The Archaeology of Asia-Pacific Navigation 2

Chunming Wu Roberto Junco Sanchez Miao Liu Editors Archaeology of Galleon Seaports and Early Maritime Globalization The Archaeology of Asia-Pacific Navigation

Volume 2

Series Editor Chunming Wu, The Center for Maritime Archaeology, University, Xiamen, , China This series will publish the most important, current archaeological research on ancient navigation and sea routes in the Asia-Pacific region, which were key, dynamic factors in the development of human civilizations spanning the last several thousand years. Restoring an international and multidisciplinary academic dialogue through cross cultural perspectives, these publications underscore the significance of diverse lines of evidence, including sea routes, ship cargo, shipwreck, seaports landscape, maritime heritage, nautical technology and the role of indigenous peoples. They explore a broad range of outstanding work to highlight various aspects of the historical Four Oceans sailing routes in Asia-Pacific navigation, as well as their prehistoric antecedents, offering a challenging but highly distinctive contribution to a better understanding of global maritime history. The series is intended for scholars and students in the fields of archaeology, history, anthropology, ethnology, economics, sociology, and political science, as well as nautical technicians and oceanic scientists who are interested in the prehistoric and historical seascape and marine livelihood, navigation and nautical techniques, the maritime silk road and overseas trade, maritime cultural dissemination and oceanic immigration in eastern and southeastern Asia and the Pacific region. The Archaeology of Asia-Pacific Navigation book series is published in conjunction with Springer under the auspices of the Center for Maritime Archaeology of Xiamen University (CMAXMU) in China. The first series editor is Dr. Chunming Wu, who is a chief researcher and was a Professor at the institute. The advisory and editorial committee consists of more than 20 distinguished scholars and leaders in the field of maritime archaeology of the Asia-Pacific region.

Advisory and Editorial Committee

Advisory Board: Wenming Yan 严文明, Peking University, P.R. China Qingzhu Liu 刘庆柱, Chinese Academy of Social Sciences, P.R. China Jeremy Green, Western Australia Museum, Australia Charles Higham, University of Otago, Dunedin, New Zealand Lothar von Falkenhausen, University of California at Los Angeles, USA Robert E. Murowchick, Boston University, USA James P. Delgado, SEARCH - SEARCH2O INC., USA Barry V. Rolett, University of Hawaii at Manoa, USA Hans K. Van Tilburg, NOAA Office of National Marine Sanctuaries, USA John Miksic, National University of Singapore, Singapore Chenhua Tsang 臧振华, Academia Sinica of Taiwan, China

Editorial Board: Laura Lee Junker, University of Illinois at Chicago, USA Ming Li 李旻, University of California at Los Angeles, USA Roberto Junco Sanchez, National Institute of Anthropology and History, Mexico María Cruz Berrocal, University of Konstanz, Germany Eusebio Z. Dizon, National Museum of the Philippines, Philippines Takenori Nogami, Nagasaki University, Japan Chung Tang 邓聪, The Chinese University of Hong Kong, P.R. China Bo Jiang 姜波, National Center of Underwater Cultural Heritage, P.R. China Chunming Wu 吴春明, Xiamen University, P.R. China

Editorial in Chief: Chunming Wu 吴春明, Xiamen University, P.R. China

More information about this series at http://www.springer.com/series/16203 Chunming Wu • Roberto Junco Sanchez • Miao Liu Editors

Archaeology of Manila Galleon Seaports and Early Maritime Globalization

123 Editors Chunming Wu Roberto Junco Sanchez The Center for Maritime Archaeology SAS-INAH Xiamen University Instituto Nacional de Antropologíae Xiamen, China Historia Mexico City, Mexico Miao Liu Department of History Xiamen University Xiamen, China

ISSN 2524-7468 ISSN 2524-7476 (electronic) The Archaeology of Asia-Pacific Navigation ISBN 978-981-32-9247-5 ISBN 978-981-32-9248-2 (eBook) https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-32-9248-2

© Springer Nature Singapore Pte Ltd. 2019 This work is subject to copyright. All rights are reserved by the Publisher, whether the whole or part of the material is concerned, specifically the rights of translation, reprinting, reuse of illustrations, recitation, broadcasting, reproduction on microfilms or in any other physical way, and transmission or information storage and retrieval, electronic adaptation, computer software, or by similar or dissimilar methodology now known or hereafter developed. The use of general descriptive names, registered names, trademarks, service marks, etc. in this publication does not imply, even in the absence of a specific statement, that such names are exempt from the relevant protective laws and regulations and therefore free for general use. The publisher, the authors and the editors are safe to assume that the advice and information in this book are believed to be true and accurate at the date of publication. Neither the publisher nor the authors or the editors give a warranty, expressed or implied, with respect to the material contained herein or for any errors or omissions that may have been made. The publisher remains neutral with regard to jurisdictional claims in published maps and institutional affiliations.

This Springer imprint is published by the registered company Springer Nature Singapore Pte Ltd. The registered company address is: 152 Beach Road, #21-01/04 Gateway East, Singapore 189721, Singapore Silver coin of New Spain struck in Mexico City Mint during 1634–1665, which was discovered from southern coast of Fujian. Artifact collection of Fujian Provincial Museum Introduction

During the sixteenth to nineteenth centuries, the Spanish navigators established and operated the Manila Galleon maritime route which connected East Asia and New Spain in the American continent. The galleons sailed across the Pacific via the hub seaports and trade centers of Manila in the Philippines and Acapulco in Mexico, forming a prosperous sea route for more than 250 years. This pioneering navigation of pan-Pacific regions promoted early global maritime trade as a new maritime Silk Road between the East and the West. The Manila galleon navigation is an important academic theme which had been investigated and researched by multiple disciplines such as archaeology, history, anthropology, maritime navigation, and oceanology in last half century. Both seaport sites and shipwrecks underwater of galleon affiliated are crucial important cultural heritage contributing to archaeological reconstruction of the Spanish Pacific trade history. An international academic workshop of “Early Navigation in the Asia-Pacific Region” was carried out at Harvard University in summer of 2013, focusing on the shipwreck archaeological heritage of galleon remains and estab- lishing an interaction platform promoting the understanding of maritime history of early globalization (Wu, C. editor, Early Navigation in the Asia-Pacific Region: A Maritime Archaeological Perspective, Springer Press, 2016). A further dialogue on the galleon trade history and maritime cultural interaction between the East Asia and New Spain, “The International Academic Workshop on Archaeology of the Manila Galleon Seaports and the History of Early Maritime Globalization” was organized by the Center for Maritime Archaeology of Xiamen University, China, on July 21–23, 2017, which mainly focused on the seaport archaeological heritage of the galleon affiliated navigation. The archaeologists and maritime cultural historians from America, Mexico, Japan, Philippines, Mainland China, Hong Kong, and Taiwan met together again and shared their new achievements and knowledge of the investigations and researches on the galleon seaport archaeology. A series of presentations respectively on different galleon trade affiliated seaports including Acapulco and San Blas in Mexico, Humåtak at Guam, Manila in Philippines, Yuegang (Crescent Harbor), Xiamen (Amoy), Macao, Keelung in China, and Nagasaki in Japan opened a new window for the

vii viii Introduction sighting and understanding of the social and cultural contents of this new maritime Silk Road of pan-Pacific region in last 500 years.

The main topics of this meeting covered the new archaeological discoveries of galleon affiliated seaport and harbor heritages, galleon shipwreck remains, the history of navigation and maritime trade among galleon affiliated harbors, the Introduction ix origin, producing, transporting and trading of the galleon cargoes, etc. All of these works collaborated on a new perspective of maritime archaeology and tracked the different paragraphs of the galleon trade and affiliated maritime history, respec- tively, summarized as the “Yuegang Outbound”, “Manila Entreportting”, and “Bound for Acapulco”, preliminarily reconstructing a panoramagram of the history of Spanish pan-Pacific trade and early maritime globalization. Part I: Yuegang Outbound: The Archaeology of Yuegang as the Key Transit Terminal for Manila Galleons Yuegang is located at the lower reach and estuary of Jiulongjiang (九龙江) as the biggest river of southern Fujian. Yuegang had been the flourishing trade seaport of Ming (明) Dynasty and the main transiting terminals for Manila galleons interacting with mainland of East Asia. The investigations and excavations of Yuegang seaport heritage, export ceramics kiln sites along the Jiulongjiang basin, junk shipwreck sites along the coast of Southeast China, and the analyses and discussions on the Yuegang maritime history related to the Manila and galleon trade were presented in this panel.

Chunming Wu

Chunming Wu systematically reviewed the development of Yuegang seaport and the archaeological discovery of cultural heritages. His paper Bound for America: A Historical and Archaeological Investigation in Yuegang Seaport as the Main Origin of Galleon Cargo presented the historical documents to show the rising, changing, and decline of Yuegang seaport as the main transferring terminals of galleon cargoes in Southeast China, and the archaeological remains as old harbor architectures, exotic artifacts with multicultural types, and kiln sites of Yuegang exported ceramic, showing the flourishing navigation of Yuegang outbound for Manila and its maritime trade history. x Introduction

Miao Liu

Miao Liu focused on the development of export ceramics and kiln sites affiliated to seaport maritime trade in her paper The Cultural Change of the Kilns and the Content of Export Ceramics on the Perspective of Development of Zhangzhou Seaports during the Ming and Qing Dynasties. She chronologically divided the changing of the Zhangzhou bay seaports and types of exported ceramics into successive five stages, which are the early stage of private trade of celadon of southern Fujian kilns and blue and white of kilns along the coast bay of Zhangzhou in mid , the flourishing trade of Zhengzhou kiln products at Yuegang seaport in the mid and late Ming Dynasty, the exportation of Jingdezhen porcelains by Anhai and Xiamen seaports during the late Ming Dynasty, the ceramics from mountainous areas in southern Fujian traded by the overseas trade group at Xiamen and Anhai seaports in the late Ming and early Qing dynasties, and the last stage trade of ceramics of Anxi and Dehua kilns by Xiamen seaport in . This historical division provided a clear understanding of changing and diversity of export ceramics of Southeast China during the period of galleon trade. Nan’ao No. I shipwreck in east coast of Guangdong is one of most important shipwrecks discovered along the coast of Southeast China, which was identified as the Chinese junk bound for Manila trade during late Ming and Qing dynasties. The Investigation and Preliminary Analysis of Nan’ao No. I Shipwreck in Guangdong presented by Chunshui Zhou made a comprehensive description of the archaeo- logical discovery of this shipwreck, including plan of the wreck remain and wooden hull structure, the content of cargoes of ceramics, bronze coins, copper ingots, stone, wooden, lacquer and bone artifacts, and a series of organic food and fruit remains. Further discussions on the characteristic of hull structure of the junk, the entreportting of porcelains from Jingdezhen to Yuegang, and the reconstruction of the sea route were also presented. Being one of the most important transiting terminals trading center for galleon cargoes in mainland East Asia, Yuegang had not only been the exporting seaport transferring Chinese cargoes for Manila and all over the world, but also the most Introduction xi important entrance for the variant oversea exotic cultures introduced into China by galleons and junks. A Historical Review on the Social-Cultural Impact of Yuegang-Manila Navigation on the Ancient Chinese Civilization by Chunming Wu provided the cases of maritime cultural interaction between the East and the West. He listed a series of the historical documents and archaeological evidences to show the maritime cultural gifts which the ancient China had received from Manila galleon trade, such as the domesticated grains (sweet potato, maize, tomato, tobacco, etc.), silver materials, silver coins from New Spain and firearms from Europe, and types of west architecture, revealing the maritime cultural contributions of Europe and America to ancient China via galleons and Yuegang. Part II: Manila Entreportting: Discovery of Galleon Trade Heritage at Manila, Macao, Keelung and Nagasaki As the premier entreport of Spanish galleon trade in East Asia, Manila had been one of the most important seaports like Malacca, Batavia, Macao, and Canton of East Asia where economically and culturally connected with Europe and America since the middle sixteenth to the early nineteenth century. Besides Manila and Yuegang, a few of other seaports such as Macao in East Asia had also acted as essential transferring hubs for import and export of the galleon cargoes. A few of papers focused on Manila and these affiliated seaports presented plentiful archaeological data revealing the complicated trading history of galleon cargoes linking the East and the West.

Chunshui Zhou

As the top wanted international commodity, Chinese ceramics had been the main cargoes for Europeans including Portuguese, Dutch, and Spanish. The diversity of types, designs, and quality of the Chinese ceramics resulting from these different European markets was an important topic of export ceramic study. According to ceramics discovered from shipwreck and land sites along the galleon routes, Guanyu Wang presented An Analysis on the Chinese Porcelain in the Manila xii Introduction

Galleon Trades and generally classified the changing of the ceramics of galleon cargoes and their interactions with other European cargo ceramics. Three stages of galleon ceramics were revealed in her study, of which the early stage of Spanish trade had collected any kind of Chinese porcelains which mainly included the blue and white Jingdezhen wares in the middle sixteenth century, the second stage had involved in the trade of Fujian local Zhangzhou porcelain wares with similar pat- terns and shapes but different quality as Jingdezhen in late sixteenth to early sev- enteenth century, the third stage of galleon trade shipped diverse ceramics resulting from the changing Jingdezhen and Zhangzhou wares adjusted to satisfy the wider world market after the arrival of Dutch and other Europeans since the middle seventeenth century. She emphasized that the three stages of the interaction of trade had assimilated the ceramics cargos of the Spanish, Portuguese, and Dutch for their sharing the Chinese export porcelain wares produced for the world market.

Guanyu Wang

Nida T. Cuevas Introduction xiii

The intensification of the Manila galleons had brought a great amount of Chinese ceramics to the Philippines, which were uncovered in both the ship- wreck galleons and a series of land sites. Fujian and Japanese Ware: A 17th Century Evidence of the Manila Galleon Trade Found from Selected Archaeological Sites in the Philippines by Nida T. Cuevas located the distri- bution of Fujian and Hizen wares in the Philippines, focusing on the land-based sites within Intramuros and outside the walls or “extramuros” in Mehan and Arroceros in Manila, Porta Vaga in Cavite City, and Boljoon in southern Cebu. The study showed us contextual difference of ceramic wares found in different sites, discussing the significance of Fujian and Hizen ceramics in the Manila galleon maritime exchange.

Sheldon Clyde B. Jago-on

Archaeological Researches on the Manila Galleon Wrecks in the Philippines co-authored by Sheldon Clyde B. Jago-on and Bobby C. Orillaneda presented a general introduction and overview of the hitherto underwater archaeological investigations of galleon shipwrecks in Philippines waters, from the waters off Catanduanes Island to the Embocadero (San Bernardino Strait in Northern Samar) and to Cavite and vice versa. Most of the sites had been explored extensively using state-of-the-art underwater surveying equipment, including Espiritu Santo (1576) and San Geronimo (1601), The San Diego (1600), Nuestra SeñoradelaVida(1620), The Encarnacion (1649), The San Jose (1694), Santo Cristo de Burgos (1726),andSan Andres (1798), of which only San Diego and NuestraSenoradeLaVidawere so far been discovered, posi- tively identified and studied. xiv Introduction

Tai-kang Lu

Taiwan and Macao had been two vital transit seaports for the international trade during early maritime globalization of the seventeenth century. The Kraak Porcelains Discovered from Taiwan and Macao, and Their Relationship with the Manila Galleon Trade by Tai-kang Lu described the archaeological discovery of the Chinese Kraak porcelains from Taiwan and Macao, and Japanese Kraak-style Hizen wares from Taiwan, which had been traded by the Spanish, Dutch, and Portuguese. The presentation revealed the phenomenon of multiceramic transit trade of Chinese and Japanese ceramics in the international maritime trade.

Etsuko Miyata

As one of the important seaport of East Asia, Nagasaki had also traded with Manila galleons from 1570 to 1639, resulting some interesting aspects such as migration, ceramics, and art influence to New Spain via Manila. Etsuko Miyata’s paper Ceramics from Nagasaki: A Link to Manila Galleon Trade introduced archaeological materials of traded porcelains from Nagasaki, analyzing the types and quantities, and compared the recovered pieces from Mexico of the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries. This research proved connection of Nagasaki with the Pacific galleon trade, majorly via the Chinese merchants who directly connected Nagasaki, Manila, and Fujian. Introduction xv

Jun Kimura

Historical documents recorded that the Acapulco-bound galleon San Francisco had sunk in 1609 near modern Onjuku town, Chiba Prefecture of Japan. Jun Kimura reported the Searching for the San Francisco (1609), a Manila Galleon Sunk off the Japanese Coast with the information of the ongoing maritime archaeological project on this wreck searching since 2016, leaving us the hope and potentiality for further discovery in coming future. Part III: Bound for Acapulco: The Archaeology of the Pacific and America as the Galleon Navigation Record As the east destination of galleon navigation, the New Spain colonization in con- temporary Latin America had received a great amount of cultural feedbacks from East Asia. Archaeologists investigated and excavated not only the underwater shipwrecks of galleon along the west coast of America, but also a series of land sites at Acapulco, San Blas, Rio Chiquito, and Panama seaports and many inland sites of central American regions, revealing numeral maritime trade heritages from East Asia, mainly including Chinese porcelains.

Joseph Quinata xvi Introduction

At the intermediate range of Manila–Acapulco navigation, Guam had been an important provisioning station for galleons, leaving us a series of interesting his- torical and cultural heritages at Humåtak Bay seaport. Joseph Quinata’s Development of Humåtak Village: The Life Line of the Manila-Acapulco Galleon Trade shares with us a lot of materials of the galleon affiliated sites at Guam and discussed the cultural exchanges after the Spanish colonized.

Edward Von der Porter The senior maritime archaeologists of California Edward Von der Porter reported Clues to Internationalism in the Manila Galleon Wreck of the late 1570s in Baja California shared us the new achievement of the investigations along the western shore of the Baja California peninsula since 1999. The arti- facts collected from the site were dated totheearlyperiodofthegalleontrade and was supposed to be the remains of the San Juanillo of 1578. Further identification on the artifacts reveals diverse sources of cargo artifacts and provides us rich clues for understanding the internationalism of galleon trade which included the Spanish and European sheets of lead, Spanish colonial coins, fragment pottery of Iberian, wax of Manila galleon cargos from Indonesia produced in the Philippines, stoneware Martaban jars from China or Southeast Asia, Chinese porcelains including early Zhangzhou and Jingdezhen wares, Chinese enameled boxes, bronze mirrors, brass locks, plates, bronze coins, and Southeast-Asian matchlock firearm, giving us a remarkable view of worldwide commercial ties of the galleon trade in 1570s. Introduction xvii

Patricia Fournier

Archaeological Distribution of Chinese Porcelain in Mexico co-authored by Patricia Fournier and Roberto Junco Sanchez comprehensively deals with the distribution of Chinese porcelains archaeologically recovered from several Mexican sites located both in the urban and rural settings, mostly from the Mexico City and Acapulco seaport. More than 5000 shards of Asian ceramics had been studied, showing the types of ceramics cargo galleon to New Spain throughout the colonial period. The authors overviewed the archaeological evidence attesting the content, date, and spatial distribution of Chinese export porcelains transported to New Spain from the late 1500s to the early 1800s, reflecting the commerce and consumption of Asian ceramics as “fragments of globalization”.

Roberto Junco Sanchez

The San Blas in Nayarit of Mexico located at the Pacific coast of Mexico had not only been an active and important seaport as a stop for the galleon navigation from Manila to Acapulco, but also been an official Maritime Department of New Spain xviii Introduction during eighteenth century. Roberto Junco Sanchez, Guadalupe Pinzón, and Etsuko Miyata co-authored The Chinese Porcelain from the Port of San Blas, Mexico reported the latest discovery of the archaeological program on the San Blas seaport in 2016 and 2017. The authors analyzed the Chinese porcelain shards collected from the site including both mostly the Jingdezhen wares, and a few of Zhangzhou wares and Dehua wares. Most of these porcelains were dated from 1740 to 1780s perfectly fitting with the duration of the Maritime Department. Typologically, these ceramics covered both the traditional Chinese types as blue and white with “willow pattern” and red painting over glaze “Guanzai”, and some westernized types of ceramics as Western motifs painting pattern on the wares. Anyway, these materials added the new and important information to understand the transpacific commercial history of galleon trade.

Karime Castillo

After arriving in New Spain by the galleon trade, the Chinese ceramics had passed from Acapulco to Veracruz through the New Spain, not only providing the elite with luxury goods, but also being the most important sources of inspiration influenced the local majolica potters of New Spain. A Study of the Chinese Influence on Mexican Ceramics by Karime Castillo and Patricia Fournier presented an interesting and enlightening comparing research on the ceramics cross-cultural exchange between Mexican and Chinese. This study focuses on the influence of Chinese porcelain in colonial Mexican majolica with a particular emphasis on ornament understood as a term that articulates both surface and decorative motifs. The paper reveals that the Chinese ornament was adopted and adapted by colonial potters into a style of their own, reflecting the insertion of majolica in which some of these Chinese elements had been abstracted to be part of the traditional Mexican majolica in the global networks of maritime cultural exchange. In brief, our international workshop on the archaeological investigations and researches of galleon affiliated seaports made a multiparagraph reconstruction of Spanish galleon transpacific navigation. Along this pan-Pacific sea route, Yuegang, Introduction xix

Macao, Keelung, and Nagasaki as the transiting seaports of galleon trade, Manila as the general entreportting hub of galleon connecting the East and the West, Hamatak, San Blas and Acapulco as the midpoint stops and destinations of galleon, exposed rich and diversified maritime cultural heritages, presenting a macro panoramas of the Manila galleon trade well known as the New Maritime Silk Road across the Pacific during the sixteenth to nineteenth century. This co-authored monograph not only revealed the magnificent galleon navigation across Pacific, but also showed the exciting pictures of multicultural interactions between two sides of Pacific resulted from the maritime globalization. We are grateful to all of the participants and contributors who come from both sides of the Pacific, working together and presenting these wonderful papers with deep insights, promoting further understanding on the early pan-Pacific navigation. We dearly cherish the memory of our old friend and colleague and the senior galleon archaeologist, Edward Von der Porten who worked with us closely in last few years for promoting the research of galleon history, but unfortunately passed away before the publication of this co-authored work. Heartfelt thanks to Mr. Jianzhong Song, Deputy Director of National Center of Underwater Cultural Heritage of China; Mr. Qisheng Fu, Director of Fujian Provincial Bureau of Cultural Heritage; Mr. Kan Zhang, Director of History Department in Xiamen University, who supported our meeting and presented their highbrow comments after our discussions. We own our debt to the Center for Maritime Archaeology of Xiamen University, which provided financial support and organized the meeting, and Springer Nature which undertakes the publication of this proceeding.

Jianzhong Song xx Introduction

Qisheng Fu

Kan Zhang

December 2018 Chunming Wu Roberto Junco Sanchez Miao Liu Photographer Yuzhen Huang Contents

Part I Yuegang Outbound: The Archaeology of Yuegang as the Key Transit Terminal for Manila Galleon 1 Bound for America: A Historical and Archaeological Investigation in Yuegang (Crescent) Seaport as the Main Origin of Galleon Cargo ...... 3 Chunming Wu 2 The Cultural Change of Kilns and Contents of Export Ceramics on the Perspective of Development of Zhangzhou Seaports During Ming and Qing Dynasties ...... 29 Miao Liu 3 The Investigation and Preliminary Analysis of Nan’ao No. I Shipwreck in Guangdong ...... 49 Chunshui Zhou 4 A Historical Review on the Social-Cultural Impact of Yuegang-Manila Navigation on the Ancient Chinese Civilization ...... 67 Chunming Wu

Part II Manila Entreportting: Discovery of Galleon Trade Heritage at Manila, Macao, Keelung and Nagasaki 5 Chinese Porcelain in the Manila Galleon Trade ...... 93 Guanyu Wang 6 Fujian and Hizen Ware: A 17th Century Evidence of the Manila Galleon Trade Found from Selected Archaeological Sites in the Philippines ...... 115 Nida T. Cuevas

xxi xxii Contents

7 Archaeological Researches on the Manila Galleon Wrecks in the Philippines ...... 129 Sheldon Clyde B. Jago-on and Bobby C. Orillaneda 8 The Kraak Porcelains Discovered from Taiwan and Macao, and Their Relationship with the Manila Galleon Trade ...... 147 Tai-Kang Lu 9 Ceramics from Nagasaki: A Link to Manila Galleon Trade ...... 161 Etsuko Miyata 10 Searching for the San Francisco (1609), a Manila Galleon Sunk off the Japanese Coast ...... 173 Jun Kimura

Part III Bound for Acapulco: The Archaeology of the Pacific and America as the Galleon Navigation Record 11 The Development of Humåtak Village: The Life-Line of the Acapulco-Manila Galleon Trade ...... 187 Joe Quinata 12 Clues to Internationalism in the Manila Galleon Wreck of the Late 1570s in Baja California ...... 191 Edward Von der Porten 13 Archaeological Distribution of Chinese Porcelain in Mexico ...... 215 Patricia Fournier and Roberto Junco Sanchez 14 The Chinese Porcelain from the Port of San Blas, Mexico ...... 239 Roberto Junco Sanchez, Guadalupe Pinzón and Etsuko Miyata 15 A Study of the Chinese Influence on Mexican Ceramics ...... 253 Karime Castillo and Patricia Fournier Chapter 8 The Kraak Porcelains Discovered from Taiwan and Macao, and Their Relationship with the Manila Galleon Trade

Tai-Kang Lu

Taiwan and Macao played the vital roles of the international maritime transit trade in the cultural and economic interchange between the east and west in the seven- teenth century. The Chinese Kraak porcelains exported from Taiwan and Macao in the first half of the seventeenth century were transshipped to other regions of the world in a large number by the Dutch, Spaniard and Portuguese. The Japanese Kraak style porcelains transshipped from Taiwan, not only were sold to Southeast Asia, but also exported to Manila and then re-shipped to America by Spanish galleons. The phenomenon of multi ceramic transit trade reveals the importance of Chinese and Japanese ceramics in the international maritime trade in the seventeenth century, and also shows the prosperous material cultural exchanges between Asia and other places of the world in that period.

8.1 Introduction

The island of Taiwan, also called Formosa or Hermosa, situated in the southeast offshore of the Asia continent. Taiwan (Formosa), close to Japan and Okinawa in the north, near Philippines in the south, divided by Bashi channel at a distance of 350 km, approach to Fujian province of mainland China in the west, separated by for 200 km and facing the Pacific Ocean in the east, is a pivotal point around maritime trade of East Asia (Fig. 8.1). After late of fifteenth century, Europeans found their ways to the East by maritime adventures at large-scale, and the Portuguese, Spanish and Dutch sequentially set colonies and trade posts around Asia. First, the Portuguese occupied Goa in

T.-K. Lu (&) Department of Art History, Tainan National University of the Arts, Taiwan, China e-mail: [email protected]

© Springer Nature Singapore Pte Ltd. 2019 147 C. Wu et al. (eds.), Archaeology of Manila Galleon Seaports and Early Maritime Globalization, The Archaeology of Asia-Pacific Navigation 2, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-32-9248-2_8 148 T.-K. Lu

Fig. 8.1 Location of Taiwan, Macao and mainland China

India and Malacca in South-East Asia in early of sixteenth century. Half century later, the Portuguese built an extended trade post, Macao, where is close to China, a small peninsula at pearl river delta, Guangdong province. Spain found another way toward east by maritime exploration activities from the other side. She discovered American continent and navigated into the uncharted waters, and crossed Pacific Ocean in early sixteenth century. The Spaniard finally, conquered the Philippine Islands and built Manila city as her base in the Far East for purchasing Chinese merchandises in 1571. Most of the Chinese cargoes were shipped by Chinese junks from Chin-chou (Zhangzhou, 漳州), south of Fujian province, China. The Dutch made a start of her exploration into the Far East in the end of the sixteenth century. After the United Dutch East India Company (V.O.C.) was set up in 1602, the Dutch began her ambitious trade activities around Asia. Although, in 1619, the Dutch set her headquarter at Batavia, Indonesia, they still needed to wait for Chinese cargoes which sent by Chinese merchants sailing for a long distance to 8 The Kraak Porcelains Discovered from Taiwan … 149

Southeast Asia. For resolving this problem, The Dutch anxiously tried to find a trade station where was close to Chinese coast. Taiwan (Formosa), for this reason, became the best choice based on their requirement. In 1622, Dutch conquered the Pen-hu archipelago (Pescadores, 澎湖) in south of Taiwan Strait. But two years later, Chinese Ming government’s military troops besieged the Dutch fort in Pen-hu Island because they thought these foreigners would threaten the safety of their coast. The Dutch were forced to evacuate from Pen-hu to Taiwan, the farther east and larger island (Lu 2001: 116–134). After 1624, the Dutch built several large scale forts in Southern Taiwan, where gradually became one of the profitable Dutch colonies in Asia for almost 40 years. On the other hand, the Spaniard conquered northern part of Taiwan from 1626 to 1642, and continually opposed to the Dutch who lived in Southern Taiwan.

8.2 The Ceramic Transit Trade of the Dutch V.O.C. in Southern Taiwan

During the V.O.C. occupation of the Pen-hu archipelago between 1622 and 1624, the Dutch constructed a fort in southern tip of the island. After 1624, the Dutch constructed fort Zeelandia and fort Provintia (安平古堡與赤崁樓) at Tainan in southern Taiwan. Since then Taiwan became an important port for transshipment in maritime trade network of V.O.C., and products of all kinds from China, Japan, Southeast Asia and Taiwan itself, were shipped by the Dutchmen selling to other places of the world. Among the commodities traded by the Dutch, Chinese ceramics were one of the lucrative goods. According to the statistics from the Dutch records, at least more than 4.6 million Chinese ceramic wares were transited from Taiwan between 1626 and 1654. The quantities were astonishing and the markets included European, Western Asia, India and Southeast Asia (Lu 2006:89–132; 2014:1–25), On the other hand, the Dutch also made various wooden samples while gave orders in Chinese ceramics. Thus, the decorations and shapes of their ceramic goods would be more suitable for the particular taste of the customers from other places of the world (Ibid: 102). For example, on October 23rd the Governor of Formosa (Taiwan) wrote to the chamber of Amsterdam:

The (Chinese) merchants have promised him with the greatest emphasis to give a better price for it, to bring with the next monsoon a good, fine assortment and that with this aim in view has given them large dishes, large bowls, flasks, coolers, large pots, dinner dishes, beakers, salt-cellars, cups, mustard-pots and water-pots, and also flat dinner plates with broad rims and moreover wash-basins with their ewers, all made of wood, mostly turned, and painted with all kinds of Chinese figures which they have declared to be able to copy and have promised to bring next monsoon. (Volker 1971: 37) Kraak Porcelain, a kind of typical Chinese export wares, was made from late sixteenth century to middle seventeenth century. The Kraak porcelains which were found in Pen-hu archipelago and Taiwan, mostly were discovered in the vicinity of 150 T.-K. Lu the Dutch forts, and were the dominant wares that were re-export by the Dutch from Taiwan. There were two sources of these Chinese blue-and-white porcelains. One was from Chin-te-chen (景德镇) Kiln, Kiang-xi province, the other were the products from Fujian Province, which were also called provincial wares. The Kraak porcelains made by Chin-te-chen Kiln could be recognized as “fine porcelain” which usually can be seen on the Dutch records. Most of the blue-and-white Kraak porcelains found in Taiwan (including Pen-hu archipelago) are shaped to dishes, plates, and few other vases. There are four types of plates in below. • Type I plate: The central medallion of the plate is decorated with deer among rock and trees; about 20 cm in dimension. According the scheme of decoration of the rim and cavetto, there are two subtypes as follows. • Type I A plate: ducks among water-plants on the flat rim; no decoration on the cavetto (Fig. 8.2-1). Same wares could be seen from the ceramics found in Drake Bay, California, east coast of Northern America, which could be traced to two historic events of the late sixteenth century. One is Francis Drake’s landed Golden Hind in Drake Bay and traded his porcelain cargoes with native American in 1595. The other is in 1595, the Spanish galleon San Agustin sank around the waters of same region (Shangraw et al. 1981). Furthermore, Similar plates with deer motif are also among the archaeological relics found at National Palace, Zocalo area, the historical center of Mexico City (Kuwayama 1997: 53). • Type I B plate: The rim and cavetto is decorated with large panels with flowers separated by narrow panels with beaded pendants (Fig. 8.2-2). Above mentioned motifs are drawn in single line. Same wares could be found in many shipwreck sites where were dated in first half of the seventeenth century, such as Spanish galleon Santa Margrita (1601) in Maliyana Islands, (Harbeston 2003: 12) Dutch V.O.C. cargo Witte Leeuw (1613) at St. Helena Island in Atlantic Ocean (van der Pijl-Ketel 1982:81–82), Wanli shipwreck (middle of the 1620’s) at the east coast state of Terengganu in Peninsular of Malaysia (Sjostrand and Syed Idrus 2007: 208–213), and Hatcher shipwreck (1643) in Southern China Sea (Sheaf and Kilburn 1988: pl. 47). Usually, the typeIA plate could be traced from the third quarter of the sixteenth century to early seventeenth century (Rinaldi 1989:78–79; Krahl 1986: 694). However, according to the archaeological materials, typeIA and B plates were exported to overseas markets at the same time in early seventeenth century, for example, the Spanish galleon San Diego (1600) found in Luzon, Philippine Islands (Desroches and Giordan 1996: 314–355). Furthermore, both IA and IB type Kraak porcelains also could be found at the Edo sites, Tokyo, Japan. After researching the historic records, the date of the wares could be traced back to 1630s (Horiuchi 1991: 194–194). Type I Kraak plates found at Fen-Gui-Wei Dutch fort in Pen-hu Archipelago, Taiwan, could precisely be dated between 1622 and 1624, which could also be seen as another set of standard dated wares. 8 The Kraak Porcelains Discovered from Taiwan … 151

1 2

345

67 8

910

Fig. 8.2 Kraak porcelain of Chin-te-chen Kiln discovered in south Taiwan 152 T.-K. Lu

• Type II plate: The rim and cavetto are decorated with large panels with auspicious symbols separated by narrow panels with diapers and pendants (Fig. 8.2-3). The drawing of the motifs is far more complicated than typeI. The making skill of the type II is also finer too. Type II plate is the most typical Karrk porcelain in the first half of the seventeenth century. Similar wares could be found in 1600, Spanish San Diego shipwreck (Desroches and Giordan 1996: 344–349) and in 1613, Witte Leeuw V.O.C. shipwreck (van der Pijl-Ketel 1982: 53–79). Besides, two cases found in dated tombs (1603 and 1621) in China also provide some information about the supply in the domestic market. • Type III plate: the border of the plate is surrounded by round or oval-shaped panels with auspicious symbols. The center of the plate is star-shaped medallion. The Type III plat only could be found at the site of fort Zeelandia in southern Taiwan, but not in Pen-hu Archipelago, which should be the new type kraak porcelain that Dutch exported from Taiwan after her occupation of Taiwan. Similar wares were also found in shipwreck Witte Leeuw (1613) (van der Pijl-Ketel 1982:88–103), and shipwreck Wanli (middle of the 1620s) in Malaysia (Sjostrand and Syed Idrus 2007: 232–245). • Type IV plate: It was only unearthed in the surrounding area of the fort Zeelandia. Although the broken shards are not so big (Fig. 8.2-4), the motif of pomegranate is still recognizable on the shards. Similar wares could be seen in the collection of the Rijks museum, Amsterdam (Jörg et al. 1997: 60), and Topkapi Saray museum in Turkey (Fig. 8.2-5; Krahl 1986: 803, Fig. 1606). Type IV plat was not found in Pen-hu Archipelago and should be the new ceramic merchandise that the Dutch ordered in Taiwan. According to the his- torical records, it must be the “new type’” of fine porcelains which were imported into Taiwan after 1636. Not many bottle shape Kraak blue and white porcelains were found in Taiwan. The first one is Kendi (India Kundi or Kundika), a kind of pouring vessel without handle (Figs. 8.2-6 and 8.2-7), Kendi Originally was a kind of religious service ware used by Hinduism or Buddhism, and afterward was extremely popular in Southeast Asia and Middle East. The shard of the Kendi found in Pen-hu archi- pelago is so small, and only bobble-shape mouth is left. Similar blue and white Kendi could be seen in the shipwreck Witte Leeuw (1613) (van der Pijl-Ketel 1982: 130–131), and Hatcher shipwreck (1643) (Sheaf and Kilburn 1988:48). The other kind of Kraak porcelain vessel is bottle with long neck, and only some shards of neck and belly were found (Fig. 8.2-8). Another group of Kraak porcelains found in Taiwan belongs to Swatow wares, which were made by Zhang-zhou Kiln, south of Fujian province. Usually, the quality of the Zhang-zhou wares was not so good, the base is stained with sand, and the cobalt and glaze are grayish or dark. It should be the “coarse porcelain” which was mentioned by the Dutch in historical records. The most typical kraak style Zhang-zhou blue and white plates, 36–38 cm in dimension, imitating the kraak style of Chin-te-chen porcelains, were decorated with the motifs of flowers and birds or landscapes (Fig. 8.2-9). Similar works could be seen in the shipwreck Witte 8 The Kraak Porcelains Discovered from Taiwan … 153

Leeuw (1613) (van der Pijl-Ketel 1982: 198–199), and shipwreck BinhThuan (first half of the 17th century) in offshore central Vietnam (Christie’s 2005: 64, 66). The other kind of Zhang-zhou blue and white plates found in Pen-hu Archipelago, approximately 43 cm. in dimension, have Chinese characters ‘moon’ (yue; 月) in the panel of the rim (Fig. 8.2-10). The complete works of this kind of wares have eight Chinese words of “Sun, moon, light, brightness, four seasons and beautiful scenery” in the panels of the rim, and the medallion with pond and pavilion in the inside of the plate. Same kinds of museum collections could be seen in Southeast Asia, Japan and Holland.

8.3 Chinese Ceramic Trade in Northern Taiwan

After the Dutch conquered the Southern Taiwan, the Spaniard dispatched the military force from Philippine at once and conquered the Keelung (雞籠; 今基隆) and Tamsui (淡水) in northern tip of Taiwan in 1626. The attempt of the Spaniard, not only to protect the navigation between Manila and Fujian, but to unite both the armies of Manila and Macao, forming the ‘Manila-Macao-Taiwan’ strategic tri- angle. The European from Iberian Peninsula intended to organize an “Union of Arms” to against the Dutch in Taiwan (Fig. 8.3-1; Mateo et al. 2005: 226–228). Besides, considering the economically strategic importance by Spaniard, Taiwan should be an entrepot for their commercial activities. Although the Spanish stayed in Taiwan for only 16 years, and were driven out by the Dutch who controlled the southern part of Taiwan in 1646, they had already separately established fort San Salvador at Keelung and fort Santo Domingo at Tamsui around north tip of Taiwan. On the tentative idea of the Spaniard, They wished to drive the Dutch out of Taiwan. On the one hand they tried to seek another

1 (Borao Mateo, et al. 2005: 226-228) 2 (Tu. 2007: 32-34)

Fig. 8.3 Chinese ceramic discovered in north Taiwan 154 T.-K. Lu stronghold to trade with China. For the Chinese maritime merchants who lived in Fujian region, the coming of the Spaniard undoubtedly provided a new business for overseas trade. For example, in 1639, a Chinese official Fu, Yuan-Chu (傅元初) had mentioned in his report as follows:

The Franks (Spaniard) from Luzon Island saw our ban for maritime activity, but secretly visited Tamsui and Keelung from time to time and did business with vice businessmen. It only needs one day from their place (the coast of the Fujian province) navigated to Taiwan. Our government knew the problem but could not forbid. Even we prohibit these activities but could not eradicate them. This situation only led the officials and smugglers who reside along the coastal regions easily made profits from maritime trade. (Gu 1966: 33) The scale of the trade of the Spaniard in northern Taiwan was far less than that of the Dutch who lived in southern Taiwan. Most of the funds for trade by the Spaniard were sent by relief fleets navigating from the Philippines. It was the first time in 1628, the Spanish galleon Rosario from Manila purchased a big quantity of merchandises with very low price from the Chinese traders who came to Keelung for business (Mateo et al. 2001: 136). This business profitreflects the highly commercial potential. For this reason, in the next year (1629), the first echelon of the relief fleet from Manila visited Keelung, attracted a group of Manila traders carrying cash about 200,000 pesos to Taiwan, wishing to purchase Chinese cargos and silks (Mateo et al. 2003: 329). Thus, northern Taiwan had been included into the Spanish “Manila galleon trade” and shared the business prospect of the silver which was brought from America. The new circumstances also promoted the trade status of northern Taiwan in the East Asia waters (Chen. 2005: 208). Most purchase of the Spaniard focused on silk cargos, but not the ceramic trade. Even though, some definite ceramic trade records still could be seen in the intelligence that the Dutch acquired. For example, in 1628, the Dutch got the information from Keelung and Tamsui that there were people who traded (with Spain) from Fucho (福州) in violation of the ban. Others shipped large quantity of porcelains from northern region of China to northern Taiwan. In February, 1633, The Dutch captured a Chinese junk which sailed from Keelung to Manila, and most of its cargos belonged to Spaniard, which included 1560 pieces of Chinese porcelain (Chiang 1999: 85). The Spanish trade in Taiwan frequently faced the problem of lacking funds. It had something to do with the conditions of the relief fleets visiting Taiwan in each year. If the Spaniard in Taiwan could not get enough silver for buying merchandises, the Chinese merchants could not but ship back their cargos and suffered the loss (Mateo et al. 2001: 258, 2003: 332). The strongholds that Spaniard set in northern Taiwan, from the beginning to the end, were mainly for military defense, and never became the transit station in a large scale as the Dutch did even though there are some relics that clearly reveal the ceramic trade by Spaniard in northern Taiwan in first half of the seventeenth century. For instance, The Kraak blue and white porcelain plates which were found in the vicinity of the fort Santo Domingo, Tamsui (紅毛城, 淡水), were the typical Chinese export wares (Fig. 8.3-2; Tu 2007:32–34), and Similar wares could be found in Hatcher shipwreck which sank approximately in 1643 (Sheaf and Kilburn 1988: 47). After the 8 The Kraak Porcelains Discovered from Taiwan … 155

Chinese porcelain cargos that the Spaniard purchased in northern Taiwan were shipped back to Manila, they became parts of the various Chinese goods carried by Manila galleons and were transshipped to America and Europe.

8.4 Kraak Porcelain Discovered in Macao

A large quantity of ancient ceramic shards found in the R. Central, the hillside of St. Augustine’s Square, Macao in 1994, now a collection of the museum of Macao, is an essential indication of the Sino-Portuguese trade during the Age of Exploration. Through the author’s research (Lu 2013: 151–176), the ceramics can be divided into three periods (from the second half of the 16th century to the first half of the 17th century, from the second half of the 17th century and the 18th century to the 19th century). These materials clearly reveal that Macao as one of the major export seaports for the Chinese trade porcelains. There are many high quality kraak porcelains among these ceramic remnants, including dishes and bowls in various sizes (Figs. 8.4-1–4), cup (Fig. 8.4-5), vases, kendi and covered boxes. Some uncommon shards found at St. Augustine’s Square site reveal the con- nection between Macao and manila among the Catholic Church communities. For example, a shard of broken dish was decorated with the Hydra (Fig. 8.4-6). The complete dish collected by the Santos Palace in Lisbon (Fig. 8.4-8; Lion-Goldschmidt 1984: 44) suggests the drawing was a seven heads dragon and the figures in Latin Proverb. Same kind of motif could also be found on the stone façade of Cathedral of St. Paul’s in Macao (Fig. 8.4-7). A pottery shard of olive jar rim found at St. Augustine’s Square site (Fig. 8.4-9) could be seen as a typical Spanish storage jar which was usually found in Spanish colonial terrestrial and shipwreck sites. The trade ceramics found in Macau witnessed the cross-cultural exchange between the east and the west, presenting many fascinating factors and develop- ments of the material cultural influence around the world.

8.5 The Japanese Hizen Ware Trade in Taiwan in the Second Half of the 17th Century

In 1661, the last admiral of Ming Dynasty, Cheng Ch’eng-Kung (Koxinga; 國姓 爺), drove away the Dutch and occupied Taiwan. The island turned out to be the last bastion of Ming Dynasty and against the Manchurian of Qing Dynasty. Cheng Ching (鄭經), the son of Cheng Ch’eng-Kung, succeeded to the throne in 1662 and continued to fight over the Manchurian until 1683. In order to raise large amount of money to support the war expenses, Cheng Ching managed the agriculture in Taiwan and positively developed overseas trade. A historical record wrote in the early Qing period, described as follows: 156 T.-K. Lu

1 2

3 4

56 7

89

Fig. 8.4 Kraak porcelain and related heritage discovered in Macao 8 The Kraak Porcelains Discovered from Taiwan … 157

(Cheng Ching) sent merchantmen to many ports buying shipbuilding materials and brought them back to Taiwan. He built seagoing ships and bird ships, and loaded them with white sugar, deer skin and so on. In order to enrich the country, he sailed up to Japan trading for bronze canons, Japanese swords, armors and casting Yun-li currency (永曆錢), down to Siam (Thailand), Cochi (central Vietnam) and Tongking (northern Vietnam) for business. Hence, Taiwan became prosperous, and its farmlands and markets were even better than those of the inland of China. (Chiang 1951: 237) After the middle of the seventeenth century, due to chaos of civil war and the overthrow of the Ming government, the exportation of Chinese ceramics suffered to a certain degree. Up to the early 1660’s, the condition became even worse, because the Qing court carried out great coast evacuation campaigns and forbade any maritime activity, intending to break the Cheng’s economic supply from mainland China. Under this condition, the ceramic industry at Hizen (肥前) in Kyushu swiftly developed and replaced part of the market that Chinese ceramics occupied before. As Cheng, Cheng-Kung’s maritime trade group had conducted business with Japan for a long time, they surely took Hizen wares as important goods in such a situation, therefore the porcelains made in Japan started to be seen in the transit trade ceramics in Taiwan. Regarding Cheng’s transit trade of Hizen wares in this period, historical records had some definite information. For example, the branch of the Dutch V.O.C. in Siam reported in 1664:

A Chinese-owned junk sailing from Japan was captured with 3090 bundles of Japanese porcelain, and 1 case and 1 small straw bundle with Japanese tea-cup. The master of this junk must have been a “long haired” Chinese, a Coxinder, distinguished from the “shorn” Chinese who had submitted to the Manchu-regime… That Coxinder junks were regard as enemies of the company and would never have a Company passport need hardly be stressed here. (Volker 1971: 206) Furthermore, the records of Spanish customs from the Philippines also revealed that the Chinese junks transshipped porcelains (obviously including Japanese plates) from Taiwan to Manila between 1664 and 1684 (Table 8.1).

Table 8.1 The type and quantity of ceramics transported by ships from Taiwan to Manila in the records of Spanish customs between 1664 and 1684 Date of arrival Type and quantity of Date of Quantity and type of ceramics arrival ceramics April 18. Teapots Jan. 8. 1681 4500 pieces of fine dishes 1665 and 7500 pieces of small bowls April 2. 1666 Japanese dishes Apr. 15. 1682 20 bundles of big bowls April 5. 1668 Dishes Apr. 11. 1683 1800 pieces of fine dishes April 19. Bowls Jan. 31. 1684 500 pieces of bowls 1672 Mar. 4. 1684 2000 pieces of soup bowls *Quote from Feng (2003), Table 11 158 T.-K. Lu

1

2 (Lu. 2006: 215-220) 3 (Lu, et al. 2008: 97-101)

Fig. 8.5 Japanese Hizen ware discovered in Taiwan

The archaeological artifacts of Hizen blue and white porcelains found at Tainan, in southern Taiwan and Pen-hu archipelago include bowls, dishes and bottles with various decorations, all dated to the second half of the seventeenth century (Fig. 8.5-1). Among these works, “Kraak style” Hizen dish is one of the most typical trade porcelains for western markets (Fig. 8.5-2, 3; Lu 2006: 215–220; Lu et al. 2008:97–101). The same kind of dishes can be found both in Taiwan and 8 The Kraak Porcelains Discovered from Taiwan … 159

Manila, coincide with the Spanish records about Taiwan as a relay-port and transshipping Hizen porcelains to the Philippines. As for similar dishes found in central America, it also shows that these transit cargos from Taiwan had already been sold to American market by Spanish Galleon trade (Nogami 2005: 250–251; Nogami 2006: 128–129; Lu 2006: 222).

8.6 Conclusion

Taiwan and Macao played the vital roles of the international maritime transit trade in the cultural and economic interchanges between the east and west in the sev- enteenth century. The Chinese Kraak porcelains exported from Taiwan and Macao in the first half of the seventeenth century were transshipped to other regions of the world in a large number by the Dutch, Spaniard and Portuguese. The Japanese Kraak style porcelains transshipped from Taiwan were sold to Southeast Asia, but also exported to Manila, which were re-shipped to America by Spanish galleon. The phenomenon of multi ceramic transit trade reveals the importance of Chinese and Japanese ceramics in the international maritime trade in the seventeenth century, and also shows the prosperous material cultural exchanges between Asia and other places of the world in that period.

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