW in time to produce the 2009 volume, WXI of Explorations, the Journal of and we have now published eight volumes at Undergraduate Research and Creative UNCW. At UNCW we are fortunate to have Activities for the State of North Carolina. For a very successful Publishing Laboratory that the fifth year, we have both scholarly articles developed the current look of Explorations, and creative works. Again this year, I appre- plus I have a great team of students who ciate the assistance of Ned Irvine as Visual have done the layout for recent issues. I am Arts Editor. His contributions and exper- indebted to Ms. Logan Prochaska, our assis- tiseare invaluable. tant editor and layout designer and a member of the UNCW Honors College Media Board; This year we include fifteen papers and one she has done an amazing job with layout and creative piece, selected from 24 submissions keeping me on schedule. I also appreciate from students at twelve different public or the copy editing of our CSURF graduate as- private institutions in North Carolina, includ- sistants and our assistant director of CSURF, ing the North Carolina School of Science and Nathan Grove. I also thank Jennifer Horan, Math. Topics range from North Carolina his- Peggy Styes and Morgan Alexander for day- tory to engineering, from studies of the salt to-day support in the Honors College office. marsh to invasion of lionfish, from literary criticism to explorations of charitable giving. I am also very appreciative of the effort For the first time, we have a paper written that the 41 ad hoc reviewers spent providing in another language- an essay on the Jesuits timely and thoughtful reviews of the submis- written in French. Our creative piece is quite sions this summer. These are the folks who unique and combines book-building and il- ensure the continued quality of Explorations. lustration, creating a pop-up book. They offer very positive constructive feedback to the student authors. It is useful each year to provide a bit of background about Explorations. I can hardly This is the last year that I will serve as Ed- believe the journal has been a reality for itor-in-Chief of Explorations. I want to espe- eleven years! In 2005, the State of North cially thank all the faculty reviewers and men- Carolina Undergraduate Research and Cre- tors over the years. You have given of your ativity Symposium, affectionately known as time and energy to support these students, a SNCURCS (pronounced “Snickers”) was heart-felt thank you to you! And thanks to all first held, and educators from all colleges, the student authors. I have learned so much universities, community colleges, and high from reading your manuscripts- you are pas- schools were invited to participate. Now in sionate and knowledgeable about your re- its 12th year, SNCURCS offers a venue for search and creative projects. I feel energized undergraduates to present their research and every summer reviewing your work! So in creative efforts. Explorations was the brain- the spirit of the excitement that fresh ap- child of the 2005 meeting, and we are thank- proaches to research and discovery bring, we ful that Michael Bassman and East Carolina offer you volume XI of Explorations. University organized and published the first three volumes. In 2008, the late George Bar- thalamus, former Director of Undergraduate Research at NCSU and the visionary behind our state-wide undergraduate research efforts, convinced me to move Explorations to Katherine Bruce, PhD

Humanities and Fine Arts

Emma Caterinicchio

Robert H. Jackson and the Nuremberg Trials: Justice and Diplomacy

Emma Caterinicchio East Carolina University Faculty Mentor: Wade Dudley East Carolina University

ABSTRACT After the bloodbath of the Second World War, the Allied Powers used trials instead of the usual treaty to set a new precedent for world peace and international law; these are widely known as the Nuremberg Trials. The trials not only broke ground in international law, but also served the diplomatic purpose of creating a post-war order between the victors and defeated, while acting as a possible deterrent to future aggressive war. The Chief prosecutor for the Americans, Justice Robert H. Jackson, is regarded as the key individual to consider when analyzing Nuremberg. He is often viewed in his role as a man of law; I argue that he was not only serving justice, but also acting as an agent of diplomacy. He represented the American legal and political philosophies abroad and took great efforts to assure the success of Nuremberg. By analyzing primary sources—documents from the trials, newspaper articles reporting on him, and articles published by Jackson after the trials—and secondary sources, I paint a picture of the man who both furthered the field of international law and represented the American program at Nuremberg.

n November 1945, twenty-two defendants, the Leipzig Trials after the First World War.3 Iminus Martin Bormann, “who was pros- The Nuremberg trials challenged the es- ecuted in absentia,” had to face the begin- tablished boundaries between morality and ning of the trials that would determine their legality, justice and victory, and dominance fates, which, for many of the former Nazis, and punishment like never before. The tri- meant execution.1 These were known as the als at Nuremberg were key in shaping the Nuremberg Trials. Although the American increasingly globalized world following the people initially favored the execution of the horrors of the two World Wars. The trials Nazis without a trial, the verdicts of the tri- were an important part for the Allied, espe- als were generally received as positive prog- cially American, program in making sure ress and, perhaps, even too lenient.2 The tri- the path Germany had taken would never be als were an attempt by the Allies to create a taken again.4 The trials are often viewed in post-war order, while preventing the issues the context of morality: the victors of the war that arose from the Treaty of Versailles and doing the world good by punishing the evil

1 Michael Biddiss, “The Nuremberg Trial: Two Exercises in Judgment,” The Journal of Contemporary History 85, no. 1 (1981): 597-598. 2 William Bosch, Judgment on Nuremberg: American Attitudes Toward the Major German War-Crime Trial, (Chapel Hill, NC: University of Carolina Press, 1970) 90-91. 3 Ibid., 5-6. 4 Kim Christian Priemel, “A Story of Betrayal: Conceptualizing Variants of Capitalism in the Nuremberg War Crime Trials,” The Journal of Modern History 85, no. 1 (2013): 105.

5 Explorations |Humanities and Fine Arts

Nazis. They can be regarded as a champion- adding more to his legacy than his time on the ing of civilized western ideals: democracy Supreme Court.13 Because the United States winning over totalitarianism. They can also exerted the most control of all the Allies over be viewed in terms of diplomacy: the victors the proceedings, and the legal and diplo- punish the vanquished foes (this aspect was matic implications of the Nuremberg Trials, seen by the prosecution as an unfortunate Jackson is a key figure to analyze if one is to necessity).5 fully understand the role of the trials in creat- The trials broke ground in the history of ing a post-war order. The role of Robert H. international law by declaring that leaders of Jackson as chief American prosecutor in the nations would face individual responsibility Nuremberg trials should not be viewed sim- for waging an aggressive war.6 ply as a lawyer fighting for justice, but also as This charge was met with greater legal a diplomat representing the values and inter- optimism than the pseudo-legal charge of ests of the American government after World crimes against humanity.7 They also forced War II. western powers to address their stances on a Jackson is viewed in the fields of law and pragmatic versus positivist philosophy of law history as the key individual in the formation and assimilate a more unified goal and stance and execution of the Nuremberg Trials. He is within international law.8 met with both critique and praise, but, accord- Although the four Allied nations, England, ing to law professor John Q. Barrett, many Russia, France, and the United States, led the would be “hard pressed to think who among trials, the trials were inherently an American his contemporaries in the United States gov- affair. Interpreting the trials as an American ernment or private bar had his combination of show was done by both the Americans and the stature and skill,” to carry out the job of chief Europeans, as well as the supporters and the American prosecutor.14 Barrett acknowledges opponents of the trials.9 President Franklin Jackson’s historical significance and abil- Delano Roosevelt influenced the American ity to have played many roles, both judicial policy on post-war trials by stating, as early and diplomatic, at Nuremberg.15 Another as 1942, “that just and sure punishment shall professor of law, Dennis J. Hutchinson, also be meted out to the ring leaders responsible acknowledges the tendency of Jackson, and for the organized murder of thousands of in- the trials themselves, to “[oscillate] from mo- nocent persons and the commission of atroci- ment to moment between law and politics.”16 ties which have violated every tenet of the In contrast, Professor G. Edward White, Christian faith.”10 Later, Truman viewed the a scholar in legal history, suggests that, trials as the best possible thing to come from “[Jackson] was a lawyer, not a hired man, such a horrendous war, and Hoover voiced and in suggesting the difference between the his approval.11 two he helped distinguish law from power or Leading the Allies in their pursuit of justice partisanship.”17 Although Jackson was a law- was Robert H. Jackson as Chief American yer by trade and traditionally outfitted with prosecutor.12 Robert H. Jackson took a leave the connotations of this title, the extent of of absence from his prestigious Supreme his diplomacy is debated by scholars; most Court seat in order to engage in this great agree, however, that Jackson’s significance legal and diplomatic endeavor, possibly in Nuremberg cannot be ignored. As Dr.

5 Robert H. Jackson, The Nürnberg Case, (New York, NY: A. A. Knopf, 12 Richard Dillard Dixon, Richard Dillard Dixon, Jr. Papers, 1870- 1947), 33. . 1970, ECU Manuscript Collection #601, Joyner Library, East Carolina 6 Charles E. Egan, “4 Powers Call Aggression Crime In Accord University, Greenville, NC. Covering War Trials,” The New York Times, August 9, 1945.. 13 Hockett, 257. 7 Jeffrey D. Hockett, “Justice Robert H. Jackson, the Supreme Court, 14 John Q. Barrett, “The Nuremberg Roles of Justice Robert H. and the Nuremberg Trial,” The Supreme Court Review (1990): 271. Jackson,” Washington University Global Studies Law Review 6, no. 8 Bosch, 41-47. 3 (2007): 513. 9 Ibid., 112. 15 Barrett, 511. 10 Franklin D. Roosevelt, The Public Papers and Addresses to Franklin 16 Dennis J. Hutchinson, “Justice Jackson and the Nuremberg Trial,” D. Roosevelt, ed. Samuel I. Rosenman, 13 vols. (New York: Harper, Journal of Supreme Court History 21, no. 1 (1996):110. 1950); 10:330, quoted in Bosch, Judgment on Nuremberg, 21-22. 17 G. Edward White, The American Judicial Tradition: Profiles of 11 Bosch, 28. Leading American Judges, 3 ed. New York: Oxford University Press, 2007, 201.

6 Emma Caterinicchio

William Maley of the Asia-Pacific College of own initial doubts of the implication of ex Diplomacy, illustrates, “[Jackson] was not, in post facto and the basis of the Nuremberg his design of the process, without flaw, but he court in order to undertake the task of the outshone all other participants in the Trial in main prosecutor. He defended the creation of his sense of fundamental ethical importance the trials once he was sure to be an active par- of what was being attempted.”18 ticipant. He believed that the trials, “fulfilled Justice Robert H. Jackson was a man of an immediate function which is both the most the constitution. An associate justice of the ancient and the most compelling purpose of Supreme Court, he viewed the trials as an all criminal justice, namely, substituting a re- event, “rather unique in the annals of law.”19 liable process of determining guilt for what In its uniqueness, Nuremberg would be a was the most likely alternative- private, un- challenge to Jackson’s own legal philoso- controlled vengeance by those directly in- phies. The Nuremberg court itself would jured.”24 This “immediate function” was, be prosecuting on grounds of ex post facto, in effect, the creation of a type of postwar or retroactive, law, a legal action that many power dynamic, necessary to fill the power Americans felt protected against by the vacuum in the fallen German nation. United States Constitution, which Jackson, In order to make the journey to Nuremberg, as a Supreme Court justice, was sworn to de- Jackson had to take a leave of absence from fend.20 Although international law was mov- his position as associate Supreme Court jus- ing in the direction of illegalizing aggressive tice, an action seen as an inconvenience by war—evident by the Kellogg Briand Pact of the other Supreme Court justices.25 The in- 1928 and the 1937 book by Soviet Russia’s creased workload was not the only factor Aron Trainin, The Defense of Peace and about Jackson’s absence that embittered the Criminal Law, which criticized the League other justices, but also the legality of the of Nations for not criminalizing aggressive Nuremberg trials themselves. Chief Justice war and not creating an international court Harlan Stone denounced the trials as a mere to convict this crime—the crimes the Nazis “high-grade lynching party.”26 Instead of committed during World War II were not consulting his legal brethren on accepting the breaking any established international law. position in the groundbreaking trials, Jackson Even with regards to the growing evolution consulted the man who deemed him the only of international law, it has been established man worthy of the job, President Truman.27 and generally accepted since the nineteenth It is surmised that Jackson was special in his century that bias is inevitable when a court of “matchless drive and leadership,” which led one nation is judging individuals of another to him being the chosen representative.28 nation.22 Jackson’s excuse for not consulting his col- Jackson himself once said that, “The world leagues was met with the defense that “[he] yields no respect for courts that are merely knew that [Stone] would disapprove of [his] organized to convict.”23 It could be argued doing it. [He] didn’t have to ask [Stone] to that the Nuremberg trials were, indeed, de- know that.”29 Stone countered, believing that signed to convict the Nazis on the basis of Jackson was involved in an act of catharsis, diplomatic and moral motivation by the vic- meaning that the trials were an act of therapy tors of a war; but Jackson went against his for the Allies, giving them a way to cope with

18 William Maley in, Blumenthal, David A., and Timothy L.H. Mc 23 Robert H. Jackson, The Rule of Law among Nations, 19 Temp. L. Cormack, The Legacy of Nuremberg: Civilising Influence or Insti Q. 141 (1945), quoted in Hockett, “Justice Robert H. Jackson,” tutionalised Vengeance?, Leiden: Martinus Nijhoff Publishers, 259. 2008, 7. 24 Robert H. Jackson, Oral History, 1038, The Papers of Robert H. 19 Robert H. Jackson, Oral History, 1475-76, The Papers of Robert H. Jackson, Library of Congress, Manuscript Division, Washington, Jackson, Library of Congress, Manuscript Division, Washington, D. C., quoted in Hockett, “Justice Robert H. Jackson,” 273. D. C., quoted in Hockett, “Justice Robert H. Jackson,” 257. 25 Hockett, 274. 20 Westbrook Pegler, Charlotte Observer, October 6, 1946, cited in 26 Harlan Stone, quoted in Solow, “The Integrity of the Supreme William Bosch, Judgment on Nuremberg: American Attitudes To Court,” Fortune 101 (1954), cited in Hockett, “Justice Robert H. ward the Major German War-Crime Trial, (Chapel Hill, NC: Jackson,” 258. University of Carolina Press, 1970), 105. 27 Hockett, 278. 21 Francine Hirsch, “The Soviets at Nuremberg: International Law, 28 Ibid., 257. Propaganda, and the Making of the Postwar Order,” The American 29 Robert H. Jackson, Oral History, 1041-42, The Papers of Robert H. Historical Review 113, no. 3 (2008): 705. Jackson, Library of Congress, Manuscript Division, Washington, 22 Hockett, 264. D. C., quoted in Hockett, “Justice Robert H. Jackson,” 279. 7 Explorations | Humanities and Fine Arts the horrors of the Nazi crimes.30 Another the- was not ignored when going to Nuremberg. ory for Jackson’s lack of consultation with Jackson had the intentions to “redefine the his brethren, was his fear that his participa- proper relations between individual citizens tion in the Nuremberg court would be seen and the state in post-war America.”37 He as politically motivated.31 There is specula- would later accomplish this by promoting the tion that Jackson took the Nuremberg post, Nuremberg conviction that held individuals hoping that a closer relationship with Truman accountable in wartime (the importance of would lead to him being appointed Chief which he clearly outlines in his statement Justice, should Stone step down from his made on August 12, 1945, shortly before the position (this was a likely possibility around beginning of the trials).38 this time).32 Jackson’s refusal to discuss his Professor C. Arnold Anderson generalized involvement with his fellow men of law can that, “after war people want only to be done be seen as both a way for Jackson to deal with hatred and carnage and have sympathy with his going against established western for their fallen foe,” but that, “diplomats... legal principles and as a way to work closer renew wartime bitterness.39 For Jackson, with Truman. It should be noted that Jackson quoted in a New York Times article before was a friend of both Roosevelt and Truman the start of the trials, it was vital that, “[t]here prior to the end of World War II; his selection [would] be no censorship on what transpires could not have been purely because of legal in the courtroom and no part of the court merit, but also due to past ties.33 proceedings [would] be secret. The trial of When Jackson arrived in Nuremberg, he major European war criminals [was to] be a faced the challenge of assuming the role as public trial.”40 Jackson calling the war crimi- a representative, or diplomat, of the United nals “European,” as opposed to “German” States’ program. Jackson, after the conclusion or “Nazi,” perpetuates the American view of the trials, illustrated that, in the Western that the World Wars were waged by the world, men “of [his] profession,” that is, the Europeans; the Americans were being the men of law, were the most frequently chosen saviors of the Allies and the deliverers of jus- men to serve in executive and diplomatic tice to the Nazis. roles.34 For a realist thinker, international According to Gordon Dean, of Counsel laws themselves do not exist; the “lawyer” for the United States, “The first challenge interpreting these laws is actually a diplomat which Jackson faced was that of formulat- seeking peace through the façade of justice, ing a program, an American program, which while the idealist believes ideas have inher- he could take with him into negotiation with ent weight and consequence.35 Jackson’s representation of the other Powers and urge actions at Nuremberg helped break ground its adoption.”41 As opposed to his usual role in the field of international law, formulat- of defending the constitution and collabo- ing ideas of consequence (such as making rating with his fellow men of law, Jackson crimes against humanity illegal), but he had was forced to create this American program, the mentality and assertiveness of a diplomat. not without the input and support of the In fact, Jackson was widely considered be the President and other American diplomats. He preferred candidate to succeed FDR in 1941, accomplished this and gave the proposal to so his political and diplomatic potential the other Allied powers, who gave their cri- was acknowledged.36 Jackson’s own agenda tique.42 Jackson illustrated in his report on the

30 Hockett, 280. 37 White, 184. 31 Hockett, 284-285. 38 Avalon Project at Yale Law School, “Statement by Justice Jackson 32 Ibid., 282. on War Trials Agreement; August 12, 1945,” http://avalon.law.yale. 33 Barrett, 515. edu/imt/imt_jack02.asp. 34 Robert H. Jackson, “Nuremberg in Retrospect: Legal Answer to 39 C. Arnold Anderson, “Utility of Proposed Trial,” 1084-85, 1087, International Lawlessness,” American Bar Association Journal 35, cited in Bosch, Judgment on Nuremberg, 214. no. 10 (1949): 813. 40 Robert H. Jackson, quoted in “Jackson Pledges Open War Trials,” 35 Bosch, 149. The New York Times, August 18, 1945. 36 Barrett, 515 41 Gordon Dean, quoted in Robert H. Jackson, The Case Against the Nazi War Criminals, (New York, NY: A. A. Knopf, 1946), viii. 42 Avalon Project at Yale Law School, “International Conference on Military Trials: Preface: London, 1945,” http://avalon.law.yale.edu/ imt/jack_preface.asp.

8 Emma Caterinicchio

International Conference on Military trials people and brought them finally to the con- that, “What is [hard] for Americans to recog- viction that their own liberty and civilization nize is that trials which we regard as fair and could not persist in the same world with the just may be regarded in Continental countries Nazi power. Those acts which offended the conscience of our people were criminal by as not only inadequate to protect society but standards generally accepted in all civilized also as inadequate to protect the accused in- countries, and I believe that we may proceed dividual. However, features of both systems to punish those responsible in full accord were amalgamated to safeguard both the with both our own traditions of fairness and rights of the defendants and the interests of with standards of just conduct which have society.”43 This shows an effort in Jackson been internationally accepted. I think also to both defend the ideals of his country, but that through these trials we should be able also make negotiations with the other repre- to establish that a process of retribution by sentatives in order to ensure the success of law awaits those who in the future similarly attack civilization. Before stating these of- the trials. fenses in legal terms and concepts, let me In a passionately written report to President recall what it was that affronted the sense of Truman released by the White House on justice of our peoples.46 June 7, 1945, before the start of the trials, Jackson stated, “The American case is being In his report addressed to the President (but prepared on the assumption that an inescap- published by the government for the pub- able responsibility rests upon this country lic), Jackson stated that, “The legal position to conduct an inquiry, preferably in associa- which the United States will maintain, being tion with others, but alone if necessary, into thus based on the common sense of justice, is the culpability of those whom there is prob- relatively simple and non-technical. We must able cause to accuse of atrocities and other not permit it to be complicated or obscured crimes. We have many such men in our pos- by sterile legalisms developed in the age 44 session.” In the same report, Jackson illus- of imperialism to make war respectable.”47 trates the various tasks he has done in order Jackson interpreted federal constitutional to prepare the trials, including collaborat- law; since his argument that common sense, ing with those collecting and processing the not historically established ideologies, should evidence, visiting Nuremberg and witnessing be emphasized in the American program, he the interrogation of the defendants, preparing effectively stood against his own patterns of the cases the United States would prosecute, legal philosophies in order to defend and ra- and working with the United Nations War tionalize the United States partaking in ret- Crimes Commission to appoint the United roactive law. In order to encourage the trials, Kingdom representative in the joint prosecu- as representing the American ideal that the 45 tion. Jackson too announced his views on trials, not a mass execution, were required the legality of the trial and his view of the to handle the Nazis, Jackson could not stick universality of the Nazi crimes: strictly to his traditional legal philosophies Other developments before the start of the We can save ourselves from those pitfalls if trials showed Jackson asserting his domi- our test of what legally is crime gives recognition to those things which fundamentally nance over the other Allies in order to push outraged the conscience of the American the American program. On August 3, 1945,

43 Ibid. 46 Ibid., 5. 44 Robert H. Jackson, Trial of War Criminals: Documents: 1. Report 47 Robert H. Jackson, Trial of War Criminals: Documents: 1. Report of Robert H. Jackson to the President. 2. Agreement Establishing of Robert H. Jackson to the President. 2. Agreement Establishing an International Military Tribunal. 3. Indictment, (Washington, DC: an International Military Tribunal. 3. Indictment, (Washington, DC: U.S. GPO, 1945), 2. U.S. GPO, 1945), 8. 45 Jackson, Trial of War Criminals, 1.

9 Explorations |Humanities and Fine Arts it was reported that “the Big Three want[ed] widely cited opening statement for the pros- ‘speedy agreement’ on the creation of an in- ecution, fanned the flames of anger towards ternational crimes tribunal . . . Justice Jackson the Nazi defendants. This, naturally, is neces- let it be known that he had served a polite ulti- sary for a prosecutor to do, but the guilt of matum on his colleagues to expedite their de- the Nazis was already considered by Jackson liberations lest the United States withdraw.”48 to be a certainty and he knew of the public- Another New York Times article, published ity of the opening statement.52 In his open- two days later, stated, “Apparently, the last ing statement for the United States, Jackson obstacles to competition of the agreement seems to not only address the members of were cleared up when Supreme Justice Robert the Nuremberg court, but also citizens of H. Jackson, chief of the United States coun- the modern world, “You will have difficulty, sel on the Allied War Crimes Commission, as I have, to look into the faces of these de- went to Potsdam last week to press for defendants and believe that in this Twentieth cision from the Big Three. Precisely what Century human beings could inflict such suf- Justice Jackson accomplished at Potsdam is ferings as will be proved here on their own not yet known.”49 An article published just countrymen as well as upon their so-called four days afterwards stated, “The [agreement ‘inferior’ enemies.”53 of the four powers to criminalize aggressive Further along in the famed opening, war] sets precedents in international law and, Jackson, like a proper diplomat, gives the in the words of United States Supreme Court United States much of the credit in establish- Justice Robert H. Jackson, the American ing the Charter of the International Military representative, ‘ought to make clear to the Tribunal (another name for the Nuremberg world that those who lead their nations into trials): aggressive war face individual accountabil- ity for such acts.’”50 This shows Jackson’s The Charter of this Tribunal evidences a heavy hand in, first, influencing the outcome faith that the law is not only to govern the of holding the trials, and, second, making the conduct of little men, but that even rulers waging of an aggressive war a criminal act. are, as Lord Chief Justice Coke put it to King James, “under God and the law.” The Jackson’s assertiveness in dominating the United States believed that the law long has Big Three is rather diplomatic in nature. afforded standards by which a judicial hear- Jackson also asserted, “If we can culti- ing could be conducted to make sure that we vate in the world the idea that aggressive war punish only the right men and for the right making is the way to a prisoners’ dock rather reasons. Following the instruction of the late than the way to honors . . . we will have ac- President Roosevelt and the decision of the complished something toward making peace Yalta Conference, President Truman directed more secure.”51 This clearly shows Jackson’s representatives of the United States to for- motives in establishing a new precedent in mulate a proposed International Agreement, which was submitted during the San international law and his hope that illegaliz- Francisco Conference to Foreign Ministers ing aggressive war would lead to a new world of the United Kingdom, the Soviet Union, order—fostered by American ideologies— and the Provisional Government of France. that would be more peaceful than the blood With many modifications, that proposal has bath of the early twentieth century. become the Charter of this Tribunal.54 Once the trials began, Jackson, in his now

48 Clifton Daniel, “Big 3 Aid on Trials Gained by Jackson: Visit to 52 Robert H. Jackson, The Case Against the Nazi War Criminals, (New Potsdam to Break Impasse Laid to Soviet Disclosed in London,” The York, NY: A. A. Knopf, 1946), 52. New York Times, August 3, 1945. 53 Jackson, The Case Against the Nazi War Criminals, 34. 49 John H. Crider, “Americans Doubt Trials by Sept. 1: Officials Back 54 Jackson, The Case Against the Nazi War Criminals, 70. from London Say, However, that Accord on Crimes is Due Soon,” The New York Times, August 5, 1945. 50 Charles E. Egan, “4 Powers Call Aggression Crime In Accord Cover ing War Trials,” The New York Times, August 9, 1945. 51 Robert H. Jackson, quoted in Charles E. Egan, “4 Powers Call Ag gression Crime In Accord Covering War Trials,” The New York Times, August 9, 1945.

10 Emma Caterinicchio

Jackson’s agenda in criminalizing aggres- concerns raised by military personnel.60 In sive war is seen in the Charter Provision dur- this speech, Jackson attempted to comfort the ing the Judgment of the trials, as it is stated in concerned men by showing that Secretary the Judgment, although not read directly by of War Stimson pushed the idea of outlaw- Mr. Jackson, “War is essentially an evil thing. ing aggressive war, “It is unfortunate that Its consequences are not confined to the bel- the judgment has not yet been published in ligerent states alone, but affect the whole the United States because the recital of the world.”55 The criminalizing of aggressive judgment against these individuals really war was met with uproar in the American shows what they were up to.”61 Jackson is military community. Although the Secretory shown to be an avid defendant of the charge of War determined that the Nuremberg tri- against aggressive war, representing not als were good, most military leaders were only his own personal agenda, but also that worried about the implications of criminal- of the American government and Secretary izing war and the effect that the prosecution of War. Here, again, Jackson transcended of military professionals would have on the his legal boundaries and acted as a cathartic future of their profession.56 In a press confer- representative. ence to address these concerns, Jackson “an- Using law in the place of pure diploma- grily repeated his argument that the German cies proved to be a controversial and unique military leaders were not being indicted or way to create post-war order; the Americans tried because of their mere membership in a were viewed, even by their own people, as ‘profession’ but for inhumane and monstrous coddling the Nazis.62 It was “without ques- outrages for conspiring to bring on an unjust tion [that] the accused got an infinitely better war which had consumed many innocent deal than anyone ever did before a Nazi tribu- lives.”57 The diplomacy of the Nuremberg tri- nal, or indeed amidst the infernal conditions als was indirectly addressed in this back and of Auschwitz and Treblinka where even the forth, as the military men essentially had to preference of legal forms was abandoned.”63 learn the lesson that “the best way to avoid As to the goal of the Nuremberg trials to prosecution and the horrors of defeat was to act as a deterrent against aggressive war, it win wars.”58 Caught in the middle was Army is speculated that, “[the modern world has], Chief of Staff Dwight David Eisenhower, so far, managed to avoid a Third World War. who was an encourager of the trials as well But the reasons for that have everything to as a military man. He said, “First, we don’t do with the balance of terror, and nothing at have a dictator, thank God, and second; I was all to do with the legal aspirations projected in the field,” but his reasoning for the military from Nuremberg.”64 man not to fear was weak and there was evi- The trials have been traditionally ignored dence that he himself contributed to part of by many historians because they do not fit in the decision making in Nuremberg.59 the normal schema of postwar German af- On December 6, 1946, less than two fairs, representing a “peaceful” cooperation months after the conclusion of the trials, which contrasted the disunity and hostility Jackson gave a speech before a special group brought about by the bipolarized Cold War.65 at the National War College in Washington, To ignore the trials would be to ignore their D.C. where he attempted to address the significance in changing the global outlook

55 Richard Dillard Dixon, Richard Dillard Dixon, Jr. Papers, 1870-1970, 60 Robert H. Jackson, “The Significance of the Nuremberg Trials to the ECU Manuscript Collection #601, Joyner Library, East Carolina Armed Forces: Previously Unpublished Personal Observations by the University, Greenville, NC. Chief Counsel for the United States,” Military Affairs 10, no. 4 56 Bosch, 166-183. (1946): 1. 57 Bosch, 169. 61 Ibid., 6. 58 Ibid., 170. 62 Bosch, 89. 59 Chief David Dwight Eisenhower, The New York Times, October 3, 63 Biddiss, 613. 1946, 15, quoted in Bosch, Judgment on Nuremberg, 171. 64 Ibid., 612.

11 Explorations |Humanities and Fine Arts on war and the assertion of America being and a passionate representative of the ideals the world power following World War II. and motives of his country. He went against The trials were referenced heavily during the his legal philosophies, received much criti- Korean and Vietnam Wars, calling the United cism, and devotedly defended the American States a hypocrite for waging the very same program of postwar trials. Working closely aggressive war against Asia that they had, with two presidents and the American gov- just decades ago, passionately outlawed.66 ernment, Jackson completed his task of The North Vietnamese even announced that prosecuting the Nazi criminals in a manner American pilots would be tried as war crimi- deemed fair by the Allies. He represents the nals, justifying this by saying the pilots were battle between the ideology of justice and the criminals under the Nuremberg Charter.67 power of diplomacy. Jackson was a man who Nuremberg effectively changed the view of enthusiastically questioned the application of war and international law by the newly glo- international law and empowered the status balized world civilization. Robert H. Jackson of his country in these groundbreaking trials was simultaneously an effective prosecutor, at Nuremberg. changing the history of international law,

65 Bosch, 164. 66 Ibid., 182-197. 67 Ibid., 185.

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REFERENCES Primary Sources

Avalon Project at Yale Law School. “International Conference on Military Trials: Preface: London, 1945.” http://avalon.law.yale.edu/imt/jack_preface.asp.

Avalon Project at Yale Law School. “Statement by Justice Jackson on War Trials Agreement; August 12, 1945.” http://avalon.law.yale.edu/imt/imt_jack02.asp.

Crider, John H.. “Americans Doubt Trials by Sept. 1: Officials Back from London Say, However, that Accord on Crimes is Due Soon.” The New York Times, August 5, 1945.

Daniel, Clifton. “Big 3 Aid on Trials Gained by Jackson: Visit to Potsdam to Break Impasse Laid to Soviet Disclosed in London.” The New York Times, August 3, 1945.

Dixon, Richard Dillard. Richard Dillard Dixon, Jr. Papers, 1870-1970. ECU Manuscript Collection #601, Joyner Library, East Carolina University, Greenville, NC.

Egan, Charles E. “4 Powers Call Aggression Crime In Accord Covering War Trials.” The New York Times, August 9, 1945.

Jackson, Robert H. “Nuremberg in Retrospect: Legal Answer to International Lawlessness.”American Bar Association Journal 35, no. 10 (1949): 813-887.

Jackson, Robert H. The Case Against the Nazi War Criminals. New York, NY: A. A. Knopf, 1946.

Jackson, Robert H. The Nürnberg Case. New York, NY: A. A. Knopf, 1947.

Jackson, Robert H. “The Significance of the Nuremberg Trials to the Armed Forces: Previously Unpublished Personal Observations by the Chief Counsel for the United States.” Military Affairs 10, no. 4 (1946): 2–15.

Jackson, Robert H. Trial of War Criminals: Documents: 1. Report of Robert H. Jackson to the President. 2. Agreement Establishing an International Military Tribunal. 3. Indictment. Washington, DC: U.S. GPO, 1945.

Secondary Sources

Barrett, John Q. “The Nuremberg Roles of Justice Robert H. Jackson.” Washington University Global Studies Law Review 6, no. 3 (2007): 511-525.

Biddiss, Michael. “The Nuremberg Trial: Two Exercises in Judgement.” Journal of Contemporary History 16, no. 3 (1981): 597-615.

Blumenthal, David A. and Timothy L.H. McCormack. The Legacy of Nuremberg: Civilising Influence or Institutionalised Vengeance?. Leiden: Martinus Nijhoff Publishers, 2008.

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Bosch, William. Judgment on Nuremberg: American Attitudes Toward the Major German War-Crime Trials. Chapel Hill, NC: The University of Carolina Press, 1970.

Hirsch, Francine. “The Soviets at Nuremberg: International Law, Propaganda, and the Making of the Postwar Order.” The American Historical Review 113, no. 3 (2008): 701–30.

Hockett, Jeffrey D.. “Justice Robert H. Jackson, the Supreme Court, and the Nuremberg Trial.” The Supreme Court Review (1990): 257–99.

Hutchinson, Dennis J. “Justice Jackson and the Nuremberg Trials.” Journal of Supreme Court History 21, no. 1 (1996): 105-116.

Priemel, Kim Christian. “A Story of Betrayal: Conceptualizing Variants of Capitalism in the Nuremberg War Crimes Trials.” The Journal of Modern History 85, no. 1 (2013): 69-108.

White, G. Edward. The American Judicial Tradition: Profiles of Leading American Judges. 3 ed. New York: Oxford University Press, 2007.

Explorations |Humanities and Fine Arts La dualité de l’Etat et de l’Église: Des missions socioreligieuses, économiques et politiques des jésuites français en Nouvelle France dans les années 1630 The Duality of State and Church: The Socioreligious, Economic and Political Missions of the French Jesuits in 1630s New France

Walter Kearnan University of North Carolina Wilmington Faculty Mentor: Scott Juall University of North Carolina Wilmington

ABSTRACT Catholic missionaries played an important role in the French colonization of New France (Canada) in the early seventeenth century. Missionaries of the Society of Jesus, known as Jesuits, were involved in the religious, social, economic, and political aspects of France’s im- perial pretensions in North America. These efforts were characterized by collaboration and coexistence with the Native Americans rather than conquest and domination. In this article, I undertake a critical analysis of the Jesuit Relations published between 1632 and 1635 in order to provide textual evidence regarding the Jesuits’ missions in New France, which were cen- tralized on the socioreligious integration of the Native Americans, the economic relationships between the French and Amerindians, and the role of key commercial and political actors in the French colonial enterprise in Canada.

’exploration européenne de l’Amérique à la France a envoyé des Jésuites en Nouvelle Lla fin du 15ème siècle a instauré une vague France—c’est-à-dire au Canada—où ils ont de colonisation parmi les nations europée- joué un rôle central dans l’effort colonial de nnes—principalement l’Espagne, le Portugal, France pour rivaliser l’expansion coloniale la France et l’Angleterre. Dans la première de l’Espagne, des Pays-Bas, de l’Angleterre moitié du 16ème siècle, la France a entrepris et d’autres pays européens. Les missions des explorations coloniales en Amérique du des Jésuites en Nouvelle France étaient une Nord sous Giovanni da Verrazano (1524), partie essentielle pour des objectifs colo- Jacques Cartier (1534-1536 et 1541-1542) et niaux français. Sans les efforts des Jésuites Jean de la Roque de Roberval (1542-1543) en Nouvelle France dans les années 1630, mais aucune n’a réussi. Pourtant, pendant l’effort de colonisation français n’aurait pas la période de l’expansion européenne en eu le même succès. Amérique au 17ème siècle, la France était une Les missions des Jésuites n’étaient donc concurrente principale. Dans les années 1630, pas que religieuses, mais aussi des missions

16 Walter Kearnan politiques et économiques. Leurs objectifs settlement of Canada did not require any sub- étaient multiples. Tout d’abord, l’objectif stantial appropriation of Indian lands [and] principal des Jésuites était, en principe, de the Indians were never really conquered…. convertir les Amérindiens au Christianisme et Consequently, Jesuit missionaries had to work with natives who generally retained a au mode de vie français. Ensuite, les Jésuites high degree of independence, regardless of ont promu le commerce de la fourrure how entangled they became in the French franco-amérindien pour aider la France à network of alliance and trade. (Greer, 2000, amasser des fonds et étendre territoriale- 10). ment leurs missions. Le troisième but était Les Français, principalement les Jésuites de créer des alliances avec les Amérindiens et les commerçants de la Compagnie de pour élargir le territoire français et renforcer la Nouvelle France qui étaient envoyés en les ambitions coloniales de la France. Ces Nouvelle France sous un contrat royal, avaient éléments et ces objectifs ont joué un rôle cru- formé des alliances avec beaucoup de tribus cial dans les voyages et les expéditions rap- amérindiennes. Quelques-unes des tribus les portés dans les Relations des Jésuites. Dans plus importantes et alliées principales des cet article, j’analyse les missions religieuses, Français étaient les Hurons, les Montagnais économiques et politiques des Jésuites en et les Algonquins. Les Montagnais habitaient Nouvelle France en examinant les Relations à coté de Québec, l’établissement fran- pour démontrer la manière dont les Jésuites çais le plus important à l’époque (1630s), étaient bien impliqués dans les aspects plus sur le fleuve Saint Laurent, jusqu’à Trois larges de l’effort colonial français au Canada. Rivières. Au sud-ouest de Trois Rivières se Premièrement, il est nécessaire de mettre trouvaient les Algonquins. Tous les deux, les Jésuites et leurs missions en Nouvelle les Montagnais et les Algonquins, allaient France dans le contexte de l’effort colonial surtout à Québec pour des raisons commer- de France en Amérique du Nord, qui était très ciales—pour participer au commerce de la diffèrent des ambitions coloniales d’autres fourrure—et politiques—pour résoudre les pays impériaux européens—l’Espagne, conflits avec d’autres tribus amérindiennes l’Angleterre, le Portugal et les Pays-Bas. tels que les Iroquois. Ensuite, au sud-ouest Les prétentions coloniales de la France en des Algonquins se trouvaient les Hurons, la Nouvelle France étaient caractérisées par nation amérindienne qui deviendrait la plus des alliances économiques et politiques avec importante pour les Français en Amérique des tribus amérindiennes. Les colonies fran- du Nord. Finalement, au sud de la nation hu- çaises en Nouvelle France étaient relative- ronne était la confédération iroquoise, alliée ment petites et moins nombreuses comparées avec les Pays-Bas. (Figure 1). Les Iroquois aux colonies espagnoles et anglaises. Donc, étaient l’ennemi principal des Montagnais, la France a dû former des alliances avec les des Algonquins et des Hurons et à cause des Amérindiens pour survivre et profiter du alliances entre ces trois peuples, les Français commerce. A ce propos, Alan Greer déclare : sont devenus ennemis des Iroquois aussi. The French had a unique approach to coloni- Pour comprendre les motifs des Jésuites en zation. Partly because they came to the New Nouvelle France, on doit identifier qui étaient World in comparatively small numbers and les Jésuites. Les Jésuites étaient des membres partly because they made their fortunes in Canada by trading furs with native hunters, de la Compagnie de Jésus, une organisation they had to come to terms with native cul- religieuse fondée entre 1534 et 1540, quand tures and interact extensively,… but it was elle a été approuvée par le Pape Paul III. an empire not of domination and subjec- Saint Ignace de Loyola a été le fondateur et le tion, but of multistranded commercial/diplo- premier Supérieur général de la Compagnie matic links between France and the different (Traub and Mooney, 2015). La Compagnie de Indian nations of the Canadian hinterland… Jésus s’est développée rapidement en Europe The French were not inherently kinder em- dès la fin du 16ème siècle et au cours du 17ème pire builders than the English, but their

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Figure 1. Carte de la Nouvelle France au début du 17ème siècle. La situation de Québec (en haut à droite) sur le fleuve Saint-Laurent et la répartition géographique des nations montagnaise, algonquine, huronne et iroquoise. In Allan Greer, The Jesuit Relations: Natives and Missionaries in Seventeenth- century North America. Boston: Bedford/St. Martin’s, 2000, 8. siècle. Elle a joué un rôle important pendant comme Antonio Criminale, le Père Nunez et la Contre-Réforme catholique en Europe Saint Peter Claver, en Asie, en Afrique et en entre 1560 et 1648 et particulièrement en Amérique du Sud, respectivement (Pollen, France. La Réforme protestante s’est répan- 1908). Les deux premiers Jésuites français, les due rapidement en France. De nombreux Pères Pierre Biard et Ennemond Massé, sont nobles et membres de la famille royale sont arrivés en Nouvelle France le 12 juin 1611. devenus protestants et l’Eglise catholique Ils y ont été envoyés par le Roi pour aider romaine avait peur que la monarchie fran- les Récollets, des missionnaires catholiques çaise ne devienne protestante (Pollen, 1912). français de l’ordre des Franciscains qui Les objectifs principaux de la Compagnie de n’avaient ni suffisamment de fonds ni assez Jésus étaient de « récupérer leurs pertes aux de missionnaires pour avoir du succès. En Protestants pendant la Réforme » (Jaenen, 1625, sans beaucoup de progrès accompli par 1976) et de propager le Christianisme parmi les Récollets, deux autres Jésuites, les Pères les infidèles partout dans le monde. Donc, Charles Lalement et Jean de Brébeuf, ont des Jésuites, d’Espagne et d’Italie et d’autres été envoyés en Nouvelle France par le Roi pays européens, voyageaient et propageaient pour s’installer sur les rives du fleuve Saint- leurs influences idéologiques en Amérique, Laurent aux environs de Québec. Cependant, en Chine, en Inde et au Japon afin de créer les missions des Jésuites en Nouvelle France un empire chrétien universel (Pollen, 1908). ont été interrompues car la Nouvelle France La France, sur ordre du roi Henri IV, a com- s’est rendue à l’Angleterre entre 1629 et mencé à envoyer des Jésuites en Nouvelle 1632. Quand la France a repris ses ambitions France en 1610. Les Jésuites ont été choisis à coloniales en Nouvelle France en 1632, les cause des missions réussies d’autres Jésuites, Jésuites sont aussi revenus et « [they were]

18 Walter Kearnan placed in sole charge of the spiritual interests Comme tous les Jésuites, Le Jeune était of both the settlers and Indians » (Thwaites, bien éduqué et il était enseignant. De plus, il 1959, vol. I, Introduction, 9). Le Père Paul Le était professeur de rhétorique.1 Donc, il a su Jeune (le supérieur) et le Père Anne de Nouë l’importance et la signification—et la puis- sont arrivés en Nouvelle France le 5 juillet sance—des Relations des Jésuites en tant que 1632. récits influents. L’une des responsabilités des Jésuites en Nouvelle France était d’écrire des rapports Les Missions Socio-Religieuses annuels traitant de ce qui s’était passé au Les Jésuites sont peut-être mieux connus cours de l’année. Ces revues étaient envoyées pour leurs missions religieuses en Nouvelle au Supérieur de Québec (ou de Montréal) qui France à cause des Relations. Toutefois, faisait des révisions et composait une nou- les ambitions des missions religieuses des velle version des expériences—une Relation. Jésuites étaient encore plus vastes que celle de Entre 1632 et 1673, les supérieurs de Québec convertir les Amérindiens au Christianisme. et de Montréal envoyaient leurs rapports au Quand on pense aux missions religieuses, on provincial de l’ordre en France chaque année. remarque surtout la conversion d’une reli- Là le provincial faisait aussi des révisions gion à une autre. Cependant, une conversion minutieuses et ensuite, il a publié ces récits religieuse est plus qu’une transformation re- à Paris (par Sébastian Cramoisy) en tant que ligieuse, c’est aussi un changement de mode les Relations des Jésuites. Elles étaient utili- de vie. Les Jésuites ont utilisé la conversion sées pour quelques raisons principales ; pour des Amérindiens au Christianisme pour con- documenter les activités des Jésuites, pro- vertir également les Amérindiens au mode mouvoir des missions des Jésuites et amasser de vie français et pour les intégrer dans la des fonds. Les Relations étaient populaires société française en Nouvelle France. De dans des cercles de la cour et elles ont attiré plus, les Jésuites ont soigneusement choisi de nombreux philanthropes (Thwaites, 1959, les Amérindiens à convertir—particulière- vol. I, Introduction, 38-42). Les Relations ment les enfants, les malades, et les chefs des sont la meilleure documentation des mis- tribus—pour assurer que leurs conversions sions des Jésuites et des Amérindiens en aient l’impact le plus durable. Nouvelle France à cette époque. Néanmoins, Les Jésuites ont été spécifiquement sélec- ces comptes des Amérindiens sont com- tionnés par la couronne française pour leurs posés du point de vue des Jésuites unique- missions en Nouvelle France. Quand les ment et ils ne représenté pas les missions des premiers Jésuites sont arrivés en Nouvelle Jésuites du point de vue des Amérindiens en France en 1625, ils n’étaient pas les seuls mis- Nouvelle France. Dans cet article, j’analyse sionnaires français ; il y avait aussi d’autres les cinquième, sixième et septième volumes missionnaires catholiques, notamment les des Relations des Jésuites qui ont été écrits Récollets. Mais, en 1632, le gouvernement par le Père Paul Le Jeune entre 1632 et 1634. français a accordé à la Compagnie de Jésus Les Relations de Le Jeune étaient, sans doute, le droit exclusif de convertir les Amérindiens parmi les volumes les plus importants pour la en Nouvelle France parce que les Récollets réussite des Relations et donc, des missions n’avaient pas eu beaucoup de succès à con- des Jésuites, en général. vertir les Amérindiens (Thwaites, 1959, vol. Le Jeune a initié les Relations des Jésuites 1 « Paul le Jeune was born in July, 1591, at Chalons-sur-Marne, avec Brieve Relation du Voyage de la France. His parents were Huguenots; but, upon attaining his major Nouvelle-France (1632). Il a joué un rôle ity, he became a Catholic, and entered the Jesuit novitiate, at Rouen, Sept. 22, 1613. Pursuing his studies at La Fleche and Clermont, he essentiel dans les missions en Nouvelle became an instructor at Rennes and Bourges, and, later, professor of rhetoric at Nevers (1626-28) and at Caen (1629-30). He then spent France parce que ses Relations ont aidé les two years as a preacher at Dieppe, and two years more as superior Jésuites à amasser des fonds pour leurs mis- of the residence there. On the return of the French to Quebec, he came there… as superior of the Canadian mission. His first year was sions (Thwaites, 1959, vol. I, Introduction). spent in the French settlements; in the second, he wintered among the Montagnais, in order to learn their language. » (Chiporo, 3).

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I, Introduction). et chrétiennes, si possible. Les conversions que les Jésuites en Les Français ont vu les Amérindiens Nouvelle France ont faites n’étaient pas comme des « sauvages, » un mot que les seulement des conversions religieuses, mais Jésuites utilisaient souvent dans les Relations. également des conversions sociales. La rai- Aussi, les Jésuites et les Français ont voulu son pour cela est qu’à cette époque, la religion civiliser les Amérindiens et les libérer de était un élément central de l’état et du gouver- la pauvreté. Cette notion est claire dans les nement en France et beaucoup d’autres pays Relations. Le Jeune déclare que les Jésuites en Europe comme l’Espagne et l’Angleterre. (et les Français, en général) voulaient ci- Donc, bien que les Jésuites aient voulu con- viliser les Amérindiens au Canada : vertir les Amérindiens au Catholicisme, ils C’est à ce coup que la Nouvelle France se ont aussi voulu convertir les Amérindiens va ressentir des bénédictions de l’ancienne, au mode de vie français, en d’autres termes, & que l’équité triomphant de l’injustice, fera la Francisation des Amérindiens. (Wygant, que ces contrées cesseront d’être ce qu’elles ont été depuis tant de siècles ; une foret sans 146). limites ; la demeure de la barbarie ; le pays En Nouvelle France, la religion était la fon- de l’infidélité. Nous commençons à voir dation de la société française et les Jésuites l’ouverture de quelques campagnes, par les étaient bien intégrés dans cette société. A défrichements qu’on fait en divers endroits ; cause de leurs missions, les Jésuites ont Les familles qui passent chaque année, chan- représenté l’image du Christianisme et un gent la barbarie des Sauvages en la courtoisie mode de vie français pour les Amérindiens. naturelle aux François ; & le petit avance- Quand un Amérindien était converti ou était ment que nous faisons par nos bégayements, en train d’être converti, les Jésuites lui di- nous fait conjecturer que la foi bannira l’infidélité de son Empire. (Thwaites, 1959, saient qu’il devait renoncer à toutes ses tradi- vol. VII, 254). tions et rituels amérindiens et qu’il devait ac- Ce changement était très important pour les cepter et pratiquer les traditions et les rituels Français. Ils ont préféré que les Amérindiens chrétiens. A ce propos, Le Jeune déclare : [Il est] un homme nourri depuis soixante soient des peuples sédentaires et agricoles ans & plus, dedans la Barbarie, habitué aux car cet état faciliterait la conversion des façons de faire des Sauvages, imbu de leurs Amérindiens. erreurs & de leurs rêveries, [il résistait] à sa Pour assurer la longévité du Christianisme, propre femme, à ses enfants, & à ses gen- des conversions et de leurs missions en dres, & à ses amis & à ses compatriotes, à Nouvelle France, les Jésuites ont converti ses Manitoufiouets, sorciers ou jongleurs, stratégiquement certains Amérindiens plus non une fois,… protestant qu’il veut em- que d’autres. Au début de leurs missions, les brasser [notre] créance, mourir en [notre] Jésuites ont concentré leurs efforts, princi- Foi & dedans [notre] maison. Cela fait voir que la grâce peut donner du poids à l’âme palement, sur les enfants et les malades. On d’un Sauvage naturellement inconstante. peut voir cette notion clairement dans les (Thwaites, 1959, vol VI, 122-124). Relations. Premièrement, dans le Relation de Donc, pour les Amérindiens, c’était à la 1633, Le Jeune souligne l’importance de con- fois une conversion religieuse et une conver- vertir des enfants : sion au mode de vie français. Les Jésuites Pour le Séminaire,… si nous étions bastis, ont vraiment apprécié les Amérindiens qui j’espérerois que dans deux ans le P. Brebeuf nous envoiroit des enfants hurons ; on les avaient renoncé à leur mode de vie sauvage— pourroit instruire ici avec toute liberté, es- un mode de vie nomade et « barbare »—et ont tans éloignés de leur parents. O le grand coup adopté un mode de vie français—un mode vie pour la gloire de Dieu, si cela se faisoit ! « civilisé ». De plus, les Jésuites craignaient (Thwaites, 1959, vol. VI, 82). que les Amérindiens qu’ils avaient convertis Les Jésuites connaissaient la puissance des ne se réassimilent dans la société amérindi- enfants ; ils voulaient convertir les enfants enne et abandonnent les coutumes françaises

20 Walter Kearnan pour deux raisons. La première raison est Mais, les Jésuites ont eu, peut-être, une que les Jésuites savaient que les enfants autre raison pour baptiser les malades : si amérindiens étaient les plus vulnérables et le malade amérindien n’est pas mort, les donc, les enfants seraient les plus faciles à Amérindiens penseraient que les Jésuites convertir. La deuxième raison, et la raison la l’ont sauvé. De plus, les Jésuites étaient plus importante, est que les Jésuites voulai- conscients de cette idée ; ils ont espéré être ent convertir les enfants afin de christianiser plus acceptés si les Amérindiens voyaient les les générations futures. C’était une stratégie Jésuites sauver leur compatriote malade. A ce à long terme. En convertissant les enfants, les propos, Le Jeune dit : Jésuites savaient qu’ils pouvaient installer [J]’allay voir l’enfant,… en fin le P Buteux efficacement le Christianisme et assurer- lé & moi… nous appellâmes Monsieur du tablissement du Christianisme en Nouvelle Chesne, qui nous dit que l’enfant étoit bien France. mal. Je demanday à son Père s’il seroit content qu’on le baptizât, ‘‘très-content’’ (dit- Aussi, à cette époque, les maladies (comme il)… ‘‘s’il retourne en santé il sera ton fils, la variole) qui attaquaient les Amérindiens à & tu l’instruiras’’. (Thwaites, 1959, vol. VI, cause de leur contact avec les Européens, ont 128). Le quatorzième de Juillet je baptizay… commencé à se propager rapidement de vil- une petite Algonquine…. Or jugeant… que lage en village. Les maladies ont provoqué cet enfant travaillé d’une fièv ?re éthique, un taux de mortalité élevé et ont tué beaucoup étoit en danger de mort, je lui conferay ce d’Amérindiens tout au long des années. Les Sacrement…. [Ses parents] m’ont promis Jésuites ont vu les maladies comme une oc- que si cette pauvre petite recouvre sa santé casion de convertir beaucoup d’Amérindiens. qu’ils me l’apporteroient, pour la mettre entre les mains de l’une de nos Françoises…. Ils ont réussi à convertir, ou à baptiser, de (Thwaites, 1959, vol. VI, 132). nombreux Amérindiens malades au cours des Les Jésuites utilisaient les malades comme années, mais, pour la plupart, beaucoup de une occasion pour influencer d’autres ces nouveaux chrétiens sont morts quelques Amérindiens. Quand les Jésuites baptisaient jours après leurs baptêmes. un malade qui se remettoit après le bap- Dans la Relation de 1635, Le Jeune note tême, les Jésuites utilisaient cette occasion que vingt-deux Amérindiens ont été bapti- pour proclamer la puissance de Dieu et du sés cette année et il explique que les Jésuites Christianisme. voulaient seulement convertir les malades et les enfants: Vingt-deux sauvages ont été baptisés cette Les Missions Économiques année…. [N]ous n’osons encor confier le L’une des raisons principales pour la colo- baptême qu’à ceux que nous voyons en dan- nisation est l’économie. Une colonie est une ger de mort, ou à des enfants qui nous sont occasion pour un pays de gagner des res- assurés…. (Thwaites, 1959, vol. VII, 274). sources naturelles et précieuses pour le com- Beaucoup d’Amérindiens convertis par les merce (Smith, 1904, Book IV, Chapter VII). Jésuites étaient malades et beaucoup sont Quand la France a débarqué en Nouvelle morts peu de temps après avoir été baptisés. France au début du 17ème siècle sous Samuel Pour la plupart, les Amérindiens qui étaient de Champlain, chef colonial et cartographe, malades et baptisés par les Jésuites n’étaient entre 1604 et 1609, les commerçants de pas suffisamment catéchisés par les -missi fourrures français, ainsi que les pêcheurs et onnaires. En général, les Jésuites voulaient les explorateurs, ont développé de bonnes instruire un Amérindien avant qu’ils ne le relations avec les Amérindiens le long de la baptisent : « [J]e me perdrois moi même si côte atlantique vers le fleuve Saint-Laurent. je baptizois un infidèle & un mécréant mal (Thwaites, 1959, vol. I, Introdution, 3-4). instruit » (Thwaites, 1959, vol. VI, 110). Thwaites remarque que le commerçant Pourtant, les Jésuites ont baptisé les malades précède toujours le prêtre (Thwaites, 1959, de toute façon afin de sauver leurs âmes. vol. I, Introduction, vii). Essentiellement,

21 Explorations |Humanities and Fine Arts le commerce était à la fondation d’une col- be seen as one aspect of a wider process of onie. Au moment où les Jésuites et les co- colonization. However much the Jesuits may lons étaient arrivés en Nouvelle France, les have tried to shield converts from secular Français se sont implantés et ont commencé European influence, the whole missionary à étendre leur territoire et leurs efforts vers enterprise was affected by the larger pattern of relations between Indians and French. l’ouest le long du fleuve Saint-Laurent. (Greer, 2000, 9). La France était très différente des autres Le commerce entre les Amérindiens et les pays européens dans la mesure où les colons Français était complexe. Les Français vou- ou les soldats français n’ont pas capturé ou laient faire des échanges commerciaux avec tué les Amérindiens comme l’Espagne et toutes les tribus amérindiennes, si possible, l’Angleterre l’ont fait le plus souvent au cours pour maximiser leurs profits économiques. Et de leurs entreprises coloniales. Le Jeune donc, les Français, y compris les Jésuites, en- exprime : « Si la mort de ces misérables ap- courageaient les Amérindiens à venir les voir portoit quelque profit à la traite des peaux, pour des raisons commerciales et sociales. qu’on vient faire en ce pays ci, ce zèle de mort Pourtant, certaines tribus amérindiennes— auroit quelque couleur ; mais leur vie & leur comme les Algonquins—voulaient le mono- mort ne fait rien pour la traite » (Thwaites, pole du commerce avec les Français tout en 1959, vol. V, 46). excluant la participation des autres tribus. Les Jésuites faisaient partie intégrale De plus, les concurrences entre les tribus du commerce entre les Français et les amérindiennes, en général, à cette époque Amérindiens dans les premières années de la étaient plus que des concurrences territoria- présence française parce qu’ils ont aidé à for- les et familiales ou des anciennes rivalités ; mer des alliances entre les colons français et elles sont devenues de plus en plus des con- les Amérindiens. Si la France consistait en une currences économiques. En 1632, à la même entreprise en Nouvelle France, les Jésuites époque où Le Jeune faisait sa mission au étaient les vendeurs. Les Jésuites ont dével- Canada, Champlain a créé une carte impor- oppé des rapports avec des marchands et des tante qui démontre le rapport entre la cartog- commerçants de fourrures de la Compagnie raphie et l’administration coloniale. Cette de la Nouvelle France, qui étaient « involved carte révèle les dimensions politiques et com- in the colonial enterprise » (McShea, 2013), merciales de la colonisation française et la et étaient accordés la colonie de Nouvelle répartition géographique des acteurs princi- France et le territoire de la vallée de Saint- paux dans les rapports politico-économiques Laurent. Aussi, le gouvernement de France franco-amérindiens: les Français à Québec à avait accordé à la Compagnie le monopole l’est, près de Trois Rivières, la nation algon- du commerce de la fourrure et, en échange, quine à l’ouest de Québec et la nation huronne la Compagnie de la Nouvelle France amenait au nord du Lac Saint-Louis (Figure 2). Parmi des colons en Nouvelle France. les nations amérindiennes, la nation huronne Allan Greer décrit comment ces relations en particulier, les Jésuites étaient claire- avec les commerçants et leurs implications ment perçus comme des émissaires français. dans le grand processus colonial ont formé À cause de cette constatation, les Jésuites une image des Jésuites qui était plus qu’une étaient, pour la plupart, bien reçus par les image religieuse, mais, en outre, une image Amérindiens parce que ceux-ci avaient déjà coloniale et commerciale, en général : Missionaries also followed the fur trade évalué les Français comme des fournisseurs routes west to the land of the Hurons. From de marchandises et de biens (Greer, 2000). the beginning, then, the Jesuits appeared to Au cours des premières années des mis- native North Americans as part of a broader sions des Jésuites en Nouvelle France, les French presence. Accordingly, the relation- Jésuites avaient deux objectifs principaux. ships that developed between the Jesuits and Premièrement, ils ont essayé de conver- the Iroquoians and Algonquians must always tir les Amérindiens—les Montagnais et les

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Figure 2. Samuel de Champlain. « Carte de la Nouvelle France en 1632 ». http://jcb.lunaimaging.com/ luna/servlet/detail/JCBMAPS~1~1~968~100580:Carte-de-la-Nouvelle-France,-augmen# Courtesy of the John Carter Brown Library at Brown University. Licensed under CC BY-NC-ND 4.0.

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Algonquins principalement—qui allaient pour leur soutien et leurs contributions : souvent à Québec et à Trois Rivières pour Et notre bon Roi, Monseigneur le Cardinal, faire des échanges commerciaux. En plus, il Messieurs les Associés, Monsieur le Marquis y avait des Jésuites qui ont parcouru loin dans de Gamache grand appui de notre Mission & les terres amérindiennes pour faire du prosé- quantité d’autres, par la faveur desquels le Sang du Fils de Dieu leur sera un jour ap- lytisme aux Hurons (Greer, 2000). Donc, les pliqué, auront la gloire & le mérite d’avoir Jésuites se sont appuyés sur le commerce contribué à une si sainte œuvre. (Thwaites, franco-amérindien pour pénétrer plus loin 1959, vol. VI, 98-100). dans le territoire amérindien. Les Jésuites en Nouvelle France étaient vus Le commerce de la fourrure a exigé de comme une partie essentielle de l’effort co- bonnes relations entre les Français et les lonial français qui a été impliqué dans le Amérindiens. Les Jésuites, et les Français développement social et le commerce franco- en général, ont réussi à développer des rela- amérindien. Ils utilisaient les Relations pour tions amicales avec les Amérindiens. Pour en tirer profit et obtenir le soutien de leurs l’essentiel, ces relations augmentaient le missions et, dans l’ensemble, ils ont sûre- commerce et fortifiaient la colonisation ment réussi. Les Jésuites étaient très impli- française. Et pour la longévité des Jésuites qués dans le commerce en Nouvelle France en Nouvelle France, ces relations et le com- et ils avaient des aspirations économiques merce étaient impératifs. Mais, les relations eux-mêmes en tant que groupe. entre les Jésuites et les marchands français de la Compagnie de la Nouvelle France Les Missions Politiques étaient, peut-être, plus importantes parce que Au début de la colonisation française en la Compagnie a soutenu financièrement et lo- Nouvelle France, les Jésuites avaient joué gistiquement une grande partie des missions un rôle important dans le domaine politique des Jésuites. à cause de la constatation que la religion était Puisque la Société de Jésus n’était pas, la fondation de la société. À cause de cette en fait, une entreprise commerciale et les idée, les Jésuites avaient beaucoup de puis- Jésuites n’étaient pas marchands, les Jésuites sance à cette époque-là. Les Jésuites étaient se sont appuyés sur les contributions de la à la fois diplomates français et missionnaires Compagnie de la Nouvelle France et d’autres religieux. Les rapports politiques entre les personnes puissantes en France qui profit- Jésuites et les Amérindiens étaient extrême- aient économiquement du commerce de la ment importants et les manières particulières fourrure comme le Cardinal de Richelieu par dont les Jésuites ont avancé une mission exemple. Donc, les Jésuites ont voulu aider politique française—une mission concen- la Compagnie de la Nouvelle France; c’était trée sur les alliances franco-amérindiennes et dans l’intérêt des Jésuites que la Compagnie l’expansion territoriale—en Nouvelle France profite. Pour réaliser ce but, les Jésuites ont joué un rôle central dans le développe- utilisaient les Relations pour promouvoir la ment de l’entreprise impériale française. Compagnie de la Nouvelle France. Les Jésuites étaient soutenus par la Encore, ce n’était pas seulement la Compagnie de la Nouvelle France et cette Compagnie de la Nouvelle France qui soute- relation était significative pour les missions nait les Jésuites. Essentiellement, tous les économiques des Jésuites. Plus spécifique- gens qui achetaient les Relations ou inves- ment, ce rapport politique était entre les tissaient dans la Compagnie de la Nouvelle Jésuites et le Cardinal de Richelieu. Les France ont soutenu les missions des Jésuites Jésuites ont su l’importance de leur rapport en Nouvelle France. Dans une autre lettre avec la Compagnie et Richelieu pour la lon- qu’il a écrite au Révérend Père, le Provincial gévité de leurs missions en Nouvelle France jésuite, Le Jeune glorifie la Compagnie, le roi et pour la longévité de la Nouvelle France, de France, Monsieur le Cardinal et d’autres en général.

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Monsieur le Cardinal de Richelieu—né True explique que, quand les Jésuites sont ar- Armand-Jean du Plessis de Richelieu—est rivés en Nouvelle France en 1632, ils ont pris né le 9 septembre 1585 à Paris. En 1594, un rôle proéminent en raison de leur atten- il a assisté au Collège de Navarre à Paris. tion à la « politique des missions ». De plus, Ensuite, en 1601, il est allé à l’académie il dit que les Jésuites ont su l’importance militaire de Pluvinel. En 1606 et 1607, il a de la collaboration avec le gouvernement et été ordonné prêtre et consacré évêque. En les intérêts commerciaux pour le succès de 1622, il était nommé cardinal. Toutefois, leurs missions. En outre, True affirme que la c’était sa nomination en tant que premier Compagnie de la Nouvelle France s’est al- ministre par le roi Louis XIII en 1624 qui liée avec les Jésuites et leurs missions pour était de la plus haute importance pour lui et christianiser la Nouvelle France (True, 2015, pour les Jésuites aussi. L’influence et la puis- Masters and Students, 33). La Compagnie sance de Richelieu comme premier ministre savait l’importance, pour le succès colonial et sont attestées par la journée des Dupes, qui économique, de christianiser les Amérindiens a eu lieu le 10 novembre 1630, quand Louis et elle a vu un moyen efficace pour atteindre XIII a rejeté l’influence politique de sa mère, cet objectif, les Jésuites. Marie de Médicis, et a accueilli la confiance Dans une lettre que Paul Le Jeune a écrite de Richelieu, confirmant l’ascension totale au Cardinal de Richelieu le 1er août 1635, on de Richelieu au pouvoir (Levi, 2000) : peut voir le rapport amical entre les Jésuites [Richelieu was] immensely intelligent… a et Richelieu et comment les Jésuites étaient sharp pastoral theologian, a devout bishop, bien impliqués dans le domaine politique : a pragmatic, cunning and devious constitu- Monseigneur vous estes le cœur et l’âme tional innovator, a dedicated patriot, a skilled de cette compagnie et de toute la Nouvelle military strategist, and a chief minister. (Levi, France vous pouvez non seulement donner la 2000, ix). vie du corps à une infinité de pauvres artisans De plus, c’est le Cardinal de Richelieu françois qui la vont mendier chez l’étranger qui a créé la Compagnie de la Nouvelle faute de terre, mais vous pouvez encore don- France en 1627. La Compagnie avait deux ner la vie de l’âme à une infinité de peuples buts. Premièrement, la Compagnie avait le barbares qui meurent tous les jours dans monopole sur le commerce de la fourrure l’esclavage de Satan, faute de prédicateurs de l’Evangile. Si votre Grandeur nous con- en Nouvelle France sur ordre du roi. En tinue sa faveur et ces Messieurs leur bienveil- outre, pour la plupart, la Compagnie avait lance j’espère qu’aussitôt que nous saurons la le monopole de l’administration de la col- langue que vous verrez et gouterez les fruits onie en Nouvelle France sur ordre du roi. La d’une nouvelle Eglise…. (Thwaites, 1959, seule exigence était d’amener des colons en vol. VII, 242-244). Nouvelle France (Bélanger, 2005). Ce passage nous montre certains aspects Grâce à la puissance de la Compagnie de importants des dimensions politiques des la Nouvelle France, les Jésuites ont réussi à Jésuites et de leur engagement politique. s’allier avec le Cardinal de Richelieu et la Premièrement, Le Jeune vérifie l’importance Compagnie. True démontre dans son étude et le rôle significatif de Richelieu. Aussi, magistrale jusqu’à quel point les Jésuites Le Jeune note les énormes possibilités savaient l’importance d’être impliqués dans en Nouvelle France pour la France et la le domaine politique : Compagnie. Finalement, la rhétorique de Le As a “silent partner” in the formation of the Jeune et l’émergence de Richelieu et de la Compagnie des 100 Associés,… “the Jesuits Compagnie, dans cette lettre et dans d’autres undertook to control the highest echelons of encore, impliquent que les Jésuites n’étaient the colonial administration in France itself, in order to ensure that no traders, officials, or pas seulement des missionnaires religieuses other religious orders in France could oppose de la Société de Jésus, mais aussi des acteurs them.” (True, 2015, Masters and Students, politiques impliqués dans les buts politiques 33). français en Nouvelle France.

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Une grande partie du succès des Jésuites impliqués dans les processus administratifs était donc due à leur relation avec le Cardinal de leurs missions, et aussi, de la colonie. de Richelieu. Richelieu était, peut-être, la Dans leurs Relations, ils parlaient souvent personne la plus influente pour les Jésuites des besoins de leurs missions. De plus, ils et leurs missions en Nouvelle France parce s’intéressaient aux exigences et à la situ- qu’il était une figure centrale et dans l’Eglise ation actuelle de la vie en Nouvelle France et dans le gouvernement français ; il était le (et de leurs missions, bien sûr). Ils mettaient pont entre l’Eglise et le Roi pour les Jésuites. l’accent sur la nourriture et d’autres provi- Sans leur rapport avec Richelieu et le gouver- sions, la construction et la protection des bâ- nement français, les missions des Jésuites en timents et les objectifs coloniaux. On peut les Nouvelle France et les Relations n’auraient voir dans la même lettre que Le Jeune a écrite pas été si vastes ou si réussies. au Révérend Père Provincial de France : Les Jésuites utilisaient leurs relations avec Il y a quatre gros articles qui font la plus les Amérindiens avec succès pour développer grande dépense de cette mission : les lards des alliances économiques et politiques de qu’on envoie, le beurre, les boissons et les sorte que la France pouvait étendre sa portée farines…. Pour les blés, on a douté si la terre, où nous sommes, n’étoit point trop froide. coloniale sans commencer une guerre avec les Allons par ordre, et voyons la nature du sol Amérindiens pour revendiquer leur territoire. : voici deux années que tout ce qui est du Ce sont les Jésuites qui ont contribué le plus jardinage, qui ne lève que trop, a été mangé à former et maintenir les alliances générales par la vermine…. Pour les arbres fruitiers, je entre les Français et les Amérindiens. De ne sais ce qui en sera…. Pour le bled d’inde, plus, bien que la Compagnie de la Nouvelle il meurit bien l’an passé…. Primo, il se faut France ait joué un rôle significatif dans la for- bastir pour nous loger, et les animaux et mation des associations économiques avec les bleds. Secundo, il faut semer mainten- les Amérindiens, comme les Algonquins et ant ce qui est nécessaire, seulement pour le bestial…. Tertio, étans logés, tous nos gens les Hurons, les Jésuites étaient bien impli- s’appliqueront à la terre, à défricher et culti- qués dans le commerce en Nouvelle France. ver, pour avoir des bleds…. Voici une autre Un problème principal qui a limité la réus- affaire : On parle de commencer de nouvelles site des missions des Jésuites était que les habitations en divers endroits…. [C]e sera Amérindiens étaient des peuples nomades, bien tout si nous faisons bien réussir le lieu pour la plupart. Les Jésuites et les colons où nous sommes…. (Thwaites, 1959, vol. VI, français préféraient que les Amérindiens 72-78). deviennent sédentaires ; il était nécessaire Les Jésuites n’étaient pas donc séparés des que les Français comprennent le territoire processus administratifs coloniaux. Ils étaient d’Amérique du Nord et les alliances améri- des participants actifs dans des objectifs co- ndiennes pour développer des stratégies coloniaux en Nouvelle France. loniales. Aussi, les Français ont essayé de comprendre et de définir les territoires améri- Conclusion ndiens sur leurs cartes. Sur une carte créée en Les Jésuites ont joué un rôle essentiel 1641, on peut voir comment les Français ont dans les efforts de colonisation française en défini certaines frontières des tribus amérin- Nouvelle France dans les années 1632 à 1635. diennes en Nouvelle France (Figure 3). De Ces objectifs de colonisation étaient caracté- cette manière, les cartographes français de risés par des rapports sociaux, commerciaux cette époque, essayant de propager la notion et politiques avec des tribus amérindiennes, que la France pouvait maîtriser les peuples comme les Algonquins et les Hurons. Et amérindiens, ont imposé un ordre géo-poli- les Jésuites étaient des figures importantes tique sur les espaces cartographiques de la pour former et maintenir ces rapports. Les Nouvelle France. missions des Jésuites en Nouvelle France Finalement, les Jésuites étaient bien étaient plus que des missions religieuses ; elles étaient aussi des missions économiques

26 Walter Kearnan

Figure 3. Anonyme. « Carte de la Nouvelle France c. 1641 ». www.crccf.uottawa.ca/passeport/I/IA1a/ IA1a05-2_bbb.html. Source : L’Université de l’Ottawa. Noter que le cartographe indique les frontières géopolitiques des tribus amérindiennes aussi bien que celles des nations européennes qui s’étaient implantées dans la région. et politiques. Une grande partie du succès climatiques violents, des maladies et des con- des missions des Jésuites était attribuée aux flits avec des Amérindiens et leurs alliés eu- Relations des Jésuites. Elles étaient des ou- ropéens. Toutefois, les Jésuites ont continué vrages de propagande qui avaient pour but de poursuivre leurs objectifs en Nouvelle de propager les objectifs religieux, commer- France avec un certain succès. ciaux et politiques de la France au cours de son entreprise coloniale en Nouvelle France et elles étaient utilisées pour amasser des fonds et des soutiens logistiques pour les missions antérieures des Jésuites. Certes, les Jésuites ont subi de nombreuses épreuves au Canada à cause des topographies incon- nues et difficiles à aborder, des événements

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OUVRAGES CITÉS

Bélanger, Claude. “Company of New France (1627).” L’Encyclopédie De L’histoire Du Québec / The Quebec History Encyclopedia. 1 Mar. 2005. Web. 2015. .

Chiporo, Salvatore. “The Jesuit in the Mirror: An Analysis of Father Paul Le Jeune’s Jesuit Relations.” Academia. Web. 2016. .

Greer, Allan. The Jesuit Relations: Natives and Missionaries in Seventeenth-century North America. Boston: Bedford/St. Martin’s, 2000. 3-23. Print.

Jaenen, Cornelius J. The Role of the Church in New France. Toronto: McGraw-Hill Ryerson, 1976. Print.

Levi, Anthony. Cardinal Richelieu and the Making of France. New York: Carroll & Graf Publishers, Inc. 2000. Print.

McShea, Bronwen Catherine. “Presenting the ‘Poor Miserable Savage’ to French Urban Elites: Commentary on North American Living Conditions in Early Jesuit Relations,” The Sixteenth Century Journal 44/3 (Fall 2013): 683-711. Print.

Pollen, John Hungerford. “The Counter-Reformation.” The Catholic Encyclopedia. Vol. 4. New York: Robert Appleton Company, 1908. Web. .

Pollen, John Hungerford. “The Society of Jesus.” The Catholic Encyclopedia. Vol. 14. New York: Robert Appleton Company, 1912. 3 Nov. 2014.

Smith, Adam. An Inquiry into the Nature and Causes of the Wealth of Nations. Edwin Cannan, ed. 1904. Library of Economics and Liberty..

Thwaites, Reuben Gold. The Jesuit Relations and Allied Documents; Travels and Explorations of the Jesuit Missionaries in New France, 1610-1791. Vol. 1-28. New York: Pageant Book, 1959. Print.

Traub, George, and Debra Mooney. “A Biography of St. Ignatius Loyola (1491-1556): The Founder of the Jesuits.” Xavier University. 2015. Web. 2016. .

True, Micah. Masters and Students: Jesuit Mission Ethnography in Seventeenth-century New France. McGill-Queen’s University Press, 2015. Print.

Wygant, Amy., eds. The Meanings Of Magic: From The Bible To Buffalo Bill. New York : Berghahn Books, 2006. Print.

Explorations |Humanities and Fine Arts

“Grinding up the Seed Corn of the Confederacy”:The North Carolina Junior Reserves

Jordan Pearce East Carolina University Faculty Mentor: Wade Dudley East Carolina University

ABSTRACT On February 17, 1864, the Confederate Congress placed white males, aged seventeen to eigh- teen, in the Reserves: “a robbing of the cradle” by President Jefferson Davis’s standards. By June, North Carolina had organized eight battalions of Junior Reserves. Throughout 1864, the Reserves mostly did guard duty throughout the state, freeing other soldiers for field service. Although poorly equipped and not required to fight outside of North Carolina, the Junior Reserves unanimously volunteered to fight in Belfield, Virginia. For their service at Belfield, the North Carolina Legislature passed a vote of thanks to the Reserves. The Junior Reserves saw real action March 19-21, 1865 in the Battle of Bentonville in Johnston County. The battle took the lives of many soldiers, including some of the brave youths in the Junior Reserves. Major Walter Clark of the First Brigade Junior Reserves of Hoke’s Division described Bentonville as being “a good wood for skirmishing” and noted that “we had a regular Indian fight of it from behind trees.” Both primary and secondary source information on the North Carolina Junior Reserves are scarce. Most information comes from Clark’s Histories or The Walter Clark Papers, both of which were produced by Walter Clark. There are not many other accounts given, but William F. Beasley of the North Carolina Junior Reserves wrote to the Charlotte Observer that Clark’s claims were false and that he embellished his stories to glorify himself. Beasley wrote that he was particularly bothered by the fact that Clark claimed the title of the youngest commanding officer in the Confederacy, depriving Beasley of a title that was rightfully his. The purpose of this paper is to shed additional light on the Junior Reserves.

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n a desperate attempt to regain ground near who fought in the Civil War. Thus out of Ithe end of the Civil War, the Confederate 115,369 total North Carolina troops, the Congress passed a law on February 17, 1864 Junior Reserves constituted one-ninth of all which placed males, aged seventeen to eigh- North Carolina soldiers who fought in the teen, in reserves. This resulted in the forma- war.5 The Junior Reserves’ experiences in the tion of the North Carolina Junior Reserves, war resembled the exploits of the men with a unique group of youthful soldiers who whom they served much more than those fought as a last resort for the Confederacy of the children and youths who remained at in North Carolina and Virginia, most nota- home.6 The experience of combat tends to bly in the Battle of Bentonville. Jefferson strip the veneer of civilization from young Davis, President of the Confederate States of warriors. These youths carried the horrors of America, described the formation of Junior war with them for the remainder of their life. Reserves as “a robbing of the cradle,” and Thirty-five years later, they and their- chil North Carolina Governor Zebulon Vance dren, strove to return North Carolina to as referred to risking these young men in close to the “Old South” as possible with the battle as “grinding up the seed corn of the establishment of de jure segregation. Thus, Confederacy.”1 their experiences in war (and confusion exist- It was to no one’s delight that seventeen- ing about those experiences) are well worth year-olds would be stripped from their homes consolidation and a scholarly examination. to fight and die in the war, but leaders of the The eight battalions of Junior Reserves Confederacy believed that this time of des- were stationed across North Carolina, mostly peration had left them with few alternatives. to conduct picket and guard duty. On June Lieutenant General Theophilus H. Holmes, 27, 1864, the 6th Battalion was ordered to an 1829 graduate of West Point, was ap- Gaston, near the Virginia border, to protect a pointed to command the North Carolina railroad bridge, while most others were sent Reserves. Holmes felt that activating the to Wilmington and surrounding areas to guard Junior Reserves would “take but little from Fort Fisher. At Wilmington, the last remain- the agricultural interests” and that “little ing Confederate port city, the North Carolina would be more than counterbalanced by the Junior Reserves did picket and guard duty quiet and confidence incident to the security on the beach to prevent the landing of en- it will give to those that remain.”2 However, emies, escape of slaves, and communica- as the forlorn state of the Confederacy beck- tion amongst passing vessels. Employing the oned more males to military action, the agri- Junior Reserves in this capacity relieved the cultural burden fell to the hands of both white more experienced soldiers for field service. women and their female slaves.3 On December 23-25, 1864, the Junior Many parents of these youths did not be- Reserves defended Fort Fisher when General lieve that sending their children into battle B.F. Butler and Admiral D.D. Porter of the would improve the war effort. In fact, many Union attacked it. During this skirmish, parents sent in formal requests for their sons “quite a number” of Junior Reserves were to be alleviated of their duties in the Junior killed or captured.7 The Junior Reserves’ Reserves, most stating that the former needed conduct at Battle at Fort Fisher was not con- the latter’s help on the farm.4 In total, there sidered heroic in the eyes of many generals. were 4,217 North Carolina Junior Reserves However, it was the first time any of these

1 Walter Clark, Histories of the Several Regiments and Battalions of 4 Brown and Coffey, 42. the Great War 1861-65 (Wendell, NC: Broadfoot’s Bookmark, 5 North Carolina Literary and Historical Association, Five Points in 1982), 2. the Record of North Carolina in the Great War of 1861-5 (Golds 2 Matthew M. Brown and Michael W. Coffey, North Carolina Troops boro, NC: Nash Brothers Printers, 1904), 74. 1861-1865, Vol. XVII. (Wilmington: Broadfoot Publishing, 2009), 6 James Marten, The Children’s Civil War (Chapel Hill and London: 6-8. University of North Carolina Press, 1988), 2. 3 Jaime Amanda Martinez, Confederate Slave Impressment in the 7 Clark, 39, 45. Upper South (Chapel Hill: The University of North Carolina Press, 2013), 157.

31 Explorations |Humanities and Fine Arts young men had seen military action. In some itch” were among some of the most signifi- cases, their inexperience proved to be a hin- cant ailments the young men experienced.10 drance. In a letter to General Lee, Brigadier- In addition to being fraught with disease, General Louis Herbert wrote: the Junior Reserves suffered from meager The accessions of the Junior Reserves to my food rations. Colonel John Hinsdale stated command cannot be said to have added to that the rations at Kinston consisted of a mere my strength. They are as yet totally ignorant half a pint of black sorghum soup, a pint of of all military knowledge, and many are so husky meal every other day, one-third pound weakly that they can perform but very little of Nassau bacon, and occasionally, a few po- duty… Their officers are nearly as unexperi- 11 enced and untaught as themselves.8 tatoes. Colonel Charles Broadfoot disclosed In a letter to Secretary of War James Seddon, that the youths lacked shoes, underclothing, knapsacks, and cooking utensils. Moreover, Major-General W.H.C. Whiting wrote that 12 the Junior Reserves “would rather interfere the youth soldiers were “ragged and dirty.” than aid.” He went on to say that the youths While the Junior Reserves were lacking were “prostrate with the diseases of chil- in clothing and food, they were fairly well- dren and too weak to bear arms” and “their armed. They had difficulties finding arms officers, made by election, are entirely- ig in the beginning, but they were eventually norant.”9 After their initial performance, it equipped with Enfield muskets (Figure 1), was apparent that the reality of the Reserves’ a British-made musket that was usually in ample supply despite scarcity of weapons in abilities to aid the Confederacy differed from 13 the expectations of their leaders. the south. Colonel Broadfoot wrote that the Disease constituted a major problem for young men of the 1st Battalion later received the North Carolina Junior Reserves, particu- the “better” guns that had been captured in Virginia and then given to the North Carolina larly those from western and central counties; 14 many of these individuals lost their lives to Junior Reserves. On a somewhat comical measles. Others fell ill to the chills and di- note, Adolphus W. Mangum noted that some arrhea, while Lieutenant Colonel Charles of the Junior Reserves “were exceedingly Broadfoot, commander of the 1st North small and presented quite a grotesque picture Carolina Junior Reserves, cited lice and “the as they lugged a huge musket around their

Figure 1. Enfield musket carried by D.F. Denton of the 3rd NC Junior Reserves. (Source: author’s photo)

8 Official Records of the Union and Confederate Navies in the War of 12 Brown and Coffey, 97. the Rebellion (Washington, 1864), Ser. I, 5: 716. 13 William B. Edwards, Civil War Guns. Harrisburg, Pennsylvania: The 9 The War of Rebellion: a Compilation of the Official Records of the Stackpole Company, 1962.. Union and Confederate Armies. US War Dept, 1864. Ser. I, 42: 14 Clark, 10. 1240-41. 10 Brown and Coffey, 97. 11 Clark, 53.

32 Jordan Pearce beat.”15 Confederates posted the Junior Reserves at On December 8 and 9 of 1864, several bat- this station as a precaution, as there were ru- talions of North Carolina Junior Reserves mors of rescue of the men. Colonel Broadfoot loaded a train to fight at Belfield, Virginia. recreated the scene, telling of a detail firing By law, the Junior Reserves could not be their muskets at the miscreants. The execu- required to fight outside of North Carolina, tioners knew only half of the firearms were but the brave youths realized the critical loaded, but they were not informed as to state of the Confederacy and unanimously which; none would know who fired the fatal volunteered their service. Even before the shots. Broadfoot ended his narrative with the young men arrived at the site, many had died. sentence, “It was a painful scene.”19 Captain David McKinne, of Company A, de- In the spring of 1865, the Junior Reserves scribed the trip as “intensely cold,” and with fought in small battles such as the Battle of the youths poorly clad and fed during this ex- Wise’s Forks, near New Bern. On March 8, cursion. He recalled that it was so cold that the young men, who had been on the skir- several young men had to be taken off the mish line since early morning, moved con- train and held over a fire in order to preserve siderably for a time, but at length one regi- their lives. McKinne added that, because of ment broke and lay down, and the rest could the youths’ bravery and service at Belfield, not go forward. The next day, the Junior the Legislature of North Carolina later ex- Reserves remained in the trenches along the tended a special vote of thanks to the Junior creek. Considering their first day’s perfor- Reserves.16 mance, the youth’s commanders kept them Writing about the Junior Reserves’ valor in the fortifications “waiting for the Yanks at the site, Colonel John Hinsdale stated, while the old soldiers… [did the] fighting.”20 “The old guard of Napoleon on the retreat On March 16, General William J. Hardee’s from Moscow never displayed more hero- division, including the North Carolina Junior ism and fortitude than did the boy soldiers- Reserves, was repulsed in a “severe fight” at the young Guard of the Confederacy.”17 For Averasboro and forced to yield the strategic their service in Belfield, the North Carolina crossroads formed by the junction of roads Junior Reserves even received commenda- leading from Raleigh to Goldsboro. General tion from General Robert E. Lee. In a letter to Joseph E. Johnston, unsure of Sherman’s des- Confederate Secretary of War James Seddon, tination, ordered his army to concentrate at General Lee wrote, “This exhibition of pa- Smithfield, where he could threaten the flank triotism on the part of the Junior Reserves of the invading army in the direction of either of North Carolina is highly gratifying and Raleigh or Goldsboro.21 encouraging.”18 The Confederate soldiers knew the odds of After returning from Belfield, the Junior winning the upcoming Battle of Bentonville Reserves resumed guard duty in North stood not in their favor. On March 1, General Carolina, but they also saw action in several Sherman reported 57,676 men. On March small battles across the state. While stationed 17, Johnston had only 14,685. General near Smithfield, North Carolina, the 70th Johnston’s numbers were then further re- Regiment Junior Reserves were drawn up on duced as Major General Ambrose Wright’s three sides of a square to witness an execu- South Carolina Brigade was made to turn tion. Several men from Zachary’s Georgia around at the North Carolina border because Regiment were to be shot for mutiny. The South Carolina Governor A.G. Magrath felt

15 Ibid., 757. 19 Clark, 20. 16 Ibid., 27-29. 20 John G. Barrett, The Civil War in North Carolina (Chapel Hill, 17 Ibid., 43-44. NC: The University of North Carolina Press, 1963), 288. 18 Brown and Coffey, 52. 21 Jay Luvaas, “Johnston’s Last Stand Bentonville,” The North Carolina Historical Review 33 (1956). 332–3.

33 Explorations |Humanities and Fine Arts they were needed for home defense. In ad- Confederate cavalry moved forward and re- dition to the lack of numbers, the men of occupied the position they held the previous General Hardee’s division ate nothing during evening. Under the protection of dismounted the period from March 15 to March 18, and cavalry, Johnston made his dispositions. Hardee himself was weakened from Typhoid Hardee ran his line virtually parallel to the Fever throughout the month.22 Goldsboro road, which created a sickle- In the days leading to the Battle of shaped Confederate line.28 Bentonville, thousands tried to ensure their General Bragg did not employ the Junior survival by purchasing repeating rifles for Reserves in the main Confederate assault on the upcoming skirmish. For forty-eight dol- March 19, but Lieutenant Colonel Charles lars, about four months pay, a soldier could Broadfoot, of the 70th Regiment, looked on arm himself with this new firearm.23 The rifle, at the battlefield that bright Sunday morning which was new as a weapon of war, proved and described the action: the major tactical weapon of the Civil War. Several officers led the charge on horseback It could fire a bullet with “man-killing accu- across an open field in full view, with colors racy” over eight hundred yards, much farther flying and line of battle in such perfect order than the effective range of the smoothbore as to be able to distinguish the several field officers in proper place and followed bya muskets which many of the Junior Reserves 24 battery which dashed at full gallop, wheeled, carried. unlimbered and opened fire. It looked like a Just before dawn on March 18, a courier picture and at our distance was truly beauti- reached General Johnston at his headquar- ful. But it was painful to see how close their ters in Smithfield. The dispatch he deliv- battle flags were together, regiments being ered was from Wade Hampton, who com- scarcely larger than companies, and [the] manded Confederate cavalry in the region. division not much larger than a regiment Hampton was encamped about twelve miles should be.29 south, near the village of Bentonville. He One of Slocum’s officers described his view had just encountered a portion of the advanc- of the same scene in a journal entry, “The ing Union army under General William T. Rebel regiments in front were in full view, Sherman.25 On the night of March 18, the stretching through the fields to the left as far Junior Reserves arrived at Bentonville and as one could see, advancing rapidly, and fir- camped in the woods beyond the stream that ing as they came. It was a gallant sight. The runs through the village. Both armies expe- onward sweep of the Rebel lines was like the rienced difficulty arriving at Bentonville, as waves of the ocean, resistless.”30 the continued rainfall had turned the roads The fighting continued into the night of into rivers of mud.26 March 19. Both armies on the battlefield On March 19, it was Hoke’s Division, toiled to strengthen their defenses.31 A mem- which included the North Carolina Junior ber of the second South Carolina was walk- Reserves, that stood first on the ground. Their ing the field that night when he came upon line was formed across the Goldsboro road, a freshly-dug grave of a mere fourteen-year- almost at right angles.27 General Braxton old boy who had been killed in the fighting Bragg, who had been relieved of his com- that day. He later wrote, “The sight of it mand in 1863 after a devastating loss, was awakened sad feelings… I was myself only in charge of Hoke’s Division. The soldiers seventeen years of age, having volunteered were placed on the Confederate left. The at Charleston in 1864.” The teenager was

22 Robert P. Broadwater, Battle of Despair: Bentonville and the North 28 Luvaas, 335. Carolina Campaign (Macon, GA: Mercer University Press, 2004), 29 “North Carolina Junior Reserves Tour Stop,” exhibit, Bentonville 50-51, 68. Battleground Historic Site, Bentonville, North Carolina, February 23 Ibid., 9. 6, 2016 and Clark, 21. 24 Edwards, 13. 30 Broadwater, 86. 25 Luvaas, 322. 31 Luvaas, 345-348. 26 Broadwater, 50. 27 Barrett, 329.

34 Jordan Pearce one of thousands who lost his life in battle Major Walter Clark was the seventeen- that day. The total Confederate casualties year-old commander of the brigade’s skir- at Bentonville for March 19 came to 2,462- mish line, which twice turned back the over 15 percent of the men who arrived that enemy that day.34 Clark described the bat- day to fight. Of those Confederate casualties, tleground at Bentonville (Figure 2) as “a 593 of them were under Hoke’s command. good wood for skirmishing with little or no The Federals, who arrived with substantially undergrowth” and wrote, “we had a regular more manpower, suffered 1,144 casualties Indian fight of it from behind the 35trees.” 32 the same day. Under Clark’s command that day, the North The next morning, the Union forces drove Carolina Junior Reserves held their position Hoke’s Division back, and the latter thus or- as Sherman’s army repeatedly charged. The ganized a new battle line facing nearly due Federals sometimes drove the skirmishers in east (the day before, they had faced south- to their left and right, but the Confederate bri- west.) The Confederate division readily forti- gade held their ground for the entirety of the fied the new line with log breastworks, hast- day.36 The defensive remained in the trenches ily constructed, secured with earth dug up all day, as Johnston hoped to induce Sherman with bayonets, tin pans, and a few shovels. to attack. Sherman, however, had no inten- The skirmish line of each brigade stood about tion to bring on a general engagement until two hundred yards in front of the breast- he opened communication with Generals 33 works. The fighting on March 20, although Schofield and Terry at Goldsboro. He only relatively minor in nature, did involve a fiery pushed the skirmish lines forward to evaluate contest between Howard and Hoke that af- the Confederate positions, but he warned the ternoon. Between noon and dusk, the Union corps commanders against committing their army repeatedly attacked Hoke’s division. forces to an all-out battle.37 The North Carolina Junior Reserves held an The evening of March 20, a dense rain especially important position on this line. In set in that lasted until the morning. The General Hoke’s words, the Junior Reserves Confederate troops remained awake in their “repulsed every charge that was made upon trenches throughout the night. Sherman them with very meagre and rapidly thrown would have rather avoided general battle, but up breastworks.” since Johnston seemed to insist upon it, the

Figure 2. Drawing of final Confederate attack at Bentonville on March 19, 1865. (Source: Harper’s Weekly) 32 Broadwater, 110. 34 Barrett, 337. 33 Clark, 21. 35 Walter Clark, Aubrey Lee Brooks, and Hugh Talmage Lefler, The Papers of Walter Clark. (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 1948), 130. 36 Clark, 21. 37 Luvaas, 351.

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Union general felt it was necessary to accom- consider it to be the last important battle of modate him. Thus, the fighting resumed the the war.45 But had Bentonville occurred ear- morning of March 21st. The Union right and lier, it may have been considered as one of center maintained continual pressure against the major struggles of the entire conflict. On the Confederate lines.38 the one hand, with only about four thousand When the fighting concluded, soldiers from casualties in three days, Bentonville did not both armies endured another miserable, rainy produce the bloodshed necessary to astound night. The tired and hungry men huddled to- the public.46 On the other hand, it marked the gether in their trenches and makeshift shel- climax of the North Carolina Junior Reserves’ ters, exposed to a downpour that deprived service. The courage of the Junior Reserves them of the ability to even make a camp- at Bentonville elicited high praise from their fire. Upon learning that night that General divisional commander, General Hoke. About Schofield had arrived at Goldsboro, Johnston their service, he said: ordered an immediate retreat; and, by 2:00 in At Bentonville they held a very impor- the morning, Johnston’s forces evacuated all tant part of the battle field in opposition to the wounded that were able to be moved. The Sherman’s old and tried soldiers and repulsed every charge that was made upon them with Confederates then abandoned their trenches very meager and rapidly thrown-up breast- and headed towards Smithfield. The Union works. Their conduct in camp, on the march, army only followed Johnston for a few miles and on the battlefield was everything that past Mill Creek, then turned back. They bur- could be expected from them, and I am free ied their dead and wounded, then camped to say, was equal to that of the old soldiers near Goldsboro, where they obtained much- who had passed through four years of war.47 needed clothing and supplies.39 The North Carolina Junior Reserves were Bentonville produced 4,252 casualties for praised for their brave service in various both armies combined. The Union army suf- forms for years to come. An article from fered 1,646 casualties, less than 3 percent of Confederate Veteran magazine said, about its available force. The Confederate army the Junior Reserves, “They were fearless and suffered 2,606 casualties, approximately 15 deserve as much credit as any soldier in the percent of the total engaged.40 The Junior service. They never knew when to stop fight- Reserves lost forty-one of their own.41 By ing.”48 Elizabeth McPherson, granddaughter late-war standards, the Battle of Bentonville of Theophilus H. Holmes, wrote a poem ded- was hardly considered a skirmish. However, icated to the North Carolina Junior Reserves. it is still the largest and bloodiest battle ever It reads: fought on North Carolina’s soil and the one where the Junior Reserves played the most O, Sherman has come from Colombia, significant role.42 Before the war concluded, He has foraged his way, mile by mile, one-half of major generals and one-fourth of He has pillaged, and plundered, and ravaged, brigadiers from North Carolina were killed in He’s been king of the road, all the while; But at Bentonville, Johnston stands in the the Battle of Bentonville or died of wounds 43 way, obtained during the battle. And Sherman must fight on the Sabbath Day. Bentonville constituted a key battle, but given its timing at the conclusion of the O South, though you’re war-scarred and war effort, it is often neglected.44 Many do weary,

38 Ibid. 45 Confederate Veteran Magazine, May 1929. 39 Luvaas, 351. 46 Broadwater, 3. 40 Broadwater, 151. 47 Ibid., 122-123. 41 Clark, 31. 48 Confederate Veteran Magazine, October 1927. 42 “Battle of Bentonville,” exhibit, Bentonville Battleground Historic Site, Bentonville, North Carolina, February 6, 2016. 43 Confederate Veteran Magazine, May 1929. 44 Mark L. Bradley, Last Stand in the Carolinas: The Battle of Bentonville. (United States, Mark L. Bradley, 1996).

36 Jordan Pearce

Exult o’er this radiant band, Soldiers, your past is full glory. Treasure it Of your youngest, your in your hearts. Remember each gory battle not-yet-grown- soldiers, field, each day of victory, each bleeding How proudly and firmly they stand. comrade. Think then of your future... You Note their buoyant tread as they march along. have yielded to overwhelming forces, not Listen, they’re singing an old Southern song. to superior valor; you are paroled prisoners; not slaves; the love of liberty which led you In all youth’s power and glory, in the contest still burns as brightly in your With a sternness they’ve borrowed from hearts as ever, cherish it, nourish it, associ- men ate it with the history of the past. Transmit to They charge Sherman’s seasoned veterans, your children, teach them that the proudest They fight like wild furies and then--- day in all your proud career was on which Those childish faces, upturned and stark, you enlisted as a Southern soldier, entering Can we leave them there in the growing dark? that holy brotherhood whose ties are now sealed in the blood of your compatriots, who For three days the battle rages, have fallen and whose history is covered with Odds against us five to one, brilliant records…. 51 Then slowly, and very sadly, Each man shoulders his gun. It is no question that the North Carolina His name will be seen on the pages of fame, Junior Reserves have gone down in history But boyhood gets lost in war’s little game. as brave and gallant soldiers. When Charles Hoke’s Division, Junior Reserves, Boys’ W. Broadfoot later wrote about his experi- Brigade, ence with the Junior Reserves, he said, “We Call them what you will; suffered, we fought, we failed, it has pleased Just the mention of their names some to call us rebels because we had done Will always give the world a thrill. our duty, but history will record the names To-day we carve those names in stone, of the gallant, bright-faced boys of the North They wrote them in blood in the days long Carolina Junior Reserves on that page where gone.49 only those of heroes are written.”52

History has, in fact, recorded the names of The bravery and sacrifice of the North these brave youths. However, information on Carolina Junior Reserves, though sometimes the North Carolina Junior Reserves is not as neglected, has not been forgotten. The youths abundant as that of many other Civil War top- “emerged with a reputation for bravery estab- ics. Most of the secondary source information lished for all time…”50 After Lee’s surrender that includes the Junior Reserves derives from at Appomattox Courthouse, the young men one or both of two primary sources: Walter arrived in Randolph County and were paid Clark’s Histories of the Several Regiments $1.25 in silver. They then returned to their and Battalions of the Great War 1861-1865 homes; the Junior Reserves were relieved and The Papers of Walter Clark. Clark was a of duty forever. At this time, Robert F. Hoke soldier of the 71st Regiment and was elected gave a speech to the soldiers of his Division, Major of the 5th Battalion Junior Reserves. where he said: He asked for and received testimonies from My comrades, your indomitable courage, your heroic fortitude, your patience under various leaders of each regiment and com- suffering have surrounded these with a halo piled them for his Histories. A graduate of which future years cannot dim. History will the University of North Carolina, Clark later bear witness to your valor and succeeding became one of North Carolina’s most promi- generations will point with admiration to your nent attorneys as well as the Chief Justice of grand struggle for constitutional freedom. the North Carolina Supreme Court.53

49 Ibid. 51 Clark, 32-34. 50 Brown and Coffey, 50. 52 Ibid., 22-23. 53 Clark, Brooks, Lefler, 52-53.

37 Explorations |Humanities and Fine Arts

Although Clark was the only member of comprised of gallant young men who served the Junior Reserves to publish primary mate- their cause with pride. The Confederacy was rial on the organization, one soldier, William far too despondent at the time the Junior Fessenden Beasley, wrote to a newspaper Reserves were created to have made a re- regarding Clark’s publication; the title of covery, but the youths who served did so Beasley’s article: “History was Perverted: with valor, and many gave the ultimate sac- Justice Clark Betrayed Trust.” Beasley first rifice for their cause. The “seed corn of the argued that the man who “risks his life, vol- Confederacy” surely earned a place for their untarily, for the defense of the state, or by its names on “that page where only those of he- command, is unquestionably entitled to have roes are written.”57 his record fully protected….” He contended In this paper, I have described the unique that Clark, an “exalted” Justice, “did not organization of the North Carolina Junior hesitate to use the money and good name of Reserves and their legacy as young warriors his State to edit, publish, and issue as history, for the Confederacy. There is much that could falsehoods of the rankest character that might be further considered regarding the Junior magnify his own importance.”54 Reserves. Follow-up research could consider Beasley seemed especially concerned that the long term economic factors in the deci- Justice Clark “attempted to create… a false sion to employ 17 to 18-year-olds with no record for himself and to rob another officer military training or experience and the eco- of his rank.” He claimed that Clark “changed nomic impact of losing so many young men the sketches” of the Regiments of Junior from their generation. Reserves and “had one purpose- to magnify Perhaps the post-war lives of individual his own importance by assigning himself a survivors could be studied to determine rank he did not hold and duties he did not per- whether or not their experiences as youths in form.” Beasley acknowledged the severity of combat shaped a certain path for the survi- his accusations, but he also claimed to have vors. It could be worth consideration to con- written evidence “to prove every statement” template the societal burden of a generation he made.55 of men who were maimed physically and Beasley stated his purpose as showing that mentally by experiencing combat at a young Clark’s claims attempted “to rob [him] of the age. One may also consider the place of these record [he] won and enjoyed until the State of individuals in the rebuilding of the “New North Carolina, through this high judicial of- South” in the reconstruction era. ficer, issued its unreliable history....” The au- Information of the North Carolina Junior thor of this article supported his claims with Reserves is neither abundant nor readily written letters of support from Graham Daves, available. In fact, most of the existing infor- Lieutenant Colonel Charles W. Broadfoot, mation is used in this paper. Being a minute and N. A. Gregory. Beasley also found it part of a complex period of history and being important to note that, if Walter Clark “was an organization formed as a last effort for the lieutenant colonel of the Seventieth North losing side are likely reasons that so few his- Carolina Troops, he was the youngest officer tories are written on the topic. Conceivably if of that rank in the Confederate army, but if such an organization had been formed for the he was not, then the writer is entitled to that Union Army, more records would be avail- honorable distinction.”56 able, especially pensions, and more histories Regardless of whether or not Clark accu- would have been written about the victorious rately depicted his rank and duties, there is regiment. Even in printed words, it seems, to no uncertainty that the unique organization the victors go the spoils. of the North Carolina Junior Reserves was

54 William F. Beasley, “History was Perverted: Justice Clark Be 56 Ibid. trayed Trust,” Charlotte Observer, June 23, 1904. 57 Clark, 2 and 23. 55 Ibid.

38 Jordan Pearce

REFERENCES

Primary Sources

Beasley, W.F. “History was Perverted: Justice Clark Betrayed Trust.” Charlotte Observer, June 23, 1904.

Clark, Walter, Aubrey Lee Brooks, and Hugh Talmage Lefler. The Papers of Walter Clark. Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 1948.

Clark, Walter, Histories of the Several Regiments and Battalions in the Great War 1861-’65. Wendell, North Carolina. (Rte. 2, Box 284, Wendell 27591): Broadfoot’s Bookmark, 1982.

Harper’s Weekly, April 15, 1865.

Official Records of the Union and Confederate Navies in the War of the Rebellion (Washington, 1864), Ser. I, 5: 716.

The War of Rebellion: a Compilation of the Official Records of the Union and Confederate Armies. US War Dept, 1864. Ser. I, 42: 1240-41.

Secondary Sources

Barrett, John G. The Civil War in North Carolina. Chapel Hill, NC: The University of North Carolina Press, 1963.

“Battle of Bentonville,” exhibit, Bentonville Battleground Historic Site, Bentonville, North Carolina. February 6, 2016.

Bradley, Mark L. Last Stand in the Carolinas: The Battle of Bentonville. United States, Mark L. Bradley, 1996.

Broadwater, Robert P. Battle of Despair: Bentonville and the North Carolina Campaign. Macon, GA: Mercer University Press, 2004.

Brown, Matthew M., and Michael W. Coffey. North Carolina Troops 1861-1865. Vol. XVII. Wilmington: Broadfoot Publishing, 2009.

Confederate Veteran Magazine, May 1929.

Confederate Veteran Magazine, October 1927.

Edwards, William B. Civil War Guns. Harrisburg, Pennsylvania: The Stackpole Company, 1962.

Luvaas, Jay. “Johnston’s Last Stand — Bentonville.” The North Carolina Historical Review 33 (1956). 3: 332–58.

39 Explorations |Humanities and Fine Arts

Marten, James. The Children’s Civil War. Chapel Hill and London: University of North Carolina Press, 1988.

Martinez, Jaime Amanda. Confederate Slave Impressment in the Upper South. Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 2013.

“North Carolina Junior Reserves Tour Stop,” exhibit, Bentonville Battleground Historic Site, Bentonville, North Carolina, February 6, 2016.

North Carolina Literary and Historical Association. Five points in the record of North Carolina in the Great War of 1861-5. Goldsboro, NC: Nash Brothers Printers, 1904.

Explorations |Humanities and Fine Arts

“The Orange and Navel”: Transgenerational Transmission of Trauma in Hanan al-Shaykh’s The Story of Zahra

Francesca Quigley Guilford College Faculty Mentor: Diya Abdo Guilford College

he Story of Zahra, a novel written by of the sexual relationship she has with the THanan al-Shaykh, follows Zahra, a young Sniper (Accad 1). She talks of Zahra as if she woman growing up in Lebanon before and has no agency at all, or as if her madness is during the Civil War of 1975. Zahra experi- what fuels all of her decision making, and ences traumas throughout her life at the hands thus, as readers we should not see Zahra as of her family members, lovers, country, and legitimate. In a similar vein, Charles Larson the civil war that tears it apart. Throughout calls Zahra “directionless” (Larson 14) once the novel and seemingly as a result of these again denying Zahra any agency in her de- traumas, Zahra is often confined to her bed cisions, and acting as if Zahra’s experience and even hospitalized multiple times, due of trauma results in her having some sort to unspecified mental illness. Zahra’s - rela of deficit. Often, seemingly unintentionally tionship with her mother is a central aspect or without awareness of the possible harm of the novel that is directly connected to the and delegitimization it can cause to Zahra traumas she experiences. A strong and almost as a protagonist and al-Shaykh’s novel as a seemingly involuntary connection between whole, authors paint Zahra in a very negative her and her mother is established early on in light. I believe this perception of Zahra leads the novel, and she consistently explains how to devaluing the significance of the real ex- the strengthening of this connection is fueled perience of Lebanese people and specifically and almost forced by her mother. women in the Civil War that Zahra’s fictional Many readers and scholars commonly experience represents. perceive Zahra as a one dimensional, pas- In this paper, I explored the effects of sive victim, rather than a victim of trauma Zahra’s and her mother’s traumas and ex- actively responding to and coping with the periences using the theory of transgenera- compounded past and present traumas im- tional transmission of trauma to reconsider pacting her daily life. Zahra is read as pas- published critical analyses of the novel. I sive and/or mad, (Accad 1; Larson 15) and in describe several instances of what I believe some cases, even self-destructive (Accad 1), to be problematic interpretations of Zahra, among other negative and distrustful percep- the narrator, as “unreliable” in The Story of tions that all point to seeing her as an unreli- Zahra. able narrator and protagonist. In her article, In their article, “A New Look at “Sexuality, War, and Literature in Lebanon,” Transgenerational Trauma Transmission: Accad calls Zahra “masochistic” because Second-Generation Latino Immigrant

42 Francesca Quigley

Youth,” psychologists Suzanne Degges- be the Creator. Look, here is a fully devel- White and Ricardo M. Phipps explain, “In oped creature.’ But one was more forthright recent years, there has been growing recogni- and asked, ‘Why abortion after abortion?’ tion of the existence of what researchers have Another grew more outspoken still, and spat, swearing and shoving the dish aside: ‘I spit labeled vicarious or secondary trauma; this on the human being. Is this how we all are can be experienced by those who have signif- created—as minute as a fingernail becoming icant, close relationships to the direct victims as huge as mules!’ My mother would lean of trauma, such as therapists or family mem- on a neighbor to visit the bathroom. The she bers. Additionally, when the effects of trauma would return to bed, pale, yet, with happiness extend to other generations in the same fam- almost jumping from her glistening eyes. She ily beyond the generation of the person ex- didn’t want to have children by my father. periencing primary trauma, the phenomenon (al-Shaykh 26) has been labeled transgenerational trauma Clearly, in this scene, Zahra is describing or intergenerational trauma” (Degges-White an event that happened before she was born, & Phipps 175). In addition, research has and thus, logically, readers could interpret found that the transgenerational transmission Zahra as unreliable. While that is a logical in- of traits is seemingly more likely to come terpretation, upon further analysis, I believe from the maternal side than the paternal side this particular scene does not present Zahra (Yahyabi, Zarghami & Marwah 91). as an unreliable narrator to readers, but rather Zahra’s psychological state is a key focus as a recipient of her mother’s trauma. As a of the novel and is addressed both directly result of transgenerational trauma transmis- and demonstratively through her narration, sion, Zahra vividly remembers her mother’s thus making it possible to apply the theory of abortion and feels the visceral combination transgenerational transmission of trauma to of shame and relief that her mother experi- Zahra’s experience and explore the psycho- enced due to aborting a child whose father logical effects the transmission has on Zahra. physically and emotionally abuses her. It is Based on the definition of transgenerational possible that when Zahra says that she re- trauma, there are multiple instances in The members, she is not necessarily speaking Story of Zahra in which there is clear evi- literally. Thus, this demonstrates that the dence of trauma transmission between Zahra trauma her mother experienced as a result of and her mother. the abortion, along with the backlash that she For example, in the second chapter of the received from her community after she had novel, the text presents a moment in which it, was passed on to Zahra, when her mother Zahra appears to hold a memory as a result shared this experience with her. Additionally, of her mother’s transmission of trauma when the transmitted trauma from her mother is she, who has had two abortions herself, re- compounded by the trauma Zahra herself members her mother’s abortion: experiences at the hands of the same event Ahmad was seven years older than me. and the same societal pressures. For exam- Between us there had been a set of twins, girl ple, while locked in the bathroom after she and boy, who lived but briefly in a porcelain is married to Majed, her uncle’s friend who soup dish after my mother aborted them. lives in Africa in exile, Zahra remembers the Why did she let those bodies no bigger than traumatic event of one of her own abortions a finger swim in a soup dish while she lay and identifies how social pressures as a result sprawled on the bed? The official midwife, Izdihar, shook her head, feeling sorry or of her abortion, which are the same social happy, I did not know which. There was no pressures her mother experiences, led her to accounting for it. I remember the neighbors marry Majed: “I wish to remain forever in this pouring into the bedroom to greet my mother, bathroom despite all the knocks on the door then peering into the soup dish where the tiny that still throb in my ears and the voice of the embryos swam and then exclaiming, ‘In the stranger who has entered my life because I name of Allah, the All Merciful. Blessed was once spread out on the old doctor’s table

43 Explorations |Humanities and Fine Arts as his nurse combed her hair and casually put 15). Once again, the image of the orange on lipstick. Because of that I am here, in this and navel appears, reminding us of the um- stranger’s bathroom” (al-Shaykh 99). Zahra bilical, inseparable nature of the connection and her mother have each acted in ways that between Zahra and her mother, a connection are deemed unacceptable in Lebanese society that can only be severed by further trauma: due to beliefs influenced by patriarchy and “My mother and I shouted out together as if misogyny, and as a result of this, they both we were once again as close as the orange are largely traumatized by the backlash they and navel, as we had been when we stood receive in response to these acts. trembling behind the door, back in my earli- al-Shaykh demonstrates how similarly est memories” (al-Shaykh 136). Zahra and her mother are affected by this The image of the orange and navel appears trauma through the use of repetitive images again toward the end of the novel right be- in the text. For example, the image of Zahra fore Zahra’s death at the hands of the Sniper. during her abortion in which she spread Initially, Zahra thinks of killing herself after out on the doctor’s table mirrors the image learning she is pregnant with the Sniper’s of her mother after her abortion as she is baby, and she thinks of her mother discover- sprawled on the bed. Both women respond ing her death, saying, “I wondered whether to the trauma of the event with the same ex- she would think of the past, and of my ex- hausted relief to be without a child they did istence as an extension of her own since we not want because the father of that child used, had been inseparable, like orange and navel” abused, and failed them. al-Shaykh employs (al-Shaykh 196). As the novel is coming to this technique of repetitive action or mirror- a close, al-Shaykh repeats the image of the ing again when Zahra is thinking about her orange and the navel and reestablishes the marriage to Majed and how she is going to connection between Zahra and her mother, get through it, saying, “I don’t need to for- which has greatly diminished over time. This get that I am capable of keeping my feelings moment recalls Zahra’s trauma and the roots to myself, especially since marriage, after a of her trauma. It is almost as if Zahra herself while, becomes a sort of contract. That was is acknowledging the occurrence of the trans- what Malek used to say. That is what every- generational transmission of trauma that has body says. All I need to do is keep my real occurred between her and her mother. self hidden” (al-Shaykh 107). Zahra mirrors The image of the orange and navel and her mother’s relationship history in some its being reminiscent of the connection of a ways, as she marries a man from whom she mother and child through the umbilical cord is forced to hide her “real self,” and who she is significant and further provides evidence does not love, but has entered into a sort of of this sort of transmission of trauma model contract with. because the umbilical cord is how the mother In other moments in the text, al-Shaykh transmits nutrients and life to her baby when similarly creates mirror images of Zahra and it is in the womb. It is possible to imagine her mother, especially in their responses to that the traumas that the mother experiences trauma. For example, when Zahra is witness- can also be passed through the umbilical cord ing her father abusing her mother and accus- or through the closeness and connection of ing her of adultery, she says, “I wanted then mother and child, which is like “the orange to run to her, to pull her to me so we could and navel.” Considering the literal image of again become like orange and navel, and be- the orange and navel is also significant, as gan to cry and whimper with her.” Later in the navel of the orange can only be removed this scene, by way of force or inducing a sort of trauma Zahra says, “Seeing the blood covering upon the orange and navel. The seeds of her face, I tore at my hair and beat my chest, that traumatized orange remain and produce exactly as she would do herself” (al-Shaykh another generation of oranges, which then

44 Francesca Quigley experience more trauma and pass that down how the woman as nation trope often shows to another generation of oranges. itself in Lebanese society and that the fate Diya Abdo points out how instances and success of the nation is largely based throughout the novel “[suggest] that [Zahra’s] on the purity of its women and their suc- memory, indeed her consciousness has not cess in embodying the right woman based entirely been her own” (Abdo 222). This sug- on patriarchal standards. She says, “Thus in gestion can on one hand be an explanation for Lebanon…woman’s role was circumscribed. thinking of Zahra as an unreliable narrator, Her place became restricted to and indeed and on another hand this suggestion shows epitomized by the private, the domestic, the that Zahra’s memory and consciousness is apolitical and idealized in ‘pure’ womanhood in fact not entirely her own because she is and motherhood” (Abdo 220). Imposing the a recipient of trauma from previous genera- identity of a nation upon the identities of the tions. For example, Mona Fayad suggests women of that nation is in itself an action that that “Zahra is able to find a voice through causes harm upon those women due to the telling her own story and her mother’s, pro- oppressive ideology of patriarchy that shapes viding, instead of the reassuring voice of the and fuels the constant reproduction of this radio announcer that denies the existence of trope. Trauma can be, and is, enacted by ide- the war, an account, not only of the Lebanese ology. Thus, as ideology carries over, and is Civil War itself, but of the social systems that strengthened and further enforced, trauma is generate the violence of the war” (Fayad ) transmitted across generations through each Zahra’s mother has experienced trauma of generation’s introduction and subscription to various forms and transmitted that trauma to that ideology. Zahra, she has also, as a result of her own Like Abdo, Marianne Marroum points out trauma, contributed to Zahra’s traumatization that Zahra’s uncle, Hashem, and husband, in many situations. It is clear that her mother Majed, substitute Zahra for Lebanon, their has also received her own trauma from pre- homeland, and I think that while that is a vious generations and is deeply affected by product of the perpetuation of the patriarchal that throughout her entire life. For example, woman as nation trope, it also highlights the when Zahra returns from Africa for the first significance of the timelessness, and - some time, she sees her mother and describes her times placelessness, of Zahra’s memories, and by saying, “I saw my mother’s round face, the legitimacy of memories of such a qual- seeming about to explode, so full was it ity. Marroum argues that The Story of Zahra with suppressed anxieties” (al-Shaykh 102). is a “literature of displacement, one that is Zahra’s mother suppresses all emotions, not neither bound by time nor place” (Marroum only those resulting from her own life of per- 511). Marroum’s evidence relies on examin- petual trauma, but from Zahra’s as well. Not ing Hashem and Majed’s experience of exile only does Zahra in many ways learn and mir- and deep homesickness for Lebanon. I would ror this behavior, she is also directly affected add that Zahra’s ability to remember the past by her mother’s suppression of her emotions of her ancestors, for example, her mother’s from the moment she is born because that abortion, is also evidence of that. results in the transmission of her mother’s When explaining that there are many trauma to her. forms of homesickness, Marroum refer- Abdo posits that in The Story of Zahra, ences Roberta Rubenstein, who coined the Zahra attempts to “rewrite the national self” term “sickness of home” (Marroum 495) to and create a new national identity by means describe a type of homesickness. This term of employing “…subversive sexual and refers to the idea that one can be made sick psychological identities constructed within by their home due to the negative impact of and against highly patriarchal communi- certain ideologies of their homeland, i.e., the ties…” (Abdo 217). Abdo further explains imposition of patriarchal ideals on women in

45 Explorations |Humanities and Fine Arts various countries, and this sickness can af- different things from Zahra…but they fail to fect an individual even after they have left acknowledge Zahra as an individual with her their homeland. This sickness of home can own personal needs” (Adams 203). This fail- be transmitted between person to person who ure to acknowledge Zahra does her real harm share the same home, something that Zahra that she cannot undo; and is evidence of the points out in her observation of Hashem and trauma that she experiences at the hands of Majed, who live in exile from Lebanon in the women as nation trope and the dominant Africa (Marroum 504). It can be argued that patriarchal ideology of Lebanon. Zahra also notices that she herself has this I believe that Hanan al-Shaykh appears sickness of home, and that anyone within or to be a recipient of both transgenerational without their home country could have this trauma and transnational trauma. Abdo points sickness. out that Hanan al-Shaykh had a complicated This sickness of home, which is produced and estranged relationship with her mother, by war and oppressive ideologies, is plausi- which is how one could describe Zahra’s re- bly transmitted across generations and across lationship with her mother, and which may a nation or nations. Combining this idea of a point to transgenerational trauma transmis- sickness acquired from one’s home, or spe- sion between al-Shaykh and her mother. cifically in this novel, a sickness acquired Speaking of her mother in her essay, “War amongst Lebanese people as a result of a and Writing,” al-Shaykh says, “My mother warring Lebanon, and the concept of trans- remains my strongest connection to Lebanon. generational transmission of trauma, I be- She represents my country of origins, my lieve another mode of transmission of trauma past and my history. She’s my memory” (al- that is exemplified in this novel is what I call Shaykh, “War and Writing” 17). Perhaps transnational transmission of trauma. Zahra al-Shaykh shares her mother’s memories of and her experiences of trauma present vari- Lebanon in the same way that Zahra shares ous examples of this transnational transmis- her own mother’s memories. Both al-Shaykh sion of trauma throughout the novel. and Zahra live in their mothers’ memories and The most blatant example is the fact that because of their mothers’ memories, both as Zahra, by both the novel itself, and by partic- a result of being recipients of their mother’s ular characters in the novel, is traumatized by trauma, along with carrying on their mother’s the imposition of the woman as nation trope creative attempts at resistance. al-Shaykh ex- upon her, which results in her uncle seeking a plains that she wrote about her mother’s story misguided and detrimental solace in her that and the stories of “many Arab women who escalates to sexual abuse, as he is dealing with lived before World War II” in another one of the trauma of exile and leaving his homeland, her novels, It’s A Long Story, and says of her Lebanon. (Abdo 221; Adams 203; Marroum mother, “She always wanted her story to be 503) This does not excuse his actions, but cer- told because she suffered a lot. And by doing tainly contributes to a more nuanced under- so, I am revisiting my country of youth” (al- standing of Uncle Hashem, who also appears Shaykh, “War and Writing”17). al-Shaykh is to be a recipient of the transnational trauma writing her mother’s story to understand that experienced by so many in Lebanon, but spe- story, but also to understand how that story cifically by his family members, at the hands has grown into her own story. Considering of the civil war. Speaking of both Hashem this, whether or not al-Shaykh is conscious and Majed’s attempts to impose ideas and of the theory of transgenerational trauma dreams of their nation onto Zahra, Adams transmission, it appears that she understands points out that “neither man is able to under- and subscribes to the basic ideas that explain stand or help the troubled girl because each the theory. is too busy attempting to fashion her as his Regardless of explicitly knowing of own idealized image of Lebanon. As a result, the trauma she has received from past they may come to understand that they want

46 Francesca Quigley generations, al-Shaykh clearly uses storytell- and our traditions. We fought misogyny and ing, and specifically, the telling of Zahra’s machismo. The surprising thing is that to- story, in order to unpack her trauma and the day’s women in Lebanon are perhaps better trauma her mother and ancestors have experi- educated and more informed than my genera- enced. Multiple authors also point out the fact tion, but they are very subdued” (al-Shaykh, that Hanan al-Shaykh herself primarily expe- “War and Writing” 15). Here al-Shaykh is rienced the Lebanese Civil War in exile in acknowledging, if not intentionally, how the London, where she wrote The Story of Zahra trauma of patriarchy and misogyny is passed as the war was happening, rather than in down or perpetuated by the transmission of Lebanon, her homeland. It appears al-Shaykh this trauma through generations of women, is remembering her own experience of both and through the passing down or perpetu- transgenerational and transnational transmis- ation of dominant ideology. She is also ac- sion of trauma in her writing of The Story of knowledging the power of ideology to enact Zahra and commenting on the fact that she harm upon those who are forced to subscribe herself has been infected with the sickness of to it and are the most affected by it. Further, home as a result of the civil war. Further, she al-Shaykh is demonstrating how attempts at may be commenting on the trauma that she resistance of patriarchal oppression, however has experienced at the hands of the dominant different the methods are, are passed down or patriarchal ideology of Lebanese society that transmitted through generations. she is acknowledging in The Story of Zahra. Using the theory of transgenerational In the novel, she shows both Zahra and her transmission of trauma to analyze further the mother being traumatized and oppressed by interpretation of Zahra as unreliable serves this ideology, while also attempting to resist to present Zahra in a new light, along with the dominant ideology and beliefs that are restoring the reader’s sense of trust in her as imposed upon them as Lebanese women. a narrator. She emerges as a reliable narrator al-Shaykh’s writing of The Story of Zahra who is remembering as a result of both the itself is resistance to this oppression that she very real trauma she experienced and also the and other Lebanese women have faced at the trauma passed down from her mother to her. hands of patriarchy. Zahra experiences her own very real trau- In “War and Writing,” al-Shaykh also mas due to various events in her life, but that discusses the current younger generation in trauma is influenced and further exacerbated Lebanon, whose forms of resistance against by the trauma experienced by previous gen- patriarchy she seems to disagree with, say- erations in Lebanon, including that enacted ing, “Now when I go to Lebanon I see girls upon the entire nation of Lebanon at the going topless at the beach, and they think hands of the war. The Story of Zahra also ap- that’s revolutionary. Needless to mention pears to serve as a way for Hanan al-Shaykh they’re as oppressed as before only they don’t to remember and cope with her own transgen- know it” (al-Shaykh, “War and Writing”15). erational and/or transnational trauma that she She goes on to say, “In my generation, on and so many other women have experienced the other hand, we were all fighting before due to the war and their experiences of pa- the war against that. We fought our families triarchy and misogyny as Lebanese women.

47 Explorations |Humanities and Fine Arts

REFERENCES

Abdo, Diya M. “Redefining the Warring Self in Hanan Al-Shaykh’s the ‘Story of Zahra’ and Frank McGuinness’ ‘Carthaginians’.” Pacific Coast Philology 42.2 (2007): 217-237. Print.

Accad, Evelyne. “Sexuality, War, and Literature in Lebanon.” Feminist Issues 11.2 (1991): 27-42. Print.

Adams, Ann Marie. “Writing Self, Writing Nation: Imagined Geographies in the Fiction of Hanan al-Shaykh.” Tulsa Studies in Women’s Literature 20.2 (2001): 201-216. Print. al-Shaykh, Hanan. The Story of Zahra. Anchor Books. 1995. al-Shaykh, Hanan. “War and Writing.” New Perspectives Quarterly 22.3 (2005): 15- 18. Print.

Degges-White, Suzanne, and Ricardo M. Phipps. “A New Look at Transgenerational Trauma Transmission: Second-Generation Latino Immigrant Youth.” Journal of Multicultural Counseling & Development 42.3 (2014): 174-187. Print.

Fayad, Mona. “Reinscribing Identity: Nation and Community in Arab Women’s Writing.” College Literature 22.1 (1995): 147+. Literature Resource Center. Web. 9 May 2016.

Larson, Charles R., “The Fiction of Hanan Al-Shaykh, Reluctant Feminist.” World Literature Today 65.1 (1991): 14-17. Print.

Marroum, Marianne. “What’s So Great About Home? Roots, Nostalgia, and Return in Andrée Chedid’s ‘La maison son racines’ and Hanan al-Shaykh’s ‘Hikāyat Zahra’.” Comparative Literature Studies 45.4 (2008): 491-513. Print.

Yahyabi, Seyyed T., Zarghami, Mehran, & Marwah, Urvashi. “A Review on the Evidence of Transgenerational Transmission of Posttraumatic Stress Disorder Vulnerability.” Revista Brasileira de Psiquiatria 36.1 (2014): 89-94. Print.

Explorations | Creative Work Creative Work: “M.Y.O.B. Rd” Pop-Up Book Artist: Courtney Hockett Faculty Mentor: Brandon Sanderson Affiliation: University of North Carolina Pembroke Dimensions: 7”X6.5”X18” Medium: Graphite, watercolor, digital, bookbinding

ARTIST STATEMENT: “M.Y.O.B. Rd”, or “Mind Your Own Business Road,” was created in 2015 as a two-part grant through the Pembroke Undergraduate Research and Creativity Center in which I was given the opportunity to research how to incorporate creative literacy within art using the process of paper engineering. Even though the illustrations found within “M.Y.O.B. Rd” appear to tell a colorful and whimsical story, the contents resemble that of the literary genre Grit Lit and include details and scenes that are true to my childhood. In order to demonstrate the advancement of my skills in the field of paper engineering, I designed a series of four separate illustrations with four different pop- up templates ranging in difficulty: stationary, v-fold, complex moving, and an original design. Once all the illustrations and templates were complete, I assembled the final product by hand using the technique of book binding. By incorporating the concept of creative literacy, I was able to create an original book that allows viewers/readers to experience a story through interactive, three-dimensional illustrations.

50 Courtney Hockett

hards of gravel bit my arms as I squinted The road was lined with signs warning Spast the cloud of dirt flying out from under strangers to “Beware of Dog” along with the back tires of my cousin Lacey’s go-kart. As threatening comments poorly written on two- we turned the corner, I shifted gears and con- by-fours; such as my favorite “Shoot First, tinued to follow close behind. Lacey was a few Call 911 Later” nailed to an old oak tree. I years older than me, so Granny always left her loosened my grip on the wheel and let my foot in charge when she had to leave to run errands. barely touch the gas, following Lacey’s hand She was my Bonnie and I was her Clyde. If gestures as she motioned for when and when there was mischief to be made, Lacey and I not to add pressure to the brakes. We coasted were the ones to do it. So it came as no sur- down the dirt path and eased our go-karts into prise when I saw the street sign ahead with the a spot in the woods so that we could be unseen. letters “M.Y.O.B.” reflecting in the afternoon I crawled on top of the roll cage and searched sunlight – we only ever came to these parts for for a vehicle to ensure that no one was home. one thing, and that was to start trouble. Lacey crept over and squatted down beside my This was the first time since school let out go-kart. that I had been allowed to drive. Earlier that “Know what we’re after?” year Granny had restricted my faux license af- “Nope. Want me to be runner today?” I said, ter I accidently drove off track and lunged head jumping down from the go-kart. first into the neighbors’ ditch, destroying their She nodded and looked over towards an old mailbox and freshly planted tulips. I didn’t wooden shed. “I overheard Granny talking on mean to get distracted, it’s just that Chingy’s the phone to T.C. this morning before she left “Right Thurr” came on the portable radio and to go deliver newspapers. There’s a blue fifteen you can’t not dance to that song. So needless gallon bucket somewhere in his shed.” to say, my right to drive had been revoked for “Do you know what’s in it?” I asked as I a while. scanned all the junk laying around the yard.

M.Y.O.B. Rd, Courntey Hockett, 2016

51 Explorations | Creative Work

“Nope, but it sounded important.” as there were too many to share the limited I looked around the property one last time space. Frantic, I plunged around the shed - and then - ZOOM! I darted to the near- looking for anything that would suffice as a est pile of junk adjacent to the building. I fish bowl. This was the first time I had ever crawled up to the top of the pile and crawled attempted to heist something living. inside a tractor tire. I peeped my head out I finally found an empty glass container and looked back towards the woods where and began scooping out the creatures with Lacey was now standing. She motioned for my bare hands. The crawfish pinched my me to keep going towards the shed. fingers as I pulled them one by one out of I laid back down inside my cubby hole the cold murky water. No matter how much and took a moment to regain my breath, but they hurt, I knew I couldn’t stop. It didn’t I couldn’t. The reality of what we were do- matter whose fault it was, I had to do what- ing never really hit until after I had begun ever it took to get out of there for both our a mission. But when it did, it felt as though sakes. There were too many to carry so I my heart was going to split out of my throat; filled the container as much as I could and this is what I craved, not the merchandise. ran out of the shed, making sure to leave I lunged out of the tractor tire and ran to- everything close to the same position as it wards the shed. Without stopping, I swung originally was. open the wooden doors and squeezed inside ______the room. I paused and looked around. The only Granny still wasn’t back from her news- blue bucket I saw was sitting in the far cor- paper route when we pulled back up to the ner; this had to be it. I opened the lid and house – giving us just enough time to hide immediately froze when I saw what was the evidence until we could figure out what inside. The bucket was full of the wrig- to do with them. gling bodies of crawfish. Squirming for air Lacey ran by my go-kart, grabbed the

52 Courtney Hockett container from the seat, and sprinted over “Yeah, you too,” she said as she walked to the concrete fishpond beside Granny’s around to the trunk of the car. “Thanks house. again T.C., that algae shit killed all my koi “D-Dump them,” I shouted, trying to so I’m going to kill it and every damn else push past what felt like a wad of cotton thing in there tonight.” stuck in the back of my throat She opened the trunk and pulled out a Right as Lacey threw the last crawfish blue bucket. Written on the side in bold let- into the pond Granny’s car pulled into the ters was “Instant Kill Pond, the Ultimate driveway. She opened the door and stepped Pond Restarter – 15 G.” out, holding her cell phone to her right ear.

Natural Sciences and Engineering Explorations |Natural Sciences and Engineering Sea Level Rise Hazard Assessment for New Hanover County, North Carolina

Sydney Bohn and Evan Hill University of North Carolina Wilmington Faculty Mentor: Narcisa Pricope University of North Carolina Wilmington

ABSTRACT In the next one hundred years, sea level rise is going to significantly impact coastal communities across the globe. The rising seas will displace people from their homes and cause harm to the utilities and infrastructure that communities depend upon, thus creating the need for proac- tive planning measures that often rely on geospatial modeling. New Hanover County is located in southeastern North Carolina between the Cape Fear River and the Intracoastal Waterway. Given that the county is on a peninsula and is at a relatively low elevation, property and infrastructure are at a high risk of inundation. We used ArcGIS and modeling to determine what components of New Hanover County infrastructure are at risk of becoming inundated due to the combined effects of sea level rise and storm surges. We have identified possible areas of inundation to the year 2100 with conservative and precautionary sea level rise models to find what roads, stormwater systems, parks, superfund sites, and areas of land could become inundated. Due to their regional importance, we also analyzed in a spatially-explicit manner the extents to which the airport and port are likely to be affected. We conclude that New Hanover County will encounter significant planning and adaptation difficulties associated with inundation caused by the effects of sea level rise and storm surges, and that this work can help contribute towards alleviating them.

lobal climate change is becoming an average elevation in New Hanover County Gincreasingly prominent issue as atmo- ranges from 0 meters to 23 meters, and as spheric CO2 levels rise largely due to anthro- such is especially vulnerable to sea level rise. pogenic activity. One of the main impacts of The ultimate goal of this project was to climate change on coastal communities is sea use GIS technologies to provide the residents level rise (SLR). A thorough understanding and governments of the City of Wilmington of this issue and advance planning measures and New Hanover County a report of areas are necessary steps in community adaptation that could potentially become permanently or to climate change. Not only will sea level rise temporarily inundated by sea level rise, storm affect the human landscape of a region, but surge, or flooding. This final report includes it will also impact the natural ecosystem as a maps and summary tables of several impacted whole (Glavovic et al, 2015). It is important areas within the City of Wilmington, as well to perform hazard assessments in any region as for other key areas outside of the City lim- in order to identify and mitigate any poten- its such as Wrightsville Beach. This assess- tial risks for the future (McGuire, 2013). The ment was performed in cooperation with the

56 Sydney Bohn and Evan Hill

City of Wilmington and the Department of elevation- Average storm surge and Geography & Geology through a Community rain from a storm that has a 1 in 100 Engagement Grant from University of North (1%) chance of occurring in any given Carolina Wilmington. year (CHM2Hill, 2013).

METHODOLOGY The bulk of this assessment was performed using ArcMap. A 30cm Digital Elevation Using GIS, a hazard vulnerability assess- Model (DEM) of New Hanover County ment was performed on public services, was created by using the Mosaic tool in transportation systems, and lifeline systems ArcMap to merge approximately 25 individ- within New Hanover County to identify pos- ual DEMs created by the National Oceanic sible vulnerabilities to future sea level rise. and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA). Previous studies on SLR and its effect on This DEM was used to create the baseline certain infrastructures were conducted for 100-centimeter SLR scenario by using the the City of Wilmington in 2013. However, Raster Calculator tool within ArcMap to these studies focused primarily on waste- identify land below 100 centimeters in eleva- water infrastructure and only looked at im- tion. After this, the Clip feature was used to pacts within the city limits of Wilmington clip the infrastructure data (roads, stormwa- (CHM2Hill, 2013). In order to maintain a ter structures, parks, etc.) to get the areas that generally uniform analysis between this as- will be inundated by the 40-centimeter and sessment and the previous study, this assess- 100-centimeter SLR scenarios. The output ment used the SLR scenarios developed by shapefiles provided the area, number - ofin CH2MHill, with the exception of the base- stances, or length of the inundated infrastruc- line 100cm SLR scenario because it was not ture being identified. included in the scenario data. The baseline scenarios only factor in the impact of SLR RESULTS & AREAS OF CONCERN without the addition of storm surge. The scenarios that were utilized are as follows: The major results of this assessment is organized into sections based on the affected Baseline SLR Scenarios: infrastructure. The general extent of SLR in 1. 40 centimeters (1.3ft) by 2100 – New Hanover County is presented first and Historical SLR trend (N.C. Coastal the subsequent sections are presented in no Resources Commission, 2010) particular order. 2. 100 centimeters (3.3ft) by 2100 – Precautionary SLR trend (N.C. Coastal 1. General Extent Resources Commission, 2010) The general extent of SLR inundation in New Hanover County is referenced in Figure It should be noted that the precautionary 1 and Figure 2. Figure 1 shows the extent SLR trend factors in the melting of the polar of the 40-centimeter SLR scenario for all of ice sheets, whereas the historical SLR trend New Hanover county. Figure 2 shows the is only based on historical sea level rise. extent of the 100-centimeter SLR scenario for the same region. In both figures, New Inundation Events: Hanover County is delineated by a dashed 1. 10-year storm event flood eleva- line. The locator map in both figures show tion- Average storm surge and rain New Hanover County’s placement in the from a storm that has a 1 in 10 (10%) state of North Carolina. chance of occurring in any given year (CHM2Hill, 2013). 2. Roads 2. 100-year storm event flood There are over 2,768 kilometers of roads

57 Explorations |Natural Sciences and Engineering

! Figure 1. FigureThe overall 1. The extent overall of the extent 40-centimeter of the 40-centimeter sea level rise scenariosea level for rise New scenario Hanover for County, New Hanover North Carolina. County, The North sea level rise scenarios areCarolina. layered soThe that sea the level least rise amount scenarios of inundation are layered (baseline so that 40cm the SLR) least is amount visible onof inundationtop, with subsequent, (baseline higher 40cm inundation amounts layeredSLR) underneath. is visible on The top, lighter with shades subsequent, indicate higher lower inundationamounts of inundationamounts layered and darker underneath. shades indicate The lighter higher amounts of inundation.shades New indicateHanover Countylower amounts is delineated of inundation by a dashed and line. darker The locator shades map indicate in the higherlower right amounts corner of shows inundation. the placement of New Hanover County is delineatedNew Hano byver a Countydashed inline. the Thestate locator of North map Carolina. in the lower right corner shows the placement of New Hanover County in the state of North Carolina.

58 Sydney Bohn and Evan Hill

! Figure 2. TheFigure overall 2. extent The overallof the 100 extent-centimeter of the sea 100-centimeter level rise scenario sea forlevel New rise Hanover scenario County, for New North Hanover Carolina. County, The sea level rise scenariosNorth are Carolina.layered so thatThe the sea least level amount rise scenarios of inundation are (baselinelayered so100cm that SLR) the least is visible amount on top, of inundationwith subsequent, (base higher- inundationline amounts 100cm layered SLR) isunderneath. visible on The top, lighter with subsequent,shades indicate higher lower inundationamounts of inundationamounts layered and darker underneath. shades indicate The higher amountslighter of inundation. shades indicateNew Hanover lower County amounts is delineated of inundation by a dashed and darker line. The shades locator indicate map in thehigher lower amounts right corner of inun shows- the dation. New Hanoverplacement County is of delineated New Hanover by aCounty dashed in theline. state The of locator North Carolina. map in the lower right corner shows the placement of New Hanover County in the state of North Carolina.

59 Explorations |Natural Sciences and Engineering within New Hanover County. With a con- only the areas that would be impacted. servative SLR scenario of 40 centimeters, it During a hurricane or large storm event, is expected that 42 kilometers of roads will these stormwater structures would be inun- become permanently inundated. Road inundated with seawater due to the combination dation increases to 30 kilometers under the of long-term sea level rise and storm surge. 100-centimeter SLR scenario. This has the During a 10-year storm, approximately 56 potential to interrupt transportation across the kilometers of stormwater structure would be county and cut off roadway access to certain inundated with a baseline sea level rise of 40 areas if the roads are not modified to either centimeters. There would be about 75 kilo- have a higher elevation or drain water away. meters of stormwater structure that would Figure 3 shows some of the areas that would be inundated with the baseline sea level rise be majorly affected by the 40-centimeter SLR of 100 centimeters. If a 100-year storm were scenario. This figure depicts the area around to hit New Hanover County, approximately Greenfield Park and the Port of Wilmington 98 kilometers of storm water systems would and their sections of road that would be in- be inundated with the baseline sea level rise undated under each 40-centimeter SLR sce- of 40 centimeters, and just over 107 kilome- nario. This area has approximately the same ters of structure would be inundated for the length of roads inundated under the 100-cen- same storm intensity with 100 centimeters timeter SLR scenarios. of sea level rise. Figure 5 shows stormwa- The 60-centimeter difference in the two ter drainage infrastructure near Wrightsville sea level rise scenarios is significant when Beach that would be heavily affected by the considering the impact of storm surge asso- 100-centimeter sea level rise scenarios. ciated with hurricanes and other large storm events. With a 40-centimeter SLR scenario, 4. Parks a 10-year storm would inundate 146 kilome- Parks and other outdoor public facilities ters of roads. The same 10-year storm with a are an important asset to the community. Not 100-centimeter rise could inundate 203 kilo- only do they provide recreation and educa- meters of roads. It should be noted that this tion opportunities for residents, but they inundation is temporary and would recede may also provide safe habitats for species of back to 40-centimeter baseline level. A 100- flora and fauna. Several parks throughout the year storm has the potential to inundate 275 city and county are vulnerable to sea level kilometers of roads under the 40-centimeter rise as they are situated near the Cape Fear SLR and 345 kilometers of roads under the River. As sea level rises, the water level of 100-centimeter SLR. Figure 4 shows roads the Cape Fear River will rise, and in turn in the area around Wrightsville Beach that may permanently inundate the parks that are would inundated by the 100-centimeter SLR near its banks. Figure 6 shows four parks in scenarios. A locator map is used to show the Wilmington that will be inundated under the area’s location in the county. 40-centimeter SLR scenarios. The overall average elevation in this figure ranges from 3. Stormwater Structures 0 meters to 4 meters, and the parks pictured Permanent inundation of stormwater will experience anywhere from .3 acres to 13 systems could cause complications with acres of inundation under the 40-centimeter stormwater management in the future. With SLR scenarios. Although this may not seem a 40-centimeter SLR, approximately 29 ki- like a significant amount of area lost to flood- lometers of stormwater structures would be ing, many of these parks will have their prop- inundated. And with a 100-centimeter SLR, erties flooded out almost entirely. approximately 34 kilometers of stormwater One of the most affected parks in the structures would be inundated. This analysis county will be Greenfield Park (Fig. 7). The does not factor in the depth of inundation, but average elevation at this park is between 0

60 Sydney Bohn and Evan Hill

Figure 3. Inundation of roads near Greenfield Park and the Port of Wilmington in New Hanover County, ! North Carolina. The locator (lower left) and index (upper left) maps on the left show the relative loca- Figure 3. Inundationtion of ofthe roads area near in the Greenfield state and Park county, and respectively.the Port of Wilmington The map of in the New roads Hanover affected County, is listed North as follows:Carolina. The locator (lower left) and baselineindex (upper 40cm left) SLR maps (upper on the right), left show40cm theSLR/10-year relative location storm ofevent the area(center in the right), state 40cm and county, SLR/100-year respectively. The map of the roadsstorm affected event is listed (lower as right).follows: The baseline roads 40cmshown SLR in thick (upper black right), lines 40cm are theSLR/10 roads-year that storm will beevent inundated (center inright), 40cm SLR/100-year stormeach scenario.event (lower It should right). beThe noted roads that shown approximately in thick black the lines same are amount the roads of roadsthat will are be inundated inundated in in this each scenario. It should be noted that approximately the samearea amount under theof roads 100cm are SLR inundated scenarios. in this area under the 100cm SLR scenarios.

61 Explorations |Natural Sciences and Engineering

Figure 4. FigureInundation 4. Inundationof roads near of Wrightsville roads near Beach Wrightsville in New HanoverBeach in County, New Hanover North Carolina. County, The North locator Carolina. (lower left) The and index (upper left)locator maps on (lower the left left) show and the index relative (upper location left) of maps the area on inthe the left state show and thecounty, relative respectively. location The of the map area of the in rotheads affected is listed asstate follows: and baselinecounty, 10respectively.0cm SLR (upper The mapright), of 10 the0cm roads SLR/10 affected-year stormis listed event as (centerfollows: right), baseline 100cm 100cm SLR/100 SLR-year storm event (lower(upper right). right), The roads 100cm shown SLR/10-year in thick black storm lines event are the (center roads right),that will 100cm be inundated SLR/100-year in each scenario. storm event It should (lower be noted that right). The roadsmost shownof the roads in thick in Wrightsville black lines Beach are the will roads be inundated that will during be inundated any storm in event. each scenario. It should be noted that most of the roads in Wrightsville Beach will be inundated during any storm event.

Sydney Bohn and Evan Hill

Figure 5. Inundation of stormwater channels near Wrightsville Beach in New Hanover County, North Carolina. The locator (lower left) and index (upper left) maps on the left show the relative location of Figure 5. Inundationthe area of instormwater the state and channels county, near respectively. Wrightsville The Beach map of in the New affected Hanover areas County, is listed North as follows: Carolina. baseline The locator (lower left) and index (upp100cmer left) SLR maps (upper on theright), left 100cmshow the SLR/10-year relative location storm event of the (center area in right), the state 100cm and SLR/100-county, respectively. year storm The map of the event (lower right). The structures shown in thick black lines are the stormwater channels that will be affected areas is listed as follows: baseline 100cm SLR (upper right), 100cm SLR/10-year storm event (center right), 100cm SLR/100- inundated in each scenario. year storm event (lower right). The structures shown in thick black lines are the stormwater channels that will be inundated in each scenario.

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Figure 6. Parks in New Hanover County, North Carolina experiencing inundation under 40cm SLR scenarios. The index map on the Figure 6. Parks in New Hanover County, North Carolina experiencing inundation under 40cm SLR sce- right shows the area’s location in the county. The park parcels are outlined in thick, dark lines. The parks shown on this map will narios. The index map on the right shows the area’s location in the county. The park parcels are outlined experience anywherein thick, from dark .3 lines. acres The to 13parks acres shown of inundation on this map under will experience the 40cm anywhereSLR scenarios. from .3 Although acres to 13 this acres may of not seem like a significant inundationamount of under area lostthe 40cmto flooding, SLR scenarios. many of Although these parks this maywill nothave seem their like properties a significant flooded amount out ofalmost area entirely. lost to flooding, many of these parks will have their properties flooded out almost entirely.

64 Table 1. Acreage of Parks in New Hanover County inundatedSydney under 40cm Bohn SLR scenarios and Evan. Hill

Acres Inundated (40cm Acres Inundated Acres Inundated Park Name Baseline) (10yr Storm) (100yr Storm)

Airlie Gardens 0.72 8.96 37.92 Archie Blue Park 0.20 0.89 1.65 Bullock Park 2.12 3.38 3.87 Carolina Beach State Park 8.65 70.40 105.48 Claude Howell Park 0.02 0.09 0.09 Dram Tree Park 0.26 0.47 0.63 Greenfield Amphitheatre 0.76 1.69 3.04 Greenfield Park 111.47 146.16 179.40 Legion Stadium 0.00 0.00 2.55 Mary Bridgers Park 3.35 4.83 5.05 McCrary Park 29.24 29.61 29.99 Municipal Golf Course 0.00 0.00 0.27 North Waterfront 0.80 4.65 6.41 Optimist Park 8.21 8.89 8.89 River Road Park 3.83 6.12 8.81 Riverfront Park 0.55 0.55 0.55 Riverside Park 0.51 1.50 2.28 Snows Cut 4.26 8.82 11.95 Snows Cut Park 2.20 3.40 4.99 Thomas Lilly Park 0.27 1.02 1.31 Wallace Park 6.19 11.76 13.10 Table 1. Acreage of Parks in New Hanover County inundated under 40cm SLR scenarios.

meters and 2.5 meters. Although much of the elevation for the aiport property ranges from park consists of Greenfield Lake itself, the 0 meters to 10 meters. The lower elevations park as a whole is at great risk for becom- are mostly contained near the southern part ing completely flooded as sea levels rise. The of the property. park will experience between 111 and 179 Although the scenarios do not show sea acres of inundation under the 100-centimeter level rise having an effect on the major air- SLR scenarios. Tables 1 and 2 list all of the port terminal or the major runways, it does parks in Wilmington (including Greenfield have the potential to affect some of the minor Park) that will experience inundation during runways and administrative buildings. The both 40-centimeter and 100-centimeter sea majority of these areas lie along the south- level rise scenarios. Parks that are not inside ern edge of the airport property. Overall, the the City limits but reside in New Hanover airport property is expected to lose 185 acres County are also included in this list. (Fig. 8) to 255 acres (Fig. 9) to either permanent or temporary inundation. 5. Wilmington International Airport The Wilmington International Airport has 6. Superfund Sites served the Wilmington community for many The Superfund program, established by years. The airport serves as a major trans- Congress in 1980, is designed to help clean portation hub for both domestic and inter- up sites contaminated by hazardous pollut- national flights, as well as for commercial ants or chemicals that pose a threat to hu- activities. Both the 40- and 100-centimeter man health. The Environmental Protection sea level rise scenarios have the potential to Agency (EPA) identifies these hazardous sites affect the airport’s property. These scenarios throughout the country (Hird, 1993). New are depicted in Figures 8 and 9. The average Hanover County is home to 14 Superfund

65 Explorations |Natural Sciences and Engineering

sites, both active and inactive, many of which because the average elevation at this site only are located along the Cape Fear River (US ranges from about 0 meters to 1.5 meters. Environmental Protection Agency, 2016). This inundation is depicted in Figure 10. Most of the Superfund sites in New Hanover If cleanup efforts are not completed at this County have completed the cleanup process site before the hazardous areas become inun- and no longer pose a major health hazard. dated, it is possible that contaminants could However, there are still a several Superfund leach from the site. Although the site is clas- sites in the county that are actively undergo- sified as Superfund, the Southern Piedmont ing cleanup and may still pose a hazard to Wood Co. site is not on the EPA’s National the community. One such site is the Southern Priorities List, which means that the con- Wood Piedmont Co. site (Fig. 10). taminants or amount of contamination at this Although the projected sea level rise is site is not classified as posing a significant not expected to be reached until 2100, that or immediate impact on human health (US does not mean that the impacts will not occur Environmental Protection Agency, 2016). before that date. Sea level rise is a gradual The contaminants present a definite health change that occurs over many years and de- hazard, but are not dangerous enough to the cades. The concern with the Superfund sites public that the EPA has to take drastic action in terms of sea level rise is that the hazardous to remediate the site. chemicals and pollutants at these sites may leach into the water supply or ground water 7. Port of Wilmington before cleanup efforts can be completed. The Port of Wilmington is a major com- The Southern Piedmont Wood Co. site is merce hub and one of the few large ship- positioned in such a way that the site will ping ports located in the South Atlantic. The be 100% inundated within just the baseline port handles upwards of 4.5 million tons of 40-centimeterTable sea2. Acreage level ofrise Pa rkscenario.s in New HanoverThe is Countycargo inundated in a undersingle 100cm year. SLR Although scenarios . the port is

Acres Inundated Acres Inundated (10yr Acres Inundated Park Name (100cm Baseline) Storm) (100yr Storm)

Airlie Gardens 0.85 26.21 44.17 Archie Blue Park 0.21 1.06 1.65 Bullock Park 2.12 3.49 3.87 Carolina Beach State Park 10.87 94.15 119.37 Claude Howell Park 0.03 0.09 0.09 Dram Tree Park 0.32 0.50 0.62 Greenfield Amphitheatre 0.76 2.24 3.04 Greenfield Park 111.71 158.81 179.30 Legion Stadium 0.00 0.00 2.43 Mary Bridgers Park 3.35 4.89 5.05 McCrary Park 29.24 29.69 29.97 Municipal Golf Course 0.00 0.00 1.61 North Waterfront 0.93 6.23 6.41 Optimist Park 8.41 8.89 8.89 River Road Park 4.39 7.15 9.38 Riverfront Park 0.55 0.55 0.55 Riverside Park 1.13 2.27 2.99 Snows Cut 4.74 11.78 12.40 Snows Cut Park 2.62 4.43 6.03 Thomas Lilly Park 0.32 1.09 1.31 Wallace Park 6.26 12.22 13.10 Table 2. Acreage of Parks in New Hanover County inundated under 100cm SLR scenarios. !

66 Sydney Bohn and Evan Hill

Figure 7. Parks in New Hanover County, North Carolina experiencing inundation under 100cm SLR scenarios. The index map on the Figure 7. Parks in New Hanover County, North Carolina experiencing inundation under 100cm SLR right shows the area’s location in the county. The park parcels are outlined in thick, dark lines. The parks shown on this map will scenarios. The index map on the right shows the area’s location in the county. The park parcels are experience anywhereoutlined from in thick, .3 acres dark to lines. 16 acres The parksof inundation shown on under this map the 100cmwill experience SLR scenarios. anywhere Greenfield from .3 acres Park to will16 have the highest amount of area inundatedacres of inundationout of all the under parks the in 100cm New SLRHanover scenarios. County. Greenfield Greenfield Park Park will will have experience the highest betweenamount of111 and 179 acres of area inundated out of all the parks in New Hanoverinundation. County. Greenfield Park will experience between 111 and 179 acres of inundation.

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Figure 8. Inundation of the Wilmington International Airport (ILM) under 40cm SLR scenarios. The index map Figure 8. Inundationin the upper of right the Wilmingtonshows the location International of the airport Airport in (ILM) New Hanover under 40cm County, SLR North scenarios. Carolina. The Theindex majority map in of the the upper right shows the locationairport’s of property, the airport including in New the Hanover main terminal County, will North remain Carolina. unaffected The majority by these ofscenarios. the airport’s However, property, other including minor the main terminal will remain unaffectedrunways by these and scenarios.several administrative However, other buildings minor will runways most likely and severa be inundated.l administrative buildings will most likely be inundated.

Figure 9. Inundation of the Wilmington International Airport (ILM) under 100cm SLR scenarios. The airport’s Figure 8. Inundationproperty boundaries of the Wilmington are shown International as a thick, dark Airport line. (ILM) The index under map 40cm in the SLR upper scenarios. right shows The indexthe location map in of the the upper right showsFigure the 9. Inundationlocationairport in of New ofthe the airportHanover Wilmington in County,New InternationalHanover North Carolina. County, Airport North Although (ILM) Carolina. muchunder ofThe100 the cmmajority baseline SLR scenarios. of 100cm the airport’s inundation The airport’s property, here propertyis including similar boundaries the main terminalare shown will as remaina thick,to the unaffected dark40cm line. inundation, Theby these index some scenarios. map areas in the will However, upper experience right other sh a ows minorwider the extentrunways location of inundationand of the severa airport lduring administrative in New storm Hanover events. buildings County, will North most Carolina. Although much of the baseline 100cm inundationlikely here be is inundated. similar to the 40cm inundation, some areas will experience a wider 68 extent of inundation during storm events.

Figure 9. Inundation of the Wilmington International Airport (ILM) under 100cm SLR scenarios. The airport’s property boundaries are shown as a thick, dark line. The index map in the upper right shows the location of the airport in New Hanover County, North Carolina. Although much of the baseline 100cm inundation here is similar to the 40cm inundation, some areas will experience a wider extent of inundation during storm events. Sydney Bohn and Evan Hill

Figure 10. The Southern Piedmont Wood Co. Superfund site under 40cm SLR scenarios. The index map on the right shows the site’s location in New Hanover County, North Carolina. As shown on the map, Figure 10. The Soutthis hernSuperfund Piedmont site will Wood be completely Co. Superfund inundated site under under 40cmjust the SLR 40cm scenarios. baseline TheSLR indexscenario. map This on sitethe rightis shows the site’s location in New Hanoverone of the County, only Superfund North Carolina. sites undergoing As shown active on clean-upthe map, thatthis wouldSuperfund be inundated site will by be sea completely level rise. inundated under just the 40cm baseline SLR scenario. This site is one of the only Superfund sites undergoing active clean-up that would be inundated by not managed by the City itself, any effect thatsea levelscenario. rise. The extents of the 40-centimeter sea level rise may have on the port may ul- and 100-centimeter SLR scenarios are de- timately effect the community economically. picted in Figures 11 and 12, respectively. With both sea level rise scenarios (Fig. 11 & Fig. 12), it is quite apparent that the Port will 8. Wrightsville Beach be inundated, whether it be through storm The Wilmington area is known for its out- events or just baseline sea level rise. The standing downtown and pristine beaches. average elevation for the Port ranges from Although these are not within city limits, 0 meters to 4.5 meters. The lower elevations Wilmington benefits tremendously from the in this area are situated along the northern tourism the beaches generate. The appeal of end of the property. Most of the buildings Wrightsville Beach and other neighboring and storage facilities on the Port’s property beaches impacts the citizens of Wilmington, will be severely impacted by sea level rise. so the wellbeing of beach towns should be The northern section of the Port’s property considered when planning for future develop- will most likely be heavily inundated, even ment in Wilmington. The average elevation with the baseline 40-centimeter sea level rise at Wrightsville Beach ranges from 0 meters

69 Explorations |Natural Sciences and Engineering to 5.5 meters but the majority of the town is systems are not designed to operate properly less than 2 meters in elevation. when flooded and water, especially saltwa- Figures 13 and 14 shows the expected inter, can cause the systems and facilities to undation of Wrightsville Beach for 40-cen- degrade faster than they would normally timeter and 100-centimeter sea level rise (CHM2Hill, 2013). Coastal communities are scenarios, respectively. Significant portions among the most vulnerable areas in terms of Wrightsville Beach will inundated under of sea level rise and future storm events both 40-centimeter and 100-centimeter SLR (McGuire, 2013). Portions of the Port of scenarios. It should be noted that under the Wilmington and Wilmington International 100-centimeter SLR scenarios (Fig. 14), Airport are vulnerable to sea level rise due Wrightsville Beach will be inundated almost to their adjacency with bodies of water that entirely. Because coastlines are dynamic and are connected to the ocean. Portions of these constantly moving, it is entirely possible that facilities and the land they are situated on Wrightsville Beach could be washed away will likely become permanently inundated by completely during a 100-year storm event. higher water levels. Wrightsville Beach and other beach com- Even under conservative (40-centimeter) munities are at the highest risk of being im- sea level rise scenarios, many roads and pacted by sea level rise. Wrightsville Beach is stormwater systems in New Hanover County a barrier island, and as such, is subject to sea are at serious risk for becoming permanently level rise impact on every side. This causes inundated. It should also be noted that there is other more dynamic issues, such as coastal a risk that certain Superfund sites throughout erosion. For planning for sea level rise in our the county may be inundated by sea level rise. beach communities, research will need to In particular, the active Southern Piedmont be done on the best methods to protect our Wood Co. site near downtown would be shorelines from erosion, and to prevent the completely inundated even at the baseline community’s developments from becoming SLR of 40 centimeters. This could be particu- inundated. This research is also critical to the larly hazardous if contaminants contained at real estate market in Wrightsville Beach, as these types of sites made their way back into it will inevitably become riskier to build and the area’s waters. Other areas outside of the live in homes near the beach. City limits, such as Wrightsville Beach, may also experience severe complications related SUMMARY AND CONCLUSION to future sea level rise. The authors hope that projects like this, In the next century, New Hanover County using GIS and sea level rise data will be and the City of Wilmington will face chal- used for planning and development in New lenges with infrastructure due to rising sea Hanover County, in order to identify areas levels. The major concerns for the infra- that are at high risk of permanent and tempo- structure in this area are multifaceted: many rary inundation.

70 Sydney Bohn and Evan Hill

Figure 11. The Port of Wilmington, North Carolina under 40cm SLR scenarios. The index map in the Figure 11. The Portupper of Wilmington,right indicates North the port’s Carolina location under in New 40cm Hanover SLR scenarios. County. The The port index property map inboundaries the upper are right indi indicates- the port’s location in New Hanovercated County. by thick, The dark port lines. property The structures boundaries located are at indicated the port areby labelledthick, dark by typelines. in Thethe mapstructures legend. located at the port are labelled by type in the map legend.

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Figure 12. The Port of Wilmington, North Carolina under 100cm SLR scenarios. The index map in the Figure 12. The Portupper of Wilmington, right indicates North the port’s Carolina location under in 100cmNew Hanover SLR scenarios. County. The The port index property map boundariesin the upper are right indi indicates- the port’s location in New Hanovercated County. by thick, The dark port lines. property The structures boundaries located are at indicated the port areby thick,labelled dark by typelines. in The the mapstructures legend. located at the port are labelled by type in the map legend.

72 Sydney Bohn and Evan Hill

Figure 13. Wrightsville Beach, North Carolina under 40cm SLR scenarios. The baseline 40cm SLR will Figure 13. Wrightsvillegreatly Beach,impact WrightsvilleNorth Carolina Beach’s under shoreline, 40cm SLR but scenarios. the largest The impact baseline will come40cm from SLR the will storm greatly events. impact Wrightsville Beach’s shoreline, but the largest impact will come from the storm events.

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Figure 14.Figure Wrightsville 14. Wrightsville Beach, North Beach, Carolina North under Carolina 100cm under SLR scenarios. 100cm SLR The scenarios. baseline 100cm The baseline SLR will 100cm significantly SLR impact Wrightsville willBeach’s significantly shoreline, impact but the largestWrightsville impact Beach’s will come shoreline, from the but storm the largestevents. Itimpact should willbe notedcome thatfrom under the storm both the 10-year events. It shouldand 100 be -notedyear storm that underevents, both Wrightsville the 10-year Beach and will 100-year be inundated storm almostevents, entirely. Wrightsville Beach will be inundated almost entirely.

74 Sydney Bohn and Evan Hill

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

We would like to thank Dr. Narcisa Pricope for her guidance on this project. We would also like to especially thank Phil Prete from the City of Wilmington for consulting with us at the outset of the project and providing us with city infrastructure data, as well as CH2M Hill for providing us with sea level rise scenarios datasets. This work was made possible through a grant to Dr. Pricope from UNCW’s Office of Community Engagement. We ultimately appreciate everyone that took time to assist us with this work.

REFERENCES

CHM2Hill. (2013). Community Resilience Pilot Project - Wilmington, North Carolina.

Hird, J. (1993). Environmental policy and equity: The case of superfund. Journal of Policy Analysis and Management, 12(2), 323. Retrieved from http://search.proquest.com.lib link.uncw.edu/docview/1297986398?accountid=14606

Glavovic, B., Kelly, M., Kay, R., & Travers, A. (2015). Climate Change and the Coast: Building Resilient Communities. CRC Press.

McGuire, Chad J. (2013). Adapting to Sea Level Rise in the Coastal Zone: Law and Policy Considerations. Retrieved from http://www.eblib.com

N.C. Coastal Resources Commission. (2010). North Carolina Sea-Level Rise Assessment Report.

US Environmental Protection Agency. (2016). Superfund. Retrieved from https://www.epa. gov/superfund

Brooks, Cantor, Ickowski, Simeonides, Stidham and Vasquez Soto

The Chip ‘n’ Ship: A Prototype Rock Chip Sampling Tool for Use on Microgravity Bodies

Jacob Brooks, Michael Cantor, Matthew Ickowski, Simeon Simeonides, Hallie Stidham and Alan Vasquez Soto High Point University Faculty Mentor: Brad Barlow and Aaron Titus High Point University

ABSTRACT In response to NASA’s Micro-g Neutral Buoyancy Experiment Design Teams program challenge, a rock chip sampling device called the Chip ‘n’ Ship was designed, constructed, and tested. It was developed for use on microgravity bodies, primarily asteroids. The device incor- porates a commercially-available, unmodified pneumatic hammer mounted inside a section of aluminum housing. It also features three interchangeable collection cartridges, specifically engineered to mitigate cross-contamination between sampling sites. The Chip ‘n’ Ship was subjected to functional testing by the Neutral Buoyancy Laboratory dive team at NASA’s Johnson Space Center in Houston, Texas in August 2015. The Chip ‘n’ Ship chipped a variety of rock samples successfully but could use general improvement to the sample collection mechanism and sealing of the sample inside the collection unit.

hen exploring the Moon, astronauts Design Teams (Micro-g NExT) program as Wrelied solely on hand tools to extract part of their Microgravity University (for- and collect rock chip samples. This process is merly Reduced Gravity Education Flight labor intensive and inefficient, and National Program, or RGEFP) outreach initiative. Aeronautics and Space Administration Micro-g NExT challenges undergraduate (NASA) officials are seeking alternative students to “design, build, and test” a device tool designs to develop a more efficient rock or simulant that addressed an “authentic, cur- chip sampling process [1]. Such techniques rent space exploration problem” selected by should be established before NASA moves NASA engineers [2]. The program encour- forward in planning and executing missions ages participants to innovate with hands-on to asteroids. Due to safety and transportation engineering design and functional test op- restrictions, the design of any new tool must erations in the simulated microgravity envi- minimize risk of harm to the user while not ronment of NASA’s Neutral Buoyancy Lab significantly encroaching on mission payload (NBL) facility. Professional NBL divers test limitations. all tools that are accepted into the program, As part of the search for new ideas and under the direction of the student teams via engineering innovation, NASA established radio communications. the Micro-g Neutral Buoyancy Experiment Specifically, the Micro-g NExT program

77 Explorations |Natural Sciences and Engineering challenged teams to design a tool that astro- tested a tool called the Chip ‘n’ Ship to meet nauts could use to break off samples from an all of the aforementioned design criteria. The asteroid or other large rock body while safely team’s primary concern was successful chip- capturing and containing them for the return ping and collection, but also focused heavily to Earth. In this challenge, a chip sample is on mitigating the risk of cross-contamination defined as one that is forcibly removed from as much as possible [3]. In the sections that or broken off of a larger parent body. All follow, the details of the design process and submitted devices must be designed for use results of device testing, with a focus on both in a microgravity environment and be able the Chip ‘n’ Ship’s strengths and shortcom- to obtain three separate chip samples with- ings, are discussed. out cross contamination. In order to meet all of NASA’s guidelines and design specifica- METHODS & DEVELOPMENT tions [2], rock chip sampling devices had to be able to create and contain rock chips no Early Proposed Concept larger than approximately 1”x1”x1”, cap- For powered chipping, the use of com- ture and retain at least one chip sample per pressed air to power a pneumatic hammer– sample site (three separate sites total) with- chisel system was determined to be most out cross contamination between sites, be feasible for use in the NBL and in space. driven manually, pneumatically, and/or hy- The selection of an unmodified commercial draulically only, and provide for storage of air hammer was important during safety samples independent of one another. Aside presentations to NASA officials. By using from these main requirements, the devices an unmodified hammer, manufacturer -test also had to prevent chipping debris from im- ing data was used to support safety claims pacting the crew member, work with diverse on the device while also avoiding stringent surfaces (rough, concave, flat, and convex), re-characterization tests that would need be compatible with a chlorine water environ- to be completed had the air hammer been ment (for NBL testing), weigh less than 15 modified. The proposed Chip ‘n’ Ship design pounds, be ambidextrous where the chipping boasted two unique characteristics. First, it task shall be capable of one-handed opera- utilized hemispherical steel spheres, driven tion, and have a tether attachment point. by a pneumatic hammer, that rotate rapidly Teams whose proposals addressed these in a “biting” motion to chip and contain rock requirements effectively were granted the samples; this idea was inspired by nature [4]. opportunity to build their proposed devices These rotational chipping elements would and travel to Johnson Space Center to test be more easily secured to contain the sam- them in a simulated microgravity environ- ple after the chipping action was completed. ment. Constructed devices were screened Second, the design also incorporated a “car- for safety considerations through the sub- tridge” element to mitigate cross-contamina- mission of Technical Experiment Design tion risk. The cartridge was a self-contained Packages (TEDPs), which were reviewed by individual unit consisting of a primary chip- the NASA NBL safety panel and dive team ping element and a containment area. These before permission was granted to enter the cartridges could be loaded and unloaded onto NBL. Devices were then tested in the NBL the main body of the tool (Figure 1). When for functional performance; teams received loaded, the rotational chipping elements in- feedback on design elements in addition to teracted with the pneumatic hammer, which suggestions for potential improvements. ensured that the hammer was never exposed The High Point University Panther to a sampling site surface. CLAWS (Chipping Loose Asteroids with Science) team, comprised of six physics Preliminary “Rotational Force” Testing and computer science majors, designed and A test block was constructed from sections

78 Brooks, Cantor, Ickowski, Simeonides, Stidham and Vasquez Soto

Figure 1: Cartridge (left) and main body (right). Cartridge can detach from and re-attach to main body. of wood to hold prototype aluminum quarter Element Revision & Computer-Aided Design spheres in place along an axle, which allowed (CAD) Modeling the team to test the ability of the chipping ele- The initial design was modified to utilize ments to chip a rock sample. Specifically, the the pneumatic hammer itself as the direct device’s ability to translate linear motion (the driver for the chipping action. A hardened driving hammer) into rotational motion (the steel chisel blade was modified by remov- quarter-spheres chipping) was investigated. ing the cutting feature and affixing a collar Initial tests indicated that the prototype did to the end of the chisel shaft; this modified not permit enough force from the driving chisel was fixed with the hammer and never hammer to be translated into effective force removed. This “driver piston” chisel actu- for chipping a rock sample. During this test- ated other chipping chisel bits, which were ing, the rings on the spheres that attached fixed in individual cartridges using a spring them to the axle were warped and ultimately and collar system. The quarter spheres were broke due to stress. The stress point at the modified to act as cartridge doors to contain connection of the quarter spheres to the axle the sample after a successful chipping action. was very weak in the aluminum shells, so Initial designs of the device consisted of steel quarter-spheres were fabricated for the a series of crude sketches with no concrete same functional test. While the ring through dimensions. After a final design was formu- which the axle passed remained intact during lated, dimensions were added for drawing the testing of the steel quarter-spheres, they and the design in AutoCAD. Sections of the were unable to chip samples from the rock. design were 3-D printed for functional testing These results indicated that the use of the ro- before metal parts were ordered or developed. tational system for completing the chipping The three dimensional model highlighted action was not a feasible approach, and the weak points that needed to be revised, as well design was appropriately revised. as ways to modify moving parts for optimal

79 Explorations |Natural Sciences and Engineering functional operation. Models and mockups of Final Prototype Design individual design components were analyzed The main portion of the working prototype for functional feasibility and accordingly re- featured a pneumatic air hammer secured by vised. Building on the strengths of each suc- metal collars and bolted in place inside of a cessive CAD model of the Chip ‘n’ Ship, a section of aluminum housing. The hammer- final preliminary CAD design was developed ing action was normally activated by squeez- for both the cartridge (Figure 2) and the full ing a hand trigger. However, after review- device (Figure 3). The lever-actuated door ing our TEDP, NASA officials questioned opening mechanism was not feasible based how a stuck trigger malfunction would be on functional testing, and had to be replaced handled in the test environment and in space. with a simpler mechanism. Additionally, there was some concern that After this change was implemented, an astronaut’s bulky glove could become U-shaped aluminum pieces were attached to pinched by the lever itself during operation. each cartridge to allow the user to open the To address these concerns, we elected to per- cartridges by “pushing” the device into the manently force a stuck trigger as part of the surface to be chiseled. The doors were af- final design and develop a different method fixed to these U-shaped “legs” initially with of controlling air flow. A ball valve was af- braided wire, and were automatically closed fixed to the air inlet on the hammer to pro- using an interior spring system (Figure 4). vide simple and effective user control of the After extended use, the wire became bent air flow. A six-inch length of pneumatic pipe and would not easily return to a relaxed state, was affixed to the ball valve to extend the thus preventing the doors from closing prop- grip of the device, providing greater maneu- erly. The thread was exchanged for high-ten- verability and leverage (as per the suggestion sion fishing line, which retained its shape and of the NBL dive team members prior to NBL length more consistently and predictably. testing).

Figure 2: CAD drawing of early cartridge design. Quarter-sphere doors house the chipping element and are operated by the lever system affixed to the outside of the cartridge. The lever system was replaced for functional purposes.

80 Brooks, Cantor, Ickowski, Simeonides, Stidham and Vasquez Soto

Figure 3: CAD drawing of initial tool design, with cartridge affixed to main body of the device.

Figure 4: Open cartridge. Chipping element can be seen in the center. The spring closing mechanism of the doors can be seen affixed to the sides of the chisel bit.

The final cartridge design was the ultimate quarter-sphere doors were affixed to the cyl- result of a number of increasingly refined inder with hinges and a spring-loaded closing and functionally-capable design iterations. mechanism. An aluminum plate was affixed Important design implementations included: to opposite sides of the cylinder perpendicu- integration of the chisel bit and shock brac- lar to the hinges. Two bolts were affixed to ing system into the infrastructure of the car- both sides of each plate, and U-shaped alu- tridge, automation of cartridge door opening minum “legs” were fitted over these bolts to and closing, and implementation of a but- slide freely along a channel cut in the legs. terfly latch system for secure temporary- at Metal brackets at the top of the legs pre- tachment to the main body of the tool (Figure vented warping of the legs, and provided a 5). The cartridge was designed around a central location for an attachment point for three-inch thick cylinder of aluminum. Steel the high-tension fishing line. Holes were

81 Explorations |Natural Sciences and Engineering drilled in each of the steel doors on the car- to move independently and could not slide tridge, and fishing line was attached between simultaneously along the rails. By fixing an the door and the attachment point on the leg adjustable bolt between the legs on each car- bracket. A hole was drilled in the center of the tridge, leg pairs were forced to move simul- aluminum cylinder for the placement of the taneously. The tightness of the bolt on each chipping chisel. The hardened steel industrial leg could be fine-tuned with minor adjust- stock chisel was shortened and placed into ments to the affixed lock nuts, which in turn the hole in the cylinder. Collars and shock adjusted the spacing between the legs. The springs were fixed to both sides of the chisel addition of NASA-approved water-resistant bit to maintain the reciprocating action of the lubricant greatly increased the reliability of chisel while also keeping the chisel fixed in the sliding leg mechanism and other moving the cartridge (Figure 4). This design was rep- parts on the device. licated twice after completion and revision After construction of the main housing and of the prototype, for a total of three identical the three cartridges was completed, all rough interchangeable cartridges. and sharp edges on all metal surfaces (with A key component in the automated door the exception of the chisel blade) were ap- function was the implementation of a brac- propriately smoothed, and all exposed screws ing bolt on each cartridge that ensured that and bolts were smoothed and covered with the two independent U-shaped “legs” func- plastic caps for additional user protection. tioned simultaneously (Figure 5). The slid- Tether rings were appropriately positioned on ing mechanism consisted of the legs sliding the main body of the tool and each individual along bolts through a channel in the legs. cartridge after construction was completed. This mechanism was prone to jamming in- These rings were located away from all mov- duced by excess friction between the channel ing parts and away from surfaces designed in the legs and the bolts. The jamming oc- to interact with the surface site from which curred frequently because the legs were free samples are taken. Remaining edges, pinch

Figure 5: Side view of open cartridge in operational position. Butterfly clip for attachment to the main body (top) and U-shaped legs sliding on bolts are visible on the left and right sides.

82 Brooks, Cantor, Ickowski, Simeonides, Stidham and Vasquez Soto

Figure 6: Chip ‘n’ Ship device, fully assembled. points, and other potential hazards were the LoggerPro data analysis software. Data clearly labeled on the device. The final -de recording started at the initial applied force sign was taken to the NBL at Johnson Space from the user before oscillations began. Center for testing in August 2015 (Figure 6). Hammer Force Plate Test ANALYSIS Applied inlet air pressure of 90 PSI (Table 1) was used to measure peak force and root In order to demonstrate to NASA officials mean square force over a brief actuation pe- that the Chip ‘n’ Ship was safe for use by riod (Figure 7). Frequency and amplitude of their NBL divers, extensive and varied de- force oscillations were analyzed, and a sim- vice performance characterization was re- ple sinusoidal curve was fitted to the data to quired. The TEDP was submitted to NASA provide a rough model of hammer operation several weeks prior to the team’s testing win- (Figure 8). The simple curve fit provided an dow as a mandatory document for the device excellent model over short time frames, but safety screening protocol and discusses the the oscillatory behavior observed in the ap- hardware design, analysis and testing of the plied force was more accurately described device, operations plan for using the device, as a superposition of multiple sinusoids with and a hazard analysis table. The primary fo- different amplitudes and frequencies. Fast cus of the TEDP was functional performance Fourier Transform (FFT) analysis was per- data collection and analysis. Ambient 1-g formed to determine peak frequencies of os- testing was performed at various stages dur- cillation, with the principal peak frequency ing the construction process in dry and sub- being approximately 62 Hz (Figure 9). The merged conditions. Data analysis focused on focus was the peak frequency, so harmonics force transfer from the hammer to the chisel were not investigated further. and force transfer from the chisel to the sample site separately. These force tests were Chisel Force Plate Test conducted using Vernier force plates and Applied inlet air pressure of 90 PSI (Table

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Applied Inlet Pressure Peak Force* (N) RMS Force (N) (PSI) 90 117.3 89.5

90 104.9 81.8

90 101.8 82.7

90 88.40 99.7

90 76.74 72.7

Table 1: Peak and root mean square (RMS) force of the pneumatic hammer operated at 90 PSI in 5 separate tests. *Peak force was highly dependent on the force the user exerted in pushing down on the force plate before the test begins. As peak force changed, RMS force remained fairly consistent.

Figure 7: Pneumatic hammer force oscillations.

84 Brooks, Cantor, Ickowski, Simeonides, Stidham and Vasquez Soto

Figure 8: Close view of measured force oscillations of the hammer juxtaposed against a sinusoidal model.

Figure 9: FFT analysis of hammer force oscillation testing.

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Applied Inlet Pressure Peak Force (N) RMS Force (N) (PSI) 90 92.13 91.0

90 70.61 86.9

Table 2: Peak and root mean square (RMS) force of the cartridge chisel actuated by the pneumatic hammer at 90 PSI.

2) was used to measure peak force and root NBL Acoustic Testing mean square force over a brief actuation pe- The final preliminary test was an acoustic riod. Frequency and amplitude of force oscil- test before the device could be approved for lations were analyzed, and a simple sinusoi- underwater use in the NBL by NASA div- dal curve was fitted to the data to model chisel ers. The Chip ‘n’ Ship was lowered into the operation. FFT analysis revealed similar peak water and activated by a certified NBL diver, frequency, amplitude, and phase measure- while another diver held a decibel sensor 3 ments for the chisel testing, offering firm evi- feet away from the device. The sound inten- dence that the driving hammer and chipping sity limit for operation in the pool was 50 dB; chisel operate fully in concert. No significant if the device exceeded this limit, it would not drop in force was seen between the hammer be allowed into the water as it could cause and the chisel, and it was concluded that the damage to other equipment or could cause selected design was effective in maintaining hearing damage to the divers. The difference high frequency force oscillations of the chisel in sound intensity in water compared to air is (Figure 10). In the two tests shown in Figure approximately 61.5 dB, meaning that the un- 10, force plate analyses of the hammer-chisel derwater limit of 50 dB underwater equates assembly were conducted using a crude tape to around 121.5 dB in air [5]. The Chip ‘n’ system because the characterization data was Ship operated in the range of 30-40 dB un- ultimately used to inform the final design and derwater, hitting the benchmark for other internal bracing system used. FFT analysis pneumatic devices that the engineers have al- showed a similar oscillation frequency of lowed into the pool in the past. about 62 Hz (Figure 11). After characterizing the pneumatic actions, RESULTS FROM NASA NEUTRAL the team tested the device’s functionality in BUOYANCY LAB TESTING a campus lab with rock samples to optimize the protocol for the chipping action. Brick, After NASA officials confirmed that the concrete, and rhyolite were selected as aster- Chip ‘n’ Ship met all safety requirements, oid sample simulants to provide a range of the Panther CLAWS team was offered a different attributes to increase the robustness thirty minute time slot to test the device’s of the design. Rock simulants were tested in functionality in the NBL with the assistance ambient environmental conditions and also of the facility’s dive team. During this time, submerged. The Chip ‘n’ Ship was able to the team was free to lead the divers through remove chips from all three sample types a series of varied functional tests performed in both air and water. The underwater tests in the simulated microgravity environment. confirmed that the hammer would operate The team briefed the divers on the opera- properly in the NBL for an extended period tion of the Chip ‘n’ Ship poolside, and then of time without loss of functionality. the NBL dive team executed underwater

86 Brooks, Cantor, Ickowski, Simeonides, Stidham and Vasquez Soto

Figure 10: Force plate testing of the chipping chisel when actuated by the pneumatic hammer. Two tests are shown; the tape holding the test assembly tore during the second test, which caused the force significant drop off seen in the curve.

Figure 11: FFT analysis of cartridge chisel force oscillation testing.

87 Explorations |Natural Sciences and Engineering functional testing of the device. During this After the exchange, the divers continued to time, the Panther CLAWS team directed div- perform additional chipping testing for the ers through individual tests from the NBL new cartridge and collection testing. control room and tracked the testing progress The Panther CLAWS team asked the div- on video monitors. ers to test the collection capabilities of the The divers were first asked to test the chip- Chip ‘n’ Ship after completing the chipping ping capabilities of the Chip ‘n’ Ship. In the tests. The simulant bed, full of smaller rocks NBL testing area, the dive team had set up and chips, provided an excellent area to test a number of rock testing surfaces, including this function. The Chip ‘n’ Ship was able to one developed by another team who engi- successfully collect samples, but required neered a solution to a challenge focused on some unorthodox manipulation in order to developing an asteroid surface simulant. The do so. The collection mechanism was based rock simulant bed contained four rock simu- on a true micro-gravity environment where lant types along a hardness gradient [6,7]. any chipped rocks would likely not remain The Chip ‘n’ Ship successfully chipped all on the surface. Even in the NBL, gravity was four rock simulants in the bed. Additionally, still a significant factor on dense objects like there was a single large rock (approximately the rock simulants. The first series of collec- 9” X 9” X 9”) included in the NBL for chip- tion attempts was executed in a linear verti- ping testing. In many ways, this large rock cal fashion (perpendicular to the surface), was a better representation of an asteroid where the U-shaped legs slid along the bolts surface because the rock simulants in the bed as intended and opened and closed the doors were not large, solid surfaces, but rather a se- accordingly. This caused the doors to shut ries of homogenous smaller rock collections as the tool was retracted from the surface. [8]. The Chip ‘n’ Ship successfully chipped During these attempts, gravity pulled the off useful samples from the large rock as chips down so that the Chip ‘n’ Ship could well, a great indicator of potential for success not collect them as it was pulled away from on a mission to space. the surface. Communicating with the div- One issue observed during the underwa- ers, the team suggested that an approach be ter testing of the chipping function involved tested in a way that positioned the Chip ‘n’ jamming of the U-shaped legs along the bolts. Ship longitudinally parallel to the surface. The system was lubricated and designed to This approach led to a successful collection move smoothly to provide consistent open- attempt. By pushing the legs of the device ing and closing of the cartridge doors; how- into the simulant bed at nearly parallel, the ever, the first cartridge that was tested mal- doors closed on sample even when the tool functioned and jammed in such a way that was retracted. Instead of relying on suspen- the doors would not close fully. At this point, sion of the chips, the test was able to rely on it was determined that the divers needed to the sheer number of chips and small rocks in switch cartridges, which presented an op- the simulant bed in order to make sure the portunity to test the cartridge interchange cartridge doors closed with a sample inside. function of the Chip ‘n’ Ship. With two other Essentially, the amount of rock chips in the available cartridges, the divers were asked bed were pushed into a mound by the divers, to unclip the butterfly clips, exchange the which offered enough resistance to engage malfunctioning cartridge with an alternative the rail mechanism that moved the legs and cartridge, and secure the butterfly clips with opened the containment doors. the new cartridge. The exchange went very After design modifications and TEDP smoothly, as the Chip ‘n’ had position indica- testing, this underperformance in collection tor arrows drawn on both the main body and was to be expected. The primary issue with the cartridges that were to be aligned while sample collection was the retracting closure affixing a new cartridge to the main body. of the containment doors. As the device is

88 Brooks, Cantor, Ickowski, Simeonides, Stidham and Vasquez Soto retracted from a surface, the doors close au- asteroids. tomatically as a response. In an environment There are several design elements of the with gravitational forces present, rock chips Chip ‘n’ Ship that could be significantly im- do not remain suspended in space and fall proved. Independent opening and closing quickly back to the sample surface. In a true of each of the two quarter-sphere contain- micro-gravity environment, these rock chips ment doors on each cartridge would allow would fall back to the surface more slowly, for a greater range of operational angles and increasing the effectiveness of the retracting would improve sample collection success capture method. The divers offered a similar rate. Additionally, a more robust solution assessment, stating that the design was clever to the door actuation element should be in- and easy to use, and that the collection issue vestigated. Using high tension fishing line would not be present if the device were op- has proven to be successful, but risks fray- erated in a true micro-gravity environment, ing and breaking with extended exposure to such as the surface of an asteroid. Most im- rock shards. One possible solution to such portantly, the device was able to chip off rock a problem is a mechanical metal arm that is samples from different sites without cross rigid and will not stretch or fray, positioned contamination. where it will not risk being bent or otherwise The test divers and NASA officials deemed damaged. A more effective method of ensur- the testing experience of the Chip ‘n’ Ship in ing that the doors of each cartridge remain the Neutral Buoyancy Lab to be highly suc- secured after sample collection would be an cessful. The chipping action was successful improvement as well. A magnetic locking on various rock and rock simulant surfaces. system and a simple latch system are both The design was highly ergonomic, and the potential candidates for such a modification. dive team complimented the user-friendliness Additionally, operating the Chip ‘n’ Ship of the device. Tether point selection played a in a true micro-gravity environment would significant role in maximizing maneuverabil- likely lead to better performance. Rock chips ity while minimizing risk of entanglement would not immediately fall back to the sur- with tether lines. face, and the retractable collection method would have a more consistent success rate. DISCUSSION The Chip ‘n’ Ship significantly reduces the effort from the operator in order to achieve The NBL divers gave the Panther CLAWS a successful sample collection. Even for a team positive feedback regarding the handling lunar mission, the acceleration due to grav- and operation of the Chip ‘n’ Ship. During ity is roughly one sixth of the acceleration post-testing presentations and reviews, on Earth. In a microgravity environment, NASA officials from the Extravehicular the acceleration due to gravity is even lower. Activity (EVA) team closely examined the However, the test in the NBL was useful for design. The interchangeable self-contained confirming the functionality of the chipping cartridges and automated door mechanisms action and the usability of the device in terms were both popular design elements. The EVA of ergonomics and weight. team will consider the design moving forward in preparation for future missions, and CONCLUSION perhaps incorporate elements of the Chip ‘n’ Ship design into the final design of their EVA In response to NASA’s Micro-g NExT rock chip sampling tool. The team’s work on program challenge, a team of High Point the Chip ‘n’ Ship could potentially influence University physics majors designed and NASA engineers and ultimately contribute constructed a handheld device called the to the success of future missions, includ- Chip ‘n’ Ship for chipping off and collecting an eventual manned mission to Mars or ing surface samples from asteroids and other

89 Explorations |Natural Sciences and Engineering microgravity bodies. Divers at NASA’s to further improve upon the Chip ‘n’ Ship Neutral Buoyancy Lab facility at Johnson design, with a focus on the problems associ- Space Center tested the device on several as- ated with the collection performance. Some teroid simulant surfaces and were able to dis- of the team members have graduated and are lodge samples with ease. Containment of the no longer available to help hands-on with samples proved a bit more challenging, pri- project modifications. However, the testing marily due to the persisting effects of gravity at NASA generated a significant amount of in the NBL which would be much less of a interest in the department, so it is likely that problem in a true micro-gravity environ- a new team will come together in the future ment. Overall, NASA officials and the NBL and may choose to modify and improve the divers deemed the Chip ‘n’ Ship a success Chip ‘n’ Ship as their project. Until then, and praised the device for its unique design NASA will use concepts from the Chip ‘n; characteristics. Ship, along with other designs submitted to The practical skills the Panther CLAWS the Micro-g NExT program, to develop us- team acquired through the development and able EVA tools for astronauts to deploy on construction of the device will be helpful in future space missions. further instrument design and testing. In the future, a new student team will be assembled

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

• Mr. Eric Scarlett, for many hours of prototype development and creative, practical engineering insight. • Mr. Jeremy Allen, for assistance in the use of his metal-shaping facility during construction. • The High Point University Physics Department for their collective support of this project. • The High Point University Student Government Association, for funding construction of the Chip ‘n’ Ship and travel to Johnson Space Center. • Dr. Nido Qubein for supporting this endeavor. • NASA, for the opportunity to participate in the Micro-g NExT initiative.

90 Brooks, Cantor, Ickowski, Simeonides, Stidham and Vasquez Soto

REFERENCES

[1] Cheng, A. F., Pieters, C. M., & Murchie, S. L. 1996. Sample Collection from Planetary Surfaces. Lunar and Planetary Science. 27: 213-214.

[2] “NASA Microgravity University,” https://microgravityuniversity.jsc.nasa.gov, National Aeronautics and Space Administration, 1 Jan. 2015. Web. 25 Jan 2015.

[3] Brownlee, D. E. 1985. Cosmic Dust: Collection and Research. Ann. Rev. Earth Planet. Sci. 13: 147-173.

[4] Herrel, A., O’Reilly J. C., & Richmond, A. M. 2002. Evolution of bite performance in turtles. Journal of Evolutionary Biology. 15 (6): 1083-1094.

[5] Finfer, D. C., Leighton, T. G., and White, P. R. 2008. Issues relating to the use of a 61.5 dB conversion factor when comparing airborne and underwater anthroprogenic noise levels. Applied Acoustics. 69: 464-471.

[6] Howell, E. S. 1995. Probing asteroid composition using visible and near-infrared spectros copy. Thesis (Ph.D.). University of Arizona. Dissertation Abstracts International, 57 / (02): 0957, Section: B.

[7] Ostro, S. J., et al. 1991. Asteroid 1986 DA: Radar Evidence for a Metallic Composition. Science. 252 (5011): 1399-1404.

[8] Gaffey, Michael J., et al. 1993. Mineralogical Variations within the S-Type Asteroid Class. Icarus. 106 (2): 573-602.

Derek Detweiler

An in situ study of seasonal dissolved organic carbon and nutrient fluxes from a Spartina alterniflora salt marsh in North Carolina, USA

Derek Detweiler University of North Carolina Wilmington Faculty Mentor: Ai Ning Loh University of North Carolina Wilmington

ABSTRACT Salt marshes are among the most productive and biogeochemically active ecosystems on Earth. While they are known sources of dissolved organic carbon (DOC), and organic and inorganic nutrients (including nitrogen, N, and phosphorus, P) to the coastal ocean, it has not been well quantified experimentally. The purpose of this study was to quantify seasonal DOC and organic and inorganic N and P fluxes from a fringing temperate salt marsh in North Carolina, USA. This experiment was conducted using in situ benthic microcosm chambers in which seawater samples were collected during ebbing tides over 4.5 hours. Water samples were analyzed for DOC and organic and inorganic nutrient concentrations over time, and fluxes from vegetated and non-vegetated marsh sediments were calculated. Results showed that there were no significant differences in fluxes between vegetated and non-vegetated sediments within the same season. However, sediments were a minor source of DOC, N, and P in July compared to a significant sink in December. These data suggest that the remineralization of organic matter occurs more strongly in the winter with a more active microbial loop. Results also provide insight as to how environmental variability may affect coastal biogeochemical cycles.

alt marshes are an essential transition is of major focus in current climate change Sfrom the terrestrial environment to the research (Osburn et al., 2015). coastal ocean (Bianchi, 2007). Not only do Carbon can be present in the environment they provide a plethora of ecosystem services as dissolved organic carbon (DOC) which, in for humans and wetland organisms, but they addition to organic forms of nutrients such as are an important part of the global carbon dissolved organic nitrogen (DON) and phos- cycle that affects both terrestrial and aquatic phorus (DOP), can be formed by salt marsh environments. Though not fully understood, plants and associated organisms via primary it is believed that wetland ecosystems such as production and respiration. These dissolved salt marshes contribute to the fate and stor- compounds can then be released into the age of terrestrial and atmospheric carbon in coastal ocean with daily changes in tide (Cai the environment (Bauer et al., 2013). The et al., 2000; Hedges, 1992; Winter et al., ability of salt marshes and other shallow, 1996). The dominant plant in North Carolina coastal, vegetated ecosystems such as man- salt marshes is the smooth cordgrass Spartina groves and seagrass beds to sequester carbon alterniflora which has the ability to store and has been termed “blue carbon storage” and release large amounts of DOC, DON, and

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DOP (collectively referred to as dissolved or- half of all carbon burial occurs in shal- ganic matter, DOM), and inorganic nutrients low water ecosystems such as salt marshes. - - (as nitrate, NO3 , nitrite, NO2 , ammonium, While increasing atmospheric CO2 levels + 3- NH4 , and orthophosphate, PO4 ). This stor- are expected to increase rates of salt marsh age and release occurs in vegetative aboveg- carbon sequestration and assimilation, rapid round shoots as well as in surrounding sedi- environmental changes due to climate change ments (Turner, 1993; Bianchi, 2007). may lessen the effectiveness of these pro- The release of DOC, N, and P from plants cesses. Under normal rates of relative sea such as S. alterniflora and surrounding sedi- level rise (RSLR) and CO2 abundance, salt ments is thought to be an important compo- marshes can respond by accreting more sedi- nent of carbon and nutrient sources to the ment and storing higher concentrations of or- coastal ocean. This DOM can fuel secondary ganic matter within the sediment (Kathilankal production, but there are complex processes et al., 2008). However, at current RSLR that create uncertainty in how this can be ex- rates, marsh accretion cannot occur quickly perimentally quantified (Bauer et al., 2013; enough, resulting in a flooded marsh with Childerset al., 1993; Dame et al., 1986). A low sequestration capabilities (Kathilankal theoretical exchange diagram is represented et al., 2008; Osburn et al., 2015). Thus, as in Figure 1 which shows this complexity. shown in Kirwan and Mudd’s (2012) climate Aside from biological or physical processes model, the positive feedback that is associ-

(e.g. tidal currents and waves) which may ated with CO2 assimilation in salt marshes alter the composition of DOM in the envi- will eventually diminish. Furthermore, ways ronment, anthropogenic influences such as to accurately quantify carbon and nutrient wetland destruction, wetland modification, dynamics are being researched to enhance nutrient inputs, and climate change are con- the understanding of the capacity at which stantly altering the dynamics of the coastal salt marshes influence DOM cycling. carbon and nutrient cycles (Childers and Day, One of the most well-known ideas regard- 1990; Koch and Gobler, 2009; Loomis and ing carbon and nutrient export in estuarine Craft, 2010). For instance, Koch and Gobler systems is the outwelling hypothesis. The (2009) showed that in salt marshes that have hypothesis states that estuarine systems and - been ditched for drainage purposes, NO3 associated aquatic influences such as river- export was greater than that of intact salt ine and tidal exchanges occur too quickly for - marshes which were a sink for NO3 and other significant utilization of organic matter by or- nutrients. ganisms to occur. Thus, estuaries simply act It has also been shown that increased as exporters of these compounds, and there is levels of carbon dioxide (CO2) in the atmo- virtually no biogeochemical activity (Odum, sphere, in addition to enhanced nutrient load- 1980 as cited in Hazeldon and Boorman, ing of coastal waters, may ultimately result 1999). This has, however, been supported as in the production of more DOC by salt marsh well as challenged many times since its in- organisms (Bauer et al., 2013; Marsh et al., ception as technological advances and new 2005; Osburn et al., 2015). This reflects the techniques have given rise to a more accurate importance of DOC and nutrient fluxes from characterization of salt marsh DOC and nu- wetlands like the S. alterniflora salt marshes trient fluxes. found so ubiquitously along the eastern coast For instance, Taylor and Allanson (1995) of the United States. The latest report by the stated that the outwelling hypothesis is Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change not universal and the heterogeneity of salt (IPCC) also supports the role of wetlands as marshes is so extreme that areas such as a crucial reservoir for CO2 and as a possible high marsh habitats are not accurately con- source or sink for DOC (Ciais et al., 2013). sidered. Different conclusions have also in- According to Kirwan and Mudd (2012), volved study sites that vary geologically,

94 Derek Detweiler

Figure 1: Diagram showing the fate of DOM in estuarine environments and the relationship between sediments, the water column, and associated organisms (Adapted from Hansell and Carlson, 2002 as cited in Bianchi, 2007).

95 Explorations |Natural Sciences and Engineering geographically, biologically, chemically, supporting the transfer of DOM from sedi- and physically. Murray and Spencer (1997) ments to the above water column (Burdige, identified the need to incorporate tidal- pro 2002; Childers and Day, 1990; Tyler et al., cesses into flux calculations and overall 2003). Some have suggested that abundant budgets for tidal wetlands, further under- inorganic nitrogen imported to estuaries is scoring the complexity of quantifying and quickly removed via denitrification processes characterizing fluxes of compounds in salt before ebbing tides are able to carry it back marshes. Furthermore, it has been found that to the coastal ocean, and that sedimentary the source-sink dynamics of salt marshes de- processes cause salt marshes to be a sink for pend on a variety of factors including marsh nitrogen (Cai et al., 2000; Dame et al., 1986; maturity, available tide energy, salinity, and Osburn et al., 2015). balance between microbial loop processes Maher and Eyre (2010) provide further (Figure 2; Childers et al., 1993; Dame et al., evidence of sedimentary microbial remin- 1986; Hopkinson et al., 1999; Negrin et al., eralization and have suggested that DOC 2011; Tyler et al., 2003). production is directly correlated with meta- It has been suggested that sediments may bolic bacterial production, while others have be the primary source of DOM (as carbon cited remineralization processes as a driver and nitrogen) where microbial remineral- of fixed nitrogen export (Anderson et al., ization of highly refractory organic matter 1997; Caffrey et al., 2007). The exact mecha- occurs (Burdige, 2002; Koch and Gobler, nism remains unknown, however, as there 2009). Observations have shown that DOM are seasonal variations and uncertainty as in pore waters is more highly concentrated to how microbial communities are affected than water column concentrations, further by the aforementioned complexities of salt

Figure 2: Simple schematic of the microbial loop and associated microorganisms responsible for remineralization of DOM (Adapted from Foreman and Covert, 2003 as cited in Bianchi, 2007).

96 Derek Detweiler marsh heterogeneity and associated physical, dissolved inorganic carbon flux in salt chemical, and geological effects. Seasonal marshes, the use of chamber microcosms fo- comparative studies have shown that salt cusing directly on the in situ release of DOM marshes uptake DOM in the winter while it and nutrient fluxes from S. alterniflora salt is exported in the highest concentrations in marshes has not been attempted. the summer (Bouchard, 2007; Hopkinson et In order to constrain the current coastal al., 1999; Osburn et al,. 2015; Yelverton and carbon budget, it is important to quantify the Hackney, 1986). Variations in these findings amounts of DOM and inorganic nutrients exist, however, as Childers and Day (1990) exported to coastal waters and to determine and Dame et al. (1986) observed an uptake how salt marshes are acting as sources or of DOC in summer with a release of DOC sinks of organic carbon (Bauer et al., 2013). and DON in winter and spring. Besides these In a broader sense, as CO2 levels in the atmo- generalizations, many studies cited in this pa- sphere increase contributing to global climate per exhibit nuances that become easily appar- change, it is essential to know where this car- ent when compared. These nuances include bon is going. differences in DOC and nutrient concentrations, fluxes, study sites, seasons, tides, dura- METHODS tion of study, etc. Thus, the objective of this particular Study Site. project was to characterize in situ DOM (as This study was conducted at the DOC, DON and DOP) and inorganic nutri- University of North Carolina Wilmington’s ent fluxes from a temperate North Carolina Center for Marine Science and the surround- S. alterniflora salt marsh during the summer ing Spartina alterniflora salt marsh ecosys- and winter seasons. Average daily fluxes tem that borders the Intracoastal Waterway from vegetated and non-vegetated sediments (Figure 3). This particular marsh area is ap- were derived from in situ benthic chambers proximately 1.32 ha and experiences semi- and compared between treatments and sea- diurnal tides in which the marsh is inundated sons. Ratios of C:N:P for fluxes were also with seawater for roughly half of the day. The calculated. We hypothesized that there would fringing experimental marsh is influenced by be no differences in sediment fluxes between flooding and ebbing tidal processes. There vegetated and non-vegetated salt marsh sedi- were no freshwater influences for the -dura ments. However, vegetated sediments would tion of the experiment other than surface run- exhibit greater flux magnitudes than non- off. The study was conducted twice over the vegetated sediments. In addition, we also course of a year to account for the variable hypothesized that summer fluxes would be environmental conditions and ecosystem greater than winter fluxes. responses to temperature changes. The first In relation to the methods that were used was conducted in July 2015 to mimic sum- in this study, similar experimental procedures mer sediment fluxes of DOM and nutrients, attempting to quantify DOC and nutrient while the second experiment was conducted fluxes in the region have included the labo- in December 2015 to mimic winter fluxes. ratory incubation of S. alterniflora (Wang et Both field experiments followed the same al., 2014) and the leeching of S. alterniflora procedures. leaves in situ (Turner, 1993). In addition, Howes and Goehringer (1994) and Ketover Field Experiments. (2011) used an in situ chamber microcosm Field methods closely followed those of method in order to characterize DOM and Neikirk (1996) and Ketover (2011). In situ nutrient fluxes from salt marsh sediments and microcosms were placed in the marsh dur- mangrove swamps, respectively. Also, while ing low tide. These microcosms were acrylic Neubauer and Anderson (2003) characterized benthic chambers with a height of 61 cm

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Figure 3: Map of Wilmington, NC and surrounding features where field experiments were conducted. The black star indicates the location of the study site along the Atlantic Intracoastal Waterway. Image courtesy of Melissa Smith. and an inner diameter of 30 cm (Figure 4). on the bottom of all the sediment chambers Each chamber contained two holes drilled were plugged. In addition, one sealed con- 15 cm from the bottom which allowed them trol chamber filled with ambient seawater to be filled during a flooding tide. Chambers was placed in the marsh upon the start of the were driven into 10-15 cm of sediment a experiment. It should be noted that the data few days prior to the start of the experiment collected from the control chamber was sub- so disturbed sediment could settle within tracted from the data collected in the other the chamber. Three of these chambers were six chambers to account for any microbial placed over a patch of S. alterniflora and activity that may have occurred in the water three chambers were placed over bare sedi- column for the duration of the experiment. ment without the influence of S. alterniflora. Water samples from each chamber were Hereafter, the chambers placed over a patch collected after each was gently stirred for ho- of S. alterniflora and over bare sediment will mogenous mixing to avoid anoxia. Samples be referred to as vegetated and non-vegetated were collected at the beginning of the experi- treatments, respectively. ment and every 45 minutes thereafter for a

The experiments were conducted in the total of 270 minutes (T0, T45, T90…T270). The morning at the beginning of the ebbing tide. first four samples were taken in natural light Prior to the start of the experiments, the holes and the second three samples were taken in

98 Derek Detweiler

Figure 4: A model of the in situ chambers used in this experiment. The chambers were placed over vegetated and non-vegetated sediments. The control chamber, filled with ambient seawater, has a sealed bottom and does not have holes. Chamber design is modified from Neikirk (1996). the dark by placing black trash bags over the they were stable throughout the experiment chambers. This allowed for the quantifica- and the chambers did not undergo anoxia. tion of daily changes (presence or absence Surface sediment samples corresponding to of light) in DOM and inorganic nutrient each sediment chamber were also collected fluxes. Each sample was immediately filtered and stored in baked (500 °C for 4 h.) glass through baked (500 °C for 4 h.), 0.7 μm glass- jars and frozen until analyses. To account for fiber filters (Whatman GF/F) into 50-mL any leakage from the chambers during the ex- acid-washed (10% hydrochloric acid, HCl), periment, the volume of each chamber was centrifuge tubes and frozen until analyses. noted and used as a correction factor when Temperature and dissolved oxygen con- calculating flux values. centrations were monitored using a YSI Water Quality Field Meter to ensure that

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Sediment Analysis. 1983): Collected sediment samples were analyzed for sedimentary organic C and N [DON] = [TDN] – [DIN] (Eq. 1) (SOC and SON, respectively) content using [DOP] = [TDP] – [DIP] (Eq. 2) a ThermoQuest NC 2100 sediment analyzer (UNESCO, 1994). To prepare samples for Flux Calculations. SOC and SON analyses, thawed samples Based on DOC and nutrient concentra- were dried to remove water, ground to a very tions obtained over time, DOC and nutrient fine particle size, and removed of large pieces (organic and inorganic) fluxes were obtained of debris. Two subsamples of each were by creating a linear regression of the con- acidified with 10% TraceMetal Grade HCl to centrations measured over time. The slope remove any carbonates. After again drying, of each regression was used to calculate flux each sample was weighed and packed into tin by taking into consideration the volume and capsules for analysis. areas of the chambers. If the chambers expe- Samples were analyzed in duplicates in rienced any sort of leakage during the experi- which C and N amounts in each sample were ment and therefore a change in volume, it was given as a function of grams of dry sediment factored into the equation when determining weight (gdw). Molar ratios of C:N were also final mean daily fluxes to ensure all data was calculated for each sample. consistent and normalized. The equation below represents the flux calculation: Nutrient Analysis. (Eq. 3) Each water sample collected from the field was analyzed for DOC, dissolved inorganic nitrogen (DIN), dissolved organic nitrogen (DON), dissolved inorganic phospho- where J = flux, dC/dt = slope of linear regres- rus (DIP), and dissolved organic phosphorus sion, V = volume of chamber, and A = area (DOP). of chamber. Concentrations of DOC were analyzed All concentration measurements were using a Shimadzu TOC-V high temperature obtained in μmol L-1 while daily flux calcu- combustion instrument following a modifica- lations were expressed as μmol m-2 d-1 after tion of the Benner and Strom (1993) method factoring in the duration of the experiment (Loh and Bauer, 2000). Total dissolved nitro- compared to a full 24-h. day. Fluxes from the gen (TDN) and total dissolved phosphorus control chamber were then subtracted from (TDP) concentrations were determined us- the sediment chamber fluxes to correct for ing a modification of the persulfate -diges any microbial activity in the water column tion method from Koroleff (1983). Samples that was not being considered for this experi- - were digested to nitrate (NO3 ) or phosphate ment. Lastly, C:N:P flux ratios for DOM and 3- (PO4 ), respectively, and analyzed using a inorganic nutrients were calculated. Bran+Luebbe AutoAnalyzer 3 (Loh, 2005). + Concentrations of DIN as NH4 and Statistical Analysis. NOx (the combined concentrations of ni- Multivariate Analysis of Variance - - 3- trite, NO2 and nitrate, NO3 ) and DIP (PO4 ) (MANOVA) assuming unequal variance and were also determined using a Bran+Luebbe non-normality according to Levene’s Test of AutoAnalyzer 3 without the persulfate oxida- Equality of Error Variances among the data- tion step. Subsequent concentrations of DON sets was conducted using the SPSS statisti- and DOP were calculated by subtracting the cal software to simultaneously observe any respective DIN and DIP concentrations from differences between vegetated and non-veg- the measured TDN and TDP concentrations etated treatments and between summer and using the following equations (Koroleff, winter fluxes. Differences were determined

100 Derek Detweiler to be significant if p < 0.05 after conducting Sediment Data. Dunnett T3 post-hoc tests for non-equal vari- Sediment samples were analyzed for ances, and standard errors were calculated sedimentary organic carbon (SOC) and sedi- from the slope of each regression. Results mentary organic nitrogen (SON) content and from these analyses can be categorized into ratios of C:N calculated (Table 1). Vegetated four components: July vegetated sediments, sediments had SOC content ranging from July non-vegetated sediments, December 15.77 - 20.23 mg C/gdw, while SON con- vegetated sediments, and December non- tent ranged from 0.5906 - 0.9457 mg N/gdw. vegetated sediments. Ratios of C:N of vegetated sedimentary organic matter ranged from 21.82:1 to 27.03:1. RESULTS Non-vegetated sediments had SOC content ranging from 13.86 - 16.12 mg C/gdw, while Hydrographic Data. SON content ranged from 0.5393 - 0.6420 The summer experiment was conducted mg N/gdw. There were no significant differ- on July 17, 2015. In the field, air temperature ences in SOC and SON content between sea- was 31.1 °C, water temperature 28.7 °C, and sons or between treatments within the same salinity 35.97. The winter experiment was season. Ratios of C:N of vegetated sedimen- conducted on December 9, 2015. Air tem- tary organic matter ranged from 26.72:1 to perature was 15.6 °C, water temperature 15.0 29.00:1. There were significant differences °C, and salinity 33.0. Air and water tempera- (p < 0.01) in C:N ratios between July and ture were typical for each season in which December vegetated sediments but not be- the experiment was conducted, and salinity tween non-vegetated sediments or between remained stable at typical values for coastal different treatments within the same season. waters. Additionally, dissolved oxygen (DO) content of the water in the chambers was DOC and Nutrient Fluxes. monitored to ensure that the sampling col- Mean daily fluxes expressed in μmol umn did not undergo anoxia. In both seasons, m-2 d-1 for DOC and nutrients are shown in DO (mg/L) and DO (%) were normal and Figures 5-7. Positive flux values indicate that remained oxic throughout the experiment. sediments are a source of DOM or nutrients The July experiment exhibited mean val- while negative values indicate that sediments ues of 4.82 ± 0.105 mg/L and 77.5 ± 1.91% are a sink for DOM or nutrients. Data from while the December experiment exhibited one vegetated chamber in July was not fac- mean values of 6.33 ± 0.102 mg/L and 72.8 tored into flux results due to major chamber ± 1.00%. leakage and inadequate sample retrieval during the field experiment.

Table 1: Mean C:N ratios and sedimentary organic carbon and nitrogen (SOC, SON) content are expressed as mg/gdw (with standard error) for each season and treatment. (*) indicates a significance level of p < 0.01.

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Figure 5: Treatments (vegetated and non-vegetated sediments) are plotted as a function of mean daily flux (μmol -2m d-1) of DOC from three replicates of each treatment. Positive values indicate a DOC source while negative values indicate a DOC sink for a) summer and b) winter experiments. Standard error (SE) is not plotted as error bars due to variability in field data. Asterisks represent significance between seasons (p < 0.05).

102 Derek Detweiler

Figure 6: Nutrients are plotted as a function of mean daily flux (μmol -2m d-1) from three replicates of vegetated sediment chambers. Positive values indicate a nutrient source while negative values indicate a nutrient sink for a) summer and b) winter experiments. Bars represent one standard error (+1SE).

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Figure 7: Nutrients are plotted as a function of mean daily flux μmol -2m d-1) from three replicates of non-vegetated sediment chambers. Positive values indicate a nutrient source while negative values indicate a nutrient sink for a) summer and b) winter experiments. Bars represent one standard error (+1SE), and letters represent significance between seasons (p < 0.05).

104 Derek Detweiler

For DOC fluxes, there were no signifi- magnitude of fluxes were greater than in July. cant differences in fluxes between treat- When inorganic and organic sediment ments (vegetated vs. non-vegetated) within flux ratios were calculated for C:N, C:P, and the same season (Figure 5). However, there N:P ratios, there were no significant differ- was a significant difference (p < 0.05) in non- ences found between seasons and treatments. vegetated DOC fluxes between the July and The highest values were found in DOC:DOP December experiments. Vegetated sediments ratios, followed by DOC:DON, DON:DOP, were a minor sink of DOC and non-vegetated and DIN:DIP (Table 2). sediments were a very minor source of DOC in July while in December both vegetated DISCUSSION and non-vegetated sediments were a sink for DOC (Figure 5). Additionally, fluxes oc- The purpose of this experiment was to curred with greater magnitude in December characterize in situ DOC and nutrient fluxes compared to July (>-400 μmol m-2 d-1 vs. from vegetated and non-vegetated sediments <100 μmol m-2 d-1). in a Spartina alterniflora salt marsh under two For nutrient fluxes, a similar pattern was distinct seasonal conditions and to determine revealed in that there were no significant any differences in sediment fluxes and mag- differences between treatments (vegetated nitude between treatments (vegetated versus vs. non-vegetated) within the same season non-vegetated sediments) and between sea- (Figures 6-7). In addition, there were also no sons (July versus December). It was initially significant differences in organic or inorganic hypothesized that there would be no differ- nutrient fluxes between seasons in vegetated ences in sediment fluxes between vegetated sediments (Figure 6). However, in non-veg- and non-vegetated salt marsh sediments and etated sediments, significant differences (p between summer and winter seasons.

< 0.05) were found for NOx and DIN fluxes The results from this study support the ex- between seasons (Figure 7). pectation that there would be no differences In vegetated sediments in July, there in DOC and nutrient fluxes between treat- + were positive fluxes of NOx, NH4 , and DIP ments (i.e., between sediments that were veg- (Figure 6) suggesting that the vegetated salt etated with S. alterniflora and those which marsh sediments were a source of these nutri- were bare sediment without any vegetation) ents. Vegetated sediments were also a sink for within the same season (Figures 5-7). The DON and DOP in July while in December, insignificance of fluxes between treatments sediments were a sink for all measured com- may indicate that most of the biogeochemi- ponents. July exhibited a greater magnitude cal cycling that occurs in salt marshes does of nutrient fluxes than in December. In non- so in the sediments which is consistent with vegetated sediments in July, sediments were previous conclusions (Anderson et al., 1997; a source of all nutrients including DON Burdige, 2002; Caffrey et al. 2007; Cai eet and DOP (Figure 7). In December, sedi- al., 2000; Tyler et al. 2003). It also appears ments were a sink for all components with that much of the remineralization could be

Table 2: Mean flux ratios for each season and treatment. There were no significant differences between flux ratios.

105 Explorations |Natural Sciences and Engineering occurring in pore waters which may host a common idea is that salt marshes actively community of microbes that actively use “filter” or control nutrient concentrations DOM for metabolic processes (Cai et al., especially when considering anthropogenic 2000). Additionally, this experiment did not inputs and stability of the coastal ocean. At analyze for grain size which could also im- a global scale, these results may also support pact pore water dynamics and therefore mi- the idea of CO2 sequestration in salt marshes crobial loop processes and flux rate in or out as is consistent with additional insights from of the sediment. Anderson et al. (1997), Caffrey et al. (2007), Conversely, while there were no differ- Duarte et al. (2005), Kirwan and Mudd ences present between seasons within veg- (2012), and Kathilankal et al. (2008). etated sediments, fluxes greatly differed be- Initially, the observed small P flux values tween July and December in non-vegetated may also suggest that the biogeochemical po- sediments (Figure 7). It can be generalized tential of salt marsh ecosystems are limited that in July, salt marshes are a source for by P availability (Figures 6-7). However, the DOC, N, and P in non-vegetated sediments, high negative flux of DON indicates a strong while the vegetated sediments are a sink for utilization by the microbial community even DOC, N, and P compared with December in July vegetated sediments when most other where the entire marsh is a sink of DOC, N, components exhibited positive fluxes (Figure and P. These results suggest that in December, 6). Under further investigation, ratios of N:P microbial activity in the sediment is intensi- (Table 2) are relatively low, and even though fied, and DOM is being actively remineral- N is utilized most often, it may also be the ized (Bianchi, 2007; Burdige, 2002; Cai et limiting nutrient due to the utilization of in- al., 2000; Dame et al., 1986; Hopkinson et organic N in addition to organic N. In a simi- al., 1999). These processes are dominated by lar system used in Anderson et al.’s (1997) N remineralization as seen in the significant study, results are consistent except in the case differences in NOx and DIN fluxes between of high N loading circumstances. July and December non-vegetated sediments. As to issues regarding the experimental In addition to the disparity in sinks and procedure, there were few instances where sources for DOM and nutrients, the magni- the benthic chambers in the field leaked. This tude of fluxes also differed. In addition to was due to natural seepage from underneath December being a sink for DOC and nutri- the sediments. However, this volume change ents, there was a larger magnitude of fluxes was corrected when fluxes were calculated. during this experiment. It is apparent that salt Additionally, every attempt was made to en- marsh sediments are capable of taking up sure that experimental patches were removed large amounts of DOM in the winter, an ob- of all visible organisms such as snails, oys- servation that is important when considering ters, and algae. However, it is possible that blue carbon research. If salt marsh sediments unseen epifaunal or infaunal organisms were are able to store large amounts of DOM in not removed which could also have some in- such a small area, it raises the question of fluence on the cycling of DOM. In addition, how impactful large salt marsh areas may be this study was conducted at a relatively small in biogeochemical activity and therefore how site where anthropogenic disturbances such influential it is to the coastal ocean which is as foot traffic and experimental equipment so vital to ecosystem health. It seems that are evident. This could potentially influence nutrients can be effectively contained in salt the results in that pristine and vast areas of marshes and perhaps facilitate greater DOC salt marshes may produce different results. production as supported by studies within However, it can be argued that the disrupted Bauer et al. (2013), Cai et al., (2000), Koch and fragmented nature of the salt marsh is and Gobler (2009), Loomis and Craft (2010), representative of salt marshes currently un- Osburn et al., (2015) and Turner (1993). One dergoing anthropogenic stresses such as

106 Derek Detweiler encroachment. Additionally, Hopkinson and source of DOC and nutrients to the coastal Vallino (1995) and van Heemst et al. (2000) ocean has many implications. First, it adds to suggest that human-derived particulate and the understanding of how salt marshes oper- dissolved carbon can impact the lability of ate in addition to the complex microbial pro- organic matter in estuaries. That is, reminer- cesses that occur within sediments. alization processes may involve the metabo- Future research in this area could focus lism of nutritionally different carbon sources much more on the microbial community and the ability of microbial communities to that exists in the salt marsh sediments, par- utilize those compounds. ticularly in pore waters, and the community Ultimately, the results of this experiment composition that is responsible for reminer- are a good indicator that salt marsh biogeo- alizing nutrients in the system. In relation, chemistry is much more complex than what the heterogeneity of salt marsh ecosystems was first described by Odum in 1980 and may result in vegetation types that differ further supports studies citing microbial in- with changes in elevation or distance from fluences on salt marsh cycling (Anderson et the shoreline. Of course, this experiment was al., 1997; Burdige, 2002; Caffrey et al. 2007; limited by time and by space. Higher marsh Cai et al., 2000; Maher and Eyre, 2010; Tyler habitats may exhibit different flux proper- et al., 2003). The readily produced and avail- ties as well as those marshes with freshwa- able DOC in salt marshes may fuel the mi- ter influences. So, while the general theory crobial activity and consequent release of of biogeochemical reactivity and source-sink remineralized DOM in salt marsh sediments dynamics is supported, it would be difficult and provide a big picture approach to salt to use these fluxes to generate any sort of marsh biogeochemistry and how fluxes of budget for salt marsh export. DOC and nutrients can vary seasonally. The In the future, a more comprehensive study biogeochemical activity of these systems was should consider more of the microbial pro- shown to be complex and driven by micro- cesses at work in the sediment to better un- bial activity in the sediment further support- derstand the remineralization and microbial ing the claim that salt marshes are among the loop processes that operate to essentially most biogeochemically active ecosystems on suck up nutrients in the winter. Additional Earth. efforts should also be made to understand the effects of these processes on the coastal CONCLUSION ocean. How might the biogeochemical activity of salt marshes affect water quality or This research endeavor has resulted in other parameters in tidally influenced estu- many unanswered questions about sediment aries and coasts? This information could be fluxes in Spartina alterniflora salt marshes. vital to understanding the importance of salt The information that was gained from this marshes to coastal systems as valuable bio- experiment in support of salt marshes act- geochemical reactors. ing as biogeochemical reactors as well as a

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Age And Growth Of The Invasive Lionfish: North Carolina, USA, vs Bonaire, Dutch Caribbean

Samantha Farquhar University of North Carolina Wilmington Faculty Mentor: Thomas Lankford University of North Carolina Wilmington

ABSTRACT Lionfish are an invasive species that are now well established throughout the Atlantic. Originally from the Indo-Pacific, they have decimated local fishes’ populations due to their rapid reproduction, broad environmental tolerance, voracious appetite, and lack of predators. Through the examination of otoliths paired with morphometric data, this study investigates the age and growth of lionfish (sp. P. volitans) from two locations: North Carolina, USA and Bonaire, Dutch Caribbean. Otoliths were extracted from lionfish samples, embedded in resin, and then sectioned so that age could be determined with microscopic analysis. These age estimates along with the corresponding total lengths were used to calculate growth rates via the von Bertalanffy growth equation. Results returned a K and L-infinity value of 0.32 cm and 42.5 cm for lionfish from NC and 0.39 cm and 38.7 cm for Bonaire, respectively. These findings suggest that lionfish from NC have slower growth but grow older and larger than that of lionfish from Bonaire. This likely attributes to location as well as convenience and strength of removal efforts. In Bonaire, lionfish are hunted often and are easily accessible to the public, whereas in North Carolina, lionfish are found miles off the coast and their harvesting is not as popular.

ionfish are an invasive species - deriv (Schofield 2009). This study focuses on spe- Ling from the Indo-Pacific that have now cies P. volitans. come to thrive in the Atlantic and Caribbean. The earliest sighting of lionfish in the Invasive lionfish can be classified into two Atlantic dates to 1985 off the southeastern species, the fire devil fish (P. miles) and red coast of Florida and thought to be caused lionfish, P.( volitans). Both species look and by negligent aquarists. Through mitochon- behave very similar; they both appear to have dria DNA analysis, this was shown to be red and white zebra-like stripes, long pecto- likely source of the invasive (Freshwater et ral fins, venomous spines, and a sedentary, al. 2009). In 2000, multiple individuals were fearless demeanor (Schultz 1986). However, sighted off North Carolina and the surround- meristic counts differ between the species. P. ing states; nine years later, in 2009, lionfish miles generally has 10 dorsal-fin rays and 6 were seen in Bonaire (de León et al. 2013). anal-fin rays while P. volitans usually has 11 Presently, lionfish have been found as far dorsal-fin rays and 7 anal-fin rays (Schultz south as Brazil and as far north as New York 1986). Also, Species P. volitans has a wider (Morris and Whitfield 2009, Freshwater et geographic invasive range than P. miles al. 2009, Green et al. 2012, Ferreira et al.

112 Samantha Farquhar

2015). Lionfish are expected to continue in- influences for two very different locations: vading the remainder of the Caribbean and to North Carolina, USA and Bonaire, Dutch continue southward along the coast of South Caribbean. America until the water temperatures fall below their thermal tolerance limit (Morris and METHODS Whitfield 2009). Lionfish are classified as generalist- car Lionfish samples were obtained from both nivores that feed on a wide variety of fishes locations during the summer of 2015 (June and crustaceans (Morris and Akins 2009). – August) (Figure 1). In North Carolina, 21 Lionfish consume prey at high rates, largely lionfish were purchased from local fisherman during crepuscular periods (Green et al. after their returns from the Onslow Bay area. 2012). Their hunting strategy is unique In Bonaire, 17 lionfish were speared and do- among predatory fishes within the Caribbean. nated by locals. Bonaire samples all were Lionfish hover motionless over prey with from the west coast of the island. However, their large pectoral fins extended and are able due to human or experimental error, only 13 to approach their prey closely before making otoliths from each location were able to be a rapid strike. They also can extrude water completely evaluated. jets to orient the prey towards the mouth be- For all samples collected, the species was fore striking (Albins and Lyons 2012). Their verified, total length (TL) recorded, and the relentless predation wreaks havoc on com- sagittal otoliths were extracted. Otoliths are munities. For example, a 79% reduction in small bones that are found within fishes’ cra- fish recruitment on experimental patch reefs niums that help facilitate balance, orienta- in the Bahamas was observed during a five- tion, and sound (Secor et al. 1991). As these week observation period in the presence of bones grow, they form annual rings similar a single small lionfish (Albins and Hixon to like rings of a tree. These annuli can be 2008). Another study reported lionfish prey counted to give age estimates and used in biomass reduced by an average of 65% over further calculations to produce growth curves a two-year-period (Green et al. 2012). This (Secor et al. 1991). The otoliths were embed- mass predation is cause for concern as the ded in resin, mounted, and sectioned with an over-consumption of herbivore fishes can Isomet™ Low Speed Saw as following pro- shift ecosystems to algae dominated coral as tocol from the Manual for Otolith Removal shown by Lesser and Slattery (2011). These and Preparation for Microstructural shifts that can effect both habitat and econ- Examination (Secor et al. 1991). Sections omy as seen during the mass extinction of the were then analyzed for annuli under a com- sea urchin, Diadema antillarum in the 1980’s pound microscope to determine age. Further (Mumby et al. 2006). analysis for growth was conducted follow- Lionfish are extremely tolerant and adap- ing protocol set forth by the FAO’s (Food tive. They have been reported from all major and Agriculture Organization of the United marine seafloor and substrate types within Nations) manual, Introduction to Tropical the invaded Atlantic, and they occupy a Fish Stock Assessment (Sparre and Venema range of depths (Morris et al 2009). They 1998). have no known predators and a proven vora- The age estimates from the otolith analy- cious appetite; this paired with their ability to ses along with the corresponding total lengths reproduce every 4 days drives their success were used to calculate a growth rates via the (Morris et al 2009). Through the analysis of von Bertalanffy growth equation (Table 1.): otoliths and recorded total lengths, this study aims to (1) produce von Bertalanffy growth curves and (2) investigate the age structure and growth with regards to environmental where l(t) is length at time, t(0) is the

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Figure 1. Map of study area

114 Samantha Farquhar

Table 1. Raw otolith and corresponding age data for samples from North Carolina and Bonaire

Table 2. Comparison between parameters of von Bertalanffy growth equation for North Carolina and Bonaire

115 Explorations |Natural Sciences and Engineering theoretical length at age 0, K is the growth the parameter, t(0) was calculated by creat- rate and L∞, termed ‘L infinity’ in fisheries ing a Von Bertalanffy plot. This plots age (t) science, is the asymptotic length at which against: growth is zero(von Bertalanffy 1934). This equation assumes that body length is a function of age. Parameters for this equation were from the linear regression of this plot, t(0) calculated by the Ford-Walford plot. This plot can be simply calculated by: graphs a fish’s length at year (t+1) against the fish’s length the previous year (t) producing the equation: RESULTS AND DISCUSSION

Results return a K and L-infinity value of From this, the following parameters can 0.32 cm and 42.5 cm for lionfish from NC be calculated from the linear regression via: and 0.39 cm and 38.7 cm for Bonaire, respectively (Table 2 and Figure 2). The age range of lionfish found in North Carolina was 0.6-6.0 years old with an average age of 2 years old (Figure 3). Bonaire lionfish showed a range of 0.1-5.0 years old with an average

Figure 2. Von Bertalanffy growth curves calculated from lionfish samples for both North Carolina and Bonaire

116 Samantha Farquhar

Figure 3. Age structure of lionfish samples from Bonaire and North Carolina age of 1 year (Figure 3). 29°C (84°F). These warmer temperatures These results are similar to those found increase metabolic efforts which in turn afin past studies from the Western Atlantic fects growth (Thresher et al. 2007). The age and Caribbean. One study from the Cayman structure seen in Figure 3 is likely attributed Islands reported lionfish with a K growth rate to other environmental influences such as lo- of 0.42 and a L∞ value of 34.9 cm (Edwards cation and accessibility. Bonaire is a small et al. 2014) while another from Onslow Bay, island renowned for its convenience for pris- NC reported lionfish with a K growth rate tine diving. Local efforts to eliminate lion- of 0.32 and a L∞ value of 45.5 cm (Potts et fish and help protect and conserve Bonaire’s al. 2010). While the von Bertalanffy growth reefs are strong. Government organizations function (VBGF) is widely accepted, the (STINAPA), educational institutes (CIEE assumptions and limitations should be rec- Research Station Bonaire), local dive shops, ognized (Pardo et al. 2013). The VBGF is and visitors work closely together reporting was not adjusted for seasonality which could and monitoring lionfish sightings to each produce variations in the growth coefficient. other. These sightings are uploaded online to Additionally, bias in K has been shown based a ‘lionfish database’ that is open to the public. on the variation between using the calculated One can even go on to take a lionfish spear- value of the length at age zero parameter, t(0), ing course and after completion of the course versus observed values (Pardo et al. 2013). receive a ‘lionfish license’, allowing them North Carolina lionfish appeared to join the removal force. While these efforts be older and larger than Bonaire lionfish. target all lionfish, typically older, larger fish However, Bonaire lionfish showed a slightly are the first to be removed affecting overall faster growth rate. This could be influenced age structure. These types of collaborations by climate and temperature. Bonaire’s year- and removal efforts have proven effective in round monthly average temperature is ~ reducing lionfish abundance (Ali 2015, Ali et

117 Explorations |Natural Sciences and Engineering al. 2013, Barbour et al. 2011, de León et al. have proven successful in the area as well as 2013). The role of volunteers and group ef- educational outreach, but these removal effort is described as essential as increased re- forts are not as consistent as that of Bonaire. moval effort has both decreased lionfish and Recent surveys from 2010 have shown that allowed researchers to collect a large sample lionfish densities in Onslow Bay were as high size in a short time to collect further data as 200 lionfish per hectare (Whitfield et al. (Ali 2015, Ali et al. 2013). Moreover, a study 2014). Thus, this number will likely increase that compared fished and unfished areas of unless a balance is found within the ecosys- Bonaire over a two year period (2009-2011) tem or their removal and harvesting gains found that lionfish biomass in fished- loca popularity. tions on Bonaire was 2.76-fold lower than in This study has implications for manage- unfished areas on the same island (de León ment, tracking and monitoring, and planning et al. 2013). of the lionfish invasion. The produced von Additionally, the culling of lionfish is Bertalanffy growth curves (Figure 2) allow not just beneficial for the environment; it for an estimate of age based only on the total has been shown to be tasty and nutritious as length measurement of a fish. This can save well. The fish is described to have a - “deli future researchers the cumbersome task of cate flakey white meat” and shown to have a otolith extraction and analysis. While the ac- high omega-3 content (Morris et al., 2011). cessibility of lionfish cannot be changed in Thus, it is not uncommon to see lionfish on North Carolina, other aspects from Bonaire’s the menu in restaurants or markets through- successful removal effort could be adapted out the Caribbean. for North Carolina. Outreach education pro- As discussed, in Bonaire, lionfish are grams and removal efforts can be increased. hunted often and are easily accessible to the Restaurants and markets alike could be en- public. However, in North Carolina, this is couraged to offer lionfish. Additionally, a not the case. Lionfish are found miles off lionfish database to which reported - sight the coast and in much deeper water (~40 ings can easily be uploaded would prove m). Most importantly, their removal is not as beneficial. popular. There are some lionfish derbies that

118 Samantha Farquhar

REFERENCES

Albins MA. and Hixon MA. 2008. Invasive Indo-Pacific lionfishPterois ( volitans) reduce re cruitment of Atlantic coral-reef fishes. Marine Ecology Progress Series 367:233-238.

Albins MA, Lyons PJ. 2012. Invasive red lionfishPterois volitans blow directed jets of water at prey fish. Marine Ecology Progress Series 448:1–5

Ali F, Collins K, and Peachey R. 2013. The role of volunteer divers in lionfish research and control in the Caribbean. In MA Lang and MDJ Sayer (eds). Proceedings of the Joint International Scientific Diving Symposium. Curaçao, October 2013.

Ali F. 2015. Does Removal Work? A One Year Comparison of Lionfish Removal Efforts at Klein Bonaire. Proceedings of the Sixty six Annual Gulf and Caribbean Fisheries Institute. Corpus Christy, USA. 66:210-211. November 210-211.

Barbour AB, Allen MS, Frazer TK, Sherman KD. 2011. Evaluating the potential efficacy of invasive lionfish Pterois( volitans) removals. PLoS ONE. 6:e19666.

Edwards MA., Frazer TK, and Jacoby CA. 2014. Age and growth of invasive lionfish Pterois( spp.) in the Caribbean Sea, with implications for management. Bull. Marine Science 90:953–966. de León R, Vane K, Bertuol P, Chamberland VC, Simal F, Imms E, Vermeij MJ. 2013. Effectiveness of lionfish removal efforts in the southern Caribbean. Endangered Species Research 22(2):175-182.

Ferreira CEL, Luiz OJ, Floeter SR. 2015. First Record of Invasive Lionfish Pterois( volitans) for the Brazilian Coast. PLoS ONE 10(4):e0123002.

Freshwater DW, Hines A, Parham S, Wilbur A, Sabaoun M, Woodhead J, Akins L, Purdy B, Whitfield PE, Paris CB. 2009. Mitochondrial control region sequence analyses indi cate dispersal from the US East Coast as the source of the invasive Indo-Pacific lion fish Pterois volitans in the Bahamas. Marine Biology 156:1213-1221.

Green SJ. and Côté IM. 2009. Record densities of Indo-Pacific lionfish on Bahamian coral reefs. Coral Reefs 28:107.

Green SJ, Akins JL, Maljković A, Côté IM. 2012. Invasive lionfish drive Atlantic coral reef fish declines. PLoS One 7(3):e32596

Lesser MP. and Slattery M. 2011. Phase shift to algal dominated communities at mesophotic depths associated with lionfish (Pterois volitans) invasion on a Bahamian coral reef. Biological Invasions 13:1855–1868

Morris JA Jr. and Akins JL. 2009. Feeding ecology of invasive lionfish Pterois( volitans) in the Bahamian archipelago. Environmental Biology of Fishes 86:389-398.

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Morris JA. And Whitfield PE, 2009. Biology, ecology, control and management of the invasive Indo-Pacific lionfish: An updated integrated assessment. Beaufort, NC, NOAA/ National Ocean Service/Center for Coastal Fisheries and Habitat Research, NOAA Technical Memorandum NOS NCCOS, 99.

Morris JA Jr, Akins JL, Barse A, Cerino D, Freshwater DW, Green SJ, Muñoz RC, Paris CB, and Whitfield PE. 2009. Biology and ecology of the invasive lionfishes,Pterois miles and Pterois volitans. Proceedings of the Gulf and Caribbean Fisheries Institute 29:409-414.

Morris JA Jr, Thomas A, Rhyne AL, Breen N, Akins L, Nash B. 2011. Nutritional properties of the invasive lionfish: a delicious and nutritious approach for controlling the invasion. AACL Bioflux 4:21–26.

Mumby PJ, Hedley JD, Zychaluk K, Harborne AR, Blackwell PG. 2006. Revisiting the catastrophic die-off of the urchin Diadema antillarum on Caribbean coral reefs: Fresh insights on resilience from a simulation model. Ecological Modeling 196:131–148.

Pardo SA, Cooper AB. and Dulvy NK. 2013. Avoiding fishy growth curves. Methods in Ecology and Evolution 4: 353–360.

Potts JC, Berrane D, Morris JA Jr. 2010. Age and growth of lionfish from the western north Atlantic. Proceedings of the Gulf and Caribbean Fisheries Institute 63:314.

Schofield PJ. 2009. Geographic extent and chronology of the invasion of non-native lionfish (Pterois volitans [Linnaeus 1758] and P. miles [Bennett 1828]) in the Western North Atlantic and Caribbean Sea. Aquatic Invasions 4:473-479.

Schultz ET. 1986. Pterois volitans and Pterois miles: two valid species. Copeia 1986:686–690.

Secor DH, Dean JM, and Laban EH. 1991. Manual for otolith removal and preparation for microstructural examination. University of South Carolina, Baruch Institute for Marine Biology and Coastal Research Technical Report 91-1.

Sparre P. and Venema SC. 1998. Introduction to tropical fish stock assessment, Part 1: manual. FAO Fisheries Technical Papers 306/1, rev. 2.

Thresher RE, Koslow JA, Morison AK, and Smith DC. 2007. Depth-mediated reversal of the effects of climate change on long-term growth rates of exploited marine fish. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America 104(18):7461–7465.

Whitfield PE, Muñoz RC, Buckel CA, Degan BP, Freshwater DW, and Hare JA. 2014. Native fish community structure and Indo-Pacific lionfishPterois volitans densities along a depth-temperature gradient in Onslow Bay, North Carolina, USA. Marine Ecology Progress Series 509:241–254.

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Caffeine’s Effects On Skeletal Muscle Bioenergetics In Vitro

Brian Gottwalt University of North Carolina Wilmington Faculty Mentor: Stephen Kinsey University of North Carolina Wilmington

ABSTRACT The purpose of this investigation was to study the effects of caffeine on respiration rate and utilization of glucose, glutamine, and fatty acids in C2C12 mouse skeletal muscle cells. Treatment of cultured C2C12 cells with 1 mM caffeine for 24 hours significantly (p<0.05) decreased the basal and maximal oxygen consumption rate (OCR), and therefore respiratory capacity when compared to controls. In addition, caffeine decreased the extra-cellular acidification rate (ECAR), indicating a reduction in the rate of anaerobic glycolysis. Measurement of OCR through the use of a metabolic assay analyzer also revealed a significant (p<0.05) decrease in glucose oxidation and fatty acid oxidation in response to caffeine. However, caffeine induced an increase in fatty acid oxidation as a percentage of total fuel usage. The reduction in OCR and ECAR following caffeine treatment suggests that this drug likely inhibits ATP turnover or induces programmed cell death in C2C12 muscle cells.

affeine is the most widely used drug who ingest it are intimately tied to cellular Cin the western world (Graham, 2001). respiration (Bracco et al., 1995, Robertson Approximately 75% of consumed caffeine et al., 1978). During cellular respiration, comes in the form of coffee and this precious oxygen, and fuel molecules such as fatty liquid is second only to oil in dollar amount acids, glucose, and glutamine are consumed traded annually (Keisler and Armsey, 2006). by mitochondria to produce adenosine tri- Once ingested, caffeine is rapidly absorbed phosphate (ATP)—the cellular unit of en- in the gastrointestinal tract (Blanchard and ergy (Aschenbach et al. 2002). If nutrient Sawyers, 1983) and disseminated through- availability is not a limiting factor, cells that out the entire body (Axelrod and Reisenthal, process oxygen at higher rates can produce 1953), and it is known to cause numer- more ATP. For example, the primary limit- ous physiological and neurological effects ing factor during exercise is the rate at which (Ritchie et al., 2007, Davis et al., 2002, Bell muscle cells consume oxygen to meet the et al., 1998, Daniels et al., 1998). Caffeine has body’s elevated energy (Bassett and Howley, been used to enhance athletic performance 2000). When energy demand is not met by since the 1920s (Jacobson and Kulling, 1989) aerobic respiration, anaerobic fermentation and it is an exceedingly popular mental stim- supplies the required ATP, but it is less effi- ulant (Wesensten et al., 2005). However, the cient at making ATP and also produces lactic cellular ramifications of chronic caffeine use acid as a byproduct (McArdle et al. 2010). remain ambiguous, even though use of caf- Lactic acid production from the anaerobic feine is approaching record highs (Keisler process of glycolysis acidifies the interior and Armsey, 2006, Spriet, 1995). of the cells and releases free H+ ions into the The effects caffeine imposes on those extracellular fluid (Owicki and Parce, 1992).

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Glycolytic activity can therefore be measured effects on muscle metabolism an important by observing alterations in the H+ ion concen- public health issue. tration in the extracellular fluid immediately surrounding cells (Lardner, 2000). Together, METHODS measurement of the oxygen consumption rate (OCR) and the extracellular acidification rate Cell Culture (ECAR) provides a useful indicator of the C2C12 mouse skeletal muscle cells bioenergetics status of skeletal muscle cells (myoblasts) were acquired from ATCC (Wu et al. 2007). Therefore, this work em- (ATCC CRL-1772, Manassas, VA, USA). ployed a measurement technique to evaluate Cells were grown at 37 °C in 5% CO2 and the effect of caffeine on aerobic and anaero- cultured under sterile conditions in growth bic metabolism in C2C12 cells. medium [Dulbecco’s modified Eagle’s - me Caffeine has been found to influence dium (DMEM) with 10% fetal bovine serum, OCR and metabolism (Bauer et al. 2001). penicillin/streptomycin]. Proliferation of the Long-term administration of caffeine in pre- cells was monitored using a tissue culture term infants is associated with an increase light microscope to determine confluence. in oxygen consumption. Another study con- To permit passage of cells between contain- ducted by Chad and Quigley (1989) saw ers, adherent cells were dissociated from the oxygen consumption and metabolic rate in vessel in which they were cultured using the female subjects increase significantly 1 hour proteolytic enzyme trypsin. after caffeine ingestion. Caffeine has also been shown to activate the AMP activated Bioenergetic Assay protein kinase (AMPK), which in turn leads Oxygen Consumption Rate and to mitochondrial biogenesis, and therefore Extracellular Acidification Rate an increase in cell metabolic rate (Mathew C2C12 myoblasts were plated on XFp et al., 2014). Additionally, skeletal muscle microplates (Seahorse Bioscience, North mitochondria primarily oxidize three key fu- Billerica, MA, USA) at a density of 10,000 els: long chain fatty acids, glucose, and glu- cells/well in growth medium and cultured at tamine (Kelley and Mandarino, 2000). There 37 °C in 5% CO2. Cells reached ~90% con- is evidence that caffeine alters substrate uti- fluence after 1 day, at which time growth lization (Raney and Turcotte, 2008, Arciero media was removed and replaced with dif- et al., 1995). Inhibition of these fuels yields ferentiation media (DMEM with 2% horse changes in respiration and therefore differ- serum). After 5 days of serum restriction, ences between these changes observed in multinucleated myotubes formed and were cells treated and untreated with caffeine pro- ready for treatment. Fresh media was ad- vide data on how caffeine affects oxidation of ministered every 24 hours. To determine key metabolic fuels. the mitochondrial and glycolytic function The present study evaluated the effects of in C2C12 muscle cells, a cell mitochondrial caffeine exposure on the bioenergetic status stress assay was conducted using a Seahorse of C2C12 skeletal muscle cells. We tested XFp Extracellular Metabolic Flux Analyzer. the hypotheses that 24 h of 1 mM caffeine After myocytes had differentiated 5 days, treatment would increase the overall rate of cells were treated with 1 mM caffeine in respiration in C2C12 cells, due to its stimu- differentiation media for 24 hours. After 21 latory effects on certain cell types, and that hours of the incubation period, cell media caffeine treatment would increase use of glu- was replaced with non-bicarbonate, pH 7.4 cose as a metabolic fuel over fatty acids and assay media (XF Assay Medium, Seahorse glutamine. The widespread use of caffeine, Bioscience), supplemented with 25 mM including among children whose muscles glucose, and 4 mM sodium pyruvate, and are still developing, make understanding its incubated for the final 3 hours in a non-CO2

123 Explorations |Natural Sciences and Engineering incubator. The same media was used as ve- (4 µM final concentration), which inhibits hicle for the compounds that were injected carnitine palmitoyl-transferase 1A, an es- as part of the assays. The XFp Analyzer was sential enzyme for translocating long chain then used to measure the cell oxygen con- fatty acids from cytosol into mitochondria sumption rate (OCR) in pmol O2/min and ex- for oxidation, which therefore inhibits long tracellular acidification rate (ECAR) in mpH/ chain fatty acid oxidation. By selectively in- min. OCR and ECAR values measure rates hibiting the oxidation of glucose, glutamine of mitochondrial respiration and glycolytic or fatty acids while measuring the OCR, the activity, respectively. contribution of each fuel to total OCR of Two types of assays were run to ana- cells can be determined. Therefore, one can lyze OCR and ECAR data from skeletal measure the effects of caffeine treatment muscle cells: the Mitochondrial Stress as- on cellular fuel preference. Just as with the say and Mitochondrial Fuel Flex assay Cell Mitochondrial Stress assay, there were 3 (Seahorse Biosciences). In the case of the wells per treatment group (control and 1 mM Mitochondrial Stress assay, the XFp analyzer caffeine), and three plates were used per ex- sequentially injected the following com- periment (n=9). pounds into the assay medium: oligomycin (1 µM final concentration), which blocks the Data Analysis ATP synthase and shows the OCR dedicated All data were entered into Microsoft to ATP production; carbonyl cyanide 4-(tri- Excel, which was used to produce graphs and fluoromethoxy) phenylhydrazone (FCCP: 4 calculate mean values for OCR and ECAR. µM final concentration), which permeabi- Results are reported as means ± SE. Data lizes the inner mitochondrial membrane and were analyzed using ANOVA and paired t- shows maximal OCR; and rotenone/antimy- test in JMP Pro 12. Statistical significance cin A (1 µM final concentration for each), was determined if p < 0.05. which blocks complex I and III showing non-mitochondrial OCR. Each assay used RESULTS one Seahorse Bioscience 8-well microplate; 3 wells for each of the two treatment groups Effect of Caffeine on Mitochondrial OCR (control and 1 mM caffeine), and 2 calibra- The effects of caffeine on skeletal mus- tion control wells that contain only assay cle OCR and ECAR during a mitochondrial media. Two plates of cells were analyzed for stress assay are shown in Figure 1. There each parameter that was tested (n=6). OCR was a significantly (p<0.05) lower mean and ECAR were measured at three time OCR initially (basal OCR) and after addi- points during basal respiration and after each tion of FCCP (maximal OCR) (Figure 1A). drug injection. A summary of the data collected for OCR is presented in Figure 2, where every measure Metabolic Fuel Utilization of mitochondrial function had a lower mean The second assay type conducted was value in the caffeine treated cells than in the the Mitochondrial Fuel Flex assay and can control. However, only the basal and maxi- be described as follows. The analyzer se- mal OCR and the aerobic scope (difference quentially injected mixtures of the following between maximal OCR and basal OCR) were compounds into the assay medium: UK5099 significantly (p<0.05) lower in the caffeine (2 µM final concentration), which inhibits treated cells. Similarly, mean ECAR was the mitochondrial pyruvate carrier and thus noticeably lower in the caffeine treated cells the glucose oxidation pathway, BPTES (3 where every measurement reflected a lower µM final concentration), which inhibits the mean value (Figure 1B). However, only the enzyme glutaminase, subsequently prevent- ECAR measured immediately after FCCP ing oxidation of glutamine, and etomoxir addition was significantly (p<0.05) lower in

124 Brian Gottwalt caffeine treated cells compared to the control. al., 1997) may have had an effect on the observed decrease in mitochondrial OCR. Effects of Caffeine on Metabolic Fuel Excessive Ca2+ release and increase in cyto- Utilization solic Ca2+causes ER stress and could have led To understand caffeine’s effects on fuel to the decreased OCR observed (Mekahli et utilization of the three major energy sources al., 2011). Additionally, all OCR measure- for skeletal muscle cells (glucose, glutamine, ments for caffeine-treated cells exhibited fatty acids) the OCR was measured while lower OCR than the control, which points to- sequentially inhibiting each fuel. The subse- ward two likely conclusions. The first is that quent drop in OCR following inhibition of a caffeine imposes a direct effect on cellular particular fuel is indicative of the energy ob- energy needs in C2C12 cells. This could have tained from oxidizing that fuel in respiration. occurred by directly affecting mitochondrial The subsequent addition of inhibitors of the function. Caffeine has been shown to hinder other two fuel sources caused an additional mitochondrial capacity to recover membrane drop in OCR, and the total decrease in OCR potential (Sardão et al., 2002) and the exis- can be used to calculate the percent contribu- tence of concentration gradients across mi- tion of each fuel to basal OCR. OCR mea- tochondrial membranes is of considerable surements during addition of inhibitors for functional importance (Clausen et al., 1991). each fuel is shown in Figure 3, and a sum- Altering mitochondrial ability to maintain mary of the data for each fuel is shown in these gradients could reduce their ability to Figure 4. There was a significant (p<0.05) produce ATP and lead to the overall OCR reduction in utilization of glucose and fatty drop that was observed in caffeine-treated acids in the caffeine treated cells, and mean cells compared to the control. The second glutamine utilization also was lower in the possible explanation is that the caffeine treat- caffeine treated group, although not signifi- ment irreversibly altered cell metabolic func- cantly (p>0.10) so (Figure 4A). The percent tion. Damaged ability to metabolize available contribution of glucose to total fuel utiliza- fuels could have affected the viability of cells. tion was lower in caffeine treated cells, while According to Fernandez et al. (2003) concen- fatty acid oxidation represented a signifi- trations of caffeine promote cell death in a cantly (p<0.05) larger contribution to total dose-dependent manner. One investigation fuel use after caffeine treatment (Figure 4B). found that inhibiting AMP activated protein Together, the collected data showed that fatty kinase in the presence of caffeine treatment acids were the most substantial source of cel- significantly reduced autophagy in C2C12 lular energy, followed by glutamine, with cells (Mathew et al., 2014). Therefore, if the glucose as the least employed source of cel- cause of decreased mean OCR in caffeine lular energy among the three examined fuels. treated cells resulted from autophagy, AMPK Caffeine caused a relative increase in depen- activity likely played a part. This could have dence on fatty acids. been an adverse effect of the 24-hour caffeine treatment, thus leaving fewer viable DISCUSSION cells to produce ATP, and could explain the decrease in caffeine treated cell mean OCR. Effect of Caffeine on Mitochondrial OCR This would also explain the similar decrease Basal oxygen consumption rate in C2C12 in mean ECAR measured in caffeine treated myocytes treated with caffeine was signifi- cells. cantly lower than that of the untreated control muscle. Caffeine’s ability to decrease cal- Effect of Caffeine on Metabolic Fuel Use cium (Ca2+) sequestering by the endoplasmic C2C12 cells treated with caffeine showed reticulum (ER) (Krizaj et al., 1999, Blinks a significantly increased utilization of long et al., 1972, Smits et al., 1985, Schoppe et chain fatty acids and a significant decrease in

125 Explorations |Natural Sciences and Engineering A

Figure 1: (A) Oxygen consumption rate (OCR) of caffeine treated and control muscle cells (n=6). Caffeinated cell OCR shows a significant (p<0.05) drop in both basal and maximal (after FCCP addition) OCR. (B) Extracellular acidification rate (ECAR) of caffeine treated cells also showed a decrease during maximal respiration (after FCCP addition) and lower ECAR values throughout (though not all were statistically significant).

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Figure 2: Basal (A) and maximal (B) OCR were significantly (p<0.05) lower in caffeine treated cells (n=6). Aerobic scope, which is the difference between basal and maximal OCR, was also significantly (p<0.05) lower in the caffeine treated cells (C). Proton leak (D) and the amount of OCR dedicated to ATP production during basal metabolism (E) were both compa- rable (p>0.25) between control cells and those treated with caffeine.

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Figure 3: (A) Oxidation of glucose as measured by OCR (n=9). The addition of UK 5099 inhibited glucose oxidation, then fatty acid and glutamine oxidation were inhibited by Etomoxir and BPTES. (B) Oxidation of glutamine in OCR (n=9). The addition of BPTES inhibited glutamine oxidation, then glucose and fatty acid oxidation were inhibited by UK5099 and Etomoxir. and (C) Oxidation of fatty acids in OCR (n=9). The addition of Etomoxir inhibited fatty acid oxidation, then glucose and glutamine oxidation were inhibited by UK5099 and BPTES.

128 Brian Gottwalt

Figure 4: (A) Analyses of absolute glucose, glutamine, and fatty acid oxidation in caffeine treated and control cells (n=9). Caffeine induced a significant (p<0.05) decrease in the absolute rate of glucose and fatty acid oxidation. (B) % of total oxidative metabolism of each key fuel in caffeine treated and control cells (n=9). Caffeine also induced a significant (p<0.05) increase in fatty acid oxidation and a decrease in glucose oxidation as a percentage of the total fuel use.

129 Explorations |Natural Sciences and Engineering glucose oxidation, when examined as a per- explicit effects of caffeine on mitochondrial centage of total fuel use (Figure 4B). Caffeine substrate utilization in skeletal muscle in vi- has been shown to indirectly increase glucose tro. One study conducted by Ukropcova et al. uptake and fatty acid utilization by activating (2005) which collected data in vitro and in a calcium-induced AMPK dependent path- vivo subjects found that in vivo insulin sensi- way (Raney and Turcotte, 2008). AMPK activity was related to a higher in vitro capacity tivity has been shown to increase fatty acid for lipid oxidation. However, because caf- oxidation in human skeletal muscle as well feine reacts synergistically with epinephrine (Wojtaszewski et al., 2003). Similar to the (Butcher et al., 1968) and causes numerous pattern seen in the mitochondrial stress as- effects on the somatic nervous system (Krizaj say, every OCR measurement of all 3 fuel et al., 1999), more research should be con- substrates was decreased (though not always ducted examining correlations between in significantly) in caffeine treated cells- com vitro and in vivo studies of insulin resistance. pared to the control. The results of a study by Vaughan et al. (2012) found that low caffeine Future Work doses can significantly increase skeletal mus- Previous studies have identified caffeine cle metabolism, while higher doses can limit as an AMPK activator and have correlated this increase. Numerous studies have been AMPK activation with increased mitochon- done analyzing in vivo effects of caffeine on drial formation in mammals. However, we metabolic fuel utilization; however, count- plan to further investigate C2C12 exposure less factors and pathways modulate cellular to caffeine to confirm its effects on metabo- caffeine responses in whole body organisms lism. We are currently conducting metabolic (Echeverri et al., 2010, Acheson et al., 2004, assays to measure cellular energy allocation. Costill, et al., 1978). Some of caffeine’s re- Additionally, metabolic alterations can in- ported effects on substrate utilization in these duce structural changes in cells. Therefore, studies reflect a similar pattern of decreased evaluating the connection between environ- glucose and increased fatty acid utilization mental caffeine content and possible influ- (Arciero et al., (1995). Thus, the findings of ence on skeletal muscle physiology may this study are in agreement with similar find- prove crucial to better understand the drug’s ings in primary literature, although very little induced cellular effects. research has been conducted examining the

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

I would like to thank Dr. Stephen Kinsey for his support and guidance, feedback, and funding for this project. I am also very grateful for the laboratory training provided to me by Dr. Jeff Overton, and thankful for support and comments from Dr. Carolina Priester. Dr. Katherine Bruce, and Dr. Michael Messina. This project was funded in part by the UNCW Center for the Support of Undergraduate Research and Fellowships.

130 Brian Gottwalt

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Explorations |Natural Sciences and Engineering Binding Of Earth Abundant Metal Coordination Complexes As Molecular Spacers To Single-Walled Carbon Nanotubes Chauncey McNeill University of North Carolina at Charlotte Faculty Mentor: Jordan Poler University of North Carolina at Charlotte ABSTRACT Nanostructured carbon has generated a lot of attention as electrical energy storage materials because of their extreme surface area. To enhance the storage capabilities of these materials, interparticle spacer strategies are needed to preserve the surface area between particles. In this article a comparison of different divalent, dinuclear coordination complexes with strong adsorption to single-walled carbon nanotubes (SWCNTs) will be presented along with the spacer properties that maintain SWCNTs’s electrochemical properties. Dinuclear zinc hydrazone coordination complexes bind with a higher loading than dinuclear ruthenium coordination complexes. Aggregation of SWCNTs happens at a higher ionic concentration when bound to dinuclear zinc hydrazone than dinuclear ruthenium coordination complexes. This is supported by dispersion stability, binding kinetics, and equilibrium data. Membrane resistance data is also presented supporting the complexes acting as molecular spacers in SWCNTs dispersions.

anomaterials are paramount to the results on coordination complexes that bind performance of many technologies to SWCNTs by acting as molecular spac- becauseN of their extremely high specific ers; however, the coordination complexes do surface area (SSA) and surface characteris- not collapse the EDL as adequately as coor- tics. Current technologies are reaching the dination complexes with bridging ligands. threshold of their improvement and perfor- The binding and less effective collapsing of mance.1 For example, nanomaterials com- these species leads to higher loading onto bined with other molecules have been used the SWCNTs which may increase their dis- in aptasensor designs.2 A major challenge persion stability. This allows us to utilize associated with most nanomaterials is their SWCNTs SSA for supercapacitor materials. aggregation, which radically decreases their Adsorption kinetics and equilibrium of two SSA. In earlier work, long range interactions divalent, dinuclear metal coordination com- (LRI) between SWCNTs were explored by plexes were compared. The adsorption of the investigating tube interactions with various coordination complexes, +2Zn2 and +2Ru2, solvated ionic species.3 The stability of dis- can be understood through LRI such as van persed SWCNTs is dominated by Derjaguin, der Waals forces, electrostatics, and π-π inter- Landau, Verwey and Overbeek (DLVO) in- actions. Electrostatic interactions occur be- teractions.4 It was found that the species most tween the partial negative surface charge of effective at collapsing the electrical double the SWCNTs and the positive charge of the layer (EDL) of the nanomaterials were di- molecular spacer. Further, π-π interactions nuclear coordination complexes with strong exist between the aromatic ligands of the binding to the SWCNTs, acting as a molecu- molecular spacers and the π- electrons on the lar spacer between tubes. Below, we present SWCNTs.5 SWCNT’s adsorption capacity

136 Chauncey McNeill depends on the number of active binding normalized to a pristine SWCNTs control sites available to interact with the adsorbant.6 dispersion. The concentration of molecular +2Ru2 bind more strongly to SWCNTs than adsorbate was compared to initial controls +2Zn2, but the loading is reversed. to determine the amount bound to SWCNTs. These studies were performed at various in- METHODS cubation periods from 10 to 90 min increasing in 5 min intervals to determine binding Sample Preparation kinetics. The SWCNT were HiPco (Grade P CNT from Unidym, 0.8-1.2 nm diameter, Membrane Resistance 100-1000 nm length). SWCNT dispersions were made by adding N,N- Membrane resistance studies were con- Dimethylformamide (DMF) (30 mL) to ducted using vacuum filtration across a powder (0.5 mg) then tip ultrasonicated for 9.55x10-4 m2 0.272 mg thin film of SWCNTs. 30 min at 10 W RMS. Following ultrasoni- The flux of DMF through the membrane was cation the dispersions were ultracentrifuged measured with successive 50.0 mL rinses. at 20000 g for 20 min to deposit undispersed +2Zn2-SWCNTs films were produced by SWCNTs. The supernatant was carefully re- incubating dispersed tubes with 9.04 μM of moved, with the stable dispersion stored for +2Zn2 for 90 min. The film was formed by later use. Samples were ultrasonicated for 20 pouring the +2Zn2-SWCNTs dispersion onto min before use in experiments. All experi- a 0.45 mm pore polypropylene membrane ments were conducted at room temperature and vacuum filtered, leaving behind a film of 18-20 ˚C. +2Zn2-SWCNTs. The filtrate was collected with the amount of coordination complex Molecular Spacers remaining after each rinse being used to de- Two metal coordination complexes termine q. were adsorbed to the SWCNTs as possible molecular spacers. A dinuclear ruthe- RESULTS AND DISCUSSION nium coordination complex, [Cl(2,2’;6’,2’’ terpyridine)Ru(tetrapyrido[3,2-α:2’,3’- Binding Kinetics and Adsorption Results c:3’’,2’’-h:2’’,3’’-j]phenazine)Ru(2,2’;6’,2’’- The amount of +2Zn2 bound to SWCNTs, 2 7 terpyridine)Cl]-(PF6) (+2Ru2) , and a qe the mg of +2Zn2 adsorbate per g of dinuclear zinc coordination complex, 4-(tert- SWCNTs adsorbent, was measured versus butyl)-2’6-bis((2-(phthalazin-1-yl)hydra- time. Adsorption kinetics studies were used zono)methyl)phenol(m2-methoxo) dizinc(II)- to find the binding mechanism. The kinetics acetate (+2Zn2)8 were dissolved in dry DMF of +2Zn2 bound to SWCNTs were measured for binding studies. as a function of initial concentration, Co, of +2Zn2. The concentration of SWCNTs and Binding Kinetics and Adsorption Studies +2Zn2 were measured using UV-Vis spec- Adsorption of molecular spacers to the troscopy. Because they do not absorb in the surface of SWCNTs was performed by add- same region, a correction was applied for ing different concentrations of adsorbent to any remaining SWCNTs in the dispersion as the dispersion. Samples were ultracentrifuged shown in Figure 1. At low Co, qt nears the the- at 100000 g for an hour to guarantee sedi- oretical maximum packing, qmax. The initial ment did not interfere with optical adsorption rates of adsorption were computed from the 9 measurements. The supernatant was pipetted regression of qt versus time. The binding rate off, and the equilibrium concentration of un- was not dependent on the number of binding bound species was measured using UV-Vis sites, supporting an independent binding site spectroscopy Measured concentrations were model. This pseudo-zeroth-order kinetics

137 Explorations |Natural Sciences and Engineering also supports an independent binding model The same adsorption studies were carried of the +2Zn2 complex onto the surface sites out for +2Ru2 onto SWCNTs surfaces. This of the SWCNTs where [+2Zn2] = C0 - kt. The coordination complex fully dissociates and is rate constants k = 7.3 ± 0.5 (mg g-1) min-1 and a strong electrolyte in DMF, whereas +2Zn2 k = 7.1 ± 1 (mg g-1) min-1 are experimentally forms an ion pair in DMF. Both coordination the same for different initial concentration complexes are held together with the same -1 -1 C0 = 5.71 mg L (b) and C0 = 19.0 mg L tetrapyridophenazine bridging ligand that is (a), respectively.9 The kinetics data are not able to π-π stack with SWCNTs surfaces. The in agreement with a pseudo-first or pseudo- heteroligands on the +2Ru2 coordination second-order kinetics models.10 An adsorp- complex hinder the adsorption of the com- tion isotherm of +2Zn2 intercalating with plex onto the SWCNTs surface; this problem SWCNTs was made by incubating samples is not present in the planar +2Zn2 coordina- for 2 h before removing the SWCNTs via tion complex. The samples were incubated ultracentrifugation. The equilibrium con- for 2-3 days at low concentrations because centration, Ceq, was computed using UV-Vis of the slow binding kinetics. The +2Ru2 spectroscopy. binds stronger to SWCNTs than +2Zn2, Adsorption data was analyzed using a and the onset of aggregation is much lower 11 9 modified Brunauer-Emmett-Teller (BET) at X0= 1.22 ± 0.01 μM. SWCNTs begin to isotherm, aggregate at much lower concentrations, reducing their surface area. Figure 3 shows the Langmuir isotherm model of the +2Ru2

bound to SWCNTs. KL is essentially zero where qm is the adsorbate loading of one making the models equivalent with qm = 87 -1 -1 9 monolayer, Ks is the equilibrium constant ± 4 mg g and Ks = 3.5 ± 0.6 mg L . +2Ru2 for the adsorbate–SWCNTs surface interac- binding constant, Ks, is larger than +2Zn2 -1 tion, and KL is the equilibrium constant for binding constant at Ks = 1.1 ± 0.15 mg L . the subsequent adsorbate layer bound to the This is expected as the ruthenium fully dis- first monolayer.9 A non-linear least squares fit sociates in DMF and has more delocalization on these parameters to the data (see Figure on its ligand. -1 2) determined that qm = 704 ± 29 mg g , Ks -1 = 1.1 ± 0.15 mg L , and KL = 0.017 ± 0.002 Membrane Resistance Results -1 9 mg L . qm* is the theoretical maximum We have theorized that our coordination packing +2Zn2 could have when π-π stacked complex acts as a molecular spacer, interca- onto a flat surface, represented as the high- lating with SWCNTs and increasing the dis- est dashed line in Figure 2. The actual qm= tance between tubes. These molecular spac- -1 704 ± 29 mg g is relatively close to qm*= ers increase the accessible SSA and the flow 1057 mg g-1, which is surprising as SWCNTs rate through condensed films. The membrane surfaces are curved. Indicated by the middle resistance (MR) of these thin films can be de- dashed line in Figure 2, as the adsorption of termined using Darcy’s law12, coordination complex onto the SWCNTs surface ends, the SWCNTs become saturated. At higher concentrations, i.e., above the onset of 9 aggregation Xo = 14.2 ± 0.3 μM, some of the where ΔP is the differential pressure across SWCNTs will aggregate before adsorption the membrane, a is the area of the film, μ is of +2Zn2 can happen. After aggregation, the the dynamic viscosity, and Q is the flux across surface is not accessible to the coordination the membrane. Figure 4 presents the normal- complex. The high ionic concentration of co- ized MR of pristine (diamonds) and +2Zn2- ordination complex destabilizes the disper- SWCNTs thin films. The MR of pristine films sions causing aggregation. is consistently higher until the fourth rinse,

138 Chauncey McNeill where the MR of both film types converge. thin films. The +2Ru2 complex binds more For the +2Zn2-SWCNTs thin films, the MR strongly to SWCNT surfaces then does the increased after successive rinses until the +2Zn2 complex; however, the loading onto MR stabilized. The MR of the first rinse of the SWCNTs is much lower for the ruthenium the +2Zn2-SWCNTs thin films is almost half complex. In addition, ruthenium is too ex- that of the pristine thin film. There is an in- pensive of a metal to make ruthenium-based crease in MR of the +2Zn2-SWCNTs thin molecular spacers a viable option. Improving films as the +2Zn2 is washed off after each molecular spacer design and application can rinse. help ensure a future with less non-renewable energy sources. Energy storage devices based CONCLUSIONS on our molecular spacer results have shown promise. Other metal coordination com- Using the large SSA of SWCNTs, elec- plexes are being investigated that are more trical energy from renewable sources can earth abundant and cost effective. In future be stored using a double layer capacitance studies, coordination complexes with en- mechanism. We have used molecular spacers hanced oxidation-reduction activity will be to prevent the aggregation of the SWCNTs tested and characterized. We have shown that such that their SSA can be used for energy molecular spacers with high π conjugation storage applications. We studied the bind- and steric bulk on the ligands, along with low ing kinetics and equilibrium of two differ- charge on the metal center, perform the best ent coordination complexes that intercalate for electrical energy storage applications. between the SWCNTs in dispersions and in

Figure 1. Adsorption kinetics of +2Zn2 bound to SWCNT dispersed in DMF. As the initial concentration of adsorbate increased so does the amount of complex bound to the SWCNT, until saturation. Initial adsorption rates are constant with time, making them quasi-independent of adsorbate concentration.

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Figure 2. Adsorption isotherm of +2Zn2 onto a SWCNT. The theoretical max packing, qm* is shown as the highest dashed line. The inset is the molecular spacer intercalating with a SWCNT.

Figure 3. Adsorption isotherm of +2Ru2 onto a SWCNT surface. The Ceq of adsorbate is measured after the SWCNT have been centrifuged out of the dispersion.

140 Chauncey McNeill

Figure 4. Membrane resistance of pristine SWCNT (diamond) and +2Zn2-SWCNT thin films. The membrane resistance of the +2Zn2-SWCNT thin films increases with successive DMF rinses.

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Sensitivity Analysis of Nanoparticle Concentrations in Wastewater Treatment and Biosolid Application for Environmental Risk Assessment Sarah Wu North Carolina School of Science and Mathematics Faculty Mentor: Jacelyn Rice and Mark Wiesner Duke University

ABSTRACT Nanoparticles (NPs) exhibit novel properties that can enhance many industrial processes and products, but also pose risks to the environment. As the presence of NPs in consumer society increases, it becomes critical to model their uncertain and potentially toxic fates when released into aquatic and terrestrial systems. Most NPs are predicted to end up in sewer systems and eventually in wastewater treatment plants (WWTPs), where they either are discharged into receiving streams or accumulate in biosolid waste. However, considerable uncertainties exist in model inputs, which vary between NP species and will inevitably change with future resource consumption, NP production, and climate. In this project, a sensitivity analysis was devised for a series of models describing NP pathways through WWTPs and land application units (LAUs) for biosolids. Findings include: (1) for WWTPs, the most influential inputs are transformation rate coefficients, residence times, and source values (of either NPs or wastewater); (2)for LAUs, the most important factor in predicting NP fate is erosion by runoff; and (3) the source of variance among outputs is dependent on the NP core. These results pinpoint the most significant factors in predicting environmental NP concentrations and provide insight on processes that drive NP fate and transport, on implications of changes related to NP life cycles, and on areas of research that would be most effective in accurately assessing NP exposure in the future.

ngineered nanomaterials (ENMs) are be- growing implications of NPs upon contact Ecoming increasingly prevalent in indus- with aquatic and terrestrial ecosystems. trial processes and consumer products due to Because directly sensing NPs in the en- their valuable properties. These include, but vironment is very difficult [4], it is neces- are not limited to, antimicrobial, self-clean- sary to rely on models to predict their fates. ing, and UV-absorbing characteristics [1] Conventional models used for typical com- that lend engineered nanoparticles (NPs) to pounds cannot be openly applied because a variety of applications in foods, medicine, physical and chemical characterization of electronics, textiles, and cosmetics, among NPs is incomplete and data on nanoscale pro- other goods [2]. However, these properties cesses and movement are lacking. Current also pose risks to the environment. The tox- exposure models must make a wide range icity of nanomaterials to humans and other of assumptions regarding NP life cycles organisms has been widely documented [3]. and mechanisms [5]–[7]. There is consider- As consumption and manufacturing rates in- able variation in values used to parameter- crease, it becomes critical to understand the ize exposure models, which are known to be

144 Sarah Wu especially sensitive to uncertainty in global specifically influenced by the factors used to production and release rates [8]. Estimates of predict them. By identifying which terms are these rates vary by orders of magnitude [5]. important and merit special attention within Most NPs are predicted to enter sewer the assigned values, they can help drive the systems and then wastewater treatment plants direction of future lab-scale research in sup- (WWTPs) [3], where they will subsequently port of the model. either exit into receiving streams as part of In this paper, we devised a sensitivity wastewater effluent, or accumulate in -“bio analysis for a series of models describing NP solid” sludge to be applied to agricultural pathways through WWTPs and biosolid land lands as fertilizer [9]. In the absence of more application (land application unit [LAU]). detailed studies, many assumptions must be We aim to identify the most significant inputs made about the impact of WWTP processes in the model and answer the following ques- such as transformation and distribution on tions: (1) Which process or processes mainly the fate of nanoparticles. Great variability drive NP fate in the environment? (2) How has been reported for soil erosion rates [10] does sensitivity differ between NP species and regional precipitation [11], [12]. NPs are and coatings? (3) How are environmental NP also often stabilized against aggregation by concentrations projected to change? (4) How coatings, or functionalization. Because these can additional areas of research be prioritized coatings dictate toxicity and surface proper- to optimize exposure models and more accu- ties, it is reasonable to assume that NPs will rately assess NP exposure in the future? behave differently under different surface modifications and may be strongly influenced METHODOLOGY by different input parameters. In addition, values for such parameters In this study, we analyzed two models: (1) are projected to shift with trends in global cli- a steady state solution describing NP concen- mate, population, and economy. Production trations through the WWTP model, and (2) a rates will likely increase due to rising demand time-dependent solution describing NP expo- from industries and growing resource con- sure in soil as predicted by the LAU model. sumption. River flow regimes and annual run- The WWTP model had four NP concentra- off rates are expected to significantly change tion outputs, and the LAU model had outputs by the year 2050 [13], which will impact NP of steady state NP concentration (qs) and time concentrations in waterways irrespective of to achieve steady state (ts). We employed two increases in production rate. Precipitation methods of sensitivity analyses – partial de- and soil erosion rates are expected to vary rivative analysis and nominal range graphi- dramatically over the next century due to cli- cal analysis. R, a statistical software envi- mate change [14]. Understanding the impli- ronment, was used with the former method cations of these trends on NP exposure mod- to evaluate all concentrations [16], while els is essential to preserving the health of the Mathematica, a computational software pro- global environment. gram, was used with the latter method to ana-

Sensitivity analyses are useful in provid- lyze ts only [17]. ing insight on such uncertainties and variations. Analyses generally seek to determine 2.1 WWTP Model description how variations in model outputs are attrib- The WWTP model is composed of four in- uted to the variations and correlations among dependent but interconnected compartments: model input parameters, and are useful in the initial sewer system, primary treatment finding critical control points and verifying including primary clarification, secondary model robustness [15]. In the context of NPs, treatment consisting of activated sludge and they can provide a better understanding of secondary clarification, and anaerobic diges- how environmental NP concentrations are tion. NPs are subjected to major processes of:

145 Explorations |Natural Sciences and Engineering anaerobic redox transformation in the sewers 25 cm [18] with a soil density (1 - ε) of 1.25 and anaerobic digestion; aerobic transforma- g/cm3 [19], [20]. Bio-uptake rates were ob- tion elsewhere; and distribution between liq- tained from a review by Schwab et al. [21] uid (supernatant) and solid (sludge) phases and annual rainfall data was collected by the in primary and secondary treatment, where NOAA [22], [23]. This model was inves- settling occurs. Table 1 lists WWTP model tigated only for ZnO NPs as field data was inputs; numerical input ranges were obtained not available for other compounds. Further from literature. Detailed model description description and parameterization, including and input parameterization can be found else- rates of biosolid application and NP leaching, where [5]. can be found elsewhere [5]. We investigated a steady state solution We analyzed a time-dependent solution for NP concentrations in various compo- for concentration of NPs. Two scenarios were nents of the WWTP [5] for three NPs (zinc considered: a lower bound assuming low oxide [ZnO], silver [Ag], and titanium oxide loading of biosolids and high rainfall (R), and

[TiO2]), which are known to behave differ- an upper bound assuming high loading and ently in solution and are all among the most low rainfall (L) [5]. Model outputs for both widely used in consumer technologies [2]. scenarios were steady state concentrations of

Additionally, to determine how sensitivity the NPs (qs) in mg/kg as mass of NPs/mass differs based on size or surface modifications, of soil, and time to achieve steady state (ts) we compared four types of functionalized in days. Ag NPs: polyvinylpyrrolidone (PVP) coated Ag with diameters of 40 and 8 nm, and gum 2.3 Sensitivity analysis formulation arabic (GA) coated Ag with diameters of 25 Sensitivity analyses may be broadly clas- and 6 nm. For all NPs, four outputs were ana- sified as mathematical, statistical, or graphi- lyzed: the concentration of NPs present in cal [15]. Various methods have been compre- effluent as native (Cs1) and transformed (Cs2) hensively reviewed [15], [24], and it is noted species, and those present in biosolids as na- that different methods are likely to produce tive (Cb1) and transformed (Cb2) NPs. Effluent slightly different “sensitivity rankings” of in- concentrations were calculated in mg/L and put parameters. However, analyses generally biosolid concentrations were calculated in aim to identify the most significant model in- mg/g as mass of NPs/mass of sludge. puts in order to gain a better understanding of how model outputs vary, how they might be 2.2 LAU model description projected to change, and how their accuracy Over half of all nutrient-rich biosolids can most precisely be improved. As such, the produced by wastewater treatment are re- exact ordering of inputs is not as useful as used as fertilizer on agricultural soils [9]. The the identification of a group of variables that LAU model describes a typical land applica- consistently appear among the most sensi- tion unit with a mass loading of NP-laden tive. In this project, we devised two meth- biosolids; the concentration of these NPs was ods: partial derivative analysis and nominal estimated following the WWTP model. NP range graphical analysis. Both are local (i.e. fate is subsequently impacted by processes they examine local behavior) and are suitable of: transformation, bio-uptake into plants and because the WWTP and LAU models were bacteria, erosion by rainfall via surface run- analyzed at steady state. off, and leaching after mobilization from the solid phase. 2.3.1 Partial derivative analysis Table 2 lists LAU model inputs; numeri- Differential analysis is one of the most cal input values were similarly obtained from commonly used sensitivity analysis tech- literature. We assumed biosolids would be niques because it is the underlying concept applied to an average tillage depth (dtill) of behind almost all other methods [24]. In this

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Table 1. Input parameters for the WWTP model.

Table 2. Input parameters for the LAU model.

147 Explorations |Natural Sciences and Engineering study, we evaluated local sensitivity as the applicable. Monte Carlo simulations sample partial derivative of the output with respect inputs from a predefined distribution of val- to small variations in the inputs. For each pa- ues to produce a number of outputs, which rameter, we also multiplied the partial deriva- provide a sense of the range of possible model tive by the variation in its range of values, in outcomes and the associated uncertainties order to obtain a measure of its importance. as opposed to a single deterministic value. That is, if a dependent variable (output) O In this study, models were sampled 10,000 is modeled as a function of n independent times. Input distributions were selected from variables (inputs) I, i.e. O=f(I1,I2,… In), then literature; when data was lacking, the distri- output variation due to a specific input Ik is bution was assumed to be normal with a vari- calculated as in Equation 1, where ∆Ik is the ability of 10% [5]. We evaluated partial de- variation in Ik. Total output variation is then rivatives using median values, as they are the the sum of the variation contributed by all in- most stable statistical measure for anchoring puts, to the first order, as stated in Equation 2. sensitivity [25]. Variation in inputs (∆Ik) were th (1) calculated as the difference between the 5 and the 95th percentiles.

(2) 2.3.2 Nominal range graphical analysis In addition to steady state concentrations In addition, the relative contribution, or of NPs predicted by the LAU model, the time importance, of a specific input Ik is the ratio at which steady state was achieved (ts) was of its contribution to output variation (∆Ok) also studied. We approximated this by plot- to the total output variation (∆O). Sensitivity ting NP concentration over time, and sub- defined by our method is an indication of both sequently analyzed sensitivity of ts to LAU significance and variability, as sensitivity can model inputs using nominal range graphical be a result of an input parameter’s (1) high analysis. Each input parameter was varied correlation with the output, such that any across its expected range while all others change in the input is noticeably reflected in were left at fixed “nominal” values. The re- the output; or (2) own large variability, such sulting difference in either time or concentra- that this variability is propagated through to tion, referred to as the swing weight of the the model output [24]. model [26], provides an idea of the sensitiv- We computed numerical partial deriva- ity of the model output to that parameter. We tives at steady state. To illustrate the variation employed this analysis for four LAU model in input parameters and the stochastic nature inputs – dtill, fer, (1 - ε), and Puptake – whose of environmental NP fate, we used Monte expected ranges and nominal values were Carlo simulations and represented model chosen from literature, as shown in Table 3. inputs by probability distributions when

Table 3. Nominal values and expected ranges investigated for four LAU model inputs.

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RESULTS wastewater). Sensitivity varies between NPs of differ- 3.1 Sensitivity of WWTP output ent cores. Fig. 2 illustrates output variation concentrations for ZnO NPs and Fig. 3 shows the data for The variance in WWTP model outputs TiO2. Native ZnO and Ag NP concentrations (Cs1, Cs2, Cb1, Cb2), organized by the rela- in both effluent and biosolids are dominated tive contribution of each model input, is sum- by transformation coefficients, aerobic in the marized in Figs. 1, 2, and 3. These figures il- case of ZnO and anaerobic for Ag. These lustrate sensitivity among NPs with cores of coefficients account for over 95% of output Ag, ZnO, and TiO2, respectively. variance. Varying the coefficient by an order Sensitivity does not vary among Ag NPs of magnitude can shift the output concentra- of different functionalization and sizes, tak- tion by up to 105. ing into account inherent randomness in Transformation byproduct concentrations Monte Carlo modeling. Output variation in of ZnO and Ag NPs are also similar, again all four types of Ag was found to have the noting the inherent randomness of Monte distribution of model inputs shown in Fig. Carlo simulations. Sensitivity in TiO2 trans- 1. Thus, for the purposes of future compari- formation byproduct concentrations is not son, the four types can be taken together as reported because TiO2 does not readily un- a single type of general Ag NP. All native dergo redox reactions and so these concentra- NP concentrations in both effluent and bio- tions were assumed to be zero [5]. Variance solids are most sensitive to the anaerobic in native TiO2 NP concentrations is attrib- transformation rate coefficient (kanaerobic). uted to the same distribution of model inputs This coefficient was used to parameterize influencing variance in ZnO and Ag transfor- both the sewer system and anaerobic diges- mation byproduct concentrations. tion, though the two compartments may have different rates in a realistic WWTP [5]. NP 3.2 Sensitivity of LAU model outputs transformation byproduct concentration in For both low loading/high rainfall (R) wastewater effluent is most sensitive to the and high loading/low rainfall (L) scenarios, suspended solids concentration in second- the variance in steady state concentrations of ary clarification (Χs2, accounting for ~41% ZnO NPs in soil (qs) organized by the relative of the output variation) and that in biosolids contribution of LAU model inputs is summa- is most sensitive to the solids residence time rized in Fig. 4. The impact of varying LAU in anaerobic digestion (θd, ~41% of output model parameters through their nominal variation). In general, variations in transfor- ranges is illustrated in Fig. 5-8, and resulting mation byproduct concentrations tend to be changes in ts are summarized in Table 4. most influenced by residence times and- in Sensitivity varies slightly between high put amounts (of either NP loading or influent and low loading scenarios, with the fraction

Table 4. Time (ts) in days to reach steady state concentrations of NPs in soil based on variation in LAU input parameters. For instance, in the high rainfall/low loading scenario,

ts is 650 when fer is set at the maximum and ts is 4 when fer is at its minimum.

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Figure 1. Variance in WWTP output concentrations as contributed by model inputs for Ag NPs. Sensitivity was identical among Ag PVP 8nm, Ag PVP 40nm, Ag GA 25nm, and Ag GA 6nm NPs. Only major inputs (contributing ≥1%) are labeled.

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Figure 2. Variance in WWTP output concentrations as contributed by model inputs for ZnO NPs. Only major inputs (contributing ≥1%) are labeled.

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Figure 3. Variance in WWTP output concentrations as contributed by model inputs for TiO2 NPs. Only major inputs (contributing ≥1%) are labeled. Note that sensitivity in transforma-

tion byproducts are not reported because TiO2 does not readily undergo redox.

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Figure 4. Variance in soil concentration of ZnO NPs as contributed by LAU model inputs for two loading scenarios. Only major inputs (contributing ≥1%) are labeled.

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Figure 5. NP concentration over time by varying fer. The graphs on the right are scaled versions of those on the left within the dotted box. Note the different scales in both the horizontal and vertical axes between all figures.

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Figure 6. NP concentration over time by varying Puptake. Note the different scales in both the horizontal and vertical axes between the two figures, and that all three lines are nearly identical in each figure.

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Figure 7. NP concentration over time by varying (1 – ε). Note the different scales in both the horizontal and vertical axes between the two figures.

Figure 8. NP concentration over time by varying dtill. Note the different scales in both the horizontal and vertical axes between the two figures.

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of soil depth available for runoff erosion (fer) research indicates that for ZnO NPs, aerobic accounting for over 80% of the variance in transformation occurs much faster than an- steady state NP concentration for both (Fig. aerobic; for Ag NPs, anaerobic transforma- 4). This fraction is also the major contribution is more rapid [5]. This suggests that the tor to time to reach steady state, as changing rate of transformation has implications for fer dramatically impacts ts (Table 4 and Fig. sensitivity: slower reactions appear to play 5). In contrast, the plant uptake rate coeffi- a lesser role in determining final output con- cient (Puptake) plays a minimal role in deter- centrations. We note, however, that due to in- mining both model outputs, as it does not sufficient data these reactions were assumed significantly affect time to achieve steady to be first order and irreversible – a possible state (Table 4 and Fig. 6) and has negligible oversimplification. Further research on NP influence in steady state concentrations (Fig. redox transformation would improve the ac- 4). In the case of steady state concentrations, curacy of this analysis.

Puptake is more noticeable in the low loading The apportionment of model inputs con- scenario; this is perhaps better interpreted as tributing to variation for native TiO2 NP a relatively more influential role due to a rela- concentrations correlates with that for trans- tively lesser influence of erosion by runoff, formed Ag and ZnO NP concentrations. as a result of lower rainfall. Biosolid loading Because TiO2 does not undergo transforma- rates and rainfall play higher and lower roles, tion, all TiO2 NPs exit the WWTP in their respectively, in concentrations for the high native form. High transformation rates of loading/low rainfall scenarios, as expected Ag and ZnO, in both effluent and biosolids, due to scenario specifications. Lastly, soil indicate that most Ag and ZnO NPs are re- density (1 – ε) and depth of till (dtill) are both leased from the WWTP as transformed by- minor contributors to LAU model outputs. products. Thus, this apportionment appears Soil density affects steady state concentra- to reflect the sensitivity to model inputs of the tions more significantly than it does time to dominant NP form exiting the WWTP, with reach steady state; this is illustrated by the dominance dictated by the NP core. Most difference in NP concentration over time as sensitive factors include suspended solids soil density is varied across its nominal range concentration in secondary treatment (~41%

(Fig. 7). The opposite is true for dtill); as it is of output variation), solids residence time in varied across its nominal range, NP soil con- secondary treatment (~22.5%), and source centration rises at different rates but plateaus values (~20%) for wastewater effluent; they at the same steady state value (Fig. 8). include solids residence time in anaerobic digestion (~41%) and source values (~30%) DISCUSSION AND IMPLICATIONS for biosolids. In more accurately assessing future NP exposure concentrations leaving In this project, functionalized Ag NPs WWTPs, these factors should be areas of ac- were analyzed under the same assumptions tive investigation. and differ only in their distribution coeffi- Suspended solids concentrations and cients γ1 and γ2. As we show that these coef- residence times are specific to individual ficients play negligible roles in determining WWTPs, suggesting that NP concentrations NP concentrations in WWTPs, it is reason- in wastewater effluent and biosolid wastes able that the relative contributions of their vary between WWTPs even with equivalent remaining model inputs are identical (Fig. 1). NP loadings. All concentrations, however, In contrast, NPs of Ag and ZnO cores differ can be expected to rise as consumer demand by transformation rates in addition to distri- and global production of NPs increases, due bution coefficients, and this is reflected in to the significant influence of source values. their variations in native NP concentrations Combined with water level changes pre-

(circles Cs1 and Cb1 in Fig. 1 and 2). Previous dicted in streams and rivers over the next

157 Explorations |Natural Sciences and Engineering several decades, this may indicate great vari- steady state soil concentrations. We expect ation in future NP concentrations in surface increasing rainfall in some areas due to cli- waters with potential implications for aquatic mate change to result in significantly more ecosystem health. NPs leaving biosolid-applied soils as surface Analysis of LAU model outputs indicates runoff, again with potential implications for that erosion by runoff is most effective in ecosystem heath. predicting NP concentrations in soil, suggest- This project represents an important step ing that erosion is the key process driving NP towards optimizing the model for future ap- fate through agricultural lands where sludge plications. The results provide insight on key containing nanomaterials is applied. Plant processes driving NP fate in the environment, uptake, in contrast, is not a sensitive factor thereby laying the groundwork for practical for either steady state NP concentrations or strategies in minimizing risks associated with time to achieve steady state. This carries our usage and disposal of consumer products. significance in future model projections. As For instance, agricultural areas where NP- rainfall in some areas increases due to cli- containing biosolid fertilizer is used can be mate change, we expect a significant portion managed with more specific and informed of NPs remaining in biosolid-applied soils decisions, given the predicted impacts re- to wash into surface waters as agricultural vealed by this analysis. Knowing the asso- runoff, again with potential implications for ciations between NP soil concentration and ecosystem health. We also expect a decrease different factors such as the degree of erosion in the amount of remaining NPs available for and plant uptake, or increasing/decreasing plant uptake on land, though analysis sug- rainfall, is valuable when considering aquatic gests that this secondary effect is negligible. and terrestrial ecosystem health. Project outcomes also shed light on areas of investiga- CONCLUSIONS AND FUTURE WORK tion that would be most effective in more accurately assessing NP exposure in the future, In this project, we devised a sensitivity thus helping to drive the direction of further analysis for two models describing TiO2, lab-scale research. Future work includes: Ag, and ZnO NP pathways through a WWTP (1) incorporating results into exposure mod- and subsequent land application. For all els and observing subsequent differences NP compounds, WWTP output concentra- in predicted NP concentrations; (2) apply- tions appear to be most sensitive to trans- ing our methods to other exposure models, formation rate coefficients, residence times, comparing sensitivity rankings, and assess- and source values (NP loading and influent ing how rankings are related to the structure wastewater). The faster transformation reac- and conditions of the model; (3) gathering tion plays a more dominant role. Sensitivity input parameter data on common NPs apart is dependent on NP core but independent of from those studied in this project (ex. gold) surface functionalization and size. Analysis through both computational and experimen- suggests that output concentrations of NPs tal methods, so that we may investigate sen- vary between individual WWTPs even with sitivity for a wider range of compounds; and equivalent loadings, but all concentrations (4) analyzing models that describe alternate can be expected to rise as global NP produc- NP pathways beyond WWTPs and subse- tion rates increase, with potential implica- quent biosolid application, to gain a broader tions for aquatic ecosystem health. For ZnO understanding of factors influencing global NPs applied to agricultural lands, erosion by NP prevalence in the environment. runoff is the dominant factor in predicting

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ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

A sincere thank you to my mentors Dr. Jacelyn Rice and Dr. Mark Wiesner for their supervi- sion and guidance in support of this project. Thank you also to Mr. Robert Gotwals for facilitat- ing the Research in Computational Science program at NCSSM. This material is based upon work supported by the National Science Foundation (NSF) and the Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) under NSF Cooperative Agreement EF-0830093 and DBI-1266252, Center for the Environmental Implications of NanoTechnology (CEINT). Any opinions, findings, conclusions or recommendations expressed in this material are those of the author(s) and do not necessarily reflect the views of the NSF or the EPA. This work has not been subjected to EPA review and no official endorsement should be inferred.

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Christine Zuelsdorf Comparison of Seed Profiles Using Attenuated Total Reflectance Fourier Transform Infrared Spectroscopy in a Stress-Tolerant Zea mays Genotype, Mo276, from Control and Low- Nitrogen Field Conditions

Christine Zuelsdorf University of North Carolina Wilmington Faculty Mentor: Ann Stapleton University of North Carolina Wilmington

ABSTRACT Maize is widely produced and has substantial economic importance. Environmental conditions such as nitrogen fertilizer amounts could affect starch and lipid concentrations in maize kernels and thus affect the economic and nutritional value of the crop. Lower levels of nitrogen are known to slightly decrease the amount of starch and lipid in some maize genotypes as measured with spectroscopy and chemical extraction. Selecting a resilient genotype for crop production would be useful to farmers. Kernels from the maize genotype Mo276 were subjected to Fourier Transform Infrared Spectroscopy Attenuated Total Reflectance to measure kernel composition. Four kernels from the control environment and three from a low nitrogen environment were compared and reflectance in the spectrum that is diagnostic of the presence of decreased starch in kernels grown with less nitrogen was obtained, though in this genotype there was no significant effect of nitrogen treatment on starch. The impact of low nitrogen on lipid concentration was also not significant. Using spectroscopy may be helpful for rapid detection of genotypes with starch differences and thus breeding for higher starch under low nitrogen conditions that are common globally. The preliminary results from these samples can be used for further research in a larger study.

orn, Zea mays L., is economically valu- soil. Nitrogen is an important factor for the Cable and widely produced (http://www. growth of maize; lack of nitrogen will signifi- nass.usda.gov). It is an important crop that cantly reduce yield (Subedi and Ma, 2009). has been utilized for animal food, but it also Nitrogen levels affect the synthesis of fatty has uses in the human diet, seeds and raw ma- acids, which will determine the composition terials found in food, cosmetics, and pharma- of oil in maize kernels. Typically, the lipid ceuticals (Kuhnen et al., 2010). In order for concentration will decrease with a lack of ni- maize to thrive in the fields, certain genotypes trogen but it will not severely impact yield are selected that have greater stress resistance (Blumenthal et al., 2008). Nitrogen depriva- or tolerance (Subedi and Ma, 2009). Two tion causes a slight accumulation of starch in environments that impact maize yield are the leaves of maize but overall, starch levels drought conditions and low nitrogen in the are decreased with lack of nitrogen (Schlüter

163 Explorations |Natural Sciences and Engineering et al., 2012). Even with a low water treat- FT-IR measures the vibrations of bonds ment, maize can still prosper if appropriate present in specific functional groups of the nitrogen levels are present, as in drought situ- sample (Kuhnen et al., 2010). The instru- ations (Zhang et al., 2007). This is due to the ment measures the energy from the vibra- fact that nitrogen-containing molecules such tional ground state to the excited state that as amino acids are a key component of maize the atoms in the sample have produced. The kernels. Further studies are needed to look at FT-IR has a source that emits infrared energy; the impacts of starch and lipid concentrations this will then pass through the sample. The in the presence of low nitrogen. interferometer controls how much energy Small farmers have grown a variety of will pass to the sample (Quintás et al., 2008). maize and allowed interbreeding, which With the ATR, the sample sits on a diamond leads to new genotypes. This maintains ge- or zinc selenide prism, where the infrared netic diversity and preserves certain traits beam will reflect. The wave from the prism is (Kuhnen et al., 2010). To analyze geneti- internally reflected to the back of the prism. cally improved maize genotypes, we used a ATR FT-IR is a surface sensitive mecha- specific genotype samples from a structured nism with the absorption affected by the population (Lee et al., 2002). Inbreeding sample contact with ATR. If the sample is a after crossing of B73 and Mo17 took place solid, the wave cannot penetrate the entire in order to produce the recombinant inbred subject. A larger reflectance is equivalent genotype Mo276 (Lee et al., 2002); this gen- to a larger penetration of the beam into the otype was ranked as stress resistant in prior sample (Kuhnen et al., 2010). The beam will tests (Stapleton, personal communication). then pass into a detector that will make the fi- Chemical analysis can be completed on nal measurements and send the results to the kernels to determine molecular composition; computer for processing and the production however, this method destroys the sample of the FT-IR spectrum that can be used in the and requires large amount of sample (Baye et subsequent analysis (Quintás et al., 2008). al., 2006). Research has been completed with The FT-IR spectrum includes an extensive near infrared spectroscopy that is measured in number of data points, so to analyze the re- reflectance or transmittance. Sampling whole sults, multivariate tests are used (Kuhnen et kernels is a fast method that keeps the kernels al., 2010). intact. One issue with analyzing whole ker- The ATR FT-IR detects components in the nels is the internal structure within a kernel maize at different wavelengths. Starch ap- can vary and the near infrared will not pick pears in the wavenumber region from 1200- up those deviations (Baye et al., 2006). 800 cm-1, lipid at 2924, 2854, 1740 cm-1, and Attenuated Total Reflectance Fourier protein around 1650-1550 cm-1. The amount Transform Infrared Spectroscopy (ATR of starch, lipid, and protein in a kernel is FT-IR) is a useful method to identify the partially controlled by the genetics of the chemical composition in maize better than kernel (Kuhnen et al., 2010). Corn is com- near infrared transmittance (NIT) and near prised of 72% starch and 5% oil (Blumenthal infrared reflectance (NIR). ATR FT-IR spec- et al., 2008). The embryo of a kernel holds troscopy has been used in previous studies to the highest amount of oil, so in order to ob- determine the unique protein, oil, and starch tain accurate results, it is necessary to use a amounts in a variety of maize genotypes. In method that can view the embryo (Baye et the study completed by Kuhnen et al. (2010), al., 2006). maize kernels were milled and then placed Through breeding, certain maize geno- on the crystal of the ATR. First a background types can be selected that are resistant to spectrum was taken of the clean crystal, and abiotic and biotic factors but maintain nor- then the maize flour was added and- com mal levels of starch and lipid in the kernel pressed onto the crystal (Kuhnen et al., 2010). (Kuhnen et al., 2010). Since maize is an

164 Christine Zuelsdorf important crop, further research will help Electron Corporation, Madison, WI) a class keep the crop production stable. Our study 1 laser product, was used with the Smart with Mo276 was completed to determine if a Performance ATR attachment in order to mea- low nitrogen environment impacted the per- sure the reflectance of a solid. OMNIC spec- cent transmittance of the IR spectrum when tra software, provided by the manufacturer, compared to kernels from a controlled envi- was used with the FT-IR to collect data from ronment. By analyzing the spectrum, differ- the samples. A zinc selenide (ZnSe) crystal ences between the control kernels and low was used as the trough plate. The detector on nitrogen kernels can be discerned by compar- the FT-IR was a deuterated triglycine sulfate ing the typical wavenumbers associated with detector (DTGS) set to perform 100 scans a starch and lipids. A more resistant genotype, minute at a resolution of 4 cm-1. The data was Mo276, is expected to not be affected by collected in percent reflectance which can lower nitrogen levels in the soil, and the use be converted to percent transmittance. The of FTIR-ATR can provide a faster method of percent reflectance indicates how much light detection to determine this resistance. was able to reflect off the mirrors and reach the detector. The background was initially MATERIALS AND METHODS collected in order to correct for any possible water or carbon dioxide in the air chamber. Experimental Design and Kernel Samples. To collect background, the instrument is run The experimental design for the kernels with no sample; however, the software had a that were used came from Manching et al. background feature that corrected for the at- (2014), which outlines both the amount of mosphere and shows the user what peaks will nitrogen in the soil along with the control be taken out from the sample spectrum. An values. The kernel seedlings were planted at infrared beam was passed through the sample the North Carolina Central Crops Research by reflecting it off the crystal and into the de- Station (35.66979°, -78.4926°) on April 16, tector, which determined how much of the in- 2012 (Manching, et al., 2014). The genotype, frared radiation was reflected and absorbed. Mo276, was analyzed from the low nitrogen The milled kernels were placed directly onto and control treatment. Four kernels from the the ZnSe crystal and a slip clutch pressure control treatment and three kernels from the tower was lowered onto the sample to allow low nitrogen treatment were ground with a for optimum contact with the crystal. mortar and pestle. Although, each kernel was from a different cob, all were grown and Statistical Analysis. harvested at the same time. Before and af- Graphs were constructed using R (R ter each kernel was analyzed using the ATR Core Development Cite Team, University of FT-IR a background reading was collected Auckland, New Zealand). Using the OMNIC and automatically subtracted from the sam- software, peaks were selected using the peak ple measurements. Blank samples were also finder option in order to reference in further collected to determine if the background had analysis. JMP Pro 11 (SAS, Inc. Cary, NC) removed the water and carbon dioxide from was used to complete multiple statistical the atmosphere. The kernels were kept in en- analyses. The first analysis was a discriminant velopes stored in a plastic container and were multivariate method. A stepwise analysis was placed in the freezer every few months to used to calculate p-values for all wavenum- ensure no insects were living in the samples. bers. The summed wavenumbers for starch, This treatment does not impact the chemical 800 through 1250 cm-1 were used for specific composition of the kernels. comparisons. A Wilcoxon test was performed on the starch wavenumbers that were stan- ATR FT-IR. dardized based on the value at 2250 cm-1. The Thermo Nicolet 6700 FT-IR (Thermo This value was used to correct the values

165 Explorations |Natural Sciences and Engineering because the spectra did not have any troughs peaks, along with the dip around 3250 cm-1 or peaks in this region. A power calculation are atmospheric peaks (Quintás et al., 2008). was performed for the starch-region compari- Less reflectance and minimal background sons. Further method details and code for the peaks were collected from 510 E. analyses can be found in Zuelsdorf (2016). Three kernels from a low nitrogen treatment produced spectra with inverted peaks RESULTS (see Figure 4). For the 510 H kernel there was a peak around 1000 cm-1, which was similar Background spectra with no kernel mate- to the control results. Weak peaks appeared rial were collected to determine the effects of around 1700 cm-1, 2900 cm-1, and 3250 cm-1, water and carbon dioxide in the instrument all of which are from the atmosphere (Quintás on the spectral signal. The H2O bending et al., 2008). The 510 E kernel produced a trough appeared around 1595 cm-1 with the stronger inverted peak at 1000 cm-1. Lastly,

CO2 asymmetrical trough appearing around the 510 G kernel produced less transmittance 2349 cm-1 (see Figure 1). The background throughout the spectrum. To compare the two transmittance was extremely low because the treatments, the peaks were labeled with the instrument was given adequate time to warm OMNIC software. up and adjust to the atmosphere conditions. Multivariate analyses were completed to To ensure the background was factoring determine if the peak heights and percent out water and carbon dioxide, a blank sam- transmittance were significantly different. A ple was collected (see Figure 2). The blank discriminant model was created for all the showed that not all of the water and carbon measured peak values. The smallest p-value dioxide peaks were subtracted by the soft- observed was 0.06351 which was not signifi- ware, but that the peaks were relatively small. cant; the p-value was tested at the 95% con- The background showed what was taken out fidence level. To compare the peak amounts of future samples by the software, while within the starch region, a Wilcoxon test was the blank sample indicated what was still completed. The test produced a Chi-square shown. The background factored out most value of 0.2888. After the starch values instrumental and atmospheric elements, but were corrected based on the value at 2250 a small percent transmittance sometimes re- cm-1 (Table 1), the power test resulted in 19. mained. Results from the four kernels grown This indicated that nineteen samples would under control conditions are seen in Figure 3. need to be analyzed to get statistically dif- The number and letter combination symbol- ferent results provided the differences were izes the treatment the kernels were grown in. due to differences reflected in the population A different letter means the kernels are from of all samples. This number is useful for fu- different cobs. The kernel 510 G had a strong ture research with these kernels to provide a inverted peak around 1000 cm-1. There was larger sample size and to determine if there also a slight dip around 3250 cm-1, repre- is significance in the results. The adjusted senting an O-H stretch. This was most likely starch peaks comparison is shown in Figure moisture due to the shape of the peak (Quintás 5. Only one peak value from the low nitrogen et al., 2008). The kernel 510 B also had an samples was as low as those from the high- inverted peak around 1000 cm-1 with a very nitrogen samples, thus making our estimate small dip around 3250 cm-1. Background was of power large. It is unclear what reduced the measured after every sample, and therefore, power of our comparison. air humidity from the chamber was removed from these results. The strongest inverted DISCUSSION peak around 1000 cm-1 belonged to 510 H, but it also produced inverted peaks around The low nitrogen kernels did not dif- 1700 cm-1 and 2900 cm-1. These inverted fer from the control kernels, revealing that

166 Christine Zuelsdorf Percent Transmittance Percent

Wavenumber cm^(-1) Figure 1. Background collected from the instrument to factor out atmospheric carbon dioxide and water. Percent Transmittance Percent

Wavenumber cm^(-1) Figure 2. Results from a blank sample, y-axis percent transmittance and x-axis wavenumber, cm-1

167 Explorations |Natural Sciences and Engineering Percent Transmittance Percent

Wavenumber cm^(-1) Figure 3. Results for kernels from the control environment. The y-axis is in percent transmittance with the x-axis showing the wavenumber. Percent Transmittance Percent

Wavenumber cm^(-1) Figure 4. Results for kernels from the low nitrogen environment. The y-axis is in percent transmittance with the x-axis showing the wavenumber.

Table 1. Starch region wavenumber values after adjustment for the value at 2250 cm-1. Kernels 510 B, E, G, and H were grown in regular levels of nitrogen while kernels 516 E, G, and H had a low nitrogen environment.

168 Christine Zuelsdorf

can appear in maize around this region, from 1550-1650 cm-1, but in low amounts, which would result in weak peaks (Kuhnen et al., -1 2010). One control kernel, H, exhibited several other peaks, some much stronger than other samples. The peaks may have showed the

Value at 2250 cm Value presence of lipids, which appear at 2924, 2854, and 1740 cm-1 (Kuhnen et al., 2010). Adjusted Starch Percent T for T Adjusted Starch Percent Nitrogen There was an inverted peak in this area in a few samples, though the peak selector did Figure 5. Sum of starch wavenumbers that not detect some of them. At 2924 cm-1, a were corrected by the value at 2250 cm-1. weak peak appeared. Since lipid only makes The y-axis is the standardized percent trans- up 5% of maize, and can potentially be de- mittance and the x-axis is the results from creased with low levels of nitrogen, that may low nitrogen, l, or regular amounts, r. Each be the cause of these peaks. However, the sample is represented by one point. background picked up a signal at 2921.6 cm- 1 the Mo276 genotype may be more resistant . Alternatively, the ZnSe crystal may have to extreme conditions. Whole kernels could shifted during transfer of the ground kernel not be analyzed using the ATR FT-IR. This onto the plate. This may also be the source of was due to the hard, outer shell of the ker- some of these peaks. Seed weight can impact nel (Zuelsdorf, 2016). The single beam was the composition of the kernel, therefore, for not strong enough to penetrate the shell and future studies it will be necessary to weigh receive signal. Previous studies have been the kernels and compare them to the results successful with maize flour. In the most com- (Baye et al., 2006). parable study, the setup was extremely simi- Based on the power test, it is necessary to lar except a diamond single beam was used collect more samples to determine if nitrogen (Kuhnen et al., 2010). has an effect. Another test that can be com- Starch signals were present from 800 to pleted is to look at the peak shape rather than 1200 cm-1 (Kuhnen et al., 2010). All ker- the height to determine if there is difference nels had an inverted peak around either 997 there. It appears that starch may be lower in or 1013 cm-1, which were not present in the the low nitrogen treatment (see Figure 5); background. Therefore, these signals were however, at least nineteen samples would most likely caused by starch. Based on a need to be collected to determine if this is previous study, the peak shifts due to water true. These results show that the Mo276 gen- amounts present in the kernel. Water can lead otype kernel composition is not strongly af- to a shift from 1022 cm-1 to 1015 cm-1. The fected by growth of the plants under nitrogen influence of water can lead to missing peaks deprivation, but a larger study must be com- in regions peaks would normally be seen pleted to determine the level of significance. (Kuhnen et al., 2010). Beer’s law shows that For this study the small sample size was ap- a higher absorbance occurs at higher con- propriate for my design and data analysis, in centrations; therefore, since transmittance order to produce these preliminary results and absorbance are inversely related, a lower (Norman and Streiner, 2014). This genotype transmittance will correspond to a higher is thus a good candidate for further trials of concentration. A signal that appeared in all stress resistance in maize breeding programs. kernels was a peak around 1641 cm-1. Protein

169 Explorations |Natural Sciences and Engineering

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

Thank you to Dr. Yishi Wang, a professor at the University of North Carolina Wilmington, for spending countless hours teaching me R; it is an extremely valuable skill. A huge thank you goes to my advisor at the University of North Carolina Wilmington, Dr. Stapleton. Her guidance and mentorship allowed this research to be possible.

REFERENCES

Baye TM, Pearson TC, Settles AM (2006) Development of a calibration to predict maize seed composition using single kernel near infrared spectroscopy. Journal of Cereal Science 43(2): 236-243

Blumenthal J, Baltensperger D, Cassman K, Mason S, Pavlista A (2008) Importance and Effect of Nitrogen on Crop Quality and Health. Agronomy and Horticulture- Faculty Publications. Paper 200.

Kuhnen S, Ogliari JB, Dias PF, Boffo EF (2010) ATR-FTIR spectroscopy and chemomet ric analysis applied to discrimination of landrace maize flours produced in southern Brazil. International journal of food science & technology 45(8): 1673-1681

Lee M, Sharopova N, Beavis WD, Grant D, Katt M, Blair D, Hallauer A (2002) Expanding the genetic map of maize with the intermated B73 × Mo17 (IBM) population. Plant Molecular Biology 48(5-6): 453-461

Manching, H., Balint-Kurti, P., & Stapleton, A. (2014) Southern leaf blight disease severity is correlated with decreased maize leaf epiphytic bacterial species richness and the phyl losphere bacterial diversity decline is enhanced by nitrogen fertilization. Retrieved from: http://dx.doi.org/10.3389/fpls.2014.00403

Norman, Geoffrey, and Streiner, David. (2014) Biostatistics : Bare Essentials (4). Shelton, US: PMPH-USA, Ltd. ProQuest ebrary.

Quintás G, Lendl B, Garrigues S, de la Guardia M (2008) Univariate method for background correction in liquid chromatography–Fourier transform infrared spectrometry. Journal of Chromatography A 1190(1–2): 102-109

Schlüter U, Mascher M, Colmsee C, Scholz U, Bräutigam A, Fahnenstich H, Sonnewald U (2012) Maize Source Leaf Adaptation to Nitrogen Deficiency Affects Not Only Nitrogen and Carbon Metabolism But Also Control of Phosphate Homeostasis. Plant Physiology 160(3): 1384-1406

Stapleton Ann, personal communication, April 16, 2016.

Subedi KD, Ma BL (2009) Assessment of some major yield-limiting factors on maize produc tion in a humid temperate environment. Field Crops Research 110(1): 21-26

“United States Department of Agriculture.” USDA. N.p., n.d. Web. 20 Feb. 2016.

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Zhang L X, Li S X, Liang Z S (2007) Nitrogen Rates and Water Stress Effects on Production, Lipid Peroxidation and Antioxidative Enzyme Activities in Two Maize (Zea mays L.) Genotypes. Journal of Agronomy and Crop Science 193(6): 387-397

Zuelsdorf C. (2016) Abiotic Stress Effects on the Maize Genotype Mo276 Using Attenuated Total Reflectance Fourier Transform Spectroscopy, Unpublished honors project, Department of Biology and Marine Biology, UNCW.

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Social Sciences Explorations |Social Sciences

Perceptions of Social Mobility in the Country of the Year: an examination of globalization and consumerism in Uruguay

Andrew Byrum University of North Carolina Greensboro Faculty Mentor: Sarah Daynes University of North Carolina Greensboro

ABSTRACT Western influence around the globe is not only apparent in economic or trade spheres. The cultural, social, and ideological influence of nations like the United States on individuals in societies near and far is growing, spurring interesting questions about the fluidity of social thought and collective perception. Do individual outlooks become more global in perspective as large-scale governmental and economic changes occur? If so, what are the social implications of changing individual ideologies on immediate geographical contexts and larger global trends? This paper explores this broad intersection, via quantitative and qualitative methods, by specifically examining social mobility perceptions, individual definitions of success, and consumerism trends in Uruguay. By accounting for the social dimension of more palpable economic and political globalizing forces, this paper investigates the permeation of ideology and lifestyle in Uruguayan society following the expansion of Western businesses and the intermin- gling of consumerism, materialism, and perceptions of social mobility—both in Uruguay and the United States.

estern influence around the globe is capability for movement) of individuals and Wnot only apparent in economic or trade households between a society’s social and spheres. The cultural, social, and ideological economic tiers—is at the core of one’s social, influence of nations like the United States on economic, and educational trajectory in life. individuals in societies near and far is grow- Thus, an individual’s perception of social ing, too, spurring interesting questions about mobility is immensely consequential to how the fluidity of social thought and collective the individual regards larger institutions and perception. For instance, do individual out- society itself. looks globalize alongside overarching gov- Often deemed the most European country ernmental and economic changes? If so, what in South America and called “The Country are the social implications of changing indi- of the Year” in 2013 by news magazine The vidual ideologies on immediate geographical Economist, Uruguay is a prime example of contexts as well as larger global trends? globalization in a cultural and social struc- Social mobility—the movement (or tural sense. Since the end of civil-military

174 Andrew Byrum rule in 1985, Uruguay has re-entered the society—consideration of actual mobility global marketplace as the important exporter trends gives additional context for this pa- of agricultural products that it formerly per’s discussion. was. In addition to beef, dairy, and soybean More than a projection of personal ideals, exportation, Uruguay is South America’s one’s perception of social mobility fluidity first producer of software. Today, a walk and meritocracy often co-exists with percep- through the more commercial avenues of tions and opinions of inequality at a macro Montevideo—Uruguay’s coastal capital and level. In the United States, the belief that home to roughly half of the nation’s three upward social mobility is fluid and achieved million inhabitants—inevitably includes a through hard work is often referred to as the McDonald’s sighting, where one can likely “American Dream,” and has been shown order in Spanish or English. A swath of con- to serve as a justification of the status quo sumer products and with it, opportunity for (Ledgerwood et al. 2011, McCoy and Major wealth, has made it to Uruguay. This paper 2007, Kluegel and Smith 1986). The belief explores this broad intersection by specifi- in social mobility and meritocracy manifests cally examining social mobility perceptions, itself in the legitimation of status differences, individual definitions of success, and- con as a byproduct of work ethic discrepancies sumerism trends in Uruguay. By accounting or as a justification of increasing income for the social dimension of more palpable inequality. Additionally, in a comparative economic and political globalizing forces, international analysis, Hadler found that this paper investigates the permeation of ide- individuals’ perceptions of inequality vary ology and lifestyle in Uruguayan society fol- significantly even between Western nations. lowing the expansion of Western businesses. For instance, survey respondents in Sweden In addition to the exportation of business labeled income difference between “chair- practices and new products, does underlying man” and “unskilled worker” unequal when ideology travel to new markets, too? Can the the ratio, in terms of salary difference, was “American Dream” be exported? greater than three to one while US respondents didn’t label the same scenario unequal LITERATURE REVIEW until the ratio surpassed nine to one. This gap was largely attributed to an ideological Perceptions of Social Mobility difference in regards to social mobility and Beliefs, perceptions, and opinions about achievement standards (Hadler 2005). As meritocracy and the fluidity of social mobil- Kluegel and Smith have argued, dominant ity are fundamentally important to the ways stratification ideology, shared by seemingly individuals understand and experience their all members of a given society, dictates a cer- participation in the society in which they tain idea of systemic and individual inequal- live. Social scientists have suggested that ity through the social and cultural narratives individual and group perceptions of social it conveys. In the United States, the authors mobility and meritocracy have an impact on conclude, an individualistic explanation of an array of social phenomena, ranging from inequality overwhelmingly exists, rooted in judgement of social injustice to justification meritocratic ideals and a rejection of larger of social realities (Reynolds and He 2014). structural causes (Kluegel & Smith 1986). This review of literature frames measur- As Max Weber theorized, maintaining the able realities of social mobility in addition status quo is a central endeavour of many to perceptions of these realities. While this political systems, including those marked by paper is ultimately concerned with the com- an attachment to tradition—such as monar- parative study of social mobility perceptions chies, for instance—or to the law, as in most in Uruguay and the United States—and the Western democracies. For Weber, both tra- impact of these perceptions in Uruguayan ditional and legal authorities are organized

175 Explorations |Social Sciences around continuity—and therefore a reluc- children’s standard of living will surpass their tance to change—albeit for different reasons. own (Pew Research Center Report, 2012). System-justification theory purports that po- Chambers found that while there is a de- litical conservatives are more likely to defend monstrable decline in widespread belief in current social realities, deeming them just social mobility fluidity within the US, espe- and fair in an attempt to maintain the status cially since the 2008 recession, actual social quo (Jost, Banaji, & Nosek 2004). Similarly, mobility data suggests there has been little social-dominance theory contends that change over the past 20 years (Chambers people often defend the existence of social 2015). Contrary to popular belief, intergener- stratification by rationalizing and ideologi- ational social mobility was found to be quite cally legitimizing differing life outcomes be- stagnant in recent history (Chetty, Hendren, tween groups (Sidanius & Pratto 2001). Both Kline, Saez, & Turner 2014). Chambers ad- theories emphasize the foundational belief in ditionally found this decline in perception of fluid social mobility and meritocratic values, upward social mobility to follow and divide explaining inequality by highlighting the im- along political lines. Skewed by political ide- portance of individual action like work ethic ology, liberals were found to overestimate the and personal sociability rather than larger economic stickiness of lower class mobility systemic constraints like discrimination. while conservatives underestimated upper Beyond social system justification, class retention. In all cases, however, both Thompson and Bobo found that social values liberals and conservatives underestimated and meritocratic ideology additionally help the likelihood of social mobility in US soci- shape crime attributions. Groups that heav- ety (Chambers 2015). ily stress the role of individual behavior, both Even with consideration of this decline, economic and meritocratic, attribute greater belief in meritocracy and fluid social - mo significance to discrete action and less to bility is still significantly stronger and more any structural factors when considering the ubiquitous in the United States than all roots of criminal activity (Thompson & Bobo other wealthy nations, according to a 2008 2011). Brookings Institute paper (Isaacs et. al. 2008, Perception of social mobility may also im- Reynolds and He 2014). While the US and pact health outcomes. Adhering to the domi- the United Kingdom have the lowest social nant “American Dream” ideology, in which mobility levels among Western nations, the social mobility malleability and life out- belief in social mobility was found to be the comes are assigned individual responsibility, strongest (Gould 2012). Using an intergener- leaves millions of Americans—largely racial ational earnings elasticity index—comparing and ethnic minorities—at risk of psychic and the relationship between father and son earn- physical stress if hard work over many years ings over a lifetime—50% (or an index of .5) does not culminate in significantly higher so- of a father’s earnings are passed onto sons in cial status or income (Kwate & Meyer 2010). the United States while high mobility nations However strong and ostensibly culturally- like Finland or Denmark have indexes less imbedded sentiments of social mobility seem than 20% (or .2). With a score of .5, an aver- to be, confidence in this belief system appears age of six generations would need to pass in to be declining in the United States. A 2013 order for family economic advantage to dis- gallup poll found that “52% of Americans appear in the United States, assuming current agreed that there is plenty of opportunity trends hold (Isaacs et. al. 2008). In general, for the average person to get ahead in life, the lower the index, the more fluid a nation’s down from 81% a mere 15 years earlier, and social mobility is. the lowest level in over six decades” (Dugan During this notable decline in confidence and Newport 2013). In addition, significantly in the United States, these same perceptions fewer Americans are hopeful today that their seem to be increasingly optimistic in much

176 Andrew Byrum of Latin America. Using data from the an- The intergenerational educational mobility nual Latinobarometer opinion survey which index—a model that illustrates the relation- encompasses 17 countries, Gavira found ship between a parent and child’s educational that 55% of respondents answered that they attainment—is another important indicator of face better opportunities than their par- social mobility fluidity. Conconi et. al. found ents did a generation before (Gavira 2010). a reduction in the estimated mobility index, Additionally, 58% of respondents felt that as a result of a decline in educational mobil- their children would have better opportuni- ity for Uruguay over the past decade—a real- ties in the future than they currently have ity that influences social mobility (Conconi (Gavira 2007). There are little published data 2008). Over the same time, inequality has of perceptions of social mobility specific to also grown; compared to its early 1990s Uruguay, but Azevedo and Bouillon indi- GINI coefficient markers, Uruguay’s income cate a general optimistic perception of social inequality has slightly grown as a result of mobility and future opportunities in Latin regional macroeconomic crises (Gasparini America, including Uruguay (Azevedo & 2011). However, according to Bukstein and Bouillon 2010). Gandelman (2014), this decline in opportu- Though actual social mobility patterns nity seems to be met with greater levels of vary tremendously in South America, no na- optimism about social and economic oppor- tion on the continent has mobility more fluid tunity. In Figure 1 below, intergenerational than the United States (Isaacs et. al. 2008). income elasticities are compared between In fact, Gavira and Dahan found the inter- an array of countries, including the United generational elasticity index to be anywhere States and Uruguay, where lower ratios indi- from 1.8 to 3 times greater in Latin American cate greater fluidity in social mobility. countries in comparison to the United States (Gavira 2001). Among South American coun- Consumerism tries, Chile, Argentina, and Uruguay have the Paralleling this increasingly strong be- most fluid social mobility with intergenera- lief in social mobility fluidity and decreas- tional elasticity indexes between .52 and .60 ing actual mobility is a surge in consumer- (Azevedo & Bouillon 2010), meaning be- ism and the availability of new products. In tween 52% and 60% of fathers’ earnings are Uruguay, this was met with a staunchly out- passed onto sons. While neighbors Brazil and spoken and internationally-known opponent, Uruguay have similar long-term growth rates former Uruguayan president Jose Mujica. and GDP per capita, Uruguay is much more Highlighted in a 2015 New Republic article, socially mobile. Instead, Uruguay is more Montevideo has seen a steep rise in avail- similar to its other neighbor, Argentina, in ability of consumer products and fiercely growth as well as different measurements of growing consumptive behavior. As one social mobility fluidity (Andersen 2000). In Uruguayan journalist complained, Audi deal- addition to having one of the lowest income erships and smartphone outlets are popping elasticity indexes in South America, Uruguay up everywhere, often to the detriment of local also has the lowest income inequality of all business. In front of the entire United Nations Latin American countries with a GINI coef- General Assembly, Mujica proclaimed in his ficient of about 41%, which is approximately native Spanish, “we have sacrificed the old the same as the United States (Bukstein & immaterial gods and now we are occupy- Gandelman 2014). Additionally, Uruguay ing the temple of the market god.” Shedding has the highest urbanization rate on the con- light on changes in his own country, Mujica tinent, a factor associated with the nation’s continued, “this god organizes our economy, industrialization, changing economic land- our politics, our habits, our lives. It seems we scape, and relatively fluid social mobility and have been born only to consume” (Fairbanks low inequality (Azevedo & Bouillon 2010). 2015).

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Figure 1: Intergenerational Income Elasticity International Comparison South America has long played a signifi- is widely perceived to exist, as well. Starting cant role in global consumption trends. With in 1968, each year UCLA has asked college the advent of major international advertise- freshman “what are your most important ment in the early 20th century alongside personal objectives?”. In the first year of the emergence of global industrialization the study, only 41% listed being “well off and factory line production in the United financially” as very important while 75% States, marketing campaigns first appeared in of students deemed developing a “meaning- Latin America following the United States. ful philosophy of life” very important. Over Manifesting itself in commercial radio, tele- the next two decades, the answers gradually vision, and movie production, U.S. corporate flipped. By 1998, 74% marked being “well interests expanded even more zealously into off financially” as very important while only Latin America than Europe in some cases. 41% of respondents marked the same for de- For instance, as late as the 1960s, Argentina veloping a “meaningful philosophy of life” had more television sets per capita than (Pryor et. al. 2007). This doesn’t necessar- France (Woodard 2012). ily mean that college students are intrinsi- After much regional civil conflict and cally more materialistic now than before, military rule in the 1970s and 1980s, this however. Economic stakes have immensely consumptive market behavior was again re- changed and the distance between socioeco- ignited in part by the creation of Mercado nomic rungs is drastically greater now than in Comun del Sur, or Common Market of the the 1960s. That is, the monetary penalty has South (MERCOSUR) in 1991. Created to grown for choosing a career of interest and further stimulate the economies of Argentina, passion over a more lucrative and financially Brazil, Paraguay, and Uruguay, MERCOSUR stable career. The income difference between initially sought more ubiquitous regional free a teacher and an investment banker, for ex- trade and exchange of goods and currency as ample, is far greater now than in the 1960s well as the attraction of foreign investment to and 1970s (Reich 2002). the region (Munck 2001). Consumerism is also inextricably linked In the United States, a similar trend to- to cultural and social realities, serving ward greater consumption and materialism as a conduit for macro- and micro-level

178 Andrew Byrum communication. In 1979, Mary Douglas and more diversified material goods, does wrote: perception of social mobility become more Instead of supposing that goods are primar- and more fluid? As people are able to acquire ily needed for subsistence plus competitive more inexpensive goods that they increas- display, let us assume that they are needed ingly perceive to be measures of success, do for making visible and stable the categories they consequently view social mobility as of culture...it is apparent that the goods have another important use: they also make and more fair and attainable, regardless of mea- maintain social relationships. surable social realities? By arguing that consumption is a means of stabilizing cultural categories and social METHODS relationships (e.g. wedding rings), Douglas highlights the important relationship between In order to capture both the quantitative cultural and consumptive trends and realities and qualitative nuances of social mobility (Douglas & Isherwood 1979). perception and consumerism, this paper em- In the midst of the 18th century indus- ploys a mixed-methods approach involving trial revolution, urbanization rates spiked. two quantitative surveys in the United States As droves of Western Europeans headed to and Uruguay and nine semi-structured inter- industrialized cities, leaving behind more views in Montevideo, Uruguay. This research agrarian societies, social mobility fluidity project was reviewed and exempted by the increased as the opportunity for employment University of North Carolina at Greensboro became more prevalent. As historian Peter Institutional Review Board Office of Stearns theorized, this increase in social Research Integrity in the spring of 2015. mobility helped contribute to a drastic rise In May 2015, a ten question survey using in consumerism, or the “consumer revolu- a five-point Likert scale for all non-demo- tion” as Stearns dubbed it. With an increase graphic questions was sent to an array of pro- in social mobility fluidity as well as greater fessors at Universidad Catolica del Uruguay individualism and a blurring of social class (UCU) to send on to their respective students lines, Western European societies turned to (convenience sampling). The questions fo- consumerism to differentiate socio-economic cused on perceptions of social mobility in realities, through means such as clothing and Uruguay—both its importance and reality— home decor. In this sense, social mobility re- opinions of Western influence in Uruguayan alities and urbanization impact consumerism culture and economics, and the importance trends (Stearns 2006). of consumerism in Uruguayan society. All For Uruguay, a nation with the highest questions, instructions, and exchanges were urbanization rate of all South American na- conducted in Spanish. The survey was closed tions and one of the lowest social mobility in September 2015. There were a total of 170 elasticity indexes, extrapolation of Stearns’ respondents. theory proves relevant and interesting. This In September 2015, a similar ten question paper explores the role of materialism—de- survey translated to English and reworded to fined here as the extent to which one views fit the respondents’ context was sent via email the acquisition of material possessions as to a random pool of 3,750 UNCG undergrad- both inherently important and emblematic of uate students, selected randomly from a mas- success—within this consumer market boom ter list of all undergraduate email addresses. as a link between perception of consumerism This survey, like its Uruguayan counterpart, and perception of social mobility. In essence, asked students to express their perceptions of if individuals increasingly consider the ac- social mobility in the United States, the im- quisition of material goods to be a marker of portance of consumerism, and the influence social and economic achievement and there of Western nations like the United States is increasingly greater availability of cheaper in cultural and economic realities of South

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American countries. The survey was closed the time constraints of the project. The inter- in October 2015. With a sample of 534 reviews were all conducted in Spanish and later spondents, the survey’s response rate was transcribed and translated into English for 14%. coding and analysis. While diversity in so- The target demographic for both surveys cio-economic status, occupation, upbringing, was undergraduate university students in or- and numerous other variables was sought, der to compare perceptions of individuals that the snowball sampling technique utilized did are largely on the precipice of entering the not allow for an ideal level of diversity and workforce and thus, less likely to be biased randomness in the recruitment process. Most by individual occupational events—whether interview participants had a graduate level positive or negative. While not representa- education, in careers ranging from architec- tive of society at large, student perceptions ture to academia. provide interesting insight into mentalities that will soon make up a significant segment RESULTS of the working population. For analysis, both Levene’s Test for Equality of Variances and Quantitative Findings Two-tailed t-tests for Equality of Means were Table 1 displays demographic variable av- used in order to test for significance in dif- erages for respondents from both surveys. ference between both survey groups, regard- It was thought that one’s educational attaining the distribution as well as the mean of ment relative to their parents’/caretakers’ responses. might skew perceptions of social mobility To provide greater depth and context importance and fluidity. However, the - evi to the quantitative survey responses, nine dent similarity between rates of first gen- semi-structured interviews were conducted eration university students indicates that any in Uruguay, as well. By allowing the inter- significant difference between perceptions is viewee to expand and verbalize sentiments likely a result of other factors. concerning social mobility and consumerism Table 2 contains the results from both sur- trends over the past 15-20 years in Uruguay, veys concerning perceptions of social mo- this paper’s topic was further explored into bility in the participants’ respective national the non-quantifiable, subjective side of per- contexts. The text in the left column repre- ceptions. Without substantial longitudinal sents the response selected, in a yes or no for- data documenting perceptions of social mo- mat. There is apparent similarity between US bility in Uruguay, the interviews were con- and Uruguayan responses. The US responses ducted in order to compare current student mirror those of most prior research, falling in sentiments to those in the past (for further between the findings of Dugan and Newport discussion, see Discussion below). (2013) and Reynolds and He (2014) with The interview participants were recruited 60% of respondents believing upward social through academic contacts at UCU and either mobility to be probable in their own lives. interviewed in-person or via email, if sched- Given the comparatively strong optimism of uling a meeting proved too difficult given US perceptions found in the literature review,

Table 1: Relevant Respondent Demographic Information

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Table 2: Social Mobility Perceptions of Respondents

Table 3: Cross-tabulation of Social Mobility Importance Responses the immense similarity of Uruguayan re- social mobility importance in order to further sponses to those of the US survey is notable. illustrate the differences between respondent Independent t-tests were used to test for groups. Additionally, there was a significant differences in student responses in the US difference found between the distributions of and student responses in Uruguay. However, responses pertaining to the 20-year year so- there were no significant differences in cial mobility outlook. This difference is fur- students’ perceptions; that is, the US and ther elaborated in Table 4 , a cross-tabulation Uruguayan responses regarding the existence comparison of 20-year outlooks of personal of social mobility fluidity, importance of so- social mobility. cial mobility, and optimism for social mobil- However, when the analysis was ex- ity in the next 5 years were similar. However, panded to include all of the five Likert an- using a 90% confidence interval, there was swer choices, a notable difference between a significant difference between the mean “Extremely Important” responses appears— responses when grouping by country for the partly explaining the significant difference importance given to social mobility fluidity found between the two groups. While both by respondents (p-value of .010). This differ- groups generally indicated that social mobil- ence is further elaborated in Table 3 which ity was important, 26% of US respondents provides a cross-tabulation of perceived chose the strongest response available while

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Table 4: Cross-tabulation of 20-year Outlook

Table 5: Materialism/Consumerism Responses only 9% of Uruguayan students did. This per- importance. Given the well-documented con- haps indicates a certain zeal in US outlooks fidence of US perceptions, it is the similarity of social mobility and its importance that is not the difference that is most striking from not echoed in Uruguayan society. these findings. Again, the significant difference found in In Table 5, responses to the two survey the response variance of Table 4 seems to questions regarding perceptions of material- lie in the strength of the affirmative answer ism and the importance of consumerism as a given. While 74.2% of the US respondents marker of success are presented; the text in answered “Definitely Yes” when asked the left column represents the “yes” response if they saw themselves improving upon in the survey. Across generations, material- their current social and economic status, ism and consumerism seem to jointly exist 64.1% of Uruguayan respondents answered as important social realities, used to exude “Definitely Yes.” Instead, more Uruguayans and affirm both social and financial success answered “Probably Yes” or “Probably Not.” in Uruguay, even more so than in the United The US respondents seem to have answered States. As a nation rife with mass produc- with greater confidence in their prospects. tion and tailored marketing campaigns, the Looking past this difference in strength of the United States is widely regarded as the prime given affirmative answer, the more surprising example of materialism, the pinnacle of con- result is perhaps the finding that Uruguayan sumption—with only 5% of the world’s pop- and US students generally have similar ulation, the United States consumes close to a outlooks on social mobility likelihood and quarter of the world’s resources (Rühl 2008).

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However, these data confer an alternative re- “an extreme amount” of influence in South ality, at least in terms of perceptions. While American social and cultural affairs, almost about half of US survey participants regarded 36% of Uruguayan respondents felt the material possessions as both important and a same—about 2.5 times more.of Uruguayan sign of success, 60% of Uruguayan respon- culture and social trends to be strong or dents affirmed the significance and -impor extreme. tance of materialism. In summary, there were significant differ- Qualitative Findings ence between US and Uruguayan respon- Semi-structured interviews were uti- dents regarding perceptions of materialism. lized to better contextualize the quantita- Specifically, Uruguayan participants more tive data collection, providing greater depth frequently deemed materialism to be impor- and space for individual nuance. Only con- tant and emblematic of success, both person- ducted in Uruguay with adults older than 35, ally and for their own parents or guardians. they provided vital insight into a changing Table 6 highlights an interesting divide be- Uruguayan economic and social landscape. tween US and Uruguayan responses when it While the surveys provided a momentary comes to perceiving the influence of Western snapshot of perception in today’s society, the nations in South American countries like interviews placed the quantitative data in a Uruguay. Perhaps most interesting is the larger, more fluid context—creating a more finding that over three-fourths of Uruguayan protracted dimension to the data collection, respondents believe Western influence in the since there were no available longitudinal realm. The findings indicate a difference be- data sets regarding perception of social mo- tween the degree of affirmation in responses bility in Uruguay. among the cohorts. Compared to the 14% of Table 7 shows the principal topics of each US respondents who believe the West to have interview and quantifies each respondent

*US participants were asked about South American politics, culture, and social trends with Uruguay as an example country. Uruguayan participants were asked specifically about Uruguay. Table 6: Perceptions of Western Influence Responses

*2 respondents noted that the stickiness in the upper echelons of society is still as strong as it used to be a couple of decades ago, but that there is now greater mobility in the middle class Table 7: Interview Responses, Coded

183 Explorations |Social Sciences answer in order to provide a brief, general- consumerism trends: ized summary of the nine interviews. Each Consumerism has had an exponential interviewee mentioned a distinct change in change in qualitative and quantitative terms. both social mobility fluidity and consumer- Consumerism covers more of society, includ- ism, with trends progressing toward greater ing people from social positions that had not previously had possibilities to access even social mobility, specifically upward social certain staples. Many people now borrow ex- mobility, and a generally more consumptive cessively to get products which they do not society and culture in the past 15 to 20 years. need, but that are fashionable or whimsical. All but one interview participant indi- The idea that social mobility is now more cated that they believe that they now have a fluid for younger generations in the middle greater chance of upward mobility than they and lower echelons of society, but still stag- did a couple of decades ago. For instance, nant in the upper tiers of social and economic one participant supplied anecdotal evidence life was voiced twice. However, it was rou- of a friend who found stable work as a uni- tinely noted that the sudden spike in product versity custodian and was able to take the availability and consumptive behavior was Uruguayan equivalent of a GED course in caste-free. That is, all social classes and de- order to earn a secondary school diploma and mographics had opportunities to consume later, a higher paying job. This participant a new array of products, in part due to the further elaborated on the academic success of availability of credit cards and store payment their friend’s children and their consequent plans. This increase in product availability hopeful futures. A story like this wouldn’t and consumeristic behavior was described by have been possible two or three decades ago, two respondents as a race, with one partici- the respondent concluded. pant stating: As another respondent elucidated, “I think There are clearly differences, depending on that before, there was a distinct and divided social class, but still...with the variety of high and low class. Now the middle class has products and ease to buy...all classes are in grown and more people are in that class.” the race of consumerism A university professor elaborated on this Another participant added: change in social mobility, saying: “I think the It has changed a lot. There is a race to con- social fringes have more opportunities and sumerism, ‘I must have it,’ but we do not mobility...but it is very difficult to have- in need to. The change has also been because of clusion and openness in higher classes so [the the financial possibilities for [people] to pur- chase the products with credit cards, loans, people on the social fringes] can pass them.” etcetera. A different interview participant framed Another interviewee framed material con- the changed reality as something more psy- sumption in Uruguayan society as expres- chological than physical, particularly in the sion, speaking to Douglass’ idea of consum- upper class of Uruguayan society, stating: in today’s society, there are more demanding erism as a means of “competitive display,” and continuous needs for personal improve- saying: ment just to maintain the status of each per- It has been more accelerated in recent years... son. This extra effort has made it difficult There is much more variety of products and... to achieve success—which increasingly de- varieties of quality or attributes to differenti- mands time, quality and costs, and this leads ate each other to reach a certain target social to frustration as people return to the point of level, creating the necessity of consumption. origin. This is the phenomenon of a stratified More than any other topic broached in the society where there is little to no social mo- interviews, a resounding “yes” followed all bility to the uppermost class. questions concerning changes in consumer- The same individual further frames this ism and access to an increasingly material- widespread change in perception of so- istic lifestyle in Uruguay. As one participant cial mobility in discussion of changing reflected:

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I now have more access to more things than With high levels of consumerism and per- when I was a child, for example. There are ceptions of social mobility coinciding with now many options and kinds of sales, like decreasing social mobility and income equal- online shopping, credit cards. There is a defi- ity in Uruguay, as suggested by the literature nite trend towards consumerism...today there and this study’s findings, trends seem to be is more availability and access to consumer products. It’s hard to want something and not increasingly mirroring realities in the United get it. States. That is, while actual rates of upward Summarizing many of these perspectives of social mobility and income inequality lag be- both social mobility and consumerism, one hind in international comparison, confidence interviewee concluded by noting that “... in social mobility and consumptive habits Uruguayans now have more opportunities are comparably high. Whether these trends and freedoms not previously had...the coun- in Uruguay and the US are paralleling each try is opened to the world and we have as- other or merely meeting as they move in op- similated its processes.” posite directions, however, is ultimately un- knowable given this paper’s cross-sectional DISCUSSION nature. As McCoy and Major demonstrated in their In Consumerism in World History, Peter 2007 study, an increase in the importance Stearns poignantly notes: given to social mobility as well as a greater what is sometimes called “Westernization” confidence in social mobility fluidity result in involves the spread of consumer behaviors, a justification of inequality and often, in per- often under the urgent leadership of European sonal legitimation of systemic realities with a and United States commercial companies. By de-emphasis on the role of discrimination in 2000 Western influence in the world at large different social statuses (McCoy and Major rested on consumer standards more than any- 2007). This finding is important to note when thing else, outlasting military and colonial considering the increasing aforementioned predominance (Stearns 2006, p. ix). inequality and stratification in both the US It is from this caption of the West’s influence and Uruguay. in both consumerism and consumption trends Extrapolating from the consumer theories worldwide that many of this paper’s conclu- of anthropologist Mary Douglas, a change sory points rise. in consumer trends indicates a change in Considering the anomalous strength of the cultural motifs, cultural categories, and cul- belief in social mobility fluidity amongst the tural communication (Douglas & Isherwood US population in reference to European na- 1979). Thus, Uruguay has not only undergone tions, the staggering similarity with which an economic or social shift, it has undergone the Uruguayan social mobility survey results and is in the midst of a cultural shift, as well. compare to its US counterpart was a notable Perhaps most interesting, however, is the surprise. Additionally, the similar responses role of perceptions of social mobility fluidity concerning perception and importance of in ostensibly molding consumptive trends, materialism as an avenue of both exuding and vice versa, the influence of consumerism and attaining success between both surveys in guiding perceptions of social mobility. As and participant pools are significant find- suggested by this paper’s findings, both per- ings. However, it is the anecdotal findings ceptions of social mobility fluidity and con- pulled from the nine interviews that provided sumptive behavior have seemingly increased critical context for the survey responses, over the past two decades in Uruguay. Rather speaking not only to similarity between per- than existing and changing independently, ceptions of US and Uruguayan university they shape each other and consequently, students, but a veritable shift in Uruguayan society at large. Personal definitions of suc- perceptions—bending over time towards cur- cess as well as the means of displaying and rent US modalities.

185 Explorations |Social Sciences internalizing success have increasingly be- insight both into the present and potentially, come materialistic. Thus, as the pursuit suc- the future of Uruguayan society—namely re- cess is more and more deemed a component garding perceptions of increasing inequality, of consumerism and as social mobility is upward social mobility, and the expression of seen as fluid to an increasing extent, perhaps socio-economic success. partially due to the influx of cheap goods in When products find new markets, ideas do a consumeristic society, a cycle is formed. too. Aside from a change in the availability of These two social modalities appear to exist products and subsequent shift in lifestyle, glo- in a positive feedback loop; over time, an in- balization brings about a change in ideology crease in one correlates with an increase in and social perception. Drastic change in ma- the other (see Figure 2). terialism and product availability has swept Following the findings of McCoy and through Uruguay in the past two decades. Major in addition to numerous other pa- Paralleling this material and consumptive pers (e.g. Ledgerwood et al. 2011, Kluegel change has been a notable change in students’ and Smith 1986, Sidanius & Pratto 2001, perception of social mobility fluidity and per- Thompson and Bobo 2011, Kwate & Meyer ceptions of materialism and success. The in- 2010), it can be argued that consumerism ertia of globalization has reached Uruguay— masks actual social modalities, like discrimi- socially as well as economically—including nation and social inequality. If perceptions of the exportation of the “American Dream” the state of meritocracy and social mobility and its accompanying meritocratic optimism alter one’s understanding and explanation of and materialistic behavior. social realities, consumerism trends likely In light of the potential for social com- do, as well. One’s obedience to macro social plicity and ranging bias rooted in changing forces, norms, and institutional expectations perceptions of social mobility, there exists seems partially dependent on one’s individ- a need for greater education and discussion ual optimism for success; essentially, one of measurable socio-economic trends in all likely buys into a social system that claims to political and social spheres—to emphasize reward one’s effort and talent when it seems empiricism and the gap between perception to be true. As individual definitions of suc- and reality. Furthermore, recognizing that the cess increasingly turn materialistic while introduction of product, business model, and product availability becomes more and more lifestyle also involves potential shifts in col- diversified and inexpensive, upward social lective perception and outlook is an impor- mobility perhaps seems more fluid and pos- tant consideration in any evaluation of glo- sible. This reality has the potential to blind, balization and its myriad economic, political, via material satiation, an increasingly un- and social forces. equal and stagnate society with the dangling, perhaps illusionary, carrot of achievable Limitations prosperity, fluid social mobility, and attain- Limitations to this study, its methods, and able success-affirming consumption. As long conclusion include the use of narrow survey as individuals perceive their reality to be fair and interview recruitment (e.g. only two uni- and meritocratic, it will in a sense be fair and versities in two cities), a subsequently unrep- meritocratic—regardless of empirical evi- resentative sample pool (college students and dence to the contrary. Uruguayan professionals), and a relatively The encompassing social effects of in- short survey. Future projects should broaden creased consumerism and social mobility per- the scope and recruitment of the participant ceptions in society are well-entrenched in the pools, geographically speaking, to limit the US social fabric. For the nation of Uruguay, risk of intervening variables. In addition, however, this is novel change. Using per- educated Uruguayans were overrepresented spectives from these trends in the US gives in the interviews, as snowball sampling was

186 Andrew Byrum used via university faculty. Future research data comparison. The use of interviews with should better control for such factors as edu- older Uruguayans as a means of intergenera- cation, income, and political affiliation in in- tional comparison (in the absence of trend terview recruitment in order to more precisely data) without similar interviews in the US test the findings of this paper and expand the limits the comparability of both data sets. To survey itself to investigate perception of in- explore change in the US, literature and data dividual social mobility as well as societal were utilized, while interviews in Uruguay social mobility. Further, the tool of longitudi- served the same purpose—a notable limita- nal comparison used—interviews with older tion in any comparative study. Thus, discus- generations of Uruguayans—is a limitation sion and comparison of US and Uruguayan to this study. The lack of longitudinal data trends over time is precarious, needing fur- concerning Uruguayan perceptions of social ther and more robust research. mobility and consumerism precludes hard

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

I appreciate the comments and support from Dr. Stephen Sills.

Note: The funding for this project, namely survey compensation, was supported by a UNCG Globally Engaged URCA grant for the 2015-2016 academic year.

Figure 2: The reinforcing relationship of increasing consumerism and collective perception of greater fluidity in social mobility

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Jenna Friday and Sarah Meyer

Perceptions of Charitable Giving: Discovering and Understanding Societal Views to Maximize the Ability to Build Homes, Hopes, and Futures

Jenna Friday and Sarah Meyer Appalachian State University Faculty Mentor: Thomas Mueller Appalachian State University

ABSTRACT Watauga County Habitat for Humanity is always in need of additional volunteers and donations to most efficiently improve the community with their home building efforts. A survey was developed and distributed to friends and family of Appalachian State University’s Communication Research Methods class to gauge the public’s perception of charitable giving in general, as well as Habitat for Humanity specifically. The study uncovered descriptive attributes of Habitat for Humanity and themed statements related to charitable giving that our participants found favorable. It also revealed that charities with strong reputations had a more positive public perception among our participants, and the use of keywords relating to positive ethical values may be more impactful in marketing and advertising for charitable organizations. These words clustered in three groups echoing Aristotle’s persuasion modes of ethos, pathos, and logos. The results of the study were analyzed to make recommendations for marketing and fundraising strategies for Watauga County Habitat for Humanity, such as promoting values that align with societal ethics and morals when advertising to increase the public’s willingness to volunteer with or donate to the organization.

abitat for Humanity International and donations to continue and expand their Hwas founded in 1976 and has become home building efforts. Watauga County, lo- the number one homebuilder in the world cated in western North Carolina on the bor- (Croce, 2016). Habitat for Humanity’s re- der of Tennessee’s Cherokee National Forest, gional divisions have developed partnerships has been named a “difficult to live in” county within their respective communities to help by the United States Department of Housing build homes for those in need so they may and Urban Development for nearly a de- attain the dream of homeownership. Since its cade, due in part to the area’s lack of afford- conception, this organization has helped 6.8 able housing. Nearly one-third of Watauga million families worldwide, with 25 of these County residents lived below the poverty families being housed by Watauga County line as of 2013 (Appalachian District Health Habitat for Humanity (Habitat for Humanity, Department, 2016). 2016; Watauga County Habitat for Humanity, Watauga County Habitat for Humanity 2016). partnered with Appalachian State University The Watauga County Habitat for Humanity (located in Boone, Watauga County’s county organization was seeking more volunteers seat and largest town) to find a way to more

191 Explorations |Social Sciences effectively engage with donors and volun- (especially their age, gender, and level of in- teers. After completing background research come) were key determinants of whether, and about the organization, interviews were con- how much, that individual would be likely to ducted by Appalachian State University’s donate. In his report, Sargeant cited other re- Communication Research Methods class searchers’ work that noted that females were to obtain information necessary to create a more likely to engage in charitable giving if unique survey instrument. Participants were they had a thorough explanation of how their asked about their perception of charitable money would be used, and were more likely giving, as well as to provide their opinions to give ‘from the heart than the head’. He also of Habitat for Humanity in ten single, de- cited earlier research that found that individ- scriptive words. The results were compiled uals in lower socioeconomic classes identi- and dissected to obtain themed statements fied more with recipients of charities and that described charitable giving, and adjec- were hence more likely to donate to charities tives that described Habitat for Humanity, themselves, and that those wealthier gave in based on their comments. A survey was then their own self-interests or due to feelings of designed and distributed and the results ana- social responsibility. Both of these groups lyzed to provide recommendations for the or- (the wealthy and the working class) were ganization’s communication with the public found to give a higher proportion of their to increase donations of volunteer efforts and income than individuals considered middle- building supplies. class. Also, prior studies suggested that indi- Sargeant (1999) studied individuals’ giv- viduals motivated by intrinsic rewards (such ing behaviors, as well as how charities comas increasing their feeling of self-worth or municate, to determine how these influences finding comfort in relieving another’s suffer- may affect individuals’ charitable donations. ing) were more motivated to donate to chari- Sargeant’s research suggested that charities ties than those seeking external rewards (for focusing their efforts on the targeted donors example, to conform to social norms or re- most likely to assist them would likely receive recognition). duce the organization’s donor acquisition Individuals’ demographics influence their cost. He found that there were several moti- perceptions of (and donations to) charity, and vational factors that could encourage people key words or themes can be used in a chari- to donate to charities, including whether the table organization’s marketing messaging to donor believed they would receive any social more effectively influence potential donors or political benefit, whether the donor’s sup- to give to their cause. Inspired by Sargeant’s port would be visible to others, and whether findings and suggestions for future research the donor perceived an organization as finan- on this topic, specific themes that could be cially efficient. One especially important fac- used in charities’ marketing communications tor that seemed to influence charitable giving to increase the likelihood of convincing the was whether an individual has personal expe- public to donate to or volunteer with the or- rience (either themselves or through a family ganization were sought. The study was de- member or close friend) with the problem ad- signed to uncover keywords and their under- dressed by the charity, especially in the case lying themes with the ultimate goal to make of charities devoted to researching specific recommendations to Watauga County Habitat medical conditions. for Humanity, in an effort to improve the ef- Sargeant proposed that the perception of fectiveness of their marketing messages, and, a charity’s appeals by the public was a great in turn, the success of the organization. influence on individuals’ decision-making Previous research on general perceptions processes (specifically, in making the - deci of charitable giving provides insight on how sion to support that charity or not). He also individuals decide whether or not to support found that a potential donor’s demographics a charity through donations or volunteering.

192 Jenna Friday and Sarah Meyer

Knowing what factors drive individuals to suggestion is one way that individuals who donate is beneficial, as it allows charities to are influenced by private incentives can be target certain audiences through their mes- targeted and encouraged to donate more. sages (Vesterlund, 2006). Factors that deter- Perceptions specific to Habitat for mine how charitable giving is perceived and Humanity allow insight into how this organi- influenced can be separated into two catego- zation is regarded by the public. Habitat for ries: public incentives and private incentives. Humanity was listed in fourth place in the Those who are influenced by public incen- Cone Nonprofit Power Brand report, a public tives choose to donate time or money due to ranking of nonprofits, in 2009, as they were its positive influence on the community and commended for their brand image and public benefit to those who are in need of assistance. perception (Cohen, 2011). One study found These individuals may take into account the that Habitat for Humanity was very effective goals of a charity when deciding where to al- at building low-income homes efficiently and locate donations (Smith & Schwarz, 2012). that this work was extraordinary considering These individuals perceive charitable giving the organization’s dependence on volunteer as a way to encourage community growth efforts and donations (Hays, 2003). The and to help others. Charities that craft their homes that are built were found to be benefi- messages effectively can target this type of cial to society as a whole, as they allow for audience. Because of their concern for those homeowners to have a safe place to live and they help, these individuals may cease their provide them the ability to focus their atten- charitable giving if a charity insinuates that tion on their educations, careers, and well-be- those who are being helped are responsible ing (Evans, et al., 2000). Even though many for their unfortunate situation (Cole, 2014). are aware of Habitat for Humanity’s positive Due to this mindset, organizations should influence on the communities they serve, avoid blaming those they are helping so as to many misconceptions about this organization not discourage donations (Lee, Winterich, & and its purpose remain. Ross, 2014). In general, Habitat for Humanity is seen Those who focus more on the way that do- as a domestic, faith-based organization that nating affects them personally are motivated focuses on the needs of those in the United by private incentives (Vesterlund, 2006). States (Cohen, 2011). In reality, Habitat These individuals perceive charitable giving for Humanity is part a very large network as a way for themselves to gain something, throughout the world that helps families such as a feeling of accomplishment or a tax in many countries. Although Habitat for incentive. People who find that their morals Humanity is an organization founded upon and values match those of a specific charity Christian beliefs, it does not only assist or are more likely to associate with that charity seek assistance from individuals of Christian and donate to that cause (Smith & Schwarz, faith. Most of their efforts are non-denomina- 2012). An economics professor at Williams tional, as Habitat for Humanity helps people College, Jon Bakija, acknowledges this fac- of all religions in countries throughout the tor and suggests that tax subsidies on mon- world, even though they are seen as an or- etary donations promote giving and improve ganization that does small, religious charity the level of charitable donations in the United jobs within the U.S. Conversely, there are States (Povich, 2013). Vice President of the also many who are unaware of the fact that National Council of Nonprofits David L. Habitat for Humanity is a Christian-based or- Thompson (2013) agrees with Bakija, add- ganization (Mueller & Hooker, 2015). ing that charitable giving benefits society as One complaint about Habitat for a whole and it is imperative to promote gen- Humanity’s work is that they are not per- erosity by having the government provide tax ceived to have provided for the larger com- benefits to those who donate to charity. This munity when building one home for a single

193 Explorations |Social Sciences family. It is thought that those who receive to the design and success of this research, the home are receiving a very generous dona- and subsequent studies that seek to determine tion, but it is not well known that each family how to improve these opinions and increase is required to help build their home alongside volunteer participation and donations. the Habitat for Humanity volunteers. Home recipients are also responsible for paying for METHODOLOGY their home, though the price is reduced due to volunteer labor and the mortgage is inter- Initial qualitative interviews were con- est-free. Habitat for Humanity’s ReStores, ducted by the student researchers to obtain their retail locations that accept donations the participants’ individual perceptions of of home-building materials, are also com- charitable giving, with which the survey in- monly misidentified as The Salvation Army strument would be designed. Interview re- or Goodwill, which can impede the organiza- spondents were qualified as being familiar tion’s brand image (Cohen, 2011). with charities and were selected through a The professional website Indeed allows convenience sample. A total of 28 interviews individuals to anonymously review their ex- were collected. Interviewees were asked gen- periences with businesses they have worked eral questions related to their experiences for. Organizations are rated on a scale from 1 with and perception of charitable giving. to 5 stars. Habitat for Humanity achieved a The respondents were also asked to provide 4.4-star rating with over 500 reviews, an out- at least ten descriptive words they felt best standing rating that portrays a positive pub- defined Habitat for Humanity. lic image (“Habitat for Humanity Employee These open-ended discussions were then Reviews”, Indeed, 2015). This rating system analyzed by all student researchers, where can encourage those who wish to volunteer statements related to charitable giving were with (or donate to) Habitat for Humanity, as narrowed down into eight themed statements they can see that this organization has been based on their commonalities. The themed rated highly by current and former volunteers statements related to the perception of chari- and employees. Many positive comments are table giving were deduced based on how of- listed on the page and this allows interested ten these topics were raised by respondents individuals to see that Habitat for Humanity in the students’ interviews. These statements has been considered by others a great organi- were: “I believe in charities that are transpar- zation to work for. Adversely, there are some ent about how they allocate donations”, “I negative comments left in these reviews, pri- support charities that make my community marily regarding the actual work of building better”, “Charities that focus on the needs the home and the lack of pay. of specific individuals are most important In general, research on this topic led to the to me”, “A charity must have a good reputa- conclusion that there are public and private tion”, “I associate with charities that have a incentives the motivate volunteers and do- religious affiliation”, “A charitable organiza- nors, and these qualities need to be consid- tion that demonstrates a love for people is im- ered when attempting to gain more individual portant”, “Volunteering by giving time is the participation. Many perceptions of Habitat most appropriate way to support a charity”, for Humanity are misconceptions that should and “I am attracted to charities that feature a be addressed by the organization. Individuals celebrity spokesperson”. interested in volunteering can access web- The adjective list from each survey respon- sites like Indeed that can encourage their dent was collected in a master document. contributions to organizations like Habitat Based on frequency, adjectives that par- for Humanity. Understanding the general per- ticipants believed best described Habitat for ception of charitable giving and the miscon- Humanity were: Humanitarian, Generous, ceptions about Habitat for Humanity are vital Compassionate, Wonderful, Community,

194 Jenna Friday and Sarah Meyer

Admirable, Hopeful, Life-Changing, performed. These words were separated into Workers, Volunteer, Building, Caring, three word clusters and analyzed for underly- Kindness, Charitable, Supportive, Good, ing themes. Helpful, Needed, Home, and Giving. Next, the eight themed statements The eight themed statements relating to were tested for reliability by calculating charitable giving and the descriptive words Cronbach’s alpha. This testing determines pertaining to the perception of Habitat for the level of internal consistency among the Humanity were then used to design an on- scale items, to assure all items measure the line survey. The eight themed statements same construct. were placed in a matrix format question, with Then relationships among the pairs of Likert scale response options of strongly items and the themed statements were con- agree, agree, neutral, disagree, or strongly ducted with Pearson’s correlations. Next, an disagree. To measure the relevance of de- Exploratory Factor Analysis was conducted scriptive adjectives of Habitat for Humanity, on the eight themed statements related to participants were given the same Likert scale perception of charitable giving. The eigen- response options. Demographic questions, value determines how strongly a group of re- including the participants’ educational level, sponses is related, and researchers generally age, employment status, household income, hope to find an eigenvalue equal to or higher annual amount of charitable donations, mari- than 1 (Ledesma & Valero-Mora, 2007). This tal status, presence of children in the house- analysis highlights more manageable clusters hold, and ethnicity, were also included in the of data that are correlated with each other, instrument. as well as underlying connections within the The online survey instrument was distrib- data that might not otherwise be visible to re- uted electronically through convenience, searchers studying the full data set. judgmental, and snowball sampling tech- Analysis of Variance (ANOVA) testing niques. Participants received the survey in- was performed to determine if there were strument via a direct email or by clicking on significant differences among the categories a social media link posted by one of the stu- within the descriptive variables, related to dents. The survey was then completed anon- perception of charitable giving. Regression ymously. A total of 804 discrete responses analysis was performed to determine if any were collected. Seven surveys received were of the word clusters representing perception incomplete and, consequently, omitted from of Habitat for Humanity were unique signifi- our analysis. The final total of usable survey cant predictors of perceptions of charitable responses was 797. Though demographic giving. questions were included, no identifying information was collected from respondents. RESULTS AND DISCUSSION Participants were not compensated for completing the survey. The demographic information collected The Statistical Analysis Software Package from the 797 survey respondents was ana- (SPSS) was used to conduct analyses of the lyzed. The largest age group among the re- data collected by the survey. To begin analyses spondents was 18 to 31 years old (44%). A on the twenty descriptive adjectives pertain- majority (61%) were married or living with ing to Habitat for Humanity (Humanitarian, their significant other, and 64% did not have Generous, Compassionate, Wonderful, dependent children or other minors living in Community, Admirable, Hopeful, Life- their household. Most of the respondents, Changing, Workers, Volunteer, Building, 84%, categorized themselves as Non-Hispanic Caring, Kindness, Charitable, Supportive, White or Euro-American, and 7% identi- Good, Helpful, Needed, Home, and Giving), fied as Black, Afro-Caribbean, or African an Exploratory Factor Analysis (EFA) was American. A significant number of responses

195 Explorations |Social Sciences from South Asian, Indian American, Middle Needed), while one word, Community, did Eastern, Arab American, Native American, not load into any of the three factors. or Alaskan Native individuals were not After considering the underlying themes received. of the related words within clusters one, Over half of the participants indicated that two, and three, the groups were named after they had earned a college degree (57%), and the modes of persuasion first described by others had completed some college (27%). Aristotle, respectively: “Pathos”, appealing Most identified as an employee of -a busi to the audience’s emotions; “Logos”, relat- ness (44%), while some held management ing to logical or factual appeals; and “Ethos”, positions (17%), or were the owner of a busi- based on ethics or a speaker’s credibility. ness (12%). Over half of the respondents said The test to determine internal reliability that they earned less than $60,000 annually indicated that the eight themed statements (55%), but a significant percentage of - par that measure perceptions of charitable giv- ticipants (15%) placed their annual income ing achieved a 0.49 Cronbach’s alpha. level at over $100,000. Nearly two-thirds Researchers often look for a Cronbach’s al- (64%) of participants said that they donated pha of 0.7 or higher to confirm that the data less than $1,000 to charities annually, while are, indeed, consistent (George & Mallery, one-quarter claimed that they gave between 2003). A Cronbach’s alpha below this 0.7 $1,000 and $5,000. threshold may indicate low inter-relatedness Exploratory factor analysis was conducted within data, or it may be the result of a survey to dimensionalize the descriptive words instrument with too few questions (Tavakol that represented perceptions of Habitat for & Dennick, 2011). Humanity. The first analysis collected the Because reliability was not achieved items into one factor. Researchers commonly among scale items, correlation testing was must decide how many factors to separate conducted. Correlation testing found the ef- data into when performing an EFA, and this fect size (r) of each pair to determine the decision is important as analytical results can strength of the correlations between the vary widely if the number is either too large themed statements. Effect sizes are catego- or small (Ledesma & Valero-Mora, 2007). rized as follows: Small, positive correlation The EFA on the descriptive words was con- (0.10-0.29); medium, positive correlation ducted by separating the data into three word (0.30-0.49); large, positive correlation (0.50- clusters. 1.0). The following pairs had the strongest The most powerful word cluster col- correlations: “A charity must have a good lected the words Supportive, Generous, reputation” and “A charitable organization Compassionate, Wonderful, Admirable, that demonstrates a love for people is im- Hopeful, Caring, Kindness, Charitable, and portant”, r = 0.35; “A charitable organization Giving, and had an eigenvalue of 7.17. The that demonstrates a love for people is impor- second most powerful word cluster was cre- tant” and “I support charities that make my ated by the words Life-Changing, Workers, community better”, r = 0.31; “I believe in Volunteer, and Building, which invoke the charities that are transparent about how they actual process of home building and ap- allocate donations” and “I support charities peal to logic. The eigenvalue of this cluster that make my community better”, r = 0.27. was 4.44. The remaining words (Home and There were negatively correlated state- Humanitarian) were sorted into the third ments, as well. In fact, all negative state- cluster. These words suggest an appeal to eth- ments were associated with the phrase “I am ics, an obligation to do what is right for the attracted to charities that feature a celebrity community and help others that are in need. spokesperson”. The statements that were This cluster’s eigenvalue was 3.87. Three negatively correlated with this phrase were: words were confounded (Helpful, Good, and “I support charities that make my community

196 Jenna Friday and Sarah Meyer

Table 1. Rotated Components Matrix of the Factor Analysis of Adjectives Related to Perception of Habitat for Humanity better” (r = -0.54), “I believe in charities that regression testing. ANOVA testing was per- are transparent about how they allocate dona- formed to compare means among categories tions” (r = -0.06), “A charitable organization within each demographic variable and see that demonstrates a love for people is impor- whether there were statistically significant tant” (r = 0.08), and “A charity must have a differences among them. The only demo- good reputation” (r = -0.04). All effect sizes graphic that had significance was “marital of the negative correlations were weak. status”, although it was weak with an effect EFA was conducted on the eight themed size of 0.018. statements. The rotated solution provided The next test conducted was a regression two factors, with one predominant factor, analysis to determine if there were any word which had an eigenvalue of 1.79. The fac- clusters that were unique significant pre- tor collected “A charity must have a good dictors of perceptions of charitable giving. reputation”, “A charitable organization that One cluster was a unique significant predic- demonstrates a love for people is impor- tor of charitable giving. It was the “Ethos” tant”, “I support charities that make my com- cluster which collected the terms Home and munity better”, and “I believe in charities Humanitarian. that are transparent about how they allocate The basis for this research, that specific donations”. keywords could be used in charities’ market- The four themed statements were col- ing communications to positively affect the lapsed in a dependent variable, which was public’s level of volunteering and donations, used for Analysis of Variance (ANOVA) and was the foundation for the suggestions that

197 Explorations |Social Sciences

Table 2. Correlation Coefficient Values Between Eight Themed Statements Related to Perceptions of Charitable Giving

Table 3. Rotated Components Matrix of the Factor Analysis of Statements Related to Perception of Charitable Giving

198 Jenna Friday and Sarah Meyer were made to Watauga County Habitat for Kindness, Charitable, and Giving, and these Humanity regarding how their advertising words may positively influence those who and other messaging could be improved to at- may consider donating to and/or volunteer- tract more volunteers and donors. We found ing with Habitat for Humanity if they are in- that individuals’ demographics did influence tegrated into advertising and marketing mes- their perceptions of charitable giving, though sages. These adjectives successfully appeal to a small extent, and that key themes can be to emotions and help consumers connect with used in an organization’s messaging to more Habitat for Humanity’s message. effectively influence potential donors. The Logos and Ethos clusters also provide The correlations of the themed statements some insight, although not as strongly as suggested that those who are interested in do- the first category. Words in the Logos clus- nating to charities prefer organizations that ter (Life-Changing, Workers, Volunteer, and have a good reputation, demonstrate a love Building) may appeal to the public’s sense for people, work to make the community bet- of logic. Words in the Ethos category (Home ter, and are transparent about how they al- and Humanitarian) appeal to a sense of eth- locate received donations. This information ics, such as an obligation to do what is right is useful when determining how potential for the community and help people that are donors view charities and how they decide in need. which ones they will associate with. Those The final test conducted was regression who are looking for charities with a religious analysis to determine if the descriptive word affiliation may not be as concerned about the clusters Pathos, Ethos, and Logos were sig- charity’s donation allocation transparency, nificant predictors of perceptions of - chari and vice versa. Also, the celebrity spokesper- table giving. The four themed statements, son themed statement negatively correlated collapsed into one variable, were once again with statements about making the community used as the dependent variable. One cluster better, being transparent about allocating do- of words proved to be a significant predic- nations, demonstrating a love for people, and tor, which included the words Home and having a good reputation (the four statements Humanitarian. Regression testing on the that have been found to be important to a pos- descriptive adjectives showed these words itive charity affiliation), further suggesting to be strong predictors of behaviors toward that a celebrity spokesperson is not necessary the four ethically-themed statements. These for positive perceptions of charitable giving. words were also found to have an underly- ANOVA testing showed that marital sta- ing ethical appeal, correlating with “I support tus was significantly related to the ethical charities that make my community better”, “I statements, and that the strongest relation believe in charities that are transparent about was among those participants who indicated how they allocate donations”, “A charitable that they were separated. This suggests that organization that demonstrates a love for Habitat for Humanity should consider that people is important”, and “A charity must the population has a wide variety of opinions have a good reputation”. The words (or visual when it comes to charitable giving, and that depictions that invoke the ideas of) Home marital status may be important to consider. and Humanitarian should be implemented in EFA testing on the descriptive adjectives Habitat for Humanity’s messages to suggest showed that the significance of the terms in that Habitat for Humanity is a charity that has the first cluster, Pathos, suggests that these a good reputation, is transparent about how emotionally-charged words are most impact- they allocate donations, demonstrates a love ful to Habitat for Humanity’s target audi- for people, and makes the community better. ence. The words in the Pathos cluster were: Regression testing indicated that the words Supportive, Generous, Compassionate, Home and Humanitarian lead people to be- Wonderful, Admirable, Hopeful, Caring, lieve the message that Habitat for Humanity

199 Explorations | Social Sciences is a charity that fulfills their expectations. analysis of this demographic. Therefore, sug- This information could be useful to Habitat gestions cannot be made concerning percep- for Humanity, as well as other charitable or tions of charitable giving and Habitat for nonprofit organizations, when crafting- fun Humanity that may differ by gender. draising or volunteer-seeking marketing Our pool of survey respondents was com- campaigns. By understanding how potential posed primarily of individuals identifying donors or volunteers view charities, and how themselves as Non-Hispanic White or Euro- they ultimately decide which ones they will American (84%). Watauga County, North support, these organizations can better deter- Carolina reports that slightly over 95% of their mine how to most effectively present their population fits into this category, according appeals. to the United States Census Bureau (2015). Overall, our respondents looked for un- Seven percent of survey participants identi- derlying ethical values of charities, so pro- fied themselves as Black, Afro-Caribbean, or moting the ethical aspects of Habitat for African-American (the second largest demo- Humanity’s charitable giving would be bene- graphic group in our study), as compared to ficial. Association with a celebrity spokesper- 2% of Watauga County residents. This differ- son is discouraged, as this factor was proven ence in reported demographics suggests that to be negatively correlated with the ethically- our survey was completed by a population themed statements that were proven to be more ethnically diverse than the county this beneficial to the organization. Words with study was completed to benefit. Education emotional appeal should be implemented to levels and marital status rates may also differ persuade those who are compelled by emo- from our survey population to a statistically tional values to donate and volunteer. Habitat significant degree. The survey respondents for Humanity should highlight its long his- were not specifically from Watauga County tory and good reputation, and demonstrate and the respondent demographics did not that the organization is based on a love for parallel the population of Watauga County people. Also, their marketing campaigns specifically. As such, our findings may not would benefit by suggesting that their work accurately reflect the perceptions of the resi- makes the communities they assist better, dents in this particular community. and that they act with transparency about the way donations to the organization, and to the SUGGESTED FUTURE RESEARCH people the organization helps, are allocated. There is abundant room for future research LIMITATIONS on society’s perceptions of charitable giving, and specifically on keywords or themes As with any research, there are factors that an organization can use to encourage the impede the research process and limit results. public’s willingness to donate their time or Through the interviewing process, sampling money to a cause. Further exploration into method, and electronic surveying, responses how perceptions of charitable giving vary ac- were obtained from across the state of North cording to respondents’ religious affiliations, Carolina, as well as across the country. Also, income levels, and gender identity would convenience sampling occurred by sending almost certainly yield additional valuable the survey electronically to friends, family, information. Other appeals not captured by and social media contacts of the class, as well this study, particularly as they apply to more as to those who had the survey redistributed diverse demographics (specifically, minor- to them, so a preferred stratified random sam- ity groups), could have a greater impact ple was not obtained. Lastly, demographic on an organization’s ability to learn how to information related to gender was omitted best reach potential donors than the appeals from the survey instrument, which prevented studied here. Expanding upon this research

200 Jenna Friday and Sarah Meyer would benefit not only Habitat for Humanity, larger size, as well as additional variables, is but other charitable or humanitarian organi- advised for those conducting future research zations, and the communities that they serve. in this area. Utilization of a stratified random sample of a

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

We would like to thank the following people for their contributions to the study and preparation of this report: Mr. Alex Hooker, for his time in the interview process and helping the class understand Watauga County Habitat for Humanity’s unique challenges and concerns, as well as future vision; Appalachian State University’s Fall 2015 Communication Research Methods class, for their hard work and participation in all steps of this research, including survey design, response procurement, and data analysis; James Simpson for his contributions to the original project that was presented to Watauga County Habitat for Humanity; and Dr. Thomas S. Mueller, for his valuable guidance and encouragement throughout this project.

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The Association Between Women’s Empowerment and Child Nutrition in Bangladesh

Anika Hannan University of North Carolina Chapel Hill Faculty Mentor: Kavita Singh Ongechi University of North Carolina Chapel Hill ABSTRACT As the United Nations transitions from the Millennium Development Goals to the Sustainable Development Goals, ending hunger and improving nutrition remains a top priority for international development (Coonrod, 2014). Despite this priority, child malnutrition in Bangladesh remains one of the highest in the world (Bhagowalia, Menon, Quisumbing, & Soundararajan, 2012). Evidence suggests that the low social status of women in South Asia contributes to this rate (Shroff, Griffiths, Suchindran, Nagalla, Vazir, & Bentley, 2011). This research paper examines the association between women’s empowerment and child nutrition in Bangladesh, using data from the 2011 Bangladesh Demographic and Health Survey (DHS). Women’s empowerment was captured through constructs of mobility, decision-making power, views on violence, and membership in microcredit or social organizations. Child malnutrition was measured using the following outcomes: stunting (low height for age), wasting (low weight for height), and underweight (low weight for age). Based on bivariate results using logistic regression, views on violence and organization membership were statistically significant with malnutrition outcomes. However, when the controls of wealth status, mother’s education, and father’s education were added to the model, the relationship was no longer significant. These results suggest that wealth and education have a stronger effect on childhood malnutrition than women’s empowerment, and independently affect both child malnutrition and empowerment status. In order to create and improve existing policies focused on achieving the second Sustainable Development Goal of ending hunger and improving nutrition, further research is necessary to better understand the relationship between wealth, education, empowerment, and child malnutrition.

n the year 2000, the United Nations devel- expiration date in 2015, hunger remains a Ioped the Millennium Development Goals problem with 1 in 9 people in the world re- (MDGs). The eight MDGs were global ob- maining hungry (United Nations Millennium jectives that addressed extreme poverty and Development Goals, 2015). health and expired in 2015; the first MDG Hunger is defined by the United Nations as was to eradicate extreme poverty and hunger “not having enough to eat to meet daily en- (United Nations Millennium Development ergy requirements” (Hunger Glossary, 2015). Goals, 2015). A goal’s expiration date indi- Set to expire in 2030, the UN has adopted cates its desired success date, after which the the Sustainable Development Goals, which United Nations reevaluates the goals and sets focus on international development in a sus- new ones. The latest of these dates expire in tainable context (Sustainable Development 2030. While poverty was cut in half by its Knowledge Platform, 2015). Understanding

204 Anika Hannan the association of different structural, soci- (The South Asia Food and Nutrition Security etal factors on nutrition is necessary in order Problem, 2015). to meet the Sustainable Development Goals South Asia’s high percentage of malnour- set for the year 2030. ished children is believed to be impacted Long-term hunger can lead to malnutri- by the low status of women (Smith et al., tion, a condition when an individual’s diet 2003; Sethuraman et al., 2006; Shroff et al., does not provide adequate nutrients for 2009). Previous research has studied this growth and development (Hunger Glossary, relationship in Bangladesh’s neighboring 2015). Children under the age of 5 are the countries, however, not much has been done most susceptible population to malnutri- in Bangladesh. This study seeks to examine tion. In low and middle-income countries, the role of women on the high malnutrition 1 in 6 children are malnourished (Hunger rates in Bangladesh and add to the body of Statistics, 2015), becoming more susceptible literature surrounding this relationship. to preventable diseases such as pneumonia, malaria, measles, and diarrheal diseases. The LITERATURE REVIEW effects of these diseases are magnified when a child is undernourished, increasing the Empowerment is an abstract construct that number of deaths that occur from these pre- is challenging to define with various mean- ventable diseases (Hunger Statistics, 2015). ings depending on the context. Overall, em- It was estimated that malnutrition was the powerment is an increase in political, social, cause of about 45% of all children deaths in or economic strength of an individual and de- 2011 (Black, et al., 2013). In addition, mal- veloping confidence in one’s own capabilities nourished children may have damaging long- (Definition: Women Empowerment, 2015). term health effects, such as hypertension and Based on prior literature, many studies poor mental development (Martins et al., have found an association between women’s 2011). Malnourishment is a vicious cycle. empowerment and child nutrition. While em- Malnourished children have lower educa- powerment is measured differently in each tional achievements and become low wage study, improving a woman’s autonomy or ca- earning adults. Lower wages reduce pur- pacity is considered to have a positive impact chasing power for nutritious foods and these on child nutrition. adults in turn have malnourished children, One extensive cross sectional study of 36 continuing the cycle (Martins et al., 2011). countries found that a woman’s status does On a global scale, South Asia has the high- influence child’s nutritional status in three re- est rate of malnutrition. Despite decreasing gions of the world: South Asia, Sub-Saharan rates of malnutrition in the past few decades, Africa, and Latin America and the Caribbean the rates remain very high; about 46% of (Smith et al., 2003). The study found that the children in South Asia are malnourished relative decision-making power has a strong (The South Asia Food and Nutrition Security positive association with child nutritional Problem, 2015). Of the countries in South status in South Asia as a whole. In addition, Asia, Bangladesh is the focus of this study societal gender equality had a positive impact due to its growing population and high- on child nutritional status in South Asia and est worldwide rate of chronic malnutrition; a woman’s relative decision-making power about 41% of the children in Bangladesh on child nutritional status is stronger among were chronically malnourished in 2011 poorer households in all three regions. (Malnutrition In Bangladesh: New Report Among studies of malnutrition within Published, 2015). Compared to Bangladesh’s South Asia, a study conducted in 2006 in staggering economic growth between 2000 tribal and rural communities in Karnataka, to 2010, malnutrition rates of children under India classified empowerment as a woman’s the age of 5 are high and have not improved autonomy of choices, control, and power and

205 Explorations | Social Sciences classified child malnutrition as undernutri- of stunting on long-term malnutrition, but tion (Sethuraman, Lansdown, & Sullivan, also wasting and underweight. The associa- 2006). The authors observed that a woman’s tion between all 3 types of malnutrition and empowerment is significantly associated with women’s empowerment has not been studied a child’s underweight status and maternal nu- in Bangladesh. Analyzing all three outcomes tritional status, and psychological violence simultaneously allows the comparison of the indirectly disempowers mothers, both of relationship between women’s empowerment which exacerbate malnutrition (Sethuraman, and malnutrition as a whole. Lansdown, & Sullivan, 2006). Furthermore, the use of organization mem- Another study examined the relationship bership as an empowerment measurement of women’s autonomy on child stunting in has not been studied on the effects of child Andhra Pradesh, India and found certain au- malnutrition. The Demographic and Health tonomy characteristics are significantly asso- Survey (DHS) questionnaire asks about ciated with child stunting (Shroff, Griffiths, community organizations that range from Suchindran, Nagalla, Vazir, & Bentley, 2011). microcredit organizations to mother care The study measured autonomy as decision- organizations. Community organizations as making power, permission to travel alone, a whole allow women to exchange infor- attitude toward domestic violence, and finan- mation and learn about available resources, cial autonomy (Shroff, Griffiths, Suchindran, such as nearby health clinics (Srivastava & Nagalla, Vazir, & Bentley, 2011). Permission Austin, 2012). Women in organizations form to go to the market and financial autonomy social bonds and relationships that increase were significantly associated with child child care knowledge, morale, and overall stunting, along with the child’s age, maternal confidence that can translate into feelings of education, standard of living, and geographic empowerment (Srivastava & Austin, 2012). location of residence (Shroff, Griffiths, In addition, many of the microcredit orga- Suchindran, Nagalla, Vazir, & Bentley, 2011). nizations focus explicitly on empowering One study conducted in Bangladesh in women. For example, Grameen Bank teaches 2012 examined the relationship of women’s women about moneymaking and saving strat- empowerment and child nutrition. The study egies, effective agricultural practices, and observed various dimensions of women’s health and hygiene tips for herself and her empowerment including mobility, decision- child (Srivastava & Austin, 2012). making power, and attitudes on domestic This study focuses on four dimensions of violence on the effects of stunting and diet di- empowerment included in DHS: mobility, versity in children under age 5 (Bhagowalia, decision making, views on violence, and or- Menon, Quisumbing, & Soundararajan, ganization membership. The criteria for each 2012). Attitudes on domestic violence, ma- empowerment dimension are described in the ternal education, maternal height, and age at following paragraphs. first marriage were significantly correlated Mobility is classified in terms of a wom- with child stunting (Bhagowalia, Menon, an’s ability to visit a health clinic on her Quisumbing, & Soundararajan, 2012). In own, without being accompanied. Mobility addition, maternal height and education to visit a health center unaccompanied al- were strong determinants of diet diversity. lows a woman to expand her knowledge While this study is most similar to this study, about her own health and her child’s health it did not consider the other measures of (Bhagowalia, Menon, Quisumbing, & child malnutrition and focused only on the Soundararajan, 2012). A woman who is long-term indicator of malnutrition: stunt- of high mobility is not dependent on her ing (Bhagowalia, Menon, Quisumbing, & spouse’s permission and can leave the house Soundararajan, 2012). unescorted, allowing her to make independent This study not only analyzes the effects decisions in regards to her and her children’s

206 Anika Hannan health (Bhagowalia, Menon, Quisumbing, & for a wide range of monitoring and impact Soundararajan, 2012). Women who do not evaluation indicators in the areas of popula- have high mobility may not be exposed to tion, health, and nutrition (DHS Overview, new knowledge about health and childcare 2015). The DHS have large sample sizes and (Smith et al., 2003). are typically conducted every 4 to 5 years Decision-making is classified as a -wom in each country to allow comparisons over an’s role in making household decisions time (DHS Overview, 2015). The survey col- independently or with her husband. A wom- lects data from over 90 countries worldwide, an’s decision-making elevates her role and which allows additional analyses among views within the household. Her participa- countries (DHS Overview, 2015). Wave 7 tion in decisions increases her autonomy uses pre-existing national census frames and to decide which foods are prepared for the pre-selects the houses to interview. child and the type of care the child is receiv- From the total 17,842 respondents in the ing (Bhagowalia, Menon, Quisumbing, & 2011 Bangladesh DHS, the analytic sample Soundararajan, 2012). was restricted to mothers between the ages of A woman’s view of domestic violence has 15 to 49 whose youngest child was under the been previously shown to impact child nu- age of 5 years (between 0 to 59 months). The trition. A study on different dimensions of analysis was conducted on 6,550 mother- women’s empowerment on stunting and diet child pairs. diversity found a significant association between views on violence and child nutritional Women’s Empowerment Variables outcome of stunting (Bhagowalia, Menon, As mentioned, mobility, decision-making, Quisumbing, & Soundararajan, 2012). It views on violence, and organization mem- concluded the low status of woman and jus- bership are the four dimensions of empow- tification of beating shifts the power toward erment. The survey questions pertaining to the male and is related to the long-term nu- each dimension are described in the follow- tritional outcome of the child. In addition, ing paragraphs. another study found that mothers who ex- Mobility was defined as a woman’s re- perience physical and psychological abuse sponse to the questions “Do you visit a health have higher rates of malnutrition among center alone?” A woman was classified as themselves and their children (Sethuraman, empowered if she answered yes and “not em- Lansdown, & Sullivan, 2006). powered” if she answered no or that she re- The microcredit or social organizations quired accompaniment by her child, husband, included in the DHS questionnaire incorpo- or another individual. rate a component of women’s empowerment Decision-making level was determined in their mission or goal. Membership to a by a woman’s responses to 4 different ques- community organization allows women to tions about who made the decision about the exchange knowledge and tips for caring for child’s health, the respondent’s health, large themselves and their children, about local household purchases, and visits to family and health services, and knowledge on budgeting friends. A woman was classified as empow- and spending money (Women’s Status and ered if she responded that she either made Empowerment, 2015). the decisions alone or with her spouses. A woman was classified as not empowered if DATA AND METHODS she did not participate in the decision making process at all. The 2011 Bangladesh Demographic and A woman’s view on violence was deter- Health Survey (DHS) dataset is used in this mined by her response to 5 scenarios regard- study. The DHS is a nationally-represen- ing when “wife beating” is justified. The tative household survey that provides data scenarios included going out without telling

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Table 1. Descriptive: Independent and Dependent Variables the husband, neglecting the child, refusing Child Growth and Malnutrition, 2015). sex with the husband, burning the food, and arguing with the husband. A woman was Control Variables classified as empowered if she did not toler- Several controls were studied that are ate violence at all and said that wife beating likely to be associated with the outcome: is never justified. A woman was classified as child’s age, child’s sex, mother’s age, number not empowered if she said yes to one or more of children the mother has, delivery location question justifying wife beating. of the child, and geographic location of the Organizational membership was deter- household. In addition, controls that could be mined if a woman was a member of any one associated with both empowerment and the of 22 microcredit or social organizations outcome were included such as parental edu- mentioned in the survey. The organizations cation and household wealth. that women were involved in range from microcredit organizations to social organiza- METHODS tions that focus on maternal care. A woman was classified as empowered if she was a STATA 13 was used to conduct the analy- member and not empowered if she was not a sis. A bivariate logistic regression determined member of an organization. the relationship between each of the nutritional status variables (stunting, wasting, Nutritional Status Variables underweight) with each of the empowerment The study used three outcome measures variables (mobility, decision making, views to quantify child nutritional status. The first, on violence, organization membership). A stunting, was defined as low height for age different model was used to observe the rela- and is a sign of chronic malnutrition. The tionship of each empowerment variable with second, wasting, was defined as low weight the three nutritional outcomes making a total for height and is a sign of acute malnutri- of 12 models. Significance was measured at tion. The third, underweight, was defined the 0.05 α-level. as low weight for age and is a combination of chronic and acute malnutrition. A child RESULTS was considered as stunted, wasted, or underweight if the measurement fell 2 standard Table 1 presents a description of inde- deviations below the mean set by the World pendent variables of empowerment and de- Health Organization (Global Database on pendent variables of nutritional outcome. In

208 Anika Hannan terms of empowerment, 41% of the women underweight. were highly mobile, 41% had high household decision-making, 67% did not justify vio- DISCUSSION lence for any reason, and 35% were part of a microcredit or social organization. In terms The results from this study build upon of the child’s nutritional outcome, 40% were the findings of previous studies conducted stunted, 16% were wasted, and 35% were on women’s empowerment and child nutri- underweight. tion. The variable of views on violence had Table 2 presents the weighted means of the an association with child nutrition that was demographic variables. 52% of the children consistent with the hypothesis while the vari- in the sample were male and the average age ables mobility and organization membership was 2 years. 26% of the children were born had mixed results. The variable decision- in a hospital or clinic setting. 44% of the making had little association with child nutri- women/mothers had finished secondary edu- tion, a finding similar to that of Bhagowalia cation (or 10th grade). The average mother of and colleagues’ study (Bhagowalia, Menon, the sample was 25 years old and had 2 chil- Quisumbing, & Soundararajan, 2012). dren. 77% of the mother-child pairs lived in The current study expanded on that by rural areas. 30% of the husbands had finished Bhagowalia and colleagues by incorporating secondary education. the variables of wasting, underweight, and Table 3 presents the bivariate analysis of maternal organization membership and using empowerment variables and nutritional out- an updated dataset. Despite these differences, comes without the controls. The odds ratios both studies had similar findings and conclu- for mobility and decision-making were close sions about the importance of maternal edu- to 1, suggesting that these variables do not cation on child nutrition. have an association with nutritional status. For the mobility variable, the outcome was Women who were members of an organiza- inconsistent with the initial hypothesis. From tion had higher odds of having a child that the results, a woman who was more mobile was stunted, wasted, or underweight. Women and could leave the house alone and without who condemned violence had lower odds of accompaniment, and therefore empowered, having a child that was stunted, wasted or had higher odds of having a malnourished underweight. child than a woman who could not leave the Table 4 presents the multivariate analysis house alone and needed accompaniment. of empowerment variables and nutritional This outcome can be explained by the way outcomes including the controls for parental the variable mobility was coded. The sur- education, wealth status, maternal character- vey asked the question “Do you go to the istics and child characteristics. Like the re- health clinic?” and had respondents that an- sults from the bivariate model, the odds ratios swered “Yes, alone” or “Yes, with husband” for mobility and decision-making remained or named another person who served as an close to 1, suggesting that these variables do accompaniment. Since this question was the not have an association with nutritional sta- only one that asked about mobility outside tus. Similarly, women who condemned vio- of the home, it was used for constructing the lence had lower odds of having a child who mobility variable in this analysis. A woman was stunted, wasted, or underweight. The who is aware of the existence and location odds ratio for women who were members of of a health clinic and visits a clinic may an organization changed direction from the have health-related needs for herself or her bivariate model to the adjusted model to re- child. While the question does not ask how flect odds ratios that suggest a woman who often a woman goes to a health clinic, the was in an organization had lower odds of nature of the question suggests that it is a ha- having a child who was stunted, wasted, or bitual action and occurs regularly. This may

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Table 2. Weighted Mean of Demographic Variables

210 Anika Hannan

Table 3. Odds-Ratios (OR) and Confidence Intervals (CI) for Child Nutrition Outcomes based on Empowerment Variables

Table 4. Adjusted Odds-Ratios (OR) and Confidence Intervals (CI) for Child Nutrition Outcomes based on Empowerment Variables

211 Explorations | Social Sciences contribute to a larger reason as to why the categories. Wealth may have a stronger im- child is malnourished. Perhaps the child has pact on the child’s nutrition than organization a recurring or ongoing illness that requires membership, and further research is neces- medical attention or treatment. This illness sary to establish the association between could be contributing to the child’s nutri- these variables. tional status more so than the mother’s mo- One of the limitations of this study is the bility status. This may explain why a woman classification of the empowerment variable. who has higher mobility and goes to a health This study categorizes individuals for the clinic alone may have higher odds of having level of empowerment in a binary manner – a malnourished child than a woman who does either very empowered or not very empow- not go to a health clinic alone or at all. ered. It does not differentiate between the The decision-making variable had odds ra- various degrees of empowerment (very em- tios close to one, suggesting that this variable powered, mostly empowered, less empow- did not have an association with nutritional ered, and not empowered). This difference in outcome. This finding is consistent with empowerment classification may provide a the findings of Bhagowalia and colleagues’ clearer understanding of the associations be- follow-up study (Bhagowalia, Menon, tween empowerment and nutrition that may Quisumbing, & Soundararajan, 2012). not be obvious based on the binary classifica- However, the absence of a direct association tion of empowerment. does not undervalue the importance of this Another limitation is response bias in the variable; decision-making may indirectly be way the survey questions were answered. correlated with child nutrition in a way that is While the survey questions were asked in the beyond the scope of this study. privacy of a woman’s home, in some cases, In the crude model, the variable views-on- it might not have been possible to achieve a violence was statistically significant meaning completely private setting. The presence of a woman who condemned violence and never other individuals such as a husband, relative, justified it for any reason had lower odds of or neighbor in the interview vicinity may having a malnourished child. When the con- have led to different responses especially for trols were added in the adjusted model, the the more sensitive questions that were used association was no longer significant. After in this study. further analysis, it was determined that Lastly, the population size for wasting was wealth and education were the primary con- quite small. About 16% of the total child pop- trols that changed the significance. ulation was characterized by wasting. Since In the crude model, a woman who was this sample size was small, the results from in an organization and therefore classified this analysis may not have been conclusive or as empowered, had higher odds of having accurate, because of variability in responses. a malnourished child than a woman who was not in an organization, which was con- CONCLUSION trary to the hypothesis. However, in the adjusted model, the direction of the association It can be concluded that wealth and educa- changed and was consistent with the hypoth- tion overlapped with the construct of women esis, that a woman who was part of an organi- empowerment and independently impact zation, and therefore empowered, had lower child malnutrition. Indeed these two fac- odds of having a malnourished child. Further tors are inputs into women’s empowerment. analysis determined the change of direction However, this does not imply that women’s of the odds outcomes was due to organization empowerment is not important, but rather its membership picking up factors of wealth. In effects on child nutrition are closely linked fact, the majority of the women in these orga- with the effects of wealth and education on nizations were from the two poorest wealth child nutrition. If a woman does not have

212 Anika Hannan the means, accessibility (both physically or of the first Millennium Development Goal financially), or knowledge of resources to and seeks to end hunger, achieve food secu- provide a nutritious diet for her child, all of rity, improve nutrition, and promote sustain- which are tied with the construct of empow- able agriculture (Sustainable Development erment, malnutrition will remain prevalent. Knowledge Platform, 2015). In order to be After the 2015 Millennium Development on target for this goal of ending hunger and Goals expired, the UN adopted the Sustainable improving nutrition, further research is nec- Development Goals, set to expire in the year essary in this area to understand child mal- 2030 (Sustainable Development Knowledge nutrition and move forward to attain this Platform, 2015). The second Sustainable Sustainable Development Goal. Development Goal elaborates on the gaps

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214

Explorations About the Student Authors

Sydney Bohn Andrew Byrum is currently an undergraduate student at the graduated from the University of North University of North Carolina Wilmington, Carolina at Greensboro in May 2016, where she is pursuing a B.S. in Environmental receiving his B.A. in sociology. He is currently Science and a B.A. in Geography, with an M.A. student in the sociology department concentrations in Conservation and Applied at Columbia University in New York City Geography. Her main focus and passion as well as an affiliated researcher with the is for geographic information science Center for Housing and Community Studies and geospatial technologies. She plans to back in Greensboro. After the completion of pursue a career in GIS post-graduation and his master’s degree, he hopes to continue on ultimately hopes to pursue teaching GIS to to a Ph.D. program and eventually, a career K-12 students. in social research and academic scholarship. His research interests include the intersection of globalization, collective memory, and the sociology of knowledge as well as theory and Jacob Brooks cultural sociology. is currently a graduate student at the University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill, where he is pursuing his doctoral degree in physics. He graduated from High Point Emma Caterinicchio University in December 2015 with a Bachelor is an undergraduate student at East Carolina of Science degree in physics, with minors in University, pursuing a double major in History chemistry and mathematics. While pursuing and Foreign Languages and Literatures, his degree, Jacob worked on computational with a concentration in German. She is also modeling of biomimetic cilia systems with completing her Teaching English to Speakers Dr. Briana Fiser. During his undergraduate of Other Languages (TESOL) certification studies, he worked as an intern with Becton- from East Carolina. Emma is co-President of Dickinson on HPV assay development in the German Club at ECU and is the Outreach 2014 and at East Carolina University in 2015, Director of No Lost Generation at ECU. She where he performed micromixer fluid flow is a new member of the Lambda-Eta Chapter simulations and analyses. During the summer of Phi Alpha Theta History Honor Society of 2016, Jacob was invited by NASA to work and hopes to integrate her studies in and in the Neutral Buoyancy Lab with students passion for History and languages into her testing their projects in the Micro-g NExT career. program. Jacob also served as a University Ambassador during his time at High Point University, during which he gave tours to and Michael Cantor interacted with prospective students and their s a recent graduate of High Point University, families. His current graduate research is where he was awarded his Bachelor of Science focused on biomimetic cilia array dynamics. degree in Computer Science. While studying

216 About the Student Authors at HPU, Michael also earned a CLAD a semester abroad at the University of certification in LabView programming. After Southampton in England where she also took graduating, Michael accepted a technology- the opportunity to backpack around Europe. driven position at Gilbarco Veeder-Root In the Caribbean, Samantha led a group of in Greensboro, North Carolina, where he highschoolers in a tropical reef ecology and currently works. During his time at HPU, SCUBA program. This past summer, she he was involved in a series of electronics interned with the North Carolina Division of projects. He was also a member and captain Marine Fisheries where she helped sample of the ultimate Frisbee team. fishhouses, age and ID fishes, and capture and tag fishes. Samantha also volunteers regularly as diver at the NC Aquarium at Fort Derek Detweiler Fisher where she helps present dive shows is currently continuing his education at the to the public. She hopes to continue her University of North Carolina Wilmington education in graduate school. in pursuit of his Master of Science degree in Marine Science and Policy. His research interests include understanding how coastal Jenna Friday wetlands function as important ecosystem is a senior at Appalachian State University, service providers for aquatic organisms and is looking forward to graduating in and humans. Post-graduate school, Derek 2017 with a Bachelor of Science degree in hopes to have a career incorporating Communication, with a concentration in research, coastal management, science Advertising and minor in General Business. communication, and youth education. She graduated with honors from Coastal Previous experiences have placed Derek as Carolina Community College in 2015, earning an instructor at UNCW’s MarineQuest youth her Associate in Arts degree. Jenna’s research enrichment program, a Teaching Assistant for interests include college student success, the UNCW Department of Earth and Ocean international/intercultural communication, Sciences, and a regular at the UNCW Center media effects, and representations of race and for Marine Science’s organic geochemistry gender in advertising. laboratory. Originally from Bethlehem, PA, Derek spends his time enjoying the outdoors by running, kayaking, hiking, and anything that allows him to appreciate Earth’s beauty. Brian Gottwalt is a recent graduate of UNC Wilmington where he obtained a BS degree with University Honors in Biology and a minor Samantha Farquhar in Psychology. In addition to his studies, he is studying at the University of North enjoyed competing for UNC Wilmington’s Carolina Wilmington and will graduate in track and cross country teams, and now December. She is hoping to earn a B.S. in works as an emergency department medical marine biology and B.A. in international scribe at Wake Forest Baptist Medical Center studies with an environmental concentration. in Lexington, NC. He intends to pursue a Outside the classroom, she has gained degree in medicine and aspires to incorporate valuable experience in the field through her his interests in skeletal muscle physiology travels and work. She recently completed into his future endeavors in the medical field.

217 Explorations

achieve important creative and technical Anika Hannan skills which will enable her to become a is currently a graduate student at the Rollins successful visual artist and creative writer. School of Public Health at Emory University, where she is pursuing her Masters of Public Health degree in Behavioral Science and Matthew Ickowski is currently an undergraduate student at High Health Education. She graduated from the Point University, where he is pursuing his University of North Carolina Chapel Hill in Bachelor of Science degrees in both physics May 2016 with a Bachelors of Arts in Global and mathematics. Matt currently works with Studies and Public Policy. In addition to Dr. Briana Fiser answering questions in the her studies in undergrad, she interned at the field of biophysics. During the summer of International Center for Diarrheal Diseases, 2015 and 2016, Matt worked as an intern Bangladesh in Dhaka, Bangladesh and with Callaway Golf Company to improve worked as a research intern at the Carolina and understand golf ball dynamics and Population Center and the Lineberger design. He is an avid golfer, and plays for Comprehensive Cancer Center. She plans to the university’s golf team. He has also been continue public health research during her involved in biophysics research with Dr. time at Emory. Briana Fiser. Matt is a brother of Pi Kappa Phi fraternity, and has participated in multiple social and philanthropic events, both on and Evan Hill off campus. After graduating in May 2017, is currently an undergraduate at the University Matt plans to attend law school or graduate of North Carolina Wilmington, where he is school, or pursue a career in industry. pursuing two B.S. in Environmental Sciences and Oceanography with a Geospatial Technologies minor. He is also a member Walter Kearnan of the Honors College and is the president is a recent graduate from the University of of the Ukulele Club. He plans to continue North Carolina Wilmington. He graduated his education by working towards a PhD in with a B.S. in Business Administration with Coastal Sciences. He then hopes to become a a concentration in International Business, professor and conduct research at a university a B.A. in French and a minor in Political by the coast. Science. He is currently working for Live Oak Bank in Wilmington, North Carolina as an Associate Loan Closing Specialist. He aspires to start a career in government and Courtney Hockett politics. is originally from Shallotte, NC and is currently an undergraduate student at the University of North Carolina at Pembroke. She is a senior pursuing a bachelor’s degree Chauncey McNeill in Art Education with a focus in Printmaking is currently an undergraduate student at the and a minor in Creative Writing. Courtney University of North Carolina at Charlotte, enjoys spending her extra time at the North where he is pursuing a B.A. degree in Carolina Museum of Natural Sciences Chemistry and Criminal Justice, with a focus where she works in the Discovery Room as in Forensics. In addition to his studies, he is a Weekend Captain; she also works within working with colleagues in Russia at Southern Exhibits and repairs models throughout the Federal University to develop supercapacitor materials for renewable energy storage. room. Her goal is to become a teacher and

218 About the Student Authors

He also works for the University of North Carolina at Charlotte’s Student Union as Simeon Simeonides is currently an undergraduate student at High a building manager, supervising 192,000 Point University, where he is pursuing his square- foot building. He desires to continue Bachelor of Science degrees in both physics his education in chemistry, pursuing a PhD in and music, with a minor in mathematics. materials science. Simeon is an avid tuba player, performing with multiple ensembles on campus. He has worked at the Joint School of Nanoscience and Nanoengineering (JSNN) on transistor Sarah Meyer development. He is also working on is a senior at Appalachian State University developing an educational apparatus to and will graduate in May 2017 with her better explain system dynamics in different Bachelor of Science in Communication, reference frames at High Point University. Advertising, and a minor in business. Her Simeon is the primary computer aided- goal is to conduct research to understand drafting (CAD) design and 3-D printing how advertising and societies work together contact at High Point University, and works and influence one another. She also enjoys with several departments to help them with the creative aspect of advertising, including their modeling needs. After graduating in graphic design and photography. May 2017, Simeon plans to attend graduate school. Jordan Pearce is a student at East Carolina University. She is majoring in History and minoring in Pre- Hallie Stidham is currently a graduate student at Clemson Medical Health and Society. Jordan is fluent University, where she is pursuing her Master in Spanish and is a member of East Carolina’s of Science degree in mechanical engineering. Spanish Club. She is also a member of the She graduated from High Point University Lambda-Eta Chapter of the Phi Alpha Theta in May 2016 with a Bachelor of Science History Honor Society and East Carolina’s degree in both physics and mathematics. Health Occupations Students of America As an undergraduate student, Hallie had Club. Jordan plans to graduate from East the opportunity to work at the European Carolina University in May 2018 and go on Organization for Nuclear Research (CERN) to attend medical school. during the summer of 2015. She worked on computational research projects in particle physics. She also worked with Dr. Briana Fiser Francesca Quigley on methods of development for biomimetic graduated in May 2016 from Guilford College cilia arrays to be used for experimental in Greensboro, N.C. with a Bachelor’s Degree testing. During her undergraduate career, in English with an emphasis in writing. Hallie played flute and was a member of She also majored in Women’s, Gender, and several musical ensembles on campus. In Sexuality Studies and minored in Sociology. the future, Hallie plans to pursue a career in Quigley hopes to use her education to pursue industry. her dreams of authoring both fiction and nonfiction works. Along with analytical and research based writing, Quigley writes poetry. Her article in Explorations is her first published piece of analytical writing.

219 Explorations

in Computational Science program. Her Alan Vasquez Soto interests include mathematical modeling, is currently an undergraduate student at High computer programming, environmental Point University, where he is pursuing his awareness, and science journalism, and Bachelor of Science degree in physics. He she hopes to further explore these areas in has been on multiple astronomical observing college. runs with Dr. Brad Barlow in Chile using the SMARTS telescope system and the 4.1- m SOAR telescope. Alan represents both the Department of Physics and HPU as a University Ambassador, providing tours for Christine Zuelsdorf and interacting with prospective students and is a recent graduate of the University of their families. He is also training to become North Carolina at Wilmington, where she the primary CAD and 3-D printing contact received a B.S. in Biology and a B.A. for the department. After graduating in May in Chemistry. While at UNCW she was 2018, Alan plans to pursue an advanced a Student Ambassador, giving tours to degree in either aerospace engineering or perspective students and a College Mentor astrophysics. where she taught eighth grade students a drug prevention curriculum. She plans to receive a Masters in Biology followed by a Ph.D. Her interest lies within research and hopes to enter the biomedical research field in the Sarah Wu future. is a graduate of the North Carolina School of Science and Mathematics, where she was highly involved with the Research

220 About the Faculty Mentors About the Faculty Mentors

North Carolina at Chapel Hill. His research Diya Abdo, PhD interests include evolved stars, astronomical is an associate professor of English at Guilford instrumentation, pulsating stars, and binary College in Greensboro, North Carolina. Her interactions. teaching, research and scholarship focus on Arab women writers and Arab and Islamic feminisms. Her academic publications include articles in Life Writing, Frontiers: A Journal Sarah Daynes, PhD of Women Studies, Pacific Coast Philology, received her PhD in sociology from the École Image and Narrative, Women’s Studies des Hautes Études en Sciences Sociales Quarterly, Eugene O’Neill Review, The in Paris, France (2001), and is currently Journal of Lesbian Studies and anthologies Associate Professor of Sociology at the on Anglophone Arab writers and women University of North Carolina at Greensboro. writers, including the MLA’s Approaches to She is the author of Time and Memory in Teaching the Works of Assia Djebar. She has Reggae Music (University of Manchester also published poetry, fiction and creative Press) and Desire for Race (Cambridge nonfiction. Her short story The Love Hoard University Press). She has also collaborated was nominated for a Pushcart Prize, and her on a new translation of texts by Durkheimian short memoir, Bad Girl, won the Honorable sociologists in Saints, Heroes, Myths and Mention Award for Creative Nonfiction in the Rites: Classical Durkheimian Studies of Center for Women Writers 2015 International Religion and Society (Paradigm Publishers). Literary Awards. Her public essays, which have appeared in Jadaliyya, The Feminist Wire and The Electronic Intifada among Wade G. Dudley, PhD others, focus on the intersection of gender, is a Teaching Professor in East Carolina political identity, and vocation. She is the University’s Department of History, founder and director of Every Campus a specializing in Naval and North Carolina Refuge, an organization which advocates History. Dr. Dudley holds an MA in for housing refugees on campus grounds Nautical Archaeology (ECU 1997) and a and assisting them in resettlement. Guilford Ph.D. in History (University of Alabama College has hosted two Syrian families and a at Tuscaloosa 1999).He is a member of the Ugandan thus far. university’s graduate faculty and advisor to the Lambda-Eta Chapter of Phi Alpha Theta History Honor Society. Professor Dudley’s publications include eight books and several Brad N. Barlow, PhD dozen chapters, articles, and short stories. serves as an Assistant Professor of Among the books is Splintering the Wooden Astrophysics in the Department of Physics Wall: The British Blockade of the United at High Point University University. He States, 1812-1815, which received a John graduated from Mississippi State University Lyman Book Award from NASOH. with a Bachelor of Science degree in physics and later earned his Master of Science degree and Ph.D. in physics (with a concentration in astrophysics), from the University of

221 Explorations Scott Juall, PhD Ai Ning Loh, PhD serves as an associate professor of French at is an associate professor in the Department of the University of North Carolina Wilmington. Earth and Ocean Sciences at the University of He is a graduate of Michigan State University North Carolina Wilmington. She graduated and the University of Colorado at Boulder. from the University of South Carolina with He is a specialist of early modern European a BS in Chemistry, and a MS and PhD in travel narratives and imperialism as well as Marine Science from the School of Marine public art and modernist artistic movements Science/Virginia Institute of Marine Science in Paris. He has won numerous awards for at the College of William and Mary in Virginia. Her research group utilizes isotopic both his teaching and mentoring. and organic geochemical techniques to study the sources, fate and transport of carbon, nitrogen, and phosphorus in aquatic systems. Stephen Kinsey, PhD serves as a professor and graduate coordinator for the Biology and Marine Biology department at UNC Wilmington. He Thomas S. Mueller, PhD is currently serving as an Associate graduated from the Old Dominion University Professor at Appalachian State University in Norfolk, Virginia with a BS in Biological in the Department of Communication. Dr. Science and later earned a MS in Marine Mueller earned a BA in journalism from Science at the University of South Florida and the University of Wisconsin-Eau Claire, his went on to earn a PhD in Biological Science MBA from Otterbein University, and his from Florida State University in Tallahassee, PhD in advertising communication from the Florida. His research interests are in University of Florida. His academic interests comparative physiology and biochemistry, include collaboration on service learning with an emphasis on how cellular processes projects with Internet-mediated students in affect complex, whole animal phenotypic his department’s online advertising degree traits. program, and residence life as part of the faculty in residence program. Dr. Mueller is published in the areas of sport sponsorship, consumer behavior, and involvement models Thomas Lankford, PhD related to psychological perceptions. earned his BS in marine biology from the University of North Carolina Wilmington. He went on to receive MS and PhD in marine biology from the University of Delaware. He Kavita Singh Ongechi, completed a postdoctoral research fellowship PhD, MPH at Stonybrook University before returning is a faculty member in the Department of to UNCW in 2000 where he now acts as Maternal and Child Health at the University an associate professor in the department of of North Carolina’s Gillings School of Public biology and marine biology and also serves Health. She completed her PhD in Population as the Curator of Fishes. Dynamics with a minor in Epidemiology at the Johns Hopkins Bloomberg School of Hygiene and Public Health. She is also the Senior Technical Advisor for Maternal and Child Health for the MEASURE Evaluation

222 About the Faculty Mentors project. Her research interests include the interest revolves around understanding evaluation of maternal and child health and the vulnerability of different populations HIV prevention programs, and research to environmental change in the context of focused on reaching vulnerable population transboundary-managed water and natural with interventions. resources by examining the drivers, patterns and impacts of vegetation change and degradation on both ecosystems and people in different parts of the world. Jordan Poler, PhD is currently an Associate Professor of Chemistry at UNC Charlotte. He received his B.S. degrees in Chemistry and in Jacelyn Rice, PhD Physics at the State University of New York, is a postdoctoral associate at Duke Brockport with a minor in Mathematics. He University’s Center for the Environmental received his Ph.D. in Physical Chemistry Implications of Nanotechnology. Her from UNC Chapel Hill in 1992 and then doctorate was obtained at Arizona State completed an HIH Postdoctoral Fellowship University where she defended her at Princeton University while doing research dissertation entitled ‘Modeling Occurrence on Biophysics and new methods with and Assessing Public Perceptions of De Scanning Probe Microscopy. His research Facto Wastewater Reuse across the USA.’ interests are toward the fundamental studies She has worked as an assistant civil engineer of complex systems at the nanoscale with at Kimley-Horn and Associates and has held regard to applications of materials at the internships with the U.S. Environmental macroscale. The Poler Research Group Protection Agency, Pardee Homes, and is particularly interested in how large Southern Nevada Water Authority. To support supramolecular systems interact with and her graduate studies Rice was awarded ‘Mechanically wrap’ about nanoparticles three graduate fellowships supported by the like carbon nanotubes (SWCNTs, DWCNTs, National Science Foundation through ASU’s and MWCNTs), metal nanoparticles (NPs), Decision Center for a Desert City, Water and and quantum dots (QDots). Specifically, Environmental Technology Center, and GK- we are trying to elucidate energy and 12 Down to Earth Science Program. charge transfer mechanism between these systems while we work toward efficient manufacturing methods of nanomachines, nanosensors, nanotransducers, nanoparticle Brandon Sanderson, based composites, energy storage, and water purification materials. MFA is a native of Kansas, Brandon Sanderson split his formative years between rural Kansas and Colorado Springs, Colorado. He holds a Narcisa Pricope, PhD BS from Colorado State University-Pueblo is an Assistant Professor of Applied in Printmaking and Computer Information Geography at University of North Carolina Systems and an MFA In Printmaking from Wilmington and Director of the Socio- the University of South Dakota. From 2005 Environmental Analysis Lab. Her work to 2008, he taught at College of the Sequoias focuses on applied questions at the and Bakersfield College in California. Since intersection between land change science, 2008, Sanderson has been at the University watershed science, and population geography. of North Carolina-Pembroke where he Dr. Pricope’s overarching research is now an Associate Professor of Art. He

223 Explorations teaches multiple levels of drawing and all metagenomics of leaf-associated microbial levels of printmaking, including intaglio, communities. She has also collaborated lithography, and woodcut. In his time at with statisticians on the development of UNCP, Brandon has organized four national new statistical methods for QTL analysis printmaking exhibitions and brought in more and curve fitting and with modelers on than 30 visiting artists. He has also held incorporation of genetic regulatory pathways 17 printmaking workshops at universities into crop modeling, along with her ongoing in a 11 states and participated in over 40 work with computer scientists. print exchanges. He has also participated in more than 200 exhibitions, including 50 international exhibitions. Aaron Titus, PhD serves as an Associate Professor of Physics and Chair in the Department of Physics at High Point University. He received his Bachelor Ann Stapleton, PhD of Science degree from Pennsylvania State is an associate professor at the University of University and his Ph.D. in physics from North Carolina Wilmington who serves as North Carolina State University. He is quite the iPlant GWAS/QTL training expert and active in the area of physics education, with a manages iPlant scientific CI development focus on effective applications of educational by UNCW students. Her primary technology. He has served on the board accomplishment is mentoring great research of the American Association of Physics students “students who have become plant Teachers, co-developed WebAssign with Dr. breeders, surgeons, biostatisticians, high- Larry Martin, and recently co-authored the school teachers and software developers. solutions manual for the 4th edition of the Analysis method development and model textbook Matter & Interactions. system development may have more potential to influence how science progresses than specific publications, and data analysis is still slower than it should be. Thus in recent years she has devoted substantial time to helping Mark R. Wiesner, PhD create the biology cyberinfrastructure for serves as Director of the Center for data analysis”democratizing access to the Environmental Implications of computing for everyone, at both large and Nanotechnology (CEINT) headquartered small institutions, from undergraduates to at Duke University. He holds the James L. senior faculty. Not only does she nurture Meriam Chair in Civil and Environmental superb science students, she has grown Engineering with appointments in the Pratt a creative, forward-looking research School of Engineering and the Nicholas program. The person who nominated her School of Environment. His research for the Quantitative Genetics and Genomics pioneered the field of environmental Gordon Research Conference Chair position nanotechnology and focuses on applications summarized her qualifications as ‘she is a of emerging nanomaterials to membrane real thinker and she reads the literature’. science and water treatment and an Recent work in her research group includes examination of the fate, transport, and effects the use of factorial abiotic stress treatments of nanomaterials in the environment. He is a to make progress in understanding genotype- 2004 de Fermat Laureate, the 2011 recipient environment interaction regulatory of the Clarke Water Prize, a Fellow of the architecture, using maize as a model, and American Society of Civil Engineers, and a the application of ecological statistics and Fellow of the American Association for the genetics in microbial diversity surveys and Advancement of Science.

224 About the Submission Process Submission Process Who is Eligible? The primary author or authors must be undergraduates at a 2 or 4 year college or university in the state of North Carolina working on original research under the direction of a faculty mentor. Works may be co- authored. Students at North Carolina School of Science and Mathematics are also eligible.

What to Submit? We are seeking research papers, critical essays (literature/research reviews, articles written on a particular topic), or media submissions of performing/fine art endeavors. Text of papers should be no more than 6000 words. Explorations, the Journal of Undergraduate Research and Creative Activities for the State of North Carolina, provides opportunities for a variety of text and media submissions in the following categories:

Biological, Earth, and Physical Sciences Performing Arts Business and Legal Social Sciences Creative Writing and Discourse Technology and Engineering Humanities Visual Arts and Design Mathematics

How to Submit? Guidelines for publication: 1. Submit all articles (without images) in Word documents (.doc or .docx) only, and indicate where images, graphs, maps, or charts should appear. 2. Submit images, graphs, maps, and charts as separate files. For creating graphs and charts (in Excel, Illustrator, or Paint): make the image as LARGE as possible. This will ensure its visibility in the publication. In addition, also save figures as images (.jpg, see below). 3. Images need to be saved as .jpgs, preferably at high resolution (300dpi). 4. If images are not yours, please obtain permission in writing and cite the copyright owner. 5.Use grayscale (no colors) on all photos, charts, tables, and graphs as Explorations is not published in color. This is also true for visual arts submissions. 6. Submit everything in its original file. (Example: article as Word .doc, image as .jpg.) Do not convert files. Do not embed images into your article. Be sure you indicate image placement when you submit your final manuscript. 7. We ask that you have at least one faculty member other than the faculty mentor review the manuscript before you submit to Explorations. This reviewer should be well-versed in your discipline and able to provide comments to improve your paper. 8. Please attach your submission and all additional forms in an email addressed to: [email protected] .

225 Suggestions for Success 1. Make sure your name is on everything you submit. 2. Use your initials and submission title as the title of your paper and/or any other email attachments; this way everything can be easily identified. 3. Turn in your required forms with your submission. Submissions sent without all required forms will not be accepted. Detailed information at www.uncw.edu/csurf/explorations/explorations.html. 4. Once your work has been approved by your faculty mentor and reviewed by another faculty member familiar with the research area, you may submit your work yourself or your faculty mentor may submit it. If you are a single author, you will be the main contact. If you are one of multiple authors, decide who will be the main contact and have him/her submit on behalf of all. 5. Proofread, proofread, proofread.

Submission Deadline for Volume XII: June 1, 2017.

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