Knowledge of Arthropod Carnivory and Herbivory: Factors Influencing Preservice Elementary Teacher’S Attitudes and Beliefs Toward Arthropods

Home , Arthropod, Bagheera (spider), Bagheera kiplingi, Dragonhunter, Gromphadorhina, Harmonia (beetle)

International Journal of Environmental & Science Education Vol. 8, No. 2, April 2013, 303-318

Knowledge of Arthropod Carnivory and Herbivory: Factors Influencing Preservice Elementary Teacher’s Attitudes and Beliefs toward Arthropods

Ron Wagler1* and Amy Wagler2

Received 30 July 2012; Accepted 20 January 2013

Doi: 10.12973/ijese.2013.209a

Abstract: Human negativity toward arthropods has been well documented but the factors that contribute to this negativity have been elusive. This study explored knowledge of arthropod carnivory and herbivory as possible casual factors that contribute to the negative tendencies preservice elementary teachers have toward most arthropods. Specifically, this study investigated the effect knowledge of arthropod carnivory and herbivory had on United States kindergarten through sixth grade preservice elementary teacher attitude toward that arthropod and belief concerning the likelihood of incorporating information about that specific arthropod into their future science classroom. A cluster randomized design with a control group was used for the study. The treatment group consisted of 147 preservice elementary teachers and the control group consisted of 151. Unique to this study is the finding that arthropod carnivory and herbivory are causal factors that strongly affect preservice elementary teacher attitude and belief toward arthropods. When the participants of the study were made aware that an arthropod they thought was a herbivore was actually a carnivore, their attitude and likelihood of incorporation significantly declined. When the participants of the study were made aware that an arthropod they thought was a carnivore was actually a herbivore, their attitude and likelihood of incorporation significantly increased. Implications and future research are discussed. Keywords: Arthropod; Attitude; Carnivory; Elementary; Herbivory; Preservice

1 *The University of Texas at El Paso, Department of Teacher Education, 500 West University Avenue, Education Building 601, El Paso, TX 79968, e-mail: [email protected] 2 The University of Texas at El Paso, Department of Mathematical Sciences, 500 West University Avenue, Bell Hall 311, El Paso, TX 79968, e-mail: [email protected]

Introduction of Earth’s arthropods (Wagler, 2010; Wagler Human negativity toward arthropods has & Wagler, 2011) even though a quality been well documented (e.g., Kellert, 1993; science education begins in the elementary Prokop, Tolarovičová, Camerik & Peterková, classroom with curriculum that exposes 2010; Wagler, 2010; Wagler & Wagler, students to biodiverse groups of animals (e.g., 2011) with the classic example being fear of AAAS, 1993; NRC, 1996; NRC, 2011; spiders (e.g., Gerdes, Uhl, & Alpers, 2009). NAAEE, 2004). Although human negativity Previous research has shown preservice toward arthropods has been documented, the elementary teachers have no plans to teach underlying factors that contribute to this their future students about the vast majority negativity have been elusive. Identifying Table 1. Adult Arthropods Used in the Study Terrestrial Food Type of Common Scientific Primary Carnivore Herbivore Chain Arthropod Name Name Diet Trophic Leveld Level 3: Asian Lady Harmonia Beetle a Arthropods Secondary Beetle axyridis Consumer Level 3: Hagenius Dragonfly Dragonhunter  Arthropods Secondary brevistylus Consumer Daring Level 3: Phidippus Spider Jumping  Arthropods Secondary audax Spider Consumer Level 2: Bagheera Beltianc Spider Unknown b Primary kiplingi Bodies Consumer aPredominantly Carnivorous; bPredominantly Herbivorous; cBeltian body: a protein-rich structure produced by and found on the leaflets of the ant-acacia plant (Vachellia spp.) (Meehan, Olson, Reudink, Kyser & Curry, 2009); dLevel 1: Plants, that make their own food, are called primary producers; Level 2: Herbivores, that eat plants, are called primary consumers; Level 3: Carnivores, that eat herbivores, are called secondary consumers.

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Figure 1. The predominantly herbivorous spider Bagheera kiplingi eating a protein-rich Beltian body it has harvested from an ant-acacia plant (Vachellia spp.). Note the other Beltian bodies on the tips of the plants leaflets. (Photograph by David Jordan and used with his permission)

305 Knowledge of Arthropod Carnivory and Herbivory these factors can assist science educators in individual’s present attitude (2) toward that constructing effective learning environments entity. that foster students understand of ecosystem That attitude, in turn, affects present interactions. beliefs (3) associated with that entity This study explored knowledge of (Kruglanski & Stroebe, 2005; Marsh & arthropod carnivory and herbivory as possible Wallace, 2005). The mechanisms by which casual factors that contribute to the negative beliefs influence attitudes and attitudes tendencies preservice elementary teachers influence beliefs is based on the way attitudes have toward most arthropods (Wagler, 2010; and beliefs are perceptually organized Wagler & Wagler, 2011). Specifically, this (Heider, 1958; Albarracín et al., 2005), study investigated the effect knowledge of cognitively organized (Osgood & arthropod carnivory and herbivory had on Tannenbaum, 1955; Rosenberg, 1960; United States (U.S.) kindergarten through Albarracín et al., 2005) and the outcomes of sixth grade (K-6) preservice elementary judgmental processes (Sherif, Sherif, & teacher attitude toward that arthropod and Nebergall, 1965; Albarracín et al., 2005). belief concerning the likelihood of incorporating information about that specific Literature Review arthropod into their future science classroom A Brief Overview of Arthropods (henceforth referred to as “likelihood of Arthropods (Phylum Arthropoda) are incorporation”). A cluster randomized design invertebrate animals that are united by a set with a control group was used for the study. of characteristics, with the most visible being Four arthropods were used in the study (See a segmented body and jointed appendages Table 1). that are covered with an exoskeleton made of They were the Asian lady beetle, the chitin (Budd & Telford, 2009; Johnson, 2003; dragonhunter dragonfly, the daring jumping Lewis, Gaffin, Hoefnagels & Parker, 2002). spider and the only known predominantly Common examples include insects (Class: herbaceous spider, Bagheera kiplingi (See Insecta), spiders (Class: Arachnida) and Figure 1). shrimp (Class: Malacostraca). Arthropod Theoretical Underpinnings of the Study evolution began approximately 542-488 Human attitude is defined as a “psychological million years ago in the Cambrian period tendency that is expressed by evaluating a (Budd & Telford, 2009). Based upon life particular entity with some degree of favor or history, global biodiversity and sheer disfavor” (Eagly & Chaiken, 1993, p.1). numbers, arthropods are arguably the most

(1) Past Beliefs (2) Present (3) Present Belief about a Attitude about a about Incorporating Specific Arthropod Specific Affects Specific Affects Arthropod Arthropod Information into Future Science Classroom

Figure 2. Association between Human’s Past Beliefs, Present Attitude and Present Belief

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Human belief is defined as an estimate of the evolutionarily and biologically successful likelihood that the knowledge one has about animal phylum on Earth. an entity is correct or, alternatively, that an Arthropod global species distribution event or a state of affairs has or will occur includes all continents and nearly every body (Eagly & Chaiken, 1998). The past beliefs of of water on Earth. It is hypothesized that humans (1) (See Figure 2) that are linked to a more than 75% of all animal species on Earth particular entity (i.e., an arthropod) affect the are arthropods (Lewis, Gaffin, Hoefnagels &

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insects) having the largest number of species showed how different societal groups (e.g., and the greatest number of individuals. the general public, farmers, scientists and Beetles alone account for more than 300,000 conservation members) perceive and value species. Arthropods perform many essential invertebrates. ecological services for humans that range Bjerke, Odegardstuen and Kaltenborn from the pollination of flowering plants by (1998) explored Norwegian children and bees, to the consumption of massive global adolescents degree of preference for animals. detritus by cockroaches to a myriad of other They found that the degree of preference for phenomenon that make human existence animals varies depending on the type of possible (Wilson, 1987). Even though animal (Bjerke, Odegardstuen & Kaltenborn, arthropod species diversity is large, the 1998). The worm, spider, bee and crow were conservation status of many of Earth’s found to be the least favorite species. The cat, arthropod species ranges from vulnerable to dog, rabbit and horse were the favorite extinct (International Union for Conservation species (Bjerke, Odegardstuen & Kaltenborn, of Nature, 2012) as they are part of the 1998). Very few of the studies participants current human-induced global mass were willing to save ecologically-significant extinction of plant and animal life (e.g., insects (i.e., ants, bees and lady beetles) from Jackson, 2008; Wagler, 2011; Wagler, 2012; going extinct (Bjerke, Odegardstuen & Wake & Vredenburg, 2008). Kaltenborn, 1998). Human Psychological Tendencies and Prokop and Tunnicliffe (2008) assessed Beliefs toward Invertebrates spider and bat attitudes in Slovakia children The general public and farmers possess a ranging in age from 10-16 years. Children limited knowledge of invertebrates. They also had more negative attitudes toward spiders tend to express fear and anxiety toward most than bats with female participants having invertebrates, particularly insects and spiders. greater negativity than male participants. Scientists and conservation organization Irrespective of children’s age or gender, members tend to have a more positive alternative conceptions and knowledge of attitude and possess more knowledge about bats and spiders were distributed randomly arthropods (Kellert, 1993). The majority of (Prokop & Tunnicliffe, 2008). A moderate the general public indicate a dislike of correlation between attitude and knowledge cockroaches, bugs, ticks, ants, beetles and of bats was found. No similar tendency was crabs; a dislike of insects in the home; a fear found with spiders (Prokop & Tunnicliffe, of scorpions, spiders and stinging insects; a 2008). desire to eliminate cockroaches, spiders, Among university entry level psychology

fleas, mosquitoes and moths; and a view of students spiders tend to elicit significantly the cockroach and octopus as a highly greater fear, disgust and perceived danger unattractive animal. In a general sense, when compared to beetles, bees/wasps and farmers expressed similar views to those of butterflies/moths (Gerdes, Uhl, & Alpers, the general public (Kellert, 1993). 2009). Ratings of disgust and fear of spider A more positive view of specific pictures significantly predicted the invertebrates occurs when that invertebrate is questionnaire scores for fear of spiders.

deemed by a human to have utilitarian value Dangerousness ratings of other arthropods 2013 by ESER

- (e.g., shrimp). Farmers, in a general sense, and spiders did not provide any predictive tend to display more emotionally detached, power. Gerdes, Uhl and Alpers (2009) results antagonistic and pragmatic attitudes toward showed that the potential harmfulness of a invertebrates and largely view them as a spider cannot explain why spiders are feared source of material gain or a threat. Scientists so often. and conservation organization members had a Slovakian primary school children protective and appreciative attitude toward possessed better knowledge of unpopular invertebrates. They also had a greater interest animals (i.e., potato beetle, wolf and mouse) in recreational contact with invertebrates compared to popular animals (i.e., rabbit, (Kellert, 1993). Kellert’s study (1993)

307 Knowledge of Arthropod Carnivory and Herbivory had less favorable attitudes towards situational disgust in addition to survey unpopular animals (Prokop & Tunnicliffe, studies. They also suggest intrinsic 2010). Participants that had pets in their motivation is negatively affected by house had better knowledge and more perceived disgust. positive attitudes of both popular and Hummel and Randler (2012) conducted a unpopular animals. Boys were more meta-analysis and performed a treatment- favorably inclined than girls to animals that control study with over 400 middle school may pose a threat, danger or disease to them students. The film versus animal study (Prokop & Tunnicliffe, 2010). differed only by the presence of the living Attitudes towards spiders and the level of animal. In the meta-analysis they found that knowledge of spiders of high school students living animal treatments scored significantly from Slovakia and South Africa have also better than a control group. This was not the been compared (Prokop, Tolarovičová, case when they compared living animals with Camerik & Peterková, 2010). Biology alternative treatments. In the treatment– teaching in Slovakia is based on systematic control study, both treatments produced a zoology and botany while the South African significant increase in knowledge but no system is based on ecosystems. A statistically differences were observed between film and significant but low correlation between living animal treatment. Previous grading and knowledge and attitude was found among the pretest had a significant influence on the Slovakian students. Based on Kellert’s (1996) posttest and two follow-up tests. With the categories of attitude (scientistic, negativistic, mouse lesson, students of the living animal naturalistic, and ecologistic), South African group displayed lower values in pressure and students had higher scores in the categories of higher values in competence and interest. scientistic, naturalistic, and ecologistic Student competence and interest correlated attitudes. Prokop, Tolarovičová, Camerik and negatively with pressure, while competence Peterková (2010) also found that Slovakian and interest correlated positively with students have less fear of spiders than South achievement. African students. Preservice Teachers Attitudes and Randler, Hummel and Wüst-Ackermann Likelihood of Incorporation toward (2012) investigated situational disgust during Arthropods a university course using a wide range of A strong statistically significant association living animals, prepared mounts and has been found between kindergarten through methods. The mammalian skull, microscopy, fourth grade (K-4) preservice elementary bird flight and honeybee dance activities teacher’s attitudes towards a specific animal were rated as the least disgusting. The and their likelihood to include or exclude dissection of a trout activity was evaluated as information about that animal from their the most disgusting, followed by the living future science classroom (Wagler, 2010). terrestrial isopod activity, living earthworm Specifically, if a non-science major K-4 activity and living snail activity. Dissection preservice elementary teacher had a positive was found to be the most disgusting, attitude toward an animal they were much followed by experiments with living animals, more likely to believe they would incorporate

followed by experiments without animals and information about that animal into their 2013 by ESER observations through a microscope were future science classroom. Conversely, if a K- - perceived as being least disgusting. Disgust 4 preservice elementary teacher had a was positively correlated with boredom and negative attitude toward an animal they were pressure and negatively correlated with much more likely to believe they would not competence, well-being and interest. incorporate information about that animal Therefore, higher disgust was related to into their future science classroom. higher pressure and boredom while low Based on these beliefs the science disgust was related to high interest, well- learning environment that the vast majority of being and competence. The results of their the preservice elementary teachers in the study show the necessity to measure

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students would be dominated by mammals pretest only), spider, crayfish, centipede, (Wagler, 2010). The learning environment grasshopper, millipede and scorpion (Wagler would be void of any invertebrates (e.g., & Wagler, 2011). sponges, corals, worms, mollusks, insects Wagler and Wagler (2012) conducted a [Excluding the butterfly], crustaceans, and study to investigate if the external arachnids), amphibians and reptiles. Wagler’s morphology of an insect had a negative effect study (2010) provided the first empirical on preservice elementary teacher’s attitudes evidence that a preservice elementary toward insects and beliefs concerning the teacher’s attitude toward an animal affected likelihood of incorporating insects into future their belief about using that animal in their science education settings. Non-science future science curriculum. major kindergarten through sixth grade Non-science major K-4 preservice preservice elementary teachers participated elementary teachers that received frequent and a randomized design with a control group direct contact with Madagascar hissing was used for the study. The participants were cockroaches (Gromphadorhina portentosa) in shown pictures of three insects (i.e., butterfly, an educational setting during their preservice lady beetle or dragonfly) and were asked to training programs had their attitudes and rate their attitude toward the insects and likelihood of arthropod incorporation in beliefs concerning the likelihood of future science curriculum changed in a incorporating the insects into future science positive way toward the Madagascar hissing education settings. The treatment group was cockroaches but not toward other arthropods shown a picture of the larva and adult stage that they did not have contact with (Wagler & of the insect. The control group was only Wagler, 2011). A pre/post randomized design shown the adult stage of the insect. Unique to with a control group was used for the study. the study, was the finding that the external The non-contact arthropods included a morphology of an insect was a causal factor butterfly, lady beetle, dragonfly, grasshopper, that could negatively affect preservice spider, crayfish, millipede, centipede and elementary teacher’s attitudes toward insects scorpion. This finding provided evidence that and beliefs concerning the likelihood of in order to positively change preservice incorporating insects into future science elementary teacher attitudes and incorporate education settings. beliefs toward a specific animal, frequent direct contact in an educational setting with Methodology that specific animal is needed (Wagler & Research Questions Wagler, 2011). Research Question 1: Does knowledge that

The general trend observed was that the an arthropod is carnivorous or herbivorous preservice elementary teachers displayed two affect K-6 preservice elementary teacher different types of attitudes and incorporation attitude toward that arthropod? rates depending on what arthropod picture Research Question 2: Does knowledge they were shown (Wagler & Wagler, 2011). that an arthropod is carnivorous or Specifically, the preservice elementary herbivorous affect K-6 preservice elementary teachers had positive to extremely positive teacher belief concerning the likelihood of attitudes toward the butterfly, lady beetle and incorporating information about that 2013 by ESER dragonfly and negative attitudes toward the - arthropod into their future science classroom? Madagascar hissing cockroach (i.e., pretest only), spider, crayfish, centipede, Study Participants grasshopper, millipede and scorpion (Wagler The participants for the treatment and control & Wagler, 2011). The preservice elementary group were registered in an elementary teachers also had likely to extremely likely science methods course and enrolled in the belief of future science classroom last year of their bachelor’s degree program incorporation rates for the butterfly, lady at a midsized urban southwestern U.S. border beetle, dragonfly and unlikely incorporation region university with a predominantly

309 Knowledge of Arthropod Carnivory and Herbivory group consisted of 147 U.S. K-6 preservice Lady Beetle eating in a natural setting. They elementary teachers and the control group were then asked to rate their attitude (Likert consisted of 151. All of the participants were scale: Extremely Negative [1], Negative [2], non-science majors training to teach K-6 Neutral [3], Positive [4], Extremely Positive grade students (i.e., approximately 5 to 12 [5]) toward the animal shown by circling years of age) and had not taken a university their response on the data collection sheet. course in invertebrate biology. Of the 147 The participants were then asked to rate the participants in the treatment group, 138 were likelihood of incorporating (Likert scale: female and 9 were male. The participants Extremely Unlikely [1], Unlikely [2], Likely mean age was 27.94 years. 135 were [3], Extremely Likely [4]) information about Hispanic/Latino, 10 were White and 2 were the animal shown into their future science Black. Of the 151 participants in the control classroom. This treatment procedure was group, 137 were female and 14 were male. then repeated for the other three arthropods The participants mean age was 28.91 years. (i.e., Dragonhunter, Daring Jumping Spider Of the 151 participants, 142 were and Bagheera kiplingi) used in the study (See Hispanic/Latino, 6 were White and 3 were Table 1). The procedure for the control group Black. was identical to the treatment group except Randomization of Study they were shown color videos of the four arthropods in a natural setting but not eating. All university science education methods course sections were randomized into a It was explained to the students that the treatment or control group. The sections, and “likelihood of incorporating information hence, treatment and control groups were about the animal shown into their future homogenous with respect to gender, age and science classroom” could take any form that ethnicity. Homogeneity tests comparing the referenced the animal. Examples were given ethnicity, age and gender of the preservice that included bringing or allowing the actual teacher groups demonstrate that the treatment animal into the classroom, developing or and control group were very similar with using a science activity that utilized the respect to these demographic characteristics animal, reading a classroom story that discussed the animal, showing a video with (pethnicity=0.57, page=0.27, pgender=0.42). Due to the homogeneity of the treatment and control the animal present in the video, having a groups and random assignment of these picture of the animal in the classroom, having sections, any observed difference in the the students write a paragraph or draw attitude or likelihood of incorporation pictures that incorporated the animal or any between the treatment and control groups is other type of media that addressed the animal attributable to the additional information in any way. It was further clarified to the provided to the treatment group (i.e., viewing participants that these were some examples a color video of the animal eating in a natural and that they may be thinking of other setting). The order that the color videos were examples of incorporating information about shown, was also randomized. the animal into their future science classroom and that any of these “ways of incorporating” Study Procedure would apply to rating the likelihood of The data collection for the treatment and incorporating information about the animal control group occurred in university shown into their future science classroom. 2013 by ESER classrooms on the first day of the elementary - Selection of Arthropod Pictures and Videos science methods course before any course information had been presented. For the Four arthropods were used in the study (See treatment group, a color picture of the Asian Table 1 and Figure 1). The Asian lady beetle Lady Beetle was shown. The participants and the dragonhunter dragonfly were chosen were then asked “What does this animal eat?” because of the population’s (i.e., preservice The participants wrote down their answer or elementary teachers) ability to visually circled “I Do Not Know.” The participants recognize these insects and because the were then shown, using a projector and insects are carnivores. These characteristics are essential attributes needed to answer the laptop computer, a color video of the Asian Copyright © 2006

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research questions of the study. The daring percentage of the answers for the dragonfly jumping spider and Bagheera kiplingi were were “I Do Not Know.” A large percentage chosen because of the population’s (i.e., of the answers for the lady beetle were preservice elementary teachers) ability to associated with some form of plant material. visually recognize these spiders as spiders but Overall Mean Attitude and Overall Mean not to identify the specific species. The Likelihood of Incorporation carnivorous daring jumping spider and only Table 3 presents the overall mean attitude and known predominantly herbaceous spider overall mean likelihood of incorporation for Bagheera kiplingi were chosen to contrast all four arthropods for the treatment and one another (carnivorous spider versus control group. predominantly herbaceous spider). These characteristics are essential attributes needed Analysis of Attitude and Likelihood of to answer the research questions of the study. Incorporation For further justification see the Findings The attitude and likelihood of incorporation section. responses are ordinal level random variables. Limitations of the Study For modeling ordinal data, the proportional odds logistic regression model is fit to the The arthropods appeared bigger than they data (Agresti, 2004). Model 1 has attitude actually are because the color pictures and towards the arthropods as the response and videos of the four arthropods were projected treatment vs. control groups and animal as on a screen. The color pictures and videos explanatory variables. Similarly, model 2 has were also two dimensional compared to the likelihood of incorporation as the response actual arthropods which are three and also treatment vs. control groups and dimensional. animal as explanatory variables. Both models Results were fit in the software package R (R Development Core Team, 2010) using the Arthropod Food Consumption Type lrm function in the Design package (Harrell, Table 2 presents the overall percent correct 2009). Tables 4 and 5 contain the parameter for all participants’ response to the question estimates resulting for modeling attitude and “What does this Animal Eat?” A large likelihood of incorporation.

Table 2. Percent Correct to the Question “What does this Animal Eat?” Arthropod Treatment Group Control Group

Lady Beetlea 9% 7%

Dragonfly 12% 14% Carnivorous Spider 97% 96% Predominantly Herbivorous Spidera 4% 2% Note: Percentages include participants that chose “I Do Not Know” or included an incorrect answer to the question. aThe participants were asked “What does this animal predominantly eat?”

Table 3. Overall Mean Attitude and Mean Likelihood of Incorporation 2013 by ESER

- Treatment Group Control Group Arthropod Attitude Likelihood of Attitude Likelihood of Incorporation Incorporation Lady Beetle 3.46 2.95 4.51 3.69 Dragonfly 2.97 2.85 4.39 3.49 Carnivorous Spider 1.80 2.12 1.91 2.26 Predominantly Herbivorous 3.02 3.29 1.89 2.13 Spider Note: Attitude Likert Scale (Extremely Negative [1], Negative [2], Neutral [3], Positive [4], Extremely Positive [5]); Likelihood of Incorporation Likert Scale (Extremely Unlikely [1], Unlikely [2], Likely [3], Extremely Likely [4]).

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Table 4 contains the parameter estimates demonstrates that there are differences in the resulting from model 1, i.e., attitude scores. attitudes for respondents in the treatment The p-values are adjusted for multiplicity group when rating attitude for the dragonfly, using the Holm procedure for adjusting the herbaceous spider and lady beetle versus the pointwise error rates (Hsu, 1996). Also note carnivorous spider. In contrast, the test for the that the reference levels for the two main effects for the animals demonstrate that explanatory variables (animal and group) are for the control group, the dragonfly and lady the carnivorous spider and control group, beetle are rated differently with respect to respectively. Thus, there is no slope attitude than the carnivorous spider (reference estimated for main effects or interactions level). However, no difference is detected involving these levels. Focusing first on the between the herbaceous spider and explanatory variable statistics, note that carnivorous spider for the control group. This statistical significance is detected aligning means that without taking into account the with the interaction effects of the model. This interactions, there is evidence that the Table 4. Proportional Odds Model Results for Attitude Slope Coefficient Standard Error Z p-value (adjusted p) Y2 0.283 0.152 1.86 0.063 (0.189) Y3 -1.082 0.158 -6.81 0.000 (0.000)** Y4 -2.776 0.182 -15.23 0.000 (0.000)** Y5 -4.353 0.205 -21.23 0.000 (0.000)** Treatment -0.132 0.211 -0.62 0.533 (1.000) Dragonfly 4.592 0.252 18.25 0.000 (0.000)** Herbaceous Spider 0.030 0.209 0.14 0.886 (1.000) Lady Beetle 4.850 0.255 19.04 0.000 (0.000)** Treat X Dragonfly -2.522 0.313 -8.05 0.000 (0.000)** Treat X Herbaceous Spider 2.156 0.309 6.99 0.000 (0.000)** Treat X Lady Beetle -1.901 0.311 -6.11 0.000 (0.000)** ** Corresponds with a Wald Z test with an observed significance level less than 5% when controlled for multiplicity

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Figure 3. Probability of Attitude Greater Than or Equal to Level j (P[Yj] Where j

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respondent have a more positive overall particular, slightly less than 10% of attitude toward lady beetles and dragonfly respondents in the treatment group respond than the carnivorous spider. Conversely, the with a 5 (strongly agree) while over 50% in main effect tests, which was not statistically the control group respond with a 5. Similarly, significant, suggests that there is no overall only around 35% of respondents in the effect between the treatment and control treatment group assign a 4 (agree) to the groups and the herbaceous and carnivorous dragonfly while around 85% do for the spider. However, this does not imply that the control group. Overall, it is clear than the treatment and control groups do not differ treatment group gives the high attitude rating when taking into account the animal of much less frequently than the control group interest. For example, the interaction test for when rating the dragonfly. A very similar those in the treatment group and the pattern of responses is found for the lady dragonfly demonstrate a statistically beetle (lb). A high attitude rating (either a 4 significant decrease in attitude. This implies or 5) is fairly unusual for the treatment group that there is a significant decrease in attitude (around 20% and 50%) when compared to the for those who were exposed to the dragonfly control (around 60% and 95%) with respect eating in a natural setting (i.e., treatment to the lady beetle. Lastly, the herbaceous group). Similarly, there is an observed spider (hs) also has a different response decrease in attitude for those exposed to the pattern between the treatment and control lady beetle eating in a natural setting (i.e., groups, but with an opposite effect. Namely, treatment group). In contrast, there is a the probability of a positive attitude is statistically significant increase in attitude for extremely low for the control group (less than those who are made aware that the 10% probability of a 4 or 5) while this herbaceous spider consumes plant material probability increases to around 15% of a 5 rather than animals. There was no effect on rating and nearly 40% chance of a 4 or attitude with respect to the carnivorous spider greater rating for the treatment group. Thus, when comparing the treatment and control the treatment (i.e., being told the herbaceous groups. spider consumes plant material) increased the Figure 3 displays the probability of Likert probability of a positive attitude of the responses for the different treatment and respondents. animal combinations. The numbers j = 2, 3, 4 Table 5 contains the estimated model and 5 in the plot refer to the probability of the parameters for likelihood of incorporation. rating being greater than or equal to j in the These yield very similar results to the model analysis. Note that 1 does not appear in the for animal attitude. Again, the carnivorous spider and control groups are the reference

plot because P(Y≥1)=1 for a Likert scale ranging from 1 to 5. On the left y-axis are the levels and all p-values are adjusted for labels for the groups being analyzed. For multiplicity for the set of comparisons made. example, the first group c/cs is the For this model, all interaction tests are carnivorous spider in the control group. The statistically significant indicating there is a right y-axis has the sample sizes for each significant difference between how those in group. Values on the left side of the scale the treatment group rate their likelihood of indicate the P(Y≥j) is relatively low while incorporation for the dragonfly, herbaceous

2013 by ESER values on the right side of the scale indicate spider and lady beetle versus the carnivorous - P(Y≥j) is fairly high. Examination of the plot spider. For those in the control group, there is reveals that the response pattern was very only a difference in likelihood of similar for the carnivorous spider (cs) for incorporation for the lady beetle and both the treatment (t) and control (c) groups. dragonfly versus the carnivorous spider. See the lines labeled t/cs and c/cs to observe Figure 4 also shows the cumulative that the distributions of probabilities are very probabilities for each level of the Likert scale similar. In contrast, the dragonfly (df) for each group and animal combination. Note probabilities (see t/df and c/df) show a large the difference in the response probabilities difference with respect to response pattern. In for the treatment (t) versus control (c) groups

313 Knowledge of Arthropod Carnivory and Herbivory

Table 5. Proportional odds Model Results for Likelihood of Incorporation Slope Coefficient Standard Z p-value (adjusted p) Error Y2 0.766 0.158 4.84 0.000 (0.000) Y3 -0.147 0.156 -0.94 0.346 (0.625)a Y4 -2.120 0.171 -12.42 0.000 (0.000) a Y5 -5.130 0.242 -21.18 0.000 (0.000) a Treatment -0.274 0.218 -1.26 0.208 (0.346) Dragonfly 2.245 0.223 10.06 0.000 (0.000) a Herbaceous Spider -0.221 0.213 -1.04 0.300 (0.600) Lady Beetle 2.811 0.229 12.28 0.000 (0.000) a Treatment X Dragonfly -1.015 0.303 -3.35 0.001 (0.003) a Treatment X Herbaceous Spider 2.258 0.314 7.20 0.000 (0.000) a Treatment X Lady Beetle -1.091 0.311 -3.50 0.001 (0.003) a a Corresponds with a Wald Z test with an observed significance level less than 5% when controlled for multiplicity

Figure 4. Probability of Likelihood of Incorporation Greater Than or Equal to Level j (P[Yj] Where j Corresponds to the Symbol Plotted) herbaceous spider (hs). Only the carnivorous information about whether the arthropods

spider (cs) displays very similar response were carnivorous or herbivorous. Namely, a 2013 by ESER

patterns for both the treatment and control direct comparison of the attitude toward the - groups. herbaceous spider versus the carnivorous Pre-planned Comparisons spider and a comparison of the mean attitude It is of interest to investigate how carnivory of all three carnivorous arthropods (i.e., lady and herbivory affects preservice elementary beetle, carnivorous spider, and dragonfly) and teacher attitude and likelihood of the attitude toward the one herbaceous incorporation. Thus, some preplanned arthropod (i.e., herbaceous spider) were made comparisons were made on the multinomial using linear combinations of the slope logistic model coefficients that focus on the parameters for those in the treatment group.

314 Ron Wagler and Amy Wagler

with likelihood of incorporation as the majority of the preservice elementary response variable. The observed difference teachers in both the treatment and control for the comparison of the herbaceous versus group thought the arthropods ate some form carnivorous spider attitudes was 2.19 of plant material (See Table 2). When the (Z=9.16, p-value<0.0001) and the difference treatment group observed the video of both for the carnivorous versus herbaceous arthropods feeding on other arthropods (i.e., arthropods attitudes was 0.51 (Z=2.86, p- carnivory) in a natural setting their attitude value=0.004) for those with knowledge about and likelihood of incorporation both carnivory/herbivory. Thus, both tests are significantly declined (See Tables 3, 4, and 5; statistically significant indicating a difference Figures 3 and 4). This decline in attitude and exists between the preservice teachers likelihood of incorporation was not observed attitudes toward herbaceous versus with the control group that just observed a carnivorous arthropods. The difference in video of the same arthropod in a natural scores also has practical significance since a setting but not eating (See Tables 3, 4 and 5; change of these magnitudes either ensure or Figures 3 and 4). Clearly the knowledge of are likely to result in a change of Likert carnivory, that the videos imparted to the response categories (i.e., from ‘Agree’ to treatment participants caused a negative ‘Strongly Agree’). Similarly, for those in the decline in the preservice elementary teacher’s treatment group, the observed difference attitude which, in turn, decreased their belief when comparing the likelihood of concerning the likelihood of incorporating incorporation for the herbaceous versus the information about that arthropod into their carnivorous spider was 2.04 (Z=8.95, p- future science classroom. value<0.0001) and when comparing the Further evidence verifying that carnivorous versus herbaceous arthropods knowledge of arthropod herbivory positively overall, it was 1.04 (Z=5.87, p- increases human attitudes and beliefs toward value<0.0001). Thus, there is a statistically, arthropods is apparent with the two spiders as well as practically, significant difference (i.e., Daring Jumping Spider and Bagheera between the likelihood of incorporation of kiplingi) used in the study. When the these groups of arthropods. Multiplicity was participants of the study were made aware not controlled in these calculations as they (by viewing the color video) that an were pre-planned and made separately from arthropod they thought was a carnivore was the rest of the conclusions. actually a herbivore, their attitude and likelihood of incorporation changed (See Discussion Tables 4 and 5 or Figures 3 and 4). For Findings

example, with the carnivorous spider (i.e., This study, in which a randomized design Daring Jumping Spider) both the treatment with a control group was used, provides and control groups were already strong evidence that knowledge of arthropod knowledgeable of the carnivorous nature of carnivory and herbivory are causal factors the spider (See Table 2). After watching the that strongly affect preservice elementary spider eat in a natural setting they possessed teacher’s attitudes and beliefs toward negative attitudes and low likelihood of arthropods. Evidence verifying that incorporation rates. Very few (4%

2013 by ESER [Treatment] and 2% [Control]) of the

- knowledge of arthropod carnivory negatively affects human attitudes and beliefs toward participants of the study were aware that arthropods is apparent with the two insects Bagheera kiplingi was a predominately (i.e., lady beetle and dragonfly) used in the herbaceous spider (See Table 2). After the study. When the participants of the study treatment group watched the video of the were made aware that an arthropod they predominantly herbaceous spider Bagheera thought was a herbivore was actually a kiplingi harvesting Beltian bodies (i.e., plant carnivore, their attitude and likelihood of material) their attitude and likelihood of incorporation changed. For example, with incorporation both significantly increased

315 Knowledge of Arthropod Carnivory and Herbivory

Clearly the knowledge of herbivory, that the and the vast number of essential ecological video imparted caused a positive increase in roles carnivorous arthropods play in global the preservice elementary teacher’s attitude food chains. This study confirms they do not which, in turn, increased the belief believe they will expose their students to concerning the likelihood of incorporating information about carnivorous arthropods. information about that arthropod into their Furthermore, if students do not receive this future science classroom. This finding should foundational knowledge in their K–6 be contrasted with the negative decrease classroom they will be at a great disadvantage observed with the preservice elementary to comprehend more complex concepts such teacher’s attitude and likelihood of as food webs and other ecosystem incorporation associated with the carnivorous interactions that cannot be conceptualized Daring Jumping Spider and brings further without first knowing about the diverse types evidence of how knowledge of arthropod of food chains. carnivory decreases preservice elementary When the findings of this study are teacher’s attitude and likelihood of considered, those that train preservice incorporation rates. All of these findings, elementary teachers find themselves in a associated with arthropod carnivory and dilemma. Preservice elementary teachers herbivory, are unique to this study. should know that specific arthropods are carnivorous so they can teach their future Implications students this essential knowledge. But when Past research has shown that preservice preservice elementary teachers learn that a elementary teachers have very low arthropod specific arthropod is carnivorous their attitudes and likelihood of incorporation rates attitude toward that arthropod decreases and (Wagler, 2010) but the factors influencing the preservice elementary teacher is far less these metrics have been elusive. This study likely to incorporate information about that confirms that when preservice elementary animal into their future science classroom. teachers learn that an arthropod is This dilemma merits future research. carnivorous their attitude toward that arthropod and their likelihood of Future Research incorporating that arthropod into their future Humans tend to be uneducated about classroom significantly decreases. This study arthropods (e.g., Kellert, 1993). The also confirms that when preservice preservice elementary teachers in this study elementary teachers learn that an arthropod is are no different. They were not aware what herbivorous their attitude toward that three of the four study’s arthropods (i.e., lady arthropod and their likelihood of

beetle, dragon fly and Bagheera kiplingi) ate incorporating that arthropod into their future (See Table 2). This is not unexpected with classroom significantly increases. The Bagheera kiplingi considering that there are participants in this study, because of this over 40,000 described species of spiders on propensity, will have a tendency to educate Earth and Bagheera kiplingi is the only their future students about specific known predominately herbaceous spider herbaceous arthropods and not about (Meehan, Olson, Reudink, Kyser & Curry, carnivorous arthropods which are an essential 2009). What is unexpected is that the component to many, if not most, global food 2013 by ESER

majority of the study’s preservice elementary - chains. In any learning environment, students teachers were not aware that lady beetles and cannot learn what they are not exposed to. If dragonflies are carnivores even though they future elementary teachers do not expose are very popular in the U.S. and the their students to carnivorous arthropods, this preservice elementary teachers had positive will greatly impact their students attitudes and likelihood of incorporation rates understanding of the diverse types of food toward them before finding out they were chains (See Table 1 for examples) because of carnivorous (See Table 3). Instead, the the sheer number of arthropod species (i.e., majority of the preservice elementary over 75% of animal species are arthropods

316 Ron Wagler and Amy Wagler

teachers thought they ate some form of plant including biodiverse arthropods in their material. future classrooms. Educational interventions Future research is needed to verify if it is that teach future elementary teachers about possible to increase preservice elementary the functional and essential need for teacher knowledge of arthropod carnivory carnivorous arthropods have the potential to and, at the same time, increase preservice positively change attitudes, increase the elementary teacher attitude and likelihood of likelihood of arthropod information incorporation. This future research study incorporation in science classrooms and should utilize a randomized design with a equip students with the skills needed to control group with an educational participate in the preservation of global intervention applied only to the treatment ecosystems. group. This educational intervention should focus on increasing the preservice elementary Acknowledgment teacher’s knowledge of the ecological role The authors would like to acknowledge carnivorous arthropods play in diverse food David Jordan for taking and allowing the chains. It should also focus on increasing the authors use of the photograph of Bagheera preservice elementary teacher’s knowledge of kiplingi. The authors would also like to thank the need for global carnivorous arthropods Drs. Christopher J. Meehan and Eric J. Olson because of the essential role they play in for assisting with contacting David Jordan. helping sustain global food chains, global food webs, global ecosystems and the References biosphere in general. Lastly, this intervention Agresti, A. (2004). Categorical data analysis, should emphasis that, without these Hoboken, NJ: John Wiley & Sons. arthropods performing these essential Albarracín, D., Johnson B. T. & Zanna, M. P. ecological services, the quality of human life (Eds.). (2005). The handbook of attitudes. would be greatly diminished or not possible Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum. (Wilson, 1987). Ideally this educational American Association for the Advancement of Science (AAAS). (1993). Benchmarks for intervention should allow individuals to science literacy. New York: Oxford interact with actual arthropods (Wagler & University Press. Wagler, 2011) but pictures can also be used if Bjerke, T., Odegardstuen, T. S. & Kaltenborn, living arthropods are not available. An B. P. (1998). Attitudes toward animals educational intervention of this nature has the among Norwegian children and potential to increase the preservice adolescents: species preferences. elementary teacher’s attitudes toward Anthrozoös, 11(4), 227-235.

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