JAN/FEB 2000 $7.95 Retrospective The Graphics Industry: Evolution and Revolution THE 100 MOST INFLUENTIAL GRAPHICS PEOPLE OF THE LAST MILLENNIUM Retros THE GRAPHICS IN Evolution andRevolution THE STORY BEHIND THE 100 MOST INFLUENTIAL GRAPHICS PEOPLE OF THE LAST MILLENNIUM BY DAN BRILL AND RON GIDDINGS IN THE EARLY 1890S, THE Frank Munsey had a vision. By gambling on this new though struggling publisher of a unproven technology, he saw an opportunity to set MUNSEY’S MAG- small American magazine AZINE apart from every other publication on the market. desperately needed to find a In 1893, the first magazine to be illustrated entirely using pho- way to increase his revenue tomechanical reproduction hit the streets. It was an immediate suc- in order to stay in business. cess, and within only four months, advertisers were flocking to It was a period of techno- buy space and the circulation of MUNSEY’S MAGAZINE had grown logical innovation in printing from 20,000 to 200,000. By 1900, MUNSEY’S MAGAZINE had more and publishing. High speed readers than any publication in the world. rotary presses had revolu- *** tionized print productivity. A IN JULY, 1944, A PERIODICAL CALLED THE RADIO NEWS PUB- new machine for automating lished an article on a new dry reproduction method, invented by a typesetting had just been in- Queens, New York physicist. It was called “electrophotography”. troduced. And photography The issue came and went, drawing little attention, until two was now available to anyone years later, when the research head of a small photographic supply through the recently intro- house in Rochester, NY happened to run across it. John Dessauer duced Kodak camera. read about this electrophotographic process with great interest, But news had also spread and decided to share it with the company about a new technology for president, Joseph Wilson. print preparation that prom- Wilson had just succeeded his fa- From MUNSEY’S MAGAZINE, January, 1894 — ised to liberate publishers ther as president of the Haloid Com- an early example of halftone printing. Frank from the restrictions and cost pany, founded in 1906. But World Munsey gambled that this new technology would save his failing publication — and of wood engravings for illus- War II had just ended and the com- wound up setting off a publishing revolution. trations. The process was pany now found itself with an ever- called the “crossline half- shrinking share of the photo paper tone”, devised by an ex-Cornell University photographer. Accord- market. Worse yet, there was nothing ing to what publisher Frank Munsey heard, this new halftoning method would make it possible to print not just in black and white Joseph Wilson, president of the Haloid but also with a multitude of shades of grey, achieving the same Company of Rochester, NY, risked all his company’s fortunes on a photorealistic effect from a press that photographic printing had new printing technology called offered for over half a century. “electrophotography”. 24 GRAPHIC EXCHANGE pective DUSTRY Johannes Gutenberg has been named one of the most Haloid, this was literally important people of all time by historians and experts in more make it or break it. than one international poll, including a recent BIOGRAPHY television special, which picked him as the “Most Influential It would take another Person of the Millennium”, and TIME Magazine, which twelve years, and an addi- selected him “Person of the Century”. tional $12.5 million in de- However, if the invention of the printing press leads the list of events which most influenced society velopment funds, but in as a whole, it begs the question: Who would 1959 the Haloid Company follow Gutenberg on a list of individuals who most influenced the evolution of would finally introduce graphics? In this special feature, we the 914 copier, the first of- provide a digest of important fice machine based on the names and events in the history of graphics — revolutionary new process along with our choices of electrophotography for the 100 people (better known under the who we feel most influenced the name chosen by Wilson evolution of the — “xerography”). The 914 industry. copier would send com- pany net profits soaring, from $2 million in 1959 to $22.6 million in 1963. And of course in 1961, with the hugely suc- cessful launch of its new product, Haloid would change its name to “Xerox”. INSPIRATION AND ENABLEMENT The evolutionary process may be changed by fate, by nature, even by divine intervention — but when human beings are involved, change is the product of two fundamental elements: in- on the horizon to replace lost sales. Wilson knew it was time to spiration and enablement. find a new idea — or see Haloid dwindle away to nothing. Someone must have a concept, an idea they believe is so great Electrophotography research and development had been un- that, if necessary, they’re willing to risk everything they have and derway at Batelle Memorial Institute since 1944 when Batelle had whatever time it takes to see it through to its fruition. signed a royalty-sharing agreement with its inventor, Chester Carl- Often that’s not enough, and someone else must make the con- son. However all attempts to interest the corporate world in mar- cept a reality, to enable its completion — more often than not with keting the product had failed. So when Joseph Wilson and John money, sometimes through making the right connections, some- Dessauer came calling in 1946, Batelle was more than happy to of- times by providing one critical missing ingredient — a key piece of fer them an exclusive licensing agreement. information, for instance — that nudges that concept from failure For Wilson, it was a huge gamble. Haloid’s total net earnings in to success, from rejection to acceptance. 1946 would total only $101,000 on sales of $6.5 million. For Evolutionary change happens in increments. Occasionally, GRAPHIC EXCHANGE 25 DAN BRICKLIN 20TH C AMERICAN SOFTWARE DEVELOPER Dan Bricklin created VisiCalc, the world’s first desk- top spreadsheet software. Released in 1979 for the Apple II, it created hundreds of millions of dollars in revenue for both VisiCorp and Apple. But Brick- however, an invention or discovery is of such magnitude that it lin never patented his application and failed to reap warrants the description “revolutionary”. But, just as Johannes the full financial rewards which came with its suc- 100 Gutenberg could never have predicted how the printing press cess — ironic, considering that he was a Harvard MBA. In 1984 VisiCalc demonstrated its VisiOn op- would alter the fabric of society the way it did, so it is that inven- erating system, the first GUI OS for PC, driving tors or agents of change rarely foresee the revolutionary effect that Gates into full scale development on Windows. their contribution will have. Frank Munsey fought for success as a magazine publisher until he conceived the idea of harnessing halftone technology to pro- BENJAMIN FRANKLIN duce a publication that revolutionized the publishing industry. 18TH C AMERICAN PRINTER/STATESMAN Joseph Wilson rescued his failing photo supply business by gam- Statesman, philosopher, scientist, inventor — but before any of these, Benjamin Franklin was a bling on an unknown process called electrophotography to launch printer and publisher, apprenticed in graphic arts the Xerox copier. The graphics industry overflows with stories like from the age of 12. As the innovative publisher of these, not all of them as spectacular as Munsey’s or Wilson’s, but the Pennsylvania Gazette and “Poor Richard’s Al- every one compelling nonetheless. 99 manack” (starting in 1728) prior to his ground- breaking experiments with electricity and leader- ship role in shaping the American Declaration of THE ARCHITECTURE OF MODERN GRAPHICS Independence, Franklin is also credited with pub- There was a time when all of us in graphics lived in our own lishing the first political cartoon (“Join or Die”). insulated vertical worlds. Printing, publishing, art, photography, design, science — each stood apart, each separate. JULIA MARGARET CAMERON Digital technologies changed the machinery of each of these 19TH C BRITISH PHOTOGRAPHER businesses; then the desktop revolution changed the business Unquestionably a pioneer in her field, Julia model itself. Margaret Cameron took up photography late in life When we discuss the graphics industry in these pages, it is with as a hobby; by the time she died in 1879 she had the underlying understanding that all these fields are now joined established herself as one of the most respected together under one single banner. Where once graphic arts — the portrait photographers of her day, capturing 98 timeless studies of many well-known commercial printing industry — was separated from graphic com- contemporaries such as John Herschel, Henry munications — commercial art, design, photography and publish- Taylor, Holman Hunt, Alfred Tennyson and Victor ing — now it is part of one unified business model that also in- Hugo. She was also one of the first to experiment cludes the rising star of the Internet. (Did you know that, accord- with soft focuses and dramatic portraiture. ing to a recent TrendWatch survey in the U.S., the number one investment by graphic arts companies is in Macintosh computers?) “GRAPHICS” AND THE MEASURE OF INFLUENCE Sifting through hundreds of years worth of background infor- WILLIAM BULLOCK mation on printing, publishing, art, design, photography and com- 19TH C AMERICAN INVENTOR puting to come up with a comprehensive and creditable list of the The invention by William Bullock of Philadelphia in 1863 of the web-fed rotary printing press, a top 100 most influential graphics people is a daunting task. 97 machine which could print from paper in rolls We pored over a myriad of histories, biographies and industry rather than sheets and capable of producing an resources, scouring for names and achievements we might have astonishing 10,000 impressions per hour with only overlooked.