Copyright by Lauri McInnis Thompson 2005

The Dissertation Committee for Lauri McInnis Thompson Certifies that this is the approved version of the following dissertation:

A Comparative Analysis of Burial Patterning: The Preclassic Maya Sites of Chiapa de Corzo, Kaminaljuyu, Tikal, and Colha

Committee:

Fred Valdez, Jr, Supervisor

Claud Bramblett

Maria Franklin

Joel Sherzer

David Stuart A Comparative Analysis of Burial Patterning: The Preclassic Maya Sites of Chiapa de Corzo, Kaminaljuyu, Tikal, and Colha

by

Lauri McInnis Thompson, B.A.; M.A.

Dissertation Presented to the Faculty of the Graduate School of The University of Texas at Austin in Partial Fulfillment of the Requirements for the Degree of

Doctor of Philosophy

The University of Texas at Austin December 2005

Dedicated to Donel Barry McInnis, my editor, my mentor, my Dad.

Acknowledgements

Although I wrote this dissertation, it is actually the work of many individuals without whose time and support it could never have been completed. First, I would like to thank my advisor, Dr. Fred Valdez, director of the Mesoamerican Archaeological Research Laboratory. His editorial comments not only helped me keep my dissertation manageable, but they also pushed me to produce a much better dissertation. He gave me constant direction and encouragement and afforded me many opportunities for study, research, and work. I feel fortunate to have had such an advisor – I do not think I could have asked for more. Special thanks are due to Dr. Claud Bramblett, to whom I owe my love of anthropology and osteology. Since the beginning of my studies in the summer of 1999, he has not only encouraged me, but has also cheerfully continued to be a willing part of my education. I am extremely grateful to my committee members, Drs. Maria Franklin, David Stuart, and Joel Sherzer, for their time and willingness to serve on my committee, and for their sincere support along the way. Their thoughtful insights have not only helped my dissertation, but have given me new questions and thoughts to pursue as I continue my journey in academia. I am exceedingly grateful to Dr. Thomas Hester who generously allowed me access to the unpublished Colha data. His hands-on approach to learning archaeology

v brought life to ancient lithic materials and to people of the past, and will forever impact the way I think about and teach archaeology. I would like to thank the Programme for Belize Archaeological Project for the opportunities allowed from working at such a rich site. It is an amazing place for education in the field of archaeology and the ancient Maya. I hope to be permitted to continue to have a part in future excavations and field schools. I am extremely honored to have been awarded various grants and scholarships that helped make my educational dream a reality: two scholarships from the Hispanic Scholarship Fund; the Kathryn Spence Nance Memorial Scholarship and the Bernice Milburn Moore Scholarship from the Texas Exes Association; and two grants for my fieldwork from the University of Texas at Austin Study Abroad Office. The financial support of these institutions was an integral part of my educational success.

I am forever grateful to the staff of the Anthropology Department at the University of Texas at Austin for their support throughout my years of study. Their support was emotional – always extremely encouraging, and logistical – always making sure I had what I needed in terms of paperwork and paychecks. I would especially like to mention Pam Becker, Jenni Jones, and Andi Shively for helping me successfully navigate the sometimes turbulent waters of the graduate school experience. My field friends, Gaye Gaither and Liwy Grazioso, though they live far away, have both been great sources of support. Gaye provided me with necessary reality checks along the way; her dry wit always made me smile. Liwy supplied me with pertinent publications unavailable in the United States and a warm friendship that I treasure. I owe Palma Buttles-Valdez a huge thank you for helping me negotiate the conversion of electronic files – a necessity to be allowed to actually graduate! I also want

vi to recognize her as a supportive ear and smiling face at my defense, she will probably never know how much that meant. To Dr. Shirley Mock, I am eternally indebted for the tremendous opportunity she gave me, to grow in both knowledge and confidence, when she entrusted me with her “Red Lady of Saktunja”. She is not only a role model for me, but also a dear friend. I look forward to many more shared field experiences and academic collaborations. I am grateful to Dr. Brandon Lewis, the Director of the Dos Barbaras Project under permit granted by the Institute of Archaeology to PfBAP, for allowing me to participate in many excavations involving skeletal materials. The experience was invaluable to my growth as both an archaeologist and an osteologist. His sense of humor in the field was an added bonus! I hopefully look forward to shared future field seasons.

I would like to thank Frank and Julie Saul, the best of dig partners and true comrades of some interesting field experiences. They acted well beyond their role as mentors – they became friends who encouraged me both in my studies and my life, never failing to extend opportunities to learn. To Heather Ball, my friend, who encouraged me to return to school and to achieve what was possible. Without her, I might never have continued my education and thereby missed discovering the world of anthropology which I dearly love. For her friendship and support, I give my special thanks.

To Amy Erhlich and Anne Houser, friends from my daughter Hailley’s early years, who made my return to school possible by generously opening their homes not only at some very early hours, but also for frequently extended hours during my first semester of summer school (1999). Their kindness permitted me to leave Hailley in great care, thus allowing me to focus on my studies while she was having fun! Due to their

vii help, my first foray back to school was a success and helped pave the way to where I stand today. I am eternally indebted to them. I also need to extend a huge thanks to a great many field friends, undergraduate coworkers, and graduate compatriots for their friendship, encouragement, and on occasion supportive shoulders. The list is long, and undoubtedly someone is unintentionally left off – for this I apologize in advance: Laura Alport, Grant Aylesworth, Ray Drainville, Ashley Gosselin-Ildari, Eva Garrett, Rigden Glaab, Pam Gellar, David Hyde, Glen Jones, Yoav Me-Bar, Richard Meadows, Rachel Menegaz, Magda Muchlinski, Micaela Obledo, Marisol Rincon-Cortes, Jenny Saul, Anne Scott, Christyna Solhan, Rissa Trachman, Skye Wagner and family, Brigette Wetz, Katherine Whitcome, and Adrienne Witzel.

To Dr. John Kappelman, I am grateful for his patience as a boss, and thankful for the sense of perspective and sanity that he has helped me keep along the way. Our coffees and lunches gave me mental and physical sustenance, I will be forever appreciative for all of his encouragement and friendship. I owe my children, Hailley and Ricky Thompson, a huge debt of gratitude, for their understanding and patience as I pursued a goal that made enormous demands on my mental capacity, time, and energy. They are great kids who make me proud. Special thanks are due to Michael Martin, for his persistent push to finish, for his ability to help me focus on the pertinent issues when I was sidetracked with worry (which was often), and for always willingly pitching in to help out, on all fronts of my life. His patience with me was greatly appreciated. Without his love and encouragement, the perseverance of my educational quest would have surely wavered. Finally, I want to acknowledge the contribution of my parents, Don and Lorraine (Txa Txa) McInnis. My mom, Txa Txa, with her cheering and encouragement and

viii unflagging faith in my endeavors, has been a constant source of strength. My dad, Don, to whom this dissertation is dedicated, is the armchair archaeologist who first inspired my wanderlust. He has been my rock (and my editor); without his constant help and encouragement, this work would not have come to fruition. His love of learning has been my inspiration as I pursued my studies.

ix A Comparative Analysis of Burial Patterning: The Preclassic Maya Sites of Chiapa de Corzo, Kaminaljuyu, Tikal, and Colha

Publication No.______

Lauri McInnis Thompson, PhD. The University of Texas at Austin, 2005

Supervisor: Fred Valdez, Jr.

Understanding cultures of the past is an endeavor that can be approached from many directions, with one of the most common paths being archaeology’s traditional focus on the material remains of civilizations. It is, however, the case that many of the ruins and monuments that provide such obvious evidence of these cultures also serve as the final resting places for their creators. Analyses of ancient peoples and their inhumation (burial) practices can yield valuable information about their behavior and life ways as well as the culture’s social and demographic structure.

William Coe once stated, with regard to the human skeletal remains of Piedras

Negras, that “Observations and measurements, when feasible, have been given in the hope that someday there will be sufficient data for a revealing synthesis of Maya skeletal remains” (Coe 1959:121). Today, 46 years later, that synthesis does not yet exist. Most

x previous osteological research has consisted of simple reports on metric analysis, aging, sexing, pathology, and stature of remains from a single locale.

This dissertation attempts an answer to William Coe’s call for synthesis by undertaking a systematic osteological study of four major sites across the Maya area: the highland Maya site of Kaminaljuyu, Guatemala, the lowland Maya sites of Tikal,

Guatemala and Colha, Belize, and Chiapa de Corzo in Mexico (Figure 1). Descriptions of osteological collections and related materials have been used to construct a composite database of all currently reported burials and/or documented human skeletal remains from the Preclassic period of these sites. This database provides a basis for a comparative look at the empirical skeletal data and social issues, including the construction of gender roles. The comparison on both micro and macro levels: the individual sites and the larger areas of association including relationships between the represented regions of the Maya Highlands, the Maya Lowlands, and Chiapas allows for plausible hypotheses regarding the Preclassic Maya from the apparent trends and the noticeable variations in the data.

xi Table of Contents

Table of Contents...... xii

List of Tables ...... xx

List of Charts...... xxii

List of Figures...... xxvi

Acknowledgements...... v

Abstract...... x

Chapter 1. Introduction ...... 1

Chapter 2. Definition of Terms and Method of Analysis ...... 16

Chapter 3. Chiapa de Corzo Background and Description...... 41 Chapter 4. Chiapa de Corzo Burial Data ...... 48 Dili Phase - Middle Preclassic Burials...... 49 Burial 63B...... 49 Burial 117...... 51 Burial 118...... 53 Burial 130...... 55 Escalera Phase - Late Preclassic A Burials...... 57 Burial 1...... 57 Burial 2...... 59 Burial 3...... 61 Burial 4...... 63 Burial 5...... 65 Burial 6...... 67 Burial 9...... 69 Burial 23...... 71 Burial 26...... 73 Burial 64...... 75 xii Burial 178 & 178a...... 77 Burial 179...... 81 Burial 180...... 83 Burial 181...... 85 Burial 182...... 87 Francesa Phase - Late Preclassic B Burials ...... 89 Burial 8...... 89 Burial 11A...... 91 Burial 12...... 93 Burial 13...... 95 Burial 14...... 97 Burial 15...... 99 Burial 16...... 101 Burial 18...... 103 Burial 19...... 105 Burial 20...... 107 Burial 28...... 109 Burial 29...... 111 Burial 30...... 113 Burial 33...... 115 Burial 34...... 117 Burial 35...... 119 Burial 46...... 121 Burial 47...... 123 Burial 48...... 125 Burial 49 A, B, C ...... 128 Burial 50...... 130 Burial 51A...... 132 Burial 63A...... 134 Burial 65...... 136 Burial 74...... 138 xiii Burial 75...... 140 Burial 78...... 142 Burial 81...... 144 Burial 82...... 146 Burial 100...... 148 Burial 101...... 150 Burial 102...... 152 Burial 103...... 154 Burial 104...... 156 Burial 105...... 158 Burial 106...... 160 Burial 107...... 162 Burial 108...... 164 Burial 109...... 166 Burial 110...... 168 Burial 111...... 170 Burial 112...... 172 Burial 114...... 174 Burial 115...... 176 Burial 127...... 178 Burial 128...... 180 Burial 131...... 182 Burial 132...... 184 Burial 133...... 186 Burial 134...... 188 Burial 135...... 190 Burial 139...... 192 Burial 140...... 194 Burial 141...... 196 Burial 142...... 199 Burial 149...... 201 xiv Burial 151...... 205 Burial 170...... 207 Burial 177...... 209 Burial Tr.B-1...... 211 Mango Seco Burial 1 ...... 213 Guanacaste Phase - Late Preclassic C Burials ...... 215 Tomb 7...... 215 Tomb 8...... 220 Burial 10...... 222 Burial 22...... 224 Burial 24...... 227 Burial 51...... 229 Burial 52...... 231 Burial 53...... 233 Burial 54...... 235 Burial 55...... 237 Burial 56...... 239 Burial 76...... 241 Burial 77...... 243 Burial 144...... 245 Chiapa de Cozo Data Tables...... 247 Chiapa de Corzo Data Charts...... 274 Chapter 5. Chiapa de Corzo Findings...... 291 Chapter 6. Kaminaljuyu Background and Description...... 302 Chapter 7. Kaminaljuyu Burial Data ...... 313 Las Charcas Phase - Middle Preclassic Burials ...... 314 Pit l ...... 314 Providencia Phase - Middle Preclassic Burials...... 316 Mound B-V-6 Burial 1...... 316 Verbena-Arenal Phase - Late Preclassic Burials ...... 318 Mound A-VI-5/Operation D-311...... 318 xv Mound A-VI-6 Burial 1 ...... 320 Mound A-VI-6 Burial 2 ...... 322 Mound A-VI-6 Burial 3 ...... 325 Mound A-VI-6 Burial 4 ...... 328 Mound A-VI-6 Burial 6 ...... 330 Mound A-VI-6 Central Pit/Feature 17...... 332 Mound B-III-1/Feature 7 (Burial 1)...... 334 Mound B-V-15 Burial 1/Feature 9...... 336 Mound D-IV-2 Retainer Burial...... 338 Mound D-IV-2 Tomb...... 340 Mound E-III-3 Tomb I...... 342 Mound E-III-3 Tomb II...... 359 Finca Miraflores Burial 1...... 369 Finca Miraflores Burial 2...... 371 Arenal-Santa Clara Phases - Late Preclassic-Terminal Preclassic Burials....373 Mound C-II-12 (Palangana) Burial 4/Features 274,275 ...... 373 Santa Clara-Aurora-Esperanze-Amatle Phases - Late Terminal Preclassic -Late Classic Burials...... 376 Mound A-VI-6 Burial 5 ...... 376 Kaminaljuyu Data Tables ...... 378 Kaminaljuyu Data Charts...... 392 Chapter 8. Kaminaljuyu Findings...... 408 Chapter 9. Tikal Background and Description ...... 417 Chapter 10. Tikal Burial Data...... 423 Eb Complex - Middle Preclassic Burials...... 424 Burial 62...... 424 Burial 120...... 426 Tzec Complex - Middle Preclassic Burials...... 428 Burial 158...... 428 Chuen Complex - Late Preclassic Burials ...... 430 Burial 121...... 430 xvi Burial 122...... 432 Burial 123...... 434 Burial 126...... 436 Burial 164...... 438 Cauac Complex - Late Preclassic Burials...... 440 Burial 85...... 440 Burial 128...... 443 Burial 166...... 445 Burial 167...... 449 Cauac - Cimi (Transition) - Late Preclassic Burials ...... 453 Burial 125...... 453 Tikal Data Tables...... 455 Tikal Data Charts ...... 467 Chapter 11. Tikal Findings ...... 483 Chapter 12. Colha Background and Description ...... 491 Chapter 13. Colha Burial Data...... 499 Preclassic (unspecified) Burials...... 500 CH Operation 2012 Subop 3 Burial 1...... 500 Operation 2012 Subop 14 Burial 102 ...... 502 Operation 2012 Subop 14 Burial 103 ...... 504 Operation 2012 Subop 14 Burial 104 ...... 506 Middle Preclassic Burials ...... 508 Operation 2012 Subop 12 Strat 61...... 508 Operation 2012 Subop 12 Strat 67...... 510 Operation 2012 Subop 12 Strat 68...... 512 Operation 2012 Subop 12 Strat 72...... 514 Operation 2012 Subop 12 Strat 73...... 516 Operation 2012 Subop 12 Strat 74 Burials A & B...... 518 Operation 2012 Subop 12 Strat 75...... 521 Operation 2012 Subop 12 Strat 76...... 523 Operation 2012 Subop 12 Strat 77...... 526 xvii Operation 2031 Subop 3 Strat 54...... 528 Operation 2031 Subop 3 Strat 57...... 530 Operation 2031 Subop 3 Strat 59...... 532 Operation 2031 Subop 3 Strat 63...... 534 Operation 2031 Lot 218...... 536 Operation 2031 Lot 219...... 538 Operation 2031 Lot 238...... 540 Middle-Late Preclassic Burials...... 542 Operation 2012 Subop 3 (2nd Zone) Burial 1 ...... 542 Operation 2012 Subop 3 (2nd Zone) Burial 2 ...... 544 Late Preclassic Burials...... 546 CH Operation 2012 Subop 3 Burial 2...... 546 Operation 2012 Subop 5 ...... 548 Operation 2031 Lot 87...... 551 Operation 2031 Lot 95...... 553 Operation 2031 Lot 107...... 555 Operation 2031 Lot 110...... 557 Operation 2031 Lot 116...... 564 Operation 2031 Lot 117...... 566 Operation 2031 Lot 118...... 568 Operation 2031 Lot 122...... 570 Operation 2031 Lot 125...... 572 Operation 2031 Lot 127...... 575 Operation 2031 Lot 136...... 577 Operation 2031 Lot 137...... 579 Operation 2031 Lot 142...... 581 Operation 2031 Lot 165...... 583 Operation 2031 Lot 184...... 585 Operation 2031 Lot 203...... 587 Operation 2031 Lot 214...... 589 Operation 2031 Lot 215...... 591 xviii Operation 2031 Lot 223...... 593 Colha Data Tables...... 596 Colha Data Charts...... 619 Chapter 14. Colha Findings ...... 635 Chapter 15. Composite Charts ...... 645 Chapter 16. Composite Data Summary and Interpretation...... 664 Chapter 17. Research Summation and Concluding Remarks ...... 680 Appendices...... 690

Bibliography ...... 703

Vita ...... 725

xix List of Tables

Table 1. Preclassic Chiapa de Corzo Burial Divisions (Temporal)...... 247 Table 2. Preclassic Chiapa de Corzo Age Distribution...... 250 Table 3. Preclassic Chiapa de Corzo Sex Distribution ...... 253 Table 4. Preclassic Chiapa de Corzo Burial Positions...... 256 Table 5. Preclassic Chiapa de Corzo Burial Directional Orientation Positions...261 Table 6. Preclassic Chiapa de Corzo Pathology/Trauma ...... 264 Table 7. Preclassic Chiapa de Corzo Cultural Modifications and Trephination..265 Table 8. Preclassic Chiapa de Corzo Cinnabar/Red Ochre...... 266 Table 9. Preclassic Chiapa de Corzo Evidence of Burning ...... 267 Table 10. Preclassic Chiapa de Corzo Grave Goods ...... 268 Table 11. Preclassic Kaminaljuyu Burial Divisions (Temporal)...... 378 Table 12. Preclassic Kaminaljuyu Age Distribution...... 379 Table 13. Preclassic Kaminaljuyu Sex Distribution ...... 380 Table 14. Preclassic Kaminaljuyu Burial Positions...... 381 Table 15. Preclassic Kaminaljuyu Burial Directional Orientation Positions...... 383 Table 16. Preclassic Kaminaljuyu Pathology/Trauma ...... 384 Table 17. Preclassic Kaminaljuyu Cultural Modifications and Trephination...... 385

Table 18. Preclassic Kaminaljuyu Cinnabar/Red Ochre...... 386 Table 19. Preclassic Kaminaljuyu Evidence of Burning ...... 387 Table 20. Preclassic Kaminaljuyu Grave Goods ...... 388 Table 21. Preclassic Tikal Burial Divisions (Temporal) ...... 455 Table 22. Preclassic Tikal Age Distribution...... 456 Table 23. Preclassic Tikal Sex Distribution...... 457

xx Table 24. Preclassic Tikal Burial Positions ...... 458 Table 25. Preclassic Tikal Burial Directional Orientation Positions ...... 459 Table 26. Preclassic Tikal Pathology/Trauma ...... 460 Table 27. Preclassic Tikal Cultural Modifications and Trephination...... 461 Table 28. Preclassic Tikal Cinnabar/Red Ochre...... 462 Table 29. Preclassic Tikal Evidence of Burning...... 463 Table 30. Preclassic Tikal Grave Goods...... 464 Table 31. Preclassic Colha Burial Divisions (Temporal) ...... 596

Table 32. Preclassic Colha Age Distribution...... 598 Table 33. Preclassic Colha Sex Distribution...... 601 Table 34. Preclassic Colha Burial Positions ...... 604 Table 35. Preclassic Colha Burial Directional Orientation Positions...... 607 Table 36. Preclassic Colha Pathology/Trauma ...... 610 Table 37. Preclassic Colha Cultural Modifications and Trephination...... 614 Table 38. Preclassic Colha Cinnabar/Red Ochre...... 615 Table 39. Preclassic Colha Evidence of Burning...... 616 Table 40. Preclassic Colha Grave Goods...... 617

xxi List of Charts

Preclassic Chiapa de Corzo Burials Chart 1. Divisions (Temporal) ...... 274 Chart 1a. Percentages of Total Burials ...... 275 Chart 1b. Aggregate of Burials and Individuals ...... 276 Chart 2. Age at Death Distribution ...... 277 Chart 2a. Age at Death Distribution by Phase ...... 278 Chart 2b. Age at Death Percentage Distribution...... 279 Chart 3. Sex Distribution by Phase...... 280 Chart 3a. Relative Sex Distribution ...... 281 Chart 4. Position Relative Distribution (Extended, Flexed, Seated)...... 282 Chart 4a. Position Distribution by Phase (Extended, Flexed, Seated)...... 283 Chart 4b. Position Distribution by Phase (Supine, Prone, Left, Right) ...... 284 Chart 4c. Relative Position Distribution (Supine, Prone, Left, Right) ...... 285 Chart 5. Cranium Positions by Phase...... 286 Chart 5a. Pedal Positions by Phase...... 287 Chart 6. Pathology/Trauma...... 288 Chart 7. Grave Goods Distribution ...... 289

Chart 7a. Grave Good Percentages ...... 290

Preclassic Kaminaljuyu Burials Chart 8. Divisions (Temporal) ...... 392 Chart 8a. Percentages of Total Burials ...... 393 Chart 8b. Aggregate of Burials and Individuals ...... 394 Chart 9. Age at Death Distribution ...... 395

xxii Chart 9a. Age at Death Distribution by Phase ...... 396 Chart 9b. Age at Death Percentage Distribution...... 397 Chart 10. Sex Distribution by Phase...... 398 Chart 10a. Sex Relative Distribution ...... 399 Chart 11. Position Relative Distribution (Extended, Flexed, Seated)...... 400 Chart 11a. Distribution by Phase (Extended, Flexed, Seated)...... 401 Chart 11b. Distribution by Phase (Supine, Prone, Left Right) ...... 402 Chart 11c. Relative Position Distribution (Supine, Prone, Left Right) ...... 403

Chart 12. Cranium Positions by Phase...... 404 Chart 13. Pathology/Trauma...... 405 Chart 14. Grave Goods Distribution ...... 406 Chart 14a. Grave Good Percentages ...... 407

Preclassic Tikal Burials Chart 15. Divisions (Temporal) ...... 467 Chart 15a. Percentages of Total Burials ...... 468 Chart 15b. Aggregate of Burials and Individuals ...... 469 Chart 16. Age at Death Distribution ...... 470 Chart 16a. Age at Death Distribution by Phase ...... 471 Chart 16b. Age at Death Percentage Distribution...... 472

Chart 17. Sex Distribution by Phase...... 473 Chart 17a. Sex Relative Distribution ...... 474 Chart 18. Position Relative Distribution (Extended, Flexed, Seated)...... 475 Chart 18a. Distribution by Phase (Extended, Flexed, Seated)...... 476 Chart 18b. Distribution by Phase (Supine, Prone, Left, Right) ...... 477 Chart 18c. Relative Position Distribution (Supine, Prone, Left, Right) ...... 478

xxiii Chart 19. Cranium Positions by Phase...... 479 Chart 20. Pathology/Trauma...... 480 Chart 21. Grave Goods Distribution ...... 481 Chart 21a. Grave Good Percentages ...... 482

Preclassic Colha Burials Chart 22. Divisions (Temporal) ...... 619 Chart 22a. Percentages of Total Burials ...... 620 Chart 22b. Aggregate of Burials and Individuals ...... 621

Chart 23. Age at Death Distribution ...... 622 Chart 23a. Age at Death Distribution by Phase ...... 623 Chart 23b. Age at Death Percentage Distribution...... 624 Chart 24. Sex Distribution by Phase...... 625 Chart 24a. Sex Relative Distribution ...... 626 Chart 25. Position Relative Distribution (Extended, Flexed, Seated)...... 627 Chart 25a. Distribution by Phase (Extended, Flexed, Seated)...... 628 Chart 25b. Distribution by Phase (Supine, Prone, Left, Right) ...... 629 Chart 25c. Position Relative Distribution (Supine, Prone, Left, Right) ...... 630 Chart 26. Cranium Positions by Phase...... 631 Chart 27. Pathology/Trauma...... 632

Chart 28. Grave Goods Distribution ...... 633 Chart 28a. Grave Good Percentages ...... 634

Preclassic Intersite Comparisons and Aggregates Chart 29. Burials Intersite...... 646 Chart 30. Individuals Intersite ...... 647 Chart 31. Burials and Individuals Intersite ...... 648

xxiv Chart 32. Burials and Individuals Aggregate (Temporal Divisions) ...... 649 Chart 33. Burial Aggregate Percentages (Temporal Divisions) ...... 650 Chart 34. Individual Aggregate Percentages (Temporal Divisions)...... 651 Chart 35. Age at Death Intersite ...... 652 Chart 36. Age at Death Aggregate...... 653 Chart 37. Age at Death Aggregate Percentages...... 654 Chart 38. Sex Intersite Distribution ...... 655 Chart 39. Sex Aggregate Percentages...... 656

Chart 40. Burial Positions (Extended, Flexed, Seated) Aggregate...... 657 Chart 40a. Burial Positions (Supine, Prone, Left, Right) Aggregate...... 658 Chart 41. Cranial Orientation Aggregate Percentages...... 659 Chart 42. Cultural Modifications and Trephination Intersite...... 660 Chart 43. Cinnabar/Red Ochre/Pigment Intersite ...... 661 Chart 44. Evidence of Burning Intersite ...... 662 Chart 45. Grave Goods Intersite ...... 663

xxv List of Figures

Figure 1. Map of Maya Area Indicating Sites of Focus ...... 3 Figure 2. Tabular Erect Cranial Modification...... 21 Figure 3. Tabular Oblique Cranial Modification...... 21 Figure 4 Orbicular Erect Cranial Modification ...... 22 Figure 5 Orbicular Oblique Cranial Modification...... 22 Figure 6 Cranial Modification Pressure Examples...... 23 Figure 7. Romero Teeth Modifications (Preclassic Sites of Focus)...... 24 Figure 8. Simple (extended) Burial ...... 27 Figure 9. Fill Burial...... 27 Figure 10. Urn Burial ...... 28 Figure 11. Covered Burial Cist Drawing...... 29 Figure 12. Covered Burial Cist Photo ...... 29 Figure 13. Tomb Burial...... 30 Figure 14. Pit Burial ...... 31 Figure 15. Mound B-V-15 Pit Burial ...... 31 Figure 16. Chultun Burial...... 33 Figure 17. Uncapped Cist Burial Drawing...... 34

Figure 18. Uncapped Cist Burial Photo...... 34 Figure 19. Extended (supine) Burial ...... 37 Figure 20. Flexed Burial...... 37 Figure 21. Seated Burial (semi-recumbent position)...... 38 Figure 22. Chiapa de Corzo Site Map ...... 42 Figure 23. Chiapa de Corzo Southwest Quadrant ...... 43

xxvi Figure 24. Kaminaljuyu Site Map ...... 303 Figure 25. Tikal Site Map...... 418 Figure 26. Colha Site Map ...... 492 Figure 27. Colha Monumental Site Center Map ...... 494

xxvii Chapter One

Introduction

Understanding cultures of the past is an endeavor that can be approached from many directions, with one of the most common paths being archaeology’s traditional focus on the material remains of civilizations. It is, however, the case that many of the ruins and monuments that provide such obvious evidence of these cultures also serve as the final resting places for their creators. Analyses of ancient peoples and their inhumation (burial) practices can yield valuable information about their behavior and lifeways as well as the culture’s social and demographic structure. My specific research interest, using these analyses, is to better the understanding of the cultural and biological dimensions of ancient civilizations by connecting specific health issues to actions in life, offering insights into the full range of an individual’s behaviors including habitual activities, specific events, social status, and gender role(s). Such reconstructions include, for example, the demographic composition and genetic relationships of the population, the structure of hierarchical differentiation, disease presence and absence, and evidence of ritual activity such as warfare, sacrifice, and cultural skeletal modifications.

William Coe once stated, with regard to the human skeletal remains of Piedras

Negras, that “Observations and measurements, when feasible, have been given in the hope that someday there will be sufficient data for a revealing synthesis of Maya skeletal remains” (Coe 1959:121). Today, 46 years later, that synthesis of skeletal analysis data does not yet exist. Most previous osteological research has consisted of simple reports on metric analysis, aging, sexing, pathology, and stature of remains from a single locale. 1 This dissertation attempts an answer to William Coe’s call for a synthesis of

Maya skeletal remains by undertaking a systematic osteological study of four major sites

across the Maya area: the highland Maya site of Kaminaljuyu, Guatemala, the lowland

Maya sites of Tikal, Guatemala and Colha, Belize, and Chiapa de Corzo in Mexico

(Figure 1). Descriptions of osteological collections and related materials have been used

to construct a composite database of all currently reported burials and/or documented

human skeletal remains from the Preclassic period of these sites. This database provides

a basis for a comparative look at the empirical skeletal data and social issues, including

the construction of gender roles. The comparison on both micro and macro levels: the

individual sites and the larger areas of association including relationships between the

represented regions of the Maya Highlands, the Maya Lowlands, and Chiapas allows for

plausible hypotheses regarding the Preclassic Maya from the apparent trends and the

noticeable variations in the data. It is hoped that this data compilation will provide

accessible and pertinent information not only to Maya scholars but also to the wider

community of physical anthropologists and archaeologists for practical cross-cultural comparisons in their own research. It is my goal to move skeletal materials out of the extraneous realm of appendices, establishing a research direction that is squarely focused on the ancient individuals themselves.

Interest in and Interpretive Value of Maya Interments

Interest in the Maya began with the chroniclers who traveled with the Spanish

Conquistadors. The interest in Maya interments dates back to the 19th century diplomatic

2

Figure 1

3 trip (1839) of John Lloyd Stephens and Frederick Catherwood. Stephens produced one of the first collaborative efforts in the investigation of a Maya burial with Dr. S. G

Morton (Buikstra 1997). Unfortunately, even though Stephens’ first collaboration yielded insights to the value of the study of interments and his dialogue examined areas of origin and lineage, these insights went largely unnoticed until the 1960’s. This was perhaps due to the travelogue-writing style of the century that relegated burials to side note status in picturesque descriptions of the grand monumental architecture.

In the 1960’s, the field of Maya archaeology began to understand the interpretive research value of human skeletal material. Until that time, excavated skeletal remains

were rarely regarded or seen as more than subsidiary data sets recapitulated in reports

focused on architecture, art, artifacts, and stratigraphy. Frank Saul’s (1972) pioneering

work at Altar de Sacrificios and the advent of biochemical analyses methods, appropriate

for application to human skeletal material, were instrumental in changing the role of

human skeletal remains in archaeology. The examination and metric analysis of human

skeletal remains allowed for an estimate of age at death, sex, stature, disease history,

trauma history, and cultural skeletal modifications (Webster 1997). This emphasized the

productivity potential of osteological analysis for both cultural and biological

dimensions.

Knowledge and understanding of the human skeleton is a requirement for reading

the record of humankind as evidenced in the archaeological record. Osteology, used

conjunctively with perspectives and data from biology, archaeology, and geology,

provides reliable metric data that is useful for attempting to understand our human 4 heritage. This collective approach of combining multiple types of analyses is a powerful method of interpretation. Composite organization is therefore crucial if there are to be comprehensive comparisons of osteological remains among sites and across regions.

Maya osteology plays a major part in the reconstruction of the lifeways of the ancient Maya and provides a greater understanding of the ancient Maya people, including males, females, and children. As detailed below, intra-site and inter-region associations from the skeletal material lend a wealth of information to hypotheses regarding issues of population structure, nutritional stress, social status and gender roles, access to resources, and social practices regarding ancestors.

The reconstruction of population structure has commonly been based on excavation data that excludes skeletal and burial remains (Haviland 1972; Ashmore 1981;

Culbert and Rice 1990). These studies have been based on structure counts taken from reconnaissance and survey. These figures were modified to account for non-residential buildings and limited use-spans for individual constructions and in conjunction, excavation data was used to estimate the number of structures in use for temporal context. The final figures from this data compilation were then multiplied by an accepted standard number of individuals, five or six (Haviland 1972), thought to have lived in each

Maya household. These numbers were then used to give population estimates for specific time periods as well as population trajectories (Chase 1997). The use of comparative population estimates based upon skeletal material, in conjunction with those derived from structural data, offers perspective of either corroboration or illumination of sampling

5 error – both valuable considerations for population hypotheses (Lowe 1964; Ruz Lhuiller

1965, 1973; Andrews and Andrews 1980; Chase 1997).

The analysis of nutritional stress evidenced within a skeletal population is not

only informative in evaluating Classic Maya collapse models based upon ecological

degradation (Willey and Shimkin 1973; Santley et al. 1986; Culbert 1988; Webster et al.

1992; Wright 1994; Wright and White 1996) but instructive, across temporal

designations, in assessing population health status as evidenced by disease processes

manifested in the skeletal remains. In the Preclassic, nutritional analyses of skeletal

material have been used in models that postulate changes in subsistence strategies (White

1988; White and Schwarcz 1989; Schwarcz and Schoeninger 1991; Schwarcz, White, and

Healy 1993; White 1994; White, Wright, and Pendergast 1994). Studies on the

occurrence of disease processes within a skeletal population e.g. Altar de Sacrificios

(Saul 1972) as well as documentation of metabolic disorders within general skeletal

remains (Ortner and Putschar 1985) can be, in some cases, directly linked to dietary

factors which in turn can be used in postulated nutritional models. Examination of

dentition from infants and children at Kaminaljuyu demonstrated weaning patterns and

dietary stress (Wright 1990; Wright 1998; Wright and Chew 1998; Wright and Schwarcz

1998). This data was used in show that there were two fundamentally different

“weaning” diets used by individuals inhumed at Kaminaljuyu. These “diets” directly affected infant health and survivorship among the ancient Maya (Wright and Schwarcz

1998). If these “skeletal and dental markers of diet and nutrition have provided convincing evidence for regional variation and the significance of local histories in 6 evaluating reasons for the Maya collapse” (Buikstra 1997), they conversely provide the

same evidence of regional variation that make them relevant in studies of the Maya in

other temporal designations (e.g. the Preclassic) as well as the Classic.

Through the use of data derived from skeletal remains, models such as those that hypothesize social status, gender roles, and access to resources are supported (or disproved). The presence of squatting facets in those termed the “hoi polloi” as opposed to the “elites” at Tikal was used to model social status (Haviland and Moholy-Nagy

1992). The stature differential and sexual dimorphism at Tikal was used to demonstrate social status, access to resources, and gender hierarchy (Haviland 1967; Márquez and

Ángel 1997; White 1997; Wright 1997). Cranial and dental modifications are used in

models representing social hierarchy or stratification (Havill et al. 1997; Saul 1972; Saul

and Saul 1997; Tiesler 1999). The skull pit at Colha was used as an indicator of sacrifice

and/or class uprising (Massey and Steele 1997).

Maya ritual and social practices regarding ancestors are also examined in light of

the data from skeletal remains to help further models of kinship and power, e.g. material

evidence for lineage organization and ancestor veneration for the legitimization of power

and privilege (Marcus 1983; Henderson and Sabloff 1993; Marcus 1993; McAnany

1995). Burials offer a unique medium for the study of the past because they are not only

a reflection of the deceased individual, but are also a reflection of the agenda of the living

(Hodder 1982, 1986; McAnany 1995; Massey and Steele 1997; Buikstra 1997; Joyce

1999).

7 Osteologists specializing in human remains have acquired and advanced a variety

of analytical techniques that help to reconstruct personal information about a skeleton.

The word osteobiography has been used to describe this activity; it is derived from the

Greek words osteon (bone), bios (life, mode of life), and graphia (to write).

Osteobiographic analysis purports “that skeletons record the life history of their

occupants in various ways” and with the right questions and analytical methods we can

extract the individual life histories, from which answers about the population as a whole

can be gained through the analysis of the individual. (Saul and Saul 1989). The

questions of osteobiographic analysis include: “Who was there? Where did they come

from? What happened to them? What can be said about their lives?” (1989). Aspects of

the archaeological record that have historically stood in isolation from one another can be

used in a conjunctive approach through osteobiographic analysis, yielding insights into an

individual’s biological life history, an estimate of age at death, the determination of sex,

and an estimation of stature. A disease history can sometimes be determined, often

including the presence of a range of diseases from dental caries to more serious health

concerns such as degenerative changes. Additionally, skeletal analysis permits

observation in the skeletal remains of trauma history and cultural (intentional) skeletal

modifications to the dentition and the cranium that are specifically antemortem (before

death).

Demographically, the sexing and aging of a population allow for estimates of the population composition – the old adult to adult to child ratio, as well as the male to

female ratio. This information in turn can provide data for postulations of life expectancy 8 within the population. Dietary reconstructions from skeletal biology add data that can be

interpreted as support (or contradiction) of hypotheses of demographic, agricultural, and

political history. Agricultural information in the form of dietary components can be

obtained through Isotopic Analysis of skeletal material and can contribute to subsistence

models. Analysis of trauma or injuries, through evidence of healed or unhealed fractures

(indicative of whether the individual survived or was killed by the trauma or injury) can

yield information about that population’s participation in warfare and ritual practices.

Cultural antemortem skeletal modifications to the dentition and the cranium can be used in proposals of interpretation of social status and ritual activity. This dissertation does not encompass the scope of Isotopic Analysis of the specimens. However, that is clearly a worthy future endeavor for a researcher and the author believes that this synthesis of data will be helpful in a researcher’s evaluation of sites for study.

Previous Compendiums of Maya Burial Data

In the interest of not recapitulating all past efforts at Maya burial organization and

since comparison of my work with previous attempts is not the focus of this dissertation,

those works will be only briefly stated. For each of those works an appendix of the sites

discussed in those respective works is given, listing them (1) in the order mentioned in

the text and (2) alphabetically, for ease of reference. My goal with this dissertation is to

begin the creation of a solid reference work synthesizing Maya burials.

The organization of Maya burial data is an intimidating task. To date, there have

been six efforts toward this estimable end.

9 O.G. Ricketson made the first attempt, Burials in the Maya Area, in 1925. In his work Ricketson described the paucity of the material and “the great unevenness of the work reported” at that time. His report encompasses approximately 24 sites (see

Appendix A). The reason for the approximation is that he mentions burials in two river valleys, but does not give specific site names within them. Ricketson concluded that the work in the Maya area at that time was “exploratory in nature” and that the anthropological side had not yet been properly investigated (Ricketson, 1925).

L.A. Ruz produced two works: Tombs and Funerary Practices in the Maya

Lowlands in the Handbook of Middle American Indians Volume 2, Part 1 (1965), and

Costumbres Funerarias de los Antiguos Mayas (1968). Both works by Ruz are expansive undertakings. The first involved the data from over 1,000 burials at 64 sites (see

Appendix B); the second included the data from over 1,000 burials at 116 sites (see

Appendix C). In both works, Ruz divided sites into geographical regions and, in the case of the 1968 text, he also separated them by political subdivisions. There is a discussion for each region that includes the number of burials along with comparisons for ceramic phases. In his second work, Ruz gives similarities and differences of the funeral practices of the Maya compared to the rest of the American continent. Ruz states in the conclusions of his first work that a “complete picture of funeral practices in the Maya lowlands” was impossible (despite all the data he presented) for several reasons: 1) large land areas had yet to be thoroughly explored, 2) only a few of the explored sites were worked extensively or studied intensively, and 3) the data presented from such was inadequate. With that said, he noted the improvement in data and data collection 10 methods since Ricketson’s attempt and he proffered observations in patterning (Ruz,

1965). Overall, these works were remarkable efforts towards a synthesis of Maya burials.

They were, however, brief excerpts per region due to the breadth of the regions studied.

W. L. Rathje presented a new slant on burial study with his 1970 work, Socio-

Political Implications of Lowland Maya Burials: Methodology and Tentative

Hypotheses, by setting up a methodology for testing hypotheses regarding socio-political

processes using data from interments. His article stated that data of over 1,000 burials

from 12 sites1 was “being coded on to punch cards” (Rathje, 1970) and he detailed the

sample tests that would be run, but the article gives the analyzed data of only five sites

from the Classic period in the presentation of his model (see Appendix D). There was no

published follow-up to this proposal.

W. B. M. Welsh, in 1988, presented a large synthesis for the Classic period using

the information from 1,170 burials at 16 sites (see Appendix E). It should be noted that

he also gave Preclassic information for eight of the sites. From his synthesis Welsh

proposed 20 “Pan Lowland Maya” burial customs and also furthered the discussion of regional practices (Welsh, 1988, pp 215-225).

C. Robin, 1989, produced a synthesis of the Preclassic burials from Cuello, Belize.

142 individuals (124 from the Preclassic), from both single and multiple interments, were

used in her study. In this publication, Cuello burial patterning was briefly compared to

ten other Maya lowland sites (see Appendix F). Robin’s publication stated that 16 of

1 These 12 sites are not given by Rathje. 11 Welsh’s 20 proposed “Pan Maya” customs may have a bearing to Cuello, but then pared

this figure down to the 11 considered in the analysis of the Cuello material.

These works were valiant attempts at a daunting task and each had its strengths.

However, as one would expect, each was also limited. Ricketson was limited by

available material – this actually still applies to all who undertake this endeavor. The

sheer size of the Maya area and its environmental conditions will forever limit the

sample. Ruz, due to the breadth of his study, was bound by space which necessitated brevity and therefore precluded the provision of specific burial data for each interment.

Welsh’s study was primarily restricted to the Classic time period and Robin’s was principally specific to the Preclassic as well as to Cuello.

My dissertation is not an exception; it, too, is limited - to both the Preclassic and

to four sites. For this dissertation’s synthesis, the Preclassic was chosen since it is the

beginning or the foundation that paved the way for the fluorescence of the Maya

civilization. The four sites presented herein were chosen to reflect geographic zone, site size, and presumed functional distinctions (i.e. workshop vs elite concentration) found in the Maya area. Kaminaljuyu represents the Maya Highland Region and Tikal is representative of the Maya Lowlands. Colha, while a Maya Lowland site, was specifically chosen to present variation in size and presumed site function. The site of

Chiapa de Corzo was chosen for the reason that it is apparent the Maya only occupied the site during the Preclassic and the subsequent occupation was by non-Maya speakers

(Adams 1991) – a curious characteristic of a rich site. The establishment of a logical foundation for this dissertation entails that I begin at the beginning and that is what I have 12 done. I have begun what I hope will be my life’s work – a compilation or synthesis of

Maya skeletal material that in the end will only be limited by what future researchers discover. My work is for the benefit of both the avid researcher and the Maya people of

Mesoamerica.

The Preclasssic

The time frame for the Preclassic (Formative) period varies slightly depending on the source; for the purposes of this dissertation, the dates of 1000 B.C. to A.D. 250 will be used. However, it should be noted that although the categories of Preclassic,

Protoclassic, Classic, and Postclassic seem to have sharp chronological boundaries, they are in fact gradual and arbitrary, but necessary for seriation. Viewed at one time “as a side issue in Maya history” (Robin 1989), the Preclassic is now understood to be the foundation for many of the institutions that are characteristic of the later Classic period civilization (Sharer with Traxler 2005). Excavations in the Maya lowlands – Altun Ha

(Pendergast 1982), Cerros (Freidel 1979), Colha (Hester et al 1982), Cuello (Hammond

1977), El Mirador (Matheny 1986), Nakbe (Hansen 1991), and Tikal (Shook 1958); and in the Maya highlands – Kaminaljuyu (Kidder 1937; Sanders and Michels 1969) and

Chiapa de Corzo (Berlin 1955; Lowe 1956) – have revealed important information regarding Preclassic populations levels and societal complexity (Sharer 1992). Once

“conceived as an age of village farming societies” (Hammond 1992), it is now indicated that it was during the Preclassic that we begin to see evidence of the development of social stratification – distinctions between elites and non-elites, as well as the advances in sophisticated religious and economic institutions. Maya civilization is now realized to 13 have been a complex and multicausal development process that covered a broad temporal

and spatial framework (Sharer with Traxler 2005) with a substantial beginning in the

Preclassic period.

Organization of Data

As a composite, there are a total of 169 burials containing 252 individuals. The organization of the data is as follows. First, background, excavation and history data are

presented along with specific phase descriptions for each site in Chapters Three, Six,

Nine, and 12. Second, each burial is presented as a separate entry with all available

pertinent information clearly listed in a uniform order. Third, following the end of each

site’s burials, tables are presented to categorize the burials into the separate headings of

temporal placement, age-at-death, sex, body position, cranial position, pathology, cultural

modifications, the presence of cinnabar/red ochre/unspecified red pigment, evidence of

burning, and grave good(s). Fourth, charts are given that present numbers and

percentages from the information contained in the tables. These provide easy reference for the assessment of trends and variations from each site. The burial data, tables and charts per site are contained in Chapters Four, Seven, Ten, and 13. Following these,

Chapters Five, Eight, 11, and 14, present findings based on the trends and variations

noted within each site in the form of a data summary and a data interpretation for intrasite

comparison. The terms of either burial/inhumation/interment, as noted in the table of

contents, or individual/subject are used dependent upon which conveys the most pertinent

information regarding the trends observed, e.g. the 13 burials/inhumations/interments at

Preclassic Tikal contained 17 individuals or subjects. Next, composite charts are given in 14 Chapter 15 which show comparison data for the four sites. In the interest of non- redundancy and a non-voluminous page count, no tables precede the composite charts.

The first part of Chapter 16 provides summation through a composite data summary and interpretation which offers analyses and hypotheses for intersite and aggregate connections. The second part of Chapter 16 attempts to use the observations and trends found in the intersite and aggregate comparisons to postulate on the construction of gender as relevant to the Preclassic Maya. Chapter 17 presents a research summary and concluding remarks.

15 Chapter Two

Definition of Terms and Method of Analysis

Definition of Terms

As mentioned in the introduction, each burial is presented as a separate entity with all pertinent information clearly listed in a uniform order. The order (defined) is as follows:

1.) Each burial is titled or numbered according to the publication data available –

meaning the burials are referenced according to their given specific site numbers (as

would be expected).

2.) Source refers to the exact text from which the description details are taken. The

author and year are given for ease of primary source referencing.

3.) Location refers to the detailed location of the specific burial given in said text

source.

4.) Dating gives the temporal placement, as best available from the source, within the Preclassic period.

5.) Chronometric (Radiocarbon, Obsidian Hydration) and Ceramic Dating is the

documentation of any notation of specific/specialized dating available within the

published material.

6.) Inventory Cranial is a listing of the cranial (skull) material that was present (or was

noted as not being present) at the time of excavation and, in some cases, the 16 documented condition of the cranial material. Where possible, it has been noted if

the material was excavated and observed but not removed, thus allowing future

researchers knowledge of the availability of skeletal remains for their studies.

7.) Inventory Postcranial is a listing of all skeletal remains below the cranium (skull)

that were present (or were noted as not being present) at the time of excavation and, in

some cases, the documented condition of said material. Where possible, it has been

noted if the postcranial remains were excavated and observed but not removed, thus

allowing future researchers knowledge of the availability of skeletal remains for their

studies.

8.) MNI indicates the minimum number of individuals in the burial. The MNI is

determined by an inventory of all skeletal materials and the identification and ‘siding’

of all bones and bone fragments. ‘Siding’ determines if the bone comes from the

right or left side of the body. The MNI count is typically determined by either the

non-duplication of skeletal elements (parts) or the occurrence of identical bones (e.g.

two left femora –upper leg bones) indicating the presence of more than one

individual. In the case of the latter determination, a count of all identical elements is

made and that number is the MNI. Where possible (from the published literature), it

is noted how the MNI was determined. However, even if common sense directs that

in some cases where the MNI has to be one, this dissertation does not assume or note

that basis.

17 9.) Age at Death gives the assessed age-at-death category. Categories and category

definition vary slightly by site. However, this synthesis has reconciled and combined

certain categories to give as uniform and comparable a data set as possible.

The following are the age-at-death categories used for all sites except Colha2. A

brief description3 of each category follows:

Fetal (Conception to Birth) - poorly ossified cortical bone, size; very difficult to

differentiate from early infancy.

Infant (0-2 years) - fusion of vertebral bones from three pieces to one, fusion of the

frontal bone of the cranium from two to one, and the fusion of the sphenoid, also a

cranial bone, from three to one.

Early Childhood (3-5 years) - deciduous dentition with no eruption of first molar,

fusion of the occipital bone (cranial bone) in the lateral, squamous, and basilar

portions.

Late Childhood (6-12 years) – eruption of the first and second molars, fusion of the

pelvis from three parts to one.

Adolescence (13-24 years) – eruption of the third molar, complete fusion of

most epiphyses (secondary centers of ossification/bone formation, these centers are

separated from the primary centers by an epiphyseal plate/growth plate).

Young Adulthood (25-49 years) – completion of epiphyseal fusion, including

2 Colha age-at-death categories used are from Saul and Saul. 1991. The Preclassic Population of Cuello in Cuello an Early Maya Community in Belize. edited by N. Hammond. p135. Cambridge University Press. Cambridge. 3 Taken from Steele and Bramblett. 1988. The Anatomy and Biology of the Human Skeleton. Texas A&M University Press. College Station. 18 clavicle epiphysis fusion – the medial side (toward the body) of the clavicle is the

last epiphysis to fuse. The termination of this stage is actually more difficult to

assess due to human variation; it has been noted that active fusion of cranial sutures

occurs in the mid-forties to late-fifties in a North American sample (Meindl and

Lovejoy, 1985). It has also been noted, by Todd (1920-21), McKern and Stewart

(1957), and Gilbert and McKern (1973), that during Young Adulthood the pubic

symphysis does not display a notable degradation.

Old Adulthood (50+ years) – evident skeletal degradation (decay); significant

changes (erosion) in most articular surfaces; severe dental attrition4 and

antemortem tooth loss; rarefication (thinning) of most skeletal elements. Pathology

such as arthritis may be noted but cannot be used as a positive identifier of age due

to the fact that it can be a result of occupation or habitual activity rather than age.

Where possible, the method of, and/or bones used in, assessment is given to provide researchers with enough information to evaluate the accuracy of the age-at-death claim.

10.) Dental Attrition notes the amount of wear present on the teeth.

11.) Sex. This refers to the identification of a male or female. Sex is biological, gender

is a cultural construction. The pelvis traditionally provides the most diagnostic

indicator of sex because a biological female’s pelvis must allow for the passage of a

4 Dental attrition can be indicative of age or of diet – dependent on amount of grit (dirt and sand) found in food. This is common given the mano/metate usage in the processing of corn, a common foodstuff in the Ancient Maya diet. Therefore, it is necessary to use other diagnostic features in conjunction with dental attrition in the evaluation of age at death. 19 child during child birth and at a relatively advanced state of maturation – late

adolescence/young adult – sexual dimorphism (differences between male and

female) can be reliably measured. Teeth, humeral and femoral head measurements,

and cranial morphology can also be used to infer sex due to the general difference of

robusticity between males and females. Variation of robusticity within a population

prohibits the use of the traits listed above as positive sex identifiers; only the pelvis

allows for a positive identification. Generally speaking, the more complete the

skeletal remains, the greater the accuracy in sexing the remains.

Where possible, the method of assessment is noted to provide researchers with information to evaluate the accuracy of the sex determination.

12.) Stature is the approximate height of a person at the time of death. This estimate is

calculated using long bone measurements and regression formulae. Complete bones

give the most reliable estimates; however, there are formulae that utilize incomplete

bones. The most accurate bones to use are (in descending order) the leg, the arm,

and the hand. The regression formulae used for this dissertation are the Genovés

formulae (1970).

13.) Pathology and Trauma refer to the identification of disease processes as manifested

in the skeletal material (pathology), and the identification of injury (trauma –

intentional or accidental). Both the process or trauma and the bone affected are

noted.

20 14.) Cultural Modification(s) denote the physical change of shape created in either the

skeletal material (specifically the cranium) or the dentition, or both.

According to Robin (1989) the only type of cranial shaping seen in the Maya area

is what is referred to as tabular shaping. However, an example observed at

Preclassic Tikal (Burial 166) exhibits two individuals with cranial shaping referred

to as orbicular shaping.

Tabular shaping is generally divided into two categories, erect and oblique. In

general, tabular shaping is produced through the compression of the frontal and

occipital areas of the cranium by the use of boards (Figure 6). The difference

between erect (Figure 2) and oblique (Figure 3) is determined by the location of

pressure on the occipital. For tabular erect, the pressure is applied to the upper

squamous portion of the occipital. “The pressure involves the entire lambdoid

Figure 2 Figure 3

21 area (parietals and occipital), i.e., the three bones that join at the lambda, and is applied in a decubitus (cradle) position”. For tabular oblique style modifications, the area of compression is the entire occipital (Dembo and Imbelloni 1938) (Comas

1960).

Orbicular shaping, like tabular, is subdivided into the categories of erect and oblique. Orbicular shaping is produced through a circular compression of the cranium by the use of bandages or bands (Figure 6). The difference between erect

(Figure 4) and oblique (Figure 5) is determined by the amount of compression placed on the lambdoid. Orbicular shaping is also referred to as psuedocircular (Comas

1960).

Figure 4

Figure 5 22

Figure 6

It should be noted that there is tremendous semantic variation throughout both the literature and the individual field reports. Unfortunately, there is no universally accepted terminology and much of what is given in field reports are descriptive observations which leave ample room for individual interpretation as to what type of modification was found.

23 Dental Modification(s) seen in the Maya area are categorized according to

Romero 1970. Figure 7 shows the Romero classifications exhibited in the Preclassic interments from the sites of Chiapa de Corzo and Colha. Note that no dental modifications existed in the skeletal populations of Preclassic Kaminaljuyu or Preclassic

Tikal.

Romero classification A demonstrates alterations to the occlusal (or biting) edge.

The type B shows one angle of the crown is modified. The type E is characterized by

either incrustations or beveling of nearly the whole labial (lip as opposed to tongue) side

(Romero 1970).

Figure 7

24 15.) The Burial Specifications section contains information concerning grave type, body

position, cranium orientation, feet position, grave goods, and (grave goods) positions.

Grave Typology definitions are variable due to individual interpretations and

preferences. Welsh (1988) noted the issue of numerous definitions with no consistent

typology due to the fact that most authors were concerned solely with classifying and presenting burials from their respective sites. Welsh then created a comprehensive typology, based solely on morphological characteristics, which was used by Robin (1989) in the analysis of the Preclassic burials at Cuello, Belize. Robin noted that “It would certainly be advantageous if Maya archaeologists would use one classification scheme of grave types”, and in that interest, employed Welsh’s typology. While it would be an ideal situation to have all Maya archaeologists use the same definitions and criteria for the typology of graves, I am hesitant to change or reinterpret the typology assigned by the original excavators. Instead what follows (by site) are the standardized definitions that were used by the individuals working each site either during the time of excavation or at the time of publication. They are listed in order of occurrence. For the sites that did not specifically define the typology that they used, the definitions of Welsh (1988) have been employed for the purpose of homogeneity and elaboration. It should be noted that for the terms grave and burial, this dissertation follows the definitions of A. L. Smith (1950):

“The term burial includes everything connected with an interment, i.e., grave, skeletal material, and associated objects. The term grave is used as a general heading for the various types of resting places prepared to receive the dead…” Figures illustrating the 25 various types of graves are shown with the first site at which they are listed. The figures

are labeled burials since they depict both the grave and the skeletal material.

Chiapa de Corzo Grave Typology (Preclassic)

For the site of Chiapa de Corzo, in the largest compilation of burials (The

Archaeological Burials at Chiapa de Corzo and Their Furniture; Agrinier 1964) Agrinier followed the terms used by William Coe (1959:120) and stated that he employed these terms “in order to avoid the use of a new terminology”. Chiapa de Corzo burials are labeled as Simple, Fill, Urn, Covered Burial Cist and Tomb. When referring to the

Chiapa de Corzo burials, this dissertation employs the same definitions used by Agrinier

(1964):

Simple Grave: A. L. Smith’s definition (also used by Coe, 1959); “a simple grave is

an unlined hole (Figure 8) or inclusion of a body in fill (Figure 9) during

construction” (Agrinier, 1964), (Smith, 1950). For the site of Chiapa de

Corzo, a simple grave was sometimes constructed with an unworked

capstone.

26

Figure 8

Figure 9

27 Urn (Figure 10): This category, while not defined under “grave types” in Agrinier

(1964), is used as a grave type within this study (e.g. Burial 135).

For this dissertation, an urn burial is defined as a burial in which the

skeletal material is enclosed within a ceramic vessel (or vessels).

Figure 10

Welsh (1988) argued that a grave type classified as urn was incorrect, saying that it confused method of disposal with grave morphology. He stated that urn burials should be classified according to the morphology of the graves in which the urns were placed.

However, for this dissertation, the burials are classified according to the original excavators’ designations and therefore the grave type of urn is used.

I would also like to argue that while Welsh may be correct in not defining an urn

burial as a grave type, designation as a variety, or a subtype, of the morphological

classification of the place of interment is not only appropriate but necessary if an accurate assessment is to be done of burial patterning in the Maya area. 28 Covered Burial Cist: Agrinier employs Coe’s definition from Satterthwaite (1954) that

a covered burial cist (Figures 11 and 12) is constructed with cover

slabs (capstones) supported by a single stone coursing (Coe,1959).

It should be noted that this corresponds with A.L. Smith’s crypt

designation.

Figure 11 Figure 12

29

Tomb (Figure 13): “A comparatively large mortuary structure with definite walls that

rise to a roof…” (Agrinier, 1964), (Coe, 1959).

Figure 13

Kaminaljuyu Grave Typology (Preclassic)

The Preclassic Kaminaljuyu graves are categorized as two types; pit or tomb burials. It should be noted that the definition and use of the term “pit”, when assigning grave typology, at Kaminaljuyu is broad.

Pit (Figure 14): Defined by Welsh (1988) as a variety of simple, a pit burial is an

“unlined hole or pit dug into soil, bedrock, fill or rubble”. It should be

noted that for the site of Kaminaljuyu some examples of pit burials, i.e.

Mound B-V-15 Burial 1/Feature 9 (Figure 15), are lined either with clay

or stones as well as capped with clay. That type of grave construction

defined by Welsh would have been categorized as a cist. 30

Figure 14

Figure 15

31 Tomb (Figure 13): Described previously for Chiapa de Corzo using Coe (1959), the

definition was expanded upon by Welsh (1988) to create a subtype –

rock cut: “large chamber out of bedrock, complete with shaft and

steps leading to tomb entrance…usually covered in plaster and line

paintings”, and stone-lined: “large chamber lined with stone and

either vaulted or capped with stone slabs…May have shaft and steps

leading to chamber”.

Tikal Grave Typology (Preclassic)

Tikal burials are categorized as Chultun, Uncapped Cist, Simple, Informal, Tomb, and Simple Crypt. The definitions of A.L. Smith (1950), Satterthwaite (1954),and Coe

(1959) are employed. In some cases, the definitions of Ruz (1965) and Welsh (1988) are included for elaboration.

Chultun (Figure 16): Defined by Ruz (1965) as the “funerary use of…cisterns dug in the

ground”. Welsh (1988) expanded on the definition to say that a

chultun burial is the use of a “large chamber originally dug out of

the soil and/or bedrock for purposes other than mortuary”. This

corresponds with A.L. Smith’s (1950) chamber b classification.

32

Figure 16

Uncapped Cist (Figures 17 and 18): Defined by A.L. Smith (1950) as “a grave with

definite outlines, usually the sides of an excavation

into structural fill, or occasionally sides with stone

walls, but no capstones”.

33

Figure 17

Figure 18

Simple (Figure 8): The definition of simple is slightly modified by Ruz (1965) to clarify

that graves designated simple include no special features.

Informal: This term is used by Coe (1990) only to describe Burials 122, 123, and 126 at

Tikal. It appears to equate with a fill burial (Figure 9).

34

Tomb (Figure 13): Previously described for both Chiapa de Corzo and Kaminaljuyu, the

tomb varieties observed at Tikal include both rock-cut, and stone-

lined. Both are subtypes of the typology tomb. Stone-lined is

defined by Welsh (1988) as a “large chamber lined with stone and

either vaulted or capped with stone slabs. May have shaft and steps

leading to chamber”. A defining feature of a tomb is that the height

is usually 135cms or more.

Simple Crypt: Defined by A. L. Smith (1950) (following his cist definition), a crypt is a

“more carefully walled grave with capstones, sometimes with plastered

floor, may or may not have been filled with earth”. Corresponds with

Satterthwaite (1954) and Coe (1959) classification of covered burial cist.

Welsh (1988) defines a simple crypt as a “grave whose walls are usually

lined, or partly lined, with vertically places stone slabs or unshaped

stones, and roofed with capstones. Walls, floor and capstones may be

covered with plaster. Height of 10-75cms”.

Colha Grave Typology (Preclassic)

The Preclassic burials from the site of Colha are categorized as Midden, Pit,

Crypt, Fill, and Cist.

35 Midden: By definition, an interment located in a midden is a burial in a trash heap.

Middens were frequently connected with household groups and were often

moved and used as fill in construction (McKillop 2004). Midden burial is not

illustrated; refer to fill burial (Figure 9) for illustration. This type of burial

corresponds with simple as defined by A.L. Smith (1950), Coe (1959),

Satterthwaite (1954), and Ruz (1965)

Pit: Previously defined and illustrated (Figure 14) for Kaminaljuyu, this classification is

a subtype of simple as defined by Welsh (1988).

Crypt: Previously defined for Tikal. Crypt is not illustrated due to the fact that it is

similar, but more elaborate, to a covered burial cist (Figures 11 and 12).

Fill: Previously defined for Chiapa de Corzo and Kaminaljuyu as a subtype of simple,

refer to fill burial (Figure 9) for illustration.

Cist: Previously defined for Chiapa de Corzo, covered burial cist (Figures 11 and 12),

and Tikal, uncapped cist (Figures 17 and 18), Colha does not differentiate these

subtypes, but instead uses the term cist in a general fashion.

36 Body Position describes the position of the skeletal material. The following terms are used:

Extended (Figure 19): The skeletal position is flat. If possible, it is also noted whether

the material is supine (face up), prone (face down), or on either

the right or left side.

Figure 19

Flexed (Figure 20): The skeletal material is arranged in what resembles a fetal position.

It can be face up or down, or on either side. This position varies

greatly with regard to arm, hand, and feet positions.

37 Figure 20

Seated (Figure 21): For this position, the skeletal material is arranged in what resembles

a seated position. Again, this position varies greatly. The figure

presents one variation, a semi-recumbent position.

Figure 21

In body position, there are of course many variations, some of which are dependent on

preservation, for example, a burial in cobble fill may have been laid out in the extended

position but through the ages the skeletal material had disarticulated and dispersed

throughout the cobble fill thus rendering a very different body position. In these cases,

they are simply noted “in fill” as in most of these cases, it is impossible to discern the

original position.

Cranium Orientation refers to the directional orientation of the cranium and is given using cardinal (N, E, S, W) and intercardinal (NE, NW, SE, SW) compass points.

38

Feet Position refers to the directional orientation of the individual(s) feet and is

given using cardinal and intercardinal compass points.

Grave Goods are the items interred with the skeletal material that are interpreted

as grave offerings. In the tables, these grave goods are sorted both according to the

materials from which they were made as well as notable types, i.e. beads, figurines,

“mushroom” stone, etc. that are meaningful to the discussion of trends at each site. I

believe that this type of breakdown will also help facilitate future research. These

categories are bead, bone, chalcedony ceramic/sherd/wooden disc, chlorite schist, faunal

totem, figurine, greenstone, hammerstone, hematite (crystalline), iron oxide, jade, lithic,

mano and/or metate, marble, mica, mortar and/or pestle, muscovite, “mushroom” stone,

nacre (mother of pearl), obsidian, onyx, pearl, pyrite, quartz, serpentine, shell, soapstone,

stingray spine, stone (worked), travertine (alabaster), vessels/pottery, wooden artifact.

Positions (grave goods) refer to the positions of the grave goods placed within the

grave. These are correspondingly numbered for ease of reference.

16.) Cinnabar/Red Ochre/Unspecified Red Pigment: This category is only shown for

burials at which red staining is found. Where possible the red staining is identified as either cinnabar or red ochre, when it is unidentified it is simply noted as unspecified red pigment. Also given is the bone or grave good on which the red staining is present. 39 17.) Evidence of Burning: As with term no.16, this information is only given for those

burials at which it is present. Also given are the materials on which the burning is

evidenced.

Method of Analysis

In Chapters Five, Eight, Eleven, and Fourteen, for each site individually, the

burials are analyzed temporally with regard to the number of individuals, the age-at-death divisions, sex distribution, and burial position: corporal as well as cranial and pedal. For each, site analyses are also made with regard to the occurrence of pathology and trauma,

the grave good(s) distribution, the indication of cultural modifications and trephination,

the presence of cinnabar, red ochre, or unspecified red pigment, and the evidence of

burning. In chapter fifteen, for the composite analysis, these same distributions are

compared for the four sites and conclusions are posited. I feel that the trends and patterns

are apparent through the use of both number and percentage charts and I do not feel that

the present analysis necessitates the use of complex statistical tests to observe the

correlations.

40 Chapter Three

Chiapa de Corzo Description and Background

The archaeological site of Chiapa de Corzo (Figure 22) is located on the eastern side of the modern town Chiapa de Corzo in the state of Chiapas, 15 km east of Tuxtla

Gutiérrez, the state capital. It is located on the east bank of the Grijalva River in the lower end of the Central Depression of Chiapas (Lee 1969). The area is a comparatively flat alluvial plain. Ancient importance of the site is believed to be due to its position on the river. It is at a point of “easy crossing near the northwestern terminus of the upper

Grijalva Valley or the Central Depression of Chiapas” (Lowe 1962).

C.H. Berendt made the first mention of the archaeological site of Chiapa de Corzo in 1869 when he noted three “pyramids” on a hill east of the town of Chiapa de Corzo known as “Dili-Calvario” (Lowe and Agrinier 1960). He also noted the presence of potsherds, figurine fragments, pieces of shell and obsidian, and worked stone. Berendt included a detailed map copied from an original apparently either drawn for or by D.

Julian Grajales in 1868. The map appears to illustrate the principal mounds of the southwest quadrant of the site (Figure 23). According to this map, much of the destruction of the mounds at the site of Chiapa de Corzo has taken place since 1868 through both agricultural practices and their use as modern burial mounds. Subsequent mentions of ruins at Chiapa de Corzo were made by Sapper (1895), Spinden (1913), and

Marquina (1939) (Lowe and Agrinier 1960).

41

Figure 22

Heinrich Berlin made the first excavations at Chiapa de Corzo in 1941 where he noted that the recovery of “such old ceramics without any trace of definitely more

42 modern material being present in the upper layers makes it plausible that they were

already abandoned when the Spaniards arrived…” (Lowe and Agrinier 1960, Berlin

1946). The site was chosen for excavation by Brigham Young University - New World

Archaeological Foundation based on its capacity to contribute increased knowledge of

the early cultural developments in the Grijalva Valley (Lowe 1960). Architectural

investigations were made from 1955-1959 and again in 1961 (Agrinier 1964). In 1955

the New World Archaeological Foundation began excavations under Berlin. This exploration demonstrated a long Preclassic occupation and based upon these

Figure 23 43 findings intensive investigations began under the direction of Gareth Lowe (Agrinier and

Lowe 1960).

The excavators, aware that there was no clearly determined function for the

“mound-contained” structures, wanted to avoid the use of terms that imply function, i.e. palace, temple, etc. Instead the site is labeled with the terms Mound 1, 2, etc. These indicate geographical location only – the mounds were numbered in a clockwise fashion beginning with the southern limit of the site. Due to the fact that it appears to lack formal arrangement, the site was arbitrarily divided into quadrants5 to facilitate mound groupings. They are as follows:

Southwest Quadrant: Mounds 1 to 14 Northwest Quadrant: Mounds 15 to 38 Northeast Quadrant: Mounds 39 to 50 Southeast Quadrant: Mound 51 to 81

In the southwest quadrant, Preclassic burials were found in Mounds 1, 1a, 2, 2a, 3, 5a, 5b,

5d, 7, and 13. In the northwest quadrant, Mounds 17, 33, and 36 contained burials. The

Mango Seco Zone is considered an extension of the northeast quadrant and therefore included with it; the Mango Seco Central Mound within this zone contained one burial.

In the southeast quadrant, one burial was found in Mound 80b. Considered the “chief ceremonial complex”, the southwest quadrant (Figure 23) was the most concentrated area of excavation (Lowe 1964). Ten of the 14 mounds present were excavated in varying degrees of depth ranging from near complete excavation and restoration (Mound 1) to a

5 Figure 22 does not illustrate the boundaries for all quadrants listed. The southwest quadrant was boxed because of the amount of mounds containing Preclassic burials and because it was considered the “chief ceremonial complex” (Lowe 1964). 44 single test pit dug (Mound 10). 42 non-mound pits were dug from the surface to sterile dirt (Lowe and Agrinier 1960).

Architectural definitions at Chiapa de Corzo follow the definitions of

Satterthwaite (1943). The lack of superstructures at the site is a major difference between this site and the lowland Maya sites, with vaulted superstructures, for which Satterthwaite devised his terminology. As a result, to describe the higher non-terraced platforms common at Chiapa de Corzo, the definition of primary platform:

In the absence of a pyramid, a non-terraced substructure, or a non-terraced substructure component higher than other substructure components and having one or more stairway elements connecting its top with its base surface or a still lower surface and usually, though not always, serving a building…..the pyramid component is lacking, and the primary platform appears to take its place is taken from Ferndon (1953) (Lowe and Agrinier 1960).

The estimated absolute phase dates are based on radiocarbon analysis and Maya calendar correlations. The approximate contemporaneous ceramic phases partly follow a consensus reached in September 1959 at the Octava Mesa Redonda de la Sociedad San

Cristobal de las Casas, Chiapas and are partly based on the examination of pertinent ceramic collections (Lowe and Agrinier 1960).

The archaeological occupation sequence of Chiapa de Corzo dates from the Early

Preclassic6 (ca. 1400 B.C.) through the Late Classic (ca. A. D. 950). However, it should

6 The Cortorra Phase beginning is dated to ca. 1400 B.C., however, no burials were documented for that phase and therefore, it is not one of the phases considered in this dissertation. The dates for the Preclassic that apply to this dissertation are 1000 B.C – 250 A.D. 45 be noted that it is apparent that the Maya only occupied the site during Preclassic times

(Adams 1991). This duration has been divided into eleven phases based on ceramic and

architectural sequences. There are four phases pertinent to this study due to its Preclassic

focus, the Dili Phase – Middle Preclassic (ca. 1000 B. C.), the Escalera Phase – Late

Preclassic A (ca. 550 B.C.), the Francesa Phase – Late Preclassic B (ca. 450 B.C.), and the Guancaste Phase – Late Preclassic C (ca.250). What follows are very brief descriptions of notable distinctions regarding the disposal of the dead during these phases, actual discussions regarding findings during said phases are addressed in

Chapter 5.

Investigations of the Cotorra Phase – Early Preclassic (ca. 1400 B.C.) failed to

find a single burial thus leading the excavators to postulate that during this phase the

Cotorrans were not burying their dead in their occupation area (Lowe 1964).The Dili

Phase (ca. 1000 B.C.) is the first phase in which burials were discovered. The four Dili

Phase burials were all found in refuse or middens. No diagnostic grave goods were

observed; only one grave good, a single jade bead, was accounted for and that was noted

as being in close proximity to the interment and not necessarily associated with it (Lowe

1964).

The Escalera Phase (ca. 550 B.C.) appears to have seen the advent of subfloor

structural inhumations. This coincides with the construction of clay platforms. However,

this method of mound burial was apparently short-lived as demonstrated by the following phase (Francesa). The Escalera Phase burials, although simple burials, did include grave goods hypothesized to be for protection from the fill. An interesting note on the vessels 46 used for protection is that not one had a “kill-hole”, a trait seen in latter phases. This

phase also accounted for one of only two postulated sacrificial burials.

The Francesa Phase (ca. 450 B.C.) witnessed a return to midden burials as 55

interments evidenced no architectural relationships and were found in “recent and

contemporary refuse deposits”. Unfortunately there is no distinction noted between burials found in the course of structural investigations and those found in structural fill.

It was postulated that the Francesans were numerous enough to have amassed sufficient

refuse which provided a place of ready interment for the dead in close proximity to their

ceremonial platforms thus creating actual cemeteries, a difference from the Escalerans

who predominately utilized the mounds for burial. Notable in the Francesa Phase is the

distinction between grave goods recovered from the non-mound burials versus those

found in the few mound burials; all but one reflected that the more elaborate furnishings

were actually found in the non-mound interments (Lowe 1964).

The Guanacaste Phase (ca. 250 B.C.) accounts for the only two tomb burials in

the four phases examined. However, once again, there is a noticeable difference in grave

good offerings between the two tombs; one containing spectacular vessels, most

apparently imported, and one seemingly containing pottery solely of local origin. The

Guanacaste Phase also reports the second of two proposed sacrificial burials in the four

phases examined herein.

47 Chapter Four

Chiapa de Corzo Burial Data

The burial data submitted in this chapter for Chiapa de Corzo imparts each burial

as its own entity. The burials are presented in chronological order by phase: Dili,

Escalera, Francesa, and Guanacaste. Within each phase, the burials are presented in numerical order. The order of materials contained in the burials is presented according to the order given in Chapter Two. That chapter may be referenced for the definition of terms.

48 Chiapa de Corzo - Dili Phase Burials

63B

Source: Lowe and Agrinier, 1960

Location: Mound 1. Along east side of south extremity of Structure 1- D1 western wall foundation.

Dating: Dili Phase - Middle Preclassic (1000 - 550 B.C.)

Radiocarbon Dating: Unknown

Inventory Cranial No cranium present.

Inventory Postcranial Noted: “trunk” not present

MNI 1 Based on: Unknown

Age at Death Adult Method: Unknown

Dental Attrition Unknown

Sex Unknown Based on:-

Stature Unknown Method:-

Pathology/Trauma Unknown Pathology: - Bone: -

Trauma: - Bone: -

49 63B – cont.

Cultural Modification(s) Unknown Location: - Type: -

Burial Specifications Grave Type: Simple interment in fill. Laid on large pot sherds.

Body Position: Extended

Cranium Orientation: South

Feet Position: -

Grave Good(s): None

Position(s): -

50 Burial 117

Source: Agrinier, 1964

Location: In field west of Mound 5b, A131, N132-L21, 66 cm. below surface, just above bedrock.

Dating: Dili Phase - Middle Preclassic (1000 – 550 B.C)

Radiocarbon Dating: Unknown

Inventory Cranial Fragmentary cranial remains

Inventory Postcranial Arms and vertebrae present; long bones and pelvic region in fragmentary condition.

MNI 1 Based on: Unknown

Age at Death Adult Method: Unknown

Dental Attrition Unknown

Sex Male (?) Based on: Unknown

Stature Unknown Method:-

Pathology/Trauma Unknown Pathology: - Bone: -

Trauma: - Bone: -

Cultural Modification(s) Unknown Location: - Type: - 51 Burial 117 – cont.

Burial Specifications Grave Type: Simple

Body Position: Extended, supine.

Cranium Orientation: North

Feet Position: -

Grave Good(s): None

Position(s): -

52 Burial 118

*Secondary Burial

Source: Agrinier, 1964

Location: In field west of Mound 5b, A131, N135-L21, 55 cm. below surface. Dating: Dili Phase - Middle Preclassic (1000 - 550 B.C.)

Radiocarbon Dating: Unknown

Inventory Cranial Unknown

Inventory Postcranial Extremely fragmentary, only one hand and one clavicle identifiable.

MNI 1 Based on: Unknown

Age at Death Adult Method: Unknown

Dental Attrition Unknown

Sex Unknown Based on: -

Stature Unknown Method:-

Pathology/Trauma Unknown Pathology: - Bone: -

Trauma: - Bone: -

Cultural Modification(s) Unknown Location: - Type: -

53 Burial 118 – cont.

Burial Specifications Grave Type: Simple – in Dili phase refuse dump

Body Position: -

Cranium Orientation: -

Feet Position: -

Grave Good(s): 1. Jade bead

Position(s): 1. Unknown

54 Burial 130

Source: Agrinier, 1964

Location: Outside the northeast corner of Mound 5b, A131, N129-R3, 87 cm. below surface on sterile clay. Dating: Dili Phase - Middle Preclassic (1000 - 550 B.C.)

Radiocarbon Dating: Unknown

Inventory Cranial Skull missing.

Inventory Postcranial Partial and fragmentary long bones, partial hands, feet, and pelvis.

MNI 1 Based on: Unknown

Age at Death Adult Method: Unknown

Dental Attrition Unknown

Sex Unknown Based on: -

Stature Unknown Method:-

Pathology/Trauma Unknown Pathology: - Bone: -

Trauma: - Bone: -

Cultural Modification(s) Unknown Location: - Type: -

55 Burial 130 – cont.

Burial Specifications Grave Type: Simple

Body Position: Extended, prone, right arm outstretched, left arm along side, left foot crossed over right foot.

Cranium Orientation: West

Feet Position: East

Grave Good(s): None

Position(s): -

56 Chiapa de Corzo - Escalera Phase Burials

Burial 1

Source: Lowe, 1962

Location: Intrusive through all but the uppermost of the Structure 7-E floors, 3.70 m. below the surface of Mound 7 in Pit A-11 Dating: Escalera Phase - Late Preclassic A (550 – 450 B.C.)

Radiocarbon Dating: Unknown

Inventory Cranial Unknown

Inventory Postcranial Unknown

MNI 1 Based on: Unknown

Age at Death Adult Method: Unknown

Dental Attrition Unknown

Sex Unknown Based on: -

Stature Unknown Method:-

Pathology/Trauma Unknown Pathology: - Bone: -

Trauma: - Bone: -

57 Burial 1 – cont.

Cultural Modification(s) Unknown Location: - Type: -

Burial Specifications Grave Type: Simple, with burial surrounded with field stones

Body Position: Extended, supine, head to the north, facing east

Cranium Orientation: North

Feet Position: -

Grave Good(s): 1. 2 large pottery vessels

2. Large fragment of polished white-slip deep bowl with incised lines at circumference of mouth and base. Contained bones of small mammal imbedded in the red pigment.

3. Brown cup – rudely made – with fugitive white slip

Position(s): 1. Left shoulder and waist

2. Unknown

3. Unknown

Cinnabar/Red Ochre/Unspecified Red Pigment: Yes - grave good no. 2.

58 Burial 2

Source: Lowe, 1962

Location: Intrusive through all but the uppermost of the Structure 7-E floors, 3.50 m. below the surface of Mound 7 in Pit A-11 and A- 11a. Placed parallel at 35 cm. west of and 10 cm. higher than burial 1. Dating: Escalera Phase - Late Preclassic A (550 – 450 B.C.)

Radiocarbon Dating: Unknown

Inventory Cranial Fragmentary cranium.

Inventory Postcranial Fragmentary and fragile chest and waist. All remains but cranial fragment left in situ due to difficult access.

MNI 1 Based on: Unknown

Age at Death Youth Method: Unknown

Dental Attrition Unknown

Sex Unknown Based on: -

Stature Unknown Method: -

Pathology/Trauma Unknown Pathology: - Bone: -

Trauma: - Bone: -

59 Burial 2 – cont.

Cultural Modification(s) Unknown Location: - Type: -

Burial Specifications Grave Type: Simple, in fill of stones and earth

Body Position: Extended, supine, head to the north, face upright

Cranium Orientation: North

Feet Position: -

Grave Good(s): 1. Polished red plate

2. Polished mottled black whistling vessel

Position(s): 1. Inverted over chest and lower face

2. Along right side at waist

60 Burial 3

Source: Lowe, 1962

Location: 20 cm. above the sterile black clay level at the western base of Mound 7. Burial in Trench 1 – trunk in north wall. Dating: Escalera Phase - Late Preclassic A (550 – 450 B.C.)

Radiocarbon Dating: Unknown

Inventory Cranial Fragmentary due to weight of overburden and dampness.

Inventory Postcranial Fragmentary due to weight of overburden and dampness.

MNI 1 Based on: Unknown

Age at Death Adult Method: Unknown

Dental Attrition Unknown

Sex Unknown Based on: -

Stature Unknown Method:-

Pathology/Trauma Unknown Pathology: - Bone: -

Trauma: - Bone: -

61 Burial 3 – cont.

Cultural Modification(s) Unknown Location: - Type: -

Burial Specifications Grave Type: Simple

Body Position: Extended, supine, head to the north

Cranium Orientation: North

Feet Position: -

Grave Good(s): 1. 2 Brown slightly constricted-orifice bowls.

2. Red-brown restricted-orifice bowl fragment.

3. Fine paste mottled black restricted-orifice bowl fragment.

Position(s): 1.-2. Left side of head and shoulders.

3. At feet.

4. At waist.

62 Burial 4

Source: Lowe, 1962

Location: Intrusive through next to uppermost Structure 7-E floor, 2.90 m. below surface of Mound 7 in Pit A-11a. Dating: Escalera Phase - Late Preclassic A (550 – 450 B.C.)

Radiocarbon Dating: Unknown

Inventory Cranial Cranium completely disintegrated by ant nest inside covering bowl.

Inventory Postcranial Smashed and fragile from leaching and weight of overburden. From photograph, arms and torso visible in situ.

MNI 1 Based on: Unknown

Age at Death Adult Method: Unknown

Dental Attrition Unknown

Sex Unknown Based on: -

Stature Unknown Method:-

Pathology/Trauma Unknown Pathology: - Bone: -

Trauma: - Bone: -

63 Burial 4 – cont.

Cultural Modification(s) Unknown Location: - Type: -

Burial Specifications Grave Type: Simple interment in fill excavation

Body Position: Extended, supine, arms at sides, head to the south

Cranium Orientation: South

Feet Position: Within south wall

Grave Good(s): 1. Polished orange bowl.

2. Blotchy red round-side bowl.

Position(s): 1. Inverted over head.

2. At feet.

64 Burial 5

Source: Lowe, 1962

Location: Intrusive through next-to- uppermost of Structure7-E floors, resting upon clay floor 2.50 m. from surface of Mound 7 in Pit A-11a. Dating: Escalera Phase - Late Preclassic A (550 – 450 B.C.)

Radiocarbon Dating: Unknown

Inventory Cranial Skeleton not exposed.

Inventory Postcranial Skeleton not exposed.

MNI 1 Based on: Unknown

Age at Death Probable adult Method: Based on position of offerings.

Dental Attrition Unknown

Sex Unknown Based on: -

Stature Unknown Method:-

Pathology/Trauma Unknown Pathology: - Bone: -

Trauma: - Bone: -

Cultural Modification(s) Unknown Location: - Type: - 65 Burial 5 – cont.

Burial Specifications Grave Type: Apparently simple

Body Position: Extended – based on positions of offerings

Cranium Orientation: South (?) – based on position of offerings

Feet Position: -

Grave Good(s): 1. White-slip urn

2. Polished red flaring-wall bowl with everted, incised rim

3. Polished black-brown bowl with sides “squeezed” inward, creating a figure-eight orifice.

Position(s): 1. Near head (presumably)

2. Covering grave good 1 (white-slip urn)

3. At feet (presumably)

66 Burial 6

Source: Lowe, 1962

Location: Intrusive through the three lowermost floors of Structure 7-E at a depth of 3.40 m. from the surface of Mound 7 in Pit A-11a. Dating: Escalera Phase - Late Preclassic A (550 – 450 B.C.)

Radiocarbon Dating: Unknown

Inventory Cranial Skeleton not exposed.

Inventory Postcranial Skeleton not exposed.

MNI 1 Based on: Unknown

Age at Death Adult Method: Based on position of offerings.

Dental Attrition Unknown

Sex Unknown Based on: -

Stature Unknown Method:-

Pathology/Trauma Unknown Pathology: - Bone: -

Trauma: - Bone: -

Cultural Modification(s) Unknown Location: - Type: -

67 Burial 6 – cont.

Burial Specifications Grave Type: Simple, in fill excavation.

Body Position: Extended, head to the south - based on position of offerings.

Cranium Orientation: South (?) – based on position of offerings.

Feet Position: -

Grave Good(s): 1. Large, deep, polished white-slip vessel with negative decoration of dots and triangles. Vessel contained fragmentary bones of a small mammal, fragments of two polished, white-slip, restricted orifice bowls, and fragments of a poorly fired minature black vase in very fragile condition.

2. A rough stone stained with red pigment.

3. A small polished white-slip restricted orifice bowl.

4. A minature bowl, polished white slip, sides “squeezed” forming a square orifice. Bowl bears a negative design like and appears to have been created in the same style as grave good 1

5. Fine paste mottled-black bowl with composite walls.

Position(s): 1. At head

2. West base of grave good 1.

3. Resting on grave good 4.

4. Next to grave good 3.

5. Within east wall of Pit A-11a, presumably at feet of Burial 6.

Cinnabar/Red Ochre/Unspecified Red Pigment: Yes - grave good no. 2.

68 Burial 9

Source: Mason, 1960

Location: Test Pit A-15, 5 m. within the eastern edge of the Mound 13 terrace on the approximate e-w axis. Beneath the lowermost floor of 3. Against west edge of Pit. Dating: Escalera Phase - Late Preclassic A (550 – 450 B.C.)

Radiocarbon Dating: Unknown

Inventory Cranial Cranium present – condition not noted.

Inventory Postcranial Pelvis present, other skeletal material unnoted.

MNI 1 Based on: Unknown

Age at Death Adult Method: Unknown

Dental Attrition Unknown

Sex Unknown Based on: -

Stature Unknown Method:-

Pathology/Trauma Unknown Pathology: - Bone: -

Trauma: - Bone: -

69 Burial 9 – cont.

Cultural Modification(s) Unknown Location: - Type: -

Burial Specifications Grave Type: Unknown

Body Position: Extended, Prone

Cranium Orientation: -

Feet Position: -

Grave Good(s): 1. Large polished red plate.

2. Brown bowl.

3. Polished red “cuspidor bowl.

Position(s): 1. Over skull.

2. Next to grave good 1.

3. Over pelvis.

70 Burial 23

Source: Agrinier, 1964

Location: Rear patio of house at Domingo Ruiz No. 44, Chiapa de Corzo (southwest corner of town), within 300 m. of the Grijalva river bluff. Dating: Escalera Phase - Late Preclassic A (550 – 450 B.C.)

Radiocarbon Dating: Unknown

Inventory Cranial Unknown

Inventory Postcranial Unknown

MNI 1 Based on: Unknown

Age at Death Adult Method: Unknown

Dental Attrition Unknown

Sex Unknown Based on: -

Stature Unknown Method:-

Pathology/Trauma Unknown Pathology: - Bone: -

Trauma: - Bone: -

Cultural Modification(s) Unknown Location: - Type: - 71 Burial 23 – cont.

Burial Specifications Grave Type: Simple, in silty earth, above sterile river silt

Body Position: Extended

Cranium Orientation: -

Feet Position: -

Grave Good(s): 1. Dish, grayish brown with cream slip and dentate lip.

2. Bowl, brown, slightly restricted mouth, wide raised shoulder band.

3. Bowl, grayish brown, raised shoulder band.

Position(s): 1. – 3. Unknown

72 Burial 26

*Secondary Burial (?)

Source: Lowe, 1962

Location: Approximate center of Mound 17 East Wing, 16 cm. Below surface. Dating: Escalera Phase - Late Preclassic A (550 – 450 B.C.)

Radiocarbon Dating: Unknown

Inventory Cranial Fragmentary –mixed with vestiges of long bones.

Inventory Postcranial Fragmentary – mixed with vestiges of cranial material.

MNI 1 Based on: Unknown

Age at Death Adult Method: Unknown

Dental Attrition Unknown

Sex Unknown Based on: -

Stature Unknown Method:-

Pathology/Trauma Unknown Pathology: - Bone: -

Trauma: - Bone: -

Cultural Modification(s) Unknown Location: - Type: - 73 Burial 26 – cont.

Burial Specifications Grave Type: Simple, in fill – probable secondary burial

Body Position: -

Cranium Orientation: -

Feet Position: -

Grave Good(s): 1. Incomplete (roughly one-half) polished orange “cuspidor”.

Position(s): 1. Fragments mixed with burial.

74 Burial 64

Source: Agrinier, 1964

Location: North side of Mound 1, A-83N, 1.57 m. below surface. Dating: Escalera Phase - Late Preclassic A (550 – 450 B.C.)

Radiocarbon Dating: Unknown

Inventory Cranial Unknown

Inventory Postcranial Unknown

MNI 1 Based on: Unknown

Age at Death Child Method: Unknown

Dental Attrition Unknown

Sex Unknown Based on: -

Stature Unknown Method:-

Pathology/Trauma Unknown Pathology: - Bone: -

Trauma: - Bone: -

Cultural Modification(s) Unknown Location: - Type: -

75 Burial 64 – cont.

Burial Specifications Grave Type: Simple, in hard-packed clay, near bedrock.

Body Position: Extended, arms along sides, head to the east.

Cranium Orientation: East

Feet Position: -

Grave Good(s): 1. Bowl, complex unrestricted; slipped, matte brownish pink, pale yellowish pink; groove encircling exterior wall; flat base.

2. Jade beads.

Position(s): 1. Unknown

2. Unknown

76 Burial 178 & 178A*

*Although given separate burial nos. by the source, Burials 178 & 178A have been counted as 1 Burial with 2 Individuals for this dissertation. See note after grave goods. Source: Agrinier, 1975

Location: Mound 1A. Burial 178 - Under front platform of Structure 1A- H1. Burial 178A – at feet of the occupant of Burial 178. Dating: Escalera Phase - Late Preclassic A (550 – 450 B.C.)

Radiocarbon Dating: Unknown

Inventory Cranial Burial 178: Complete cranium present and removed Burial 178A: Cranium present, exposed, not removed.

Inventory Postcranial Burial 178: Postcranial complete and exposed but not removed due to extremely poor condition. Crushed by weight of structural fill.

Burial 178A: Postcranial complete and exposed but not removed due to extremely poor condition. Crushed by weight of structural fill.

MNI 2 Based on: Skeletal inventory/observations.

Age at Death Burial 178: Young Adult Burial 178A: Child, 5-6 yrs. old. Method: Unknown

Dental Attrition Unknown

Sex Burial 178: Male Burial 178A: Unable to assess due to age. Based on: Burial 178: Unknown, pelvic assessment(?)

Stature Unknown Method:- 77 Burial 178 & 178A – cont.

Pathology/Trauma Trauma - Burial 178 Pathology: - Bone: -

Trauma: Hole, with cicatrized (healed) edge, approximately 1cm. Bone: Sternum

Cultural Modification(s) Dental Modification - Burial 178 Location: Central Incisors Type: Romero A2

Location: Lateral Incisors Type: Romero B5

Burial Specifications Grave Type: Burial 178: Pit, simple. Burial 178A: Pit, simple, lined with uncut stone.

Body Position: Burial 178: Extended, supine, hands on pelvis, and head to north. Burial 178A: Extended, supine, hands on pelvis, and head to west.

Cranium Orientation: Burial 178: North. Burial 178A: West.

Feet Position: -

Grave Good(s): 1. Bowl, outflaring rim, flat base, orange; Nicapa Orange- resist: Untempered Variety.

2. Jar with rounded base and straight rim; orange with black blotches; Copoya Coarse.

3. Bowl, round base, restricted mouth, wide raised shoulder band, brown.

4. Bowl, round base, restricted mouth, wide raised shoulder band, dark brown.

5. Bowl, restricted rim, black-brown. 78 Burial 178 & 178A – cont.

6. Bowl, round wall, slightly outcurving rim, orange with black blotches; Copoya Coarse.

7. Bowl, round wall, slightly outcurving rim, orange to blotched black; Copoya Coarse.

8. Bowl, cuspidor, polished red.

9. Frog effigy bowl, restricted mouth, dark gray to black; Soyalo Modeled: Soyalo Variety.

10 Bowl, outcurving wall, flat base, brown.

11. Bowl, round wall, incised line below rim, brown; Amatan Recessed: Amatan Variety.

12. Jade beads - round dark green (two).

13. Stingray spine (one).

Position(s): 1. Covering the cranium of Burial 178.

2. Left side of the upper torso of Burial 178, between cranium and shoulder.

3. Left side of the upper torso of Burial 178, shoulder joint, upper arm area.

4. Left side of the upper torso of Burial 178, mid-upper arm area, between shoulder and elbow.

5. Left side of the upper torso of Burial 178, elbow area, slightly overlapping grave good no. 4.

6. Right side of the cranium of Burial 178.

7. – 8. Next to the lower right leg and foot of Burial 178.

9. Next to the middle of left lower leg of Burial 178.

79 Burial 178 & 178A – cont.

10. Placed above and slightly beneath the cranium of Burial 178A.

11. Outside of the uncut stones on right side of Burial 178A.

12. Near pelvis of Burial 178.

13. Near mandible of Burial 178

*Agrinier stated that Burial 178A was obviously a companion burial to Burial 178. He suggested it was a sacrificial victim or relative.

80 Burial 179

Source: Agrinier, 1975

Location: Mound 1A. Under the area occupied by the Temple or Superstructure of 1A-H1 and along the eastern side of the underlying Structure 1A-E1 adobe wall. Dating: Escalera Phase - Late Preclassic A (550 – 450 B.C.) Radiocarbon Dating: Unknown

Inventory Cranial Not present.

Inventory Postcranial Ribs, lower limb bones, and pelvis, these were exposed and observed but not removed due to poor condition.

MNI 1 Based on: Unknown

Age at Death Adult Method: Unknown

Dental Attrition Unknown

Sex Unknown Based on: -

Stature Unknown Method:-

Pathology/Trauma Unknown Pathology: - Bone: -

Trauma: - Bone: -

Cultural Modification(s) Unknown Location: - Type: - 81 Burial 179 – cont.

Burial Specifications Grave Type: Pit, simple, dirt.

Body Position: Extended, supine.

Cranium Orientation: South

Feet Position: -

Grave Good(s): None

Position(s): -

82 Burial 180

Source: Agrinier, 1975

Location: Mound 1A. Under the round shaft dug through floor Structure 1A-G1-G2. Dating: Escalera Phase - Late Preclassic A (550 – 450 B.C.)

Radiocarbon Dating: Unknown

Inventory Cranial Cranium present, exposed and observed but not removed due to poor condition.

Inventory Postcranial Postcranial complete and present including hands and feet, exposed and observed in situ but not removed from ground.

MNI 1 Based on: Unknown

Age at Death Young Adult Method: Unknown

Dental Attrition Unknown

Sex Male Based on: -

Stature Unknown Method:-

Pathology/Trauma Unknown Pathology: - Bone: -

Trauma: - Bone: -

Cultural Modification(s) Unknown Location: - Type: - 83 Burial 180 – cont.

Burial Specifications Grave Type: Pit, simple, dirt.

Body Position: Extended, on left side. Slightly flexed, left hand on pelvis, single arm flexed, right hand in grabbing position, palm up, head to north.

Cranium Orientation: North, facing east.

Feet Position: -

Grave Good(s): 1. Bowl, inverted rim, black-brown.

2. Plate, flaring wall, orange; Nicapa Orange – resist: Unspecified Variety.

3. Bowl, round wall, restricted mouth; Libertad Black-brown: Libertad Variety.

4. Bowl, round base, straight rim, black-brown.

5. Turtle shell fragment.

Position(s): 1. West of skeletal material, approximately behind right scapula

2. North and slightly west of grave good no. 1.

3. West of cranium, north of grave good no. 1.

4. West of grave good no. 1, west side of skeletal material, upper torso area.

5. Not noted.

84 Burial 181

Source: Agrinier, 1975

Location: Mound 1A Between Burials 179 and 180.

Dating: Escalera Phase - Late Preclassic A (550 – 450 B.C.)

Radiocarbon Dating: Unknown

Inventory Cranial Not present.

Inventory Postcranial Postcranial very fragmentary, partial upper right leg, partial lower legs, some ribs, and partial pelvis. Exposed and observed but not removed due to poor condition.

MNI 1 Based on: Unknown

Age at Death Adult Method: Unknown

Dental Attrition Unknown

Sex Unknown Based on: -

Stature Unknown Method:-

Pathology/Trauma Unknown Pathology: - Bone: -

Trauma: - Bone: -

Cultural Modification(s) Unknown Location: - Type: - 85 Burial 181 – cont.

Burial Specifications Grave Type: Pit, simple, dirt.

Body Position: Extended, supine, head to east.

Cranium Orientation: East

Feet Position: -

Grave Good(s): 1. Bowl, everted rim, brown.

Position(s): 1. If upper left leg was present, would appear to be underneath(?).

86 Burial 182

Source: Agrinier, 1975

Location: Mound 1A. Perpendicular to and against the western side of Structure 1A-E1 adobe wall. Dating: Escalera Phase - Late Preclassic A (550 – 450 B.C.)

Radiocarbon Dating: Unknown

Inventory Cranial Cranium present, excavated and observed but not removed due to poor condition.

Inventory Postcranial Postcranial present, torso, legs, arms, hands, and pelvis – excavated and observed but not removed.

MNI 1 Based on: Unknown

Age at Death Child, (seven to eight years old). Method: Unknown

Dental Attrition Unknown

Sex Unknown Based on: -

Stature Unknown Method:-

Pathology/Trauma Unknown Pathology: - Bone: -

Trauma: - Bone: -

Cultural Modification(s) Unknown Location: - Type: - 87 Burial 182 – cont.

Burial Specifications Grave Type: Simple, pit, dirt.

Body Position: Extended, supine, hands on pelvis, head to west.

Cranium Orientation: West

Feet Position: -

Grave Good(s): 1. Bowl, round wall, restricted mouth, concave base, dark brown; Libertad Black-brown: Liberatad Variety.

2. Bowl, round wall, restricted mouth, concave base, dark brown; Libertad Black-brown: Liberatad Variety.

3. Bowl, outcurving wall, medial ridge, brown and orange; Bélgica Smoothed: Bélgica Variety.

Position(s): 1. – 3. Unknown*

*From photograph, it appears that two vessels are in the pelvic to upper leg area, a third possibly stacked.

88 Chiapa de Corzo - Francesa Phase Burials

Burial 8

Source: Lowe, 1962

Location: 25cm. beneath fill of Structure 2a-H, 1.60 m. below Mound 2a surface. Dating: Francesa Phase – Late Preclassic B (450 – 250 B. C.)

Radiocarbon Dating: Unknown

Inventory Cranial Unknown

Inventory Postcranial Unknown

MNI 1 Based on: Unknown

Age at Death Adult Method: Unknown

Dental Attrition Unknown

Sex Unknown Based on: -

Stature Unknown Method:-

Pathology/Trauma Unknown Pathology: - Bone: -

Trauma: - Bone: -

Cultural Modification(s) Unknown Location: - Type: - 89 Burial 8 – cont.

Burial Specifications Grave Type: Simple

Body Position: Extended, apparently supine, head to the west, disturbed.

Cranium Orientation: West

Feet Position: -

Grave Good(s): 1. Polished black composite-silhouette miniature bowl with grooved slash-and-crescent design.

2. Polished white-slip restricted-orifice bowl.

3. Polished flaky red slip composite bowl.

Position(s): 1. – 3. At feet.

90 Burial 11A

Source: Lowe, 1962

Location: Excavation A-37, 75cm. south of north wall, 90 cm. from surface. Mound 5b. Dating: Francesa Phase – Late Preclassic B (450 – 250 B. C.)

Radiocarbon Dating: Unknown

Inventory Cranial Unknown

Inventory Postcranial Unknown

MNI 1 Based on: Unknown

Age at Death Infant Method: Tiny bones.

Dental Attrition Unknown

Sex Unknown Based on: -

Stature Unknown Method:-

Pathology/Trauma Unknown Pathology: - Bone: -

Trauma: - Bone: -

Cultural Modification(s) Unknown Location: - Type: -

91 Burial 11A – cont.

Burial Specifications Grave Type: Urn burial (deep, brown vessel with fugitive white slip, 40 x 31 cm., base slightly wider than orifice.

Body Position: Apparently seated (?), face to the north.

Cranium Orientation: Apparently facing north (?).

Feet Position: -

Grave Good(s): 1. Base of narrow neck jar.

2.*Basal fragment of urn, 32 cm. diameter – similar to burial urn. *Possible separate offering.

Position(s): 1. On edge, against west side of urn.

2. At the same level as grave good no. 1, less than 1 m. east of burial urn.

92 Burial 12

Source: Agrinier, 1964

Location: North side of Mound 1, 75 cm. below the 1-G1 floor at the base of the 1-H4 west balustrade, 1.95 m. north of Burial 14. Dating: Francesa Phase – Late Preclassic B (450 – 250 B. C.)

Radiocarbon Dating: Unknown

Inventory Cranial Cranium with Dentition.

Inventory Postcranial Upper and lower limb bones, vertebrae, ribs, pelvis, and right and left foot bones.

MNI 1 Based on: Unknown

Age at Death Adult Method: Unknown

Dental Attrition Unknown

Sex Male Based on: -

Stature Unknown Method:-

Pathology/Trauma Unknown Pathology: - Bone: -

Trauma: - Bone: -

Cultural Modification(s) Unknown Location: - Type: - 93 Burial 12 – cont.

Burial Specifications Grave Type: Simple

Body Position: Flexed, on right side, head to west.

Cranium Orientation: West

Feet Position: -

Grave Good(s): 1. Bowl, complex unrestricted; slipped, burnished black; grooved rim and worn, concave base.

Position(s): 1. South and slightly east of cranium.

94 Burial 13

Source: Agrinier, 1964

Location: North side of Mound 1, 1.20 m. east of Burial 12. Dating: Francesa Phase – Late Preclassic B (450 – 250 B.C.)

Radiocarbon Dating: Unknown

Inventory Cranial Unknown

Inventory Postcranial Upper and lower limb bones, hand bones, vertebrae, and pelvis.

MNI 1 Based on: Unknown

Age at Death Adult Method: Unknown

Dental Attrition Unknown

Sex Unknown Based on: -

Stature Unknown Method:-

Pathology/Trauma Unknown Pathology: - Bone: -

Trauma: - Bone: -

Cultural Modification(s) Unknown Location: - Type: -

95 Burial 13 – cont.

Burial Specifications Grave Type: Simple

Body Position: Extended, supine, hands on pelvis, head to the west.

Cranium Orientation: West

Feet Position: -

Grave Good(s): 1. Jar, complex independent restricted; slipped, burnished black; grooved rim; incised geometric design on shoulder, with worn, concave base.

2. Bowl, composite restricted; slipped, burnished black; grooved rim and worn concave base.

3. Bowl, composite restricted; slipped, burnished black; base missing.

4. Bowl, composite unrestricted; slipped, burnished black; grooved rim and concave base.

Position(s): 1. – 4. Unknown

96 Burial 14

Source: Agrinier, 1964

Location: Beneath the structure of 1-G1 floor on the north side of Mound 1. Dating: Francesa Phase – Late Preclassic B (450 – 250 B. C.)

Radiocarbon Dating: Unknown

Inventory Cranial Complete fragmentary cranium.

Inventory Postcranial Upper and lower limb bones, and pelvis.

MNI 1 Based on: Unknown

Age at Death Adult Method: Unknown

Dental Attrition Unknown

Sex Unknown Based on: -

Stature Unknown Method:-

Pathology/Trauma Unknown Pathology: - Bone: -

Trauma: - Bone: -

Cultural Modification(s) Unknown Location: - Type: -

97 Burial 14 – cont.

Burial Specifications Grave Type: Simple, with stone slab over torso and head.

Body Position: Extended, supine, hands on pelvis, head to west.

Cranium Orientation: West

Feet Position: -

Grave Good(s): 1. Bowl, simple unrestricted; slipped, polished grayish reddish orange; outflaring rim and worn flat base.

2. Bowl, composite unrestricted; slipped, polished light brown to black; concave worn base.

3. Bowl fragment, composite restricted; slipped, polished black; worn concave base.

4. Bowl fragment, composite unrestricted; slipped, polished grayish reddish orange; base missing.

Position(s): 1. -4. Unknown

98 Burial 15

Source: Agrinier, 1964

Location: North side of Mound 1, beneath center section of Structure 1-H9 stairway. Dating: Francesa Phase – Late Preclassic B (450 – 250 B. C.)

Radiocarbon Dating: Unknown

Inventory Cranial Unknown

Inventory Postcranial Unknown

MNI 1 Based on: Unknown

Age at Death Adult Method: Unknown

Dental Attrition Unknown

Sex Unknown Based on: -

Stature Unknown Method:-

Pathology/Trauma Unknown Pathology: - Bone: -

Trauma: - Bone: -

Cultural Modification(s) Unknown Location: - Type: -

99 Burial 15 – cont.

Burial Specifications Grave Type: Simple

Body Position: Extended, supine, arms along sides, head to west.

Cranium Orientation: West

Feet Position: -

Grave Good(s): 1. Bowl, composite restricted; slipped, burnished strong brown to black; concave worn base.

2. Bowl, simple unrestricted; slipped, polished brownish orange to black; wide everted grooved rim, flat worn base; red Pigment on exterior base.

3. Bowl, simple unrestricted; slipped, polished, moderate reddish brown to black; wide everted grooved rim, flat base with “kill hole”.

4. Jar, complex independent restricted; slipped, polished light reddish brown to black; modeled and grooved exterior rim, geometrical incising on shoulder; concave worn base.

5. Jar, complex independent restricted; slipped, polished light brown; convex worn base.

Position(s): 1. – 5. Unknown

Cinnabar/Red Ochre/Unspecified Red Pigment: Possible - grave good no. 2 exhibited red pigment on base.

100 Burial 16

Source: Lowe, 1962

Location: Mound 5A. 1.75 m. below surface, near bedrock level, south side of excavation A-42. Dating: Francesa Phase – Late Preclassic B (450 – 250 B. C.)

Radiocarbon Dating: Unknown

Inventory Cranial Unknown

Inventory Postcranial Unknown

MNI 1 Based on: Unknown

Age at Death Adult Method: Unknown

Dental Attrition Unknown

Sex Unknown Based on: -

Stature Unknown Method:-

Pathology/Trauma Unknown Pathology: - Bone: -

Trauma: - Bone: -

Cultural Modification(s) Unknown Location: - Type: -

101 Burial 16 – cont.

Burial Specifications Grave Type: Unknown

Body Position: Extended, supine, head to south.

Cranium Orientation: South

Feet Position: -

Grave Good(s): 1. Polished red “cuspidor” vessel.

2. Smaller vessel – similar silhouette to grave good 1 – dull, orange-slip, heavy ware.

Position(s): 1. On edge at right side of head

2. 20 cm. above chest.

102 Burial 18

*Primary Burial (?)

Source: Agrinier, 1964

Location: 75 cm. below surface in Pit A-50, on hillside southwest of Mound 1. Dating: Francesa Phase – Late Preclassic B (450 – 250 B. C.)

Radiocarbon Dating: Unknown

Inventory Cranial Unknown

Inventory Postcranial Unknown

MNI 1 Based on: Unknown

Age at Death Adult Method: Unknown

Dental Attrition Unknown

Sex Unknown Based on: -

Stature Unknown Method:-

Pathology/Trauma Unknown Pathology: - Bone: -

Trauma: - Bone: -

Cultural Modification(s) Unknown Location: - Type: - 103 Burial 18 – cont.

Burial Specifications Grave Type: Simple – secondary or disturbed

Body Position: Skull under bowl, other bones scattered.

Cranium Orientation: -

Feet Position: -

Grave Good(s): 1. Jar, complex independent restricted; slipped, polished moderate brown to black; grooved rim; grooved arcs around shoulder; worn concave base.

2. Bowl fragment, composite restricted; slipped, polished grayish reddish orange to black.

3. Neck of olla; slipped, matte grayish reddish orange.

4. Jade pendant, with four drilled holes.

Position(s): 1. Unknown

2. Over skull.

3. Unknown

4. Unknown

104 Burial 19

Source: Lowe, 1962

Location: Beneath east wall of José Hernández house on surface of Mound 80b. Depth approximately 30 cm. Dating: Francesa Phase – Late Preclassic B (450 – 250 B. C.)

Radiocarbon Dating: Unknown

Inventory Cranial Cranial material was recovered. Extremely friable and fragmentary.

Inventory Postcranial Lower limb bones.

MNI 1 Based on: Unknown

Age at Death Adult Method: Unknown

Dental Attrition Unknown

Sex Unknown Based on: -

Stature Unknown Method:-

Pathology/Trauma Unknown Pathology: - Bone: -

Trauma: - Bone: -

Cultural Modification(s) Unknown Location: - Type: - 105 Burial 19 – cont.

Burial Specifications Grave Type: Shallow trench, stone slabs laid carelessly under and over corpse.

Body Position: Extended, supine, head to the west, lower limbs extended beneath the wall of the dwelling and were not disturbed.

Cranium Orientation: West

Feet Position: -

Grave Good(s): 1. Brown composite-silhouette bowl – with “kill hole”.

2. Black-slip bowl with low angle shoulder, in-sloping sides.

3. Black-slip composite-silhouette bowl – with “kill hole”.

4. Fragment of a round-side buff vessel.

Position(s): 1. Inverted over skull.

2. At waist.

3. Inverted and covering grave good no. 2.

4. Recovered in fill.

106 Burial 20

Source: Lowe, 1962

Location: 4.20 cm. below surface of Mound 36, in a disturbed section of Structure 36-F4 floor. Dating: Francesa Phase – Late Preclassic B (450 – 250 B. C.)

Radiocarbon Dating: Unknown

Inventory Cranial Unknown

Inventory Postcranial Unknown

MNI 1 Based on: Unknown

Age at Death Probable adult Method: Unknown

Dental Attrition Unknown

Sex Unknown Based on: -

Stature Unknown Method:-

Pathology/Trauma Unknown Pathology: - Bone: -

Trauma: - Bone: -

Cultural Modification(s) Unknown Location: - Type: -

107 Burial 20 – cont.

Burial Specifications Grave Type: Simple, over layer of black clay resting on large rocks.

Body Position: Extended, head to the north. Bones severely smashed and extremely friable.

Cranium Orientation: North

Feet Position: -

Grave Good(s): 1. Polished red plate with slightly everted rim.

2. “Duck bill” jade pendant.

3. Tiny jade bead.

4. Obsidian blade.

Position(s): 1. Upright along waist.

2. Unknown

3. Unknown

4. Unknown

Cinnabar/Red Ochre/Unspecified Red Pigment: Yes - bones and surrounding earth stained with red pigment.

108 Burial 28

Source: Agrinier, 1964

Location: Mound 1 Plaza; A-83B; 1.24 m. from surface. Dating: Francesa Phase – Late Preclassic B (450 – 250 B. C.)

Radiocarbon Dating: Unknown

Inventory Cranial Skull missing due to later disturbance.

Inventory Postcranial Long bones present, 1st cervical vertebrae missing due to later disturbance.

MNI 1 Based on: Unknown

Age at Death Adult Method: Unknown

Dental Attrition Unknown

Sex Unknown Based on: -

Stature Unknown Method:-

Pathology/Trauma Unknown Pathology: - Bone: -

Trauma: - Bone: -

Cultural Modification(s) Unknown Location: - Type: -

109 Burial 28 – cont.

Burial Specifications Grave Type: Simple

Body Position: Extended, on right side, legs slightly flexed, head to the north.

Cranium Orientation: North

Feet Position: -

Grave Good(s): 1. Vase, complex independent restricted; slipped, polished black; convex worn base.

2. Fragment of clay seal.

Position(s): 1. -2. Unknown

110 Burial 29

Source: Agrinier, 1964

Location: Mound 1 Plaza; A-83B; 1.45 m. from surface. Dating: Francesa Phase – Late Preclassic B (450 – 250 B. C.)

Radiocarbon Dating: Unknown

Inventory Cranial Fragmentary cranium.

Inventory Postcranial Long bones, ribs, and pelvis.

MNI 1 Based on: Unknown

Age at Death Child Method: Unknown

Dental Attrition Unknown

Sex Unknown Based on: -

Stature Unknown Method:-

Pathology/Trauma Unknown Pathology: - Bone: -

Trauma: - Bone: -

Cultural Modification(s) Unknown Location: - Type: -

111 Burial 29 – cont.

Burial Specifications Grave Type: Simple, dirt pit covered with two sandstone slabs.

Body Position: Extended, supine, hands on pelvis, head to the north.

Cranium Orientation: North

Feet Position: -

Grave Good(s): 1. Bowl, composite restricted; slipped, light yellowish brown matte; concave base.

2. Seashell.

Position(s): 1. Left side of pelvic region.

2. Left side of pelvic region.

112 Burial 30

Source: Agrinier, 1964

Location: Mound 1 Plaza; A-83B; 1.25 m. from surface. Dating: Francesa Phase – Late Preclassic B (450 – 250 B. C.)

Radiocarbon Dating: Unknown

Inventory Cranial Unknown

Inventory Postcranial Unknown

MNI 1 Based on: Unknown

Age at Death Child Method: Unknown

Dental Attrition Unknown

Sex Unknown Based on: -

Stature Unknown Method:-

Pathology/Trauma Unknown Pathology: - Bone: -

Trauma: - Bone: -

Cultural Modification(s) Unknown Location: - Type: -

113 Burial 30 – cont.

Burial Specifications Grave Type: Simple

Body Position: Extended, supine, hands on pelvis, head to the west.

Cranium Orientation: West

Feet Position: -

Grave Good(s): None

Position(s): -

114 Burial 33

Source: Agrinier, 1964

Location: Mound 1 Plaza; A-83B; 1.24 m. below surface. Dating: Francesa Phase – Late Preclassic B (450 – 250 B. C.)

Radiocarbon Dating: Unknown

Inventory Cranial Unknown

Inventory Postcranial Unknown

MNI 1 Based on: Unknown

Age at Death Child Method: Unknown

Dental Attrition Unknown

Sex Unknown Based on: -

Stature Unknown Method: -

Pathology/Trauma Unknown Pathology: - Bone: -

Trauma: - Bone: -

Cultural Modification(s) Unknown Location: - Type: -

115 Burial 33 – cont.

Burial Specifications Grave Type: Simple

Body Position: Extended, on right side, hands on pelvis head to the northwest.

Cranium Orientation: Northwest

Feet Position: -

Grave Good(s): None

Position(s): -

116 Burial 34

Source: Agrinier, 1964

Location: Mound 1 Plaza; A-83B; 1.50 m. from surface. Dating: Francesa Phase – Late Preclassic B (450 – 250 B. C.)

Radiocarbon Dating: Unknown

Inventory Cranial Not present.

Inventory Postcranial Lower limbs and pelvis present.

MNI 1 Based on: Unknown

Age at Death Child Method: Unknown

Dental Attrition Unknown

Sex Unknown Based on: -

Stature Unknown Method:-

Pathology/Trauma Unknown Pathology: - Bone: -

Trauma: - Bone: -

Cultural Modification(s) Unknown Location: - Type: -

117 Burial 34 – cont.

Burial Specifications Grave Type: Simple

Body Position: Extended, on left side, head to the north, disturbed; only lower part of skeleton present, inclusive of pelvis.

Cranium Orientation: North

Feet Position: -

Grave Good(s): 1. Jar, complex independent restricted; slipped, burnished light brown/brownish orange to black; grooved rim, grooved arcs around shoulder, concave worn base.

2. Jade beads (11).

Position(s): 1. Right side of pelvic region.

2. Unknown

118 Burial 35

Source: Agrinier, 1964

Location: Mound 1 Plaza; A-83B; 1.58 m. below surface. Dating: Francesa Phase – Late Preclassic B (450 – 250 B. C.)

Radiocarbon Dating: Unknown

Inventory Cranial Cranium present.

Inventory Postcranial Upper and lower limb bones, pelvis, hands, and torso present.

MNI 1 Based on: Unknown

Age at Death Adult Method: Unknown

Dental Attrition Unknown

Sex Unknown Based on: -

Stature Unknown Method:-

Pathology/Trauma Unknown Pathology: - Bone: -

Trauma: - Bone: -

Cultural Modification(s) Unknown Location: - Type: -

119 Burial 35 – cont.

Burial Specifications Grave Type: Simple

Body Position: Extended, on back, head to the west

Cranium Orientation: West

Feet Position: -

Grave Good(s): 1. Bowl, composite restricted; slipped, matte moderate reddish brown; concave base, with “kill-hole”.

2. Jar, complex independent restricted; slipped, burnished black; grooved rim, grooved arcs around shoulder; concave worn base.

3. Vase, simple restricted; slipped, polished grayish, reddish orange; flat base.

4. Jar, complex independent restricted; slipped, polished grayish, reddish orange; hexagonally shaped at shoulder, with grooved arcs; worn concave base.

5. Fragmented obsidian flake-blade.

Position(s): 1. Placed over skull.

2. Right side of skeletal material

3. Right side of skeletal material

4. Right side of skeletal material

5. Unknown

120 Burial 46

Source: Agrinier, 1964

Location: Mound 1 Plaza; A-83B; 1.44 m. below surface. Dating: Francesa Phase – Late Preclassic B (450 – 250 B. C.)

Radiocarbon Dating: Unknown

Inventory Cranial Cranium present.

Inventory Postcranial Upper and lower limb bones, pelvis, and hands present.

MNI 1 Based on: Unknown

Age at Death Child Method: Unknown

Dental Attrition Unknown

Sex Unknown Based on: -

Stature Unknown Method:-

Pathology/Trauma Unknown Pathology: - Bone: -

Trauma: - Bone: -

Cultural Modification(s) Unknown Location: - Type: -

121 Burial 46 – cont.

Burial Specifications Grave Type: Simple

Body Position: Slightly flexed on right side, hands on pelvis with head elevated and to the east.

Cranium Orientation: East

Feet Position: -

Grave Good(s): 1. Olivella shells (numerous)

Position(s): 1. At pelvis level.

122 Burial 47

Source: Agrinier, 1964

Location: Mound 1 Plaza; A-83B; 1.67 m. below surface. Dating: Francesa Phase – Late Preclassic B (450 – 250 B. C.)

Radiocarbon Dating: Unknown

Inventory Cranial Cranium present.

Inventory Postcranial Upper and lower limb bones, vertebrae, ribs, pelvis, and hands present.

MNI 1 Based on: Unknown

Age at Death Adult Method: Unknown

Dental Attrition Unknown

Sex Female (?) Based on: -

Stature Unknown Method:-

Pathology/Trauma Unknown Pathology: - Bone: -

Trauma: - Bone: -

Cultural Modification(s) Unknown Location: - Type: -

123 Burial 47 – cont.

Burial Specifications Grave Type: Simple, covered with five stone slabs.

Body Position: Extended, on back, hands on pelvis, head to the west.

Cranium Orientation: West

Feet Position: -

Grave Good(s): 1. Bowl, simple unrestricted; slipped, matte moderate orange; flat base.

2. Bowl, simple unrestricted; slipped, polished strong brown, with resist decoration; outflaring grooved rim; slightly concave worn base.

Position(s): 1. Next to and partially covering right foot/ankle area.

2. Inverted over knee area.

124 Burial 48

Source: Agrinier, 1964

Location: Mound 1 Plaza; A-83B; 1.66 m. below surface. Dating: Francesa Phase – Late Preclassic B (450 – 250 B. C.)

Radiocarbon Dating: Unknown

Inventory Cranial Cranium present.

Inventory Postcranial Upper and lower limb bones, vertebrae, ribs, pelvis, and hands present.

MNI 1 Based on: Unknown

Age at Death Adult Method: Unknown

Dental Attrition Unknown

Sex Unknown Based on: -

Stature Unknown Method:-

Pathology/Trauma Unknown Pathology: - Bone: -

Trauma: - Bone: -

Cultural Modification(s) Unknown Location: - Type: -

125 Burial 48 – cont.

Burial Specifications Grave Type: Simple, covered with eleven stone slabs.

Body Position: Extended, on back, hands on pelvis, head to the south.

Cranium Orientation: South

Feet Position: -

Grave Good(s): 1. Bowl, complex unrestricted; slipped, burnished grayish reddish orange to black; concave worn base.

2. Bowl, complex unrestricted; slipped, burnished strong brown to black; concave worn base.

3. Bowl, compound unrestricted; slipped, burnished strong brown to black; concave worn base.

4. Vase, complex, independent restricted; slipped, burnished strong brown to black; concave worn base.

5. Bowl, simple unrestricted; slipped, polished reddish orange; wide-everted rim, concave worn base, with “kill- hole”.

6. Bowl, simple restricted; slipped, polished brownish orange; concave worn base.

7. Bowl, composite unrestricted; slipped, polished light brown; incised geometrical designs on exterior wall; slightly concave worn base.

8. Alabaster (travertine) earplugs (one pair).

Position(s): 1. – 4. Unknown

126 Burial 48 – cont.

Position(s):

5. Inverted over skull.

6.-8. Unknown

127 Burial 49 A, B, C

Source: Agrinier, 1964

Location: Mound 1 Plaza; A-83B; 95 cm. below surface. Dating: Francesa Phase – Late Preclassic B (450 – 250 B. C.)

Radiocarbon Dating: Unknown

Inventory Cranial All extremely fragmentary.

Inventory Postcranial All extremely fragmentary. Upper and lower limb bones, and torso.

MNI 3 Based on: Unknown

Age at Death A. Adult B. Adult C. Child Method: Unknown

Dental Attrition Unknown

Sex Unknown Based on: -

Stature Unknown Method:-

Pathology/Trauma Unknown Pathology: - Bone: -

Trauma: - Bone: -

Cultural Modification(s) Unknown Location: - Type: - 128 Burial 49 A, B, C – cont.

Burial Specifications Grave Type: Simple

Body Position: All: Disturbed; extended on back, arms along sides

Cranium Orientation: A. North B. North C. East

Feet Position: -

Grave Good(s): None

Position(s): -

129 Burial 50

Source: Agrinier, 1964

Location: Mound 1 Plaza; A-83B; 1.20 m. below surface. Dating: Francesa Phase – Late Preclassic B (450 – 250 B. C.)

Radiocarbon Dating: Unknown

Inventory Cranial Disturbed; cranium missing.

Inventory Postcranial Disturbed*; upper torso missing, lower torso, lower limb bones, pelvis, and hands present.

MNI 1 Based on: Unknown

Age at Death Adult Method: Unknown

Dental Attrition Unknown

Sex Unknown Based on: -

Stature Unknown Method:-

Pathology/Trauma Unknown Pathology: - Bone: -

Trauma: - Bone: -

Cultural Modification(s) Unknown Location: - Type: -

130 Burial 50 – cont.

Burial Specifications Grave Type: Simple, pit lined with uncut stones.

Body Position: Disturbed*; extended, on back, hands on pelvis, head to the east

Cranium Orientation: East

Feet Position: -

Grave Good(s): 1. Bowl, complex unrestricted; slipped, burnished black; incised rim, geometrical incising on shoulder; concave worn base.

2. Vase, complex independent restricted; slipped, burnished light brown/brownish orange to black; concave worn base.

Position(s): 1. Unknown

2. Left side of skeletal material, just above knee joint.

*Disturbed due to later placement of refuse dump

131 Burial 51A

Source: Agrinier, 1964

Location: Mound 1 Plaza; A-83B; 1.42 m. below surface. Dating: Francesa Phase – Late Preclassic B (450 – 250 B. C.)

Radiocarbon Dating: Unknown

Inventory Cranial Cranium present.

Inventory Postcranial Arms and torso present; lower limb bones absent.

MNI 1 Based on: Unknown

Age at Death Adult Method: Unknown

Dental Attrition Unknown

Sex Unknown Based on: -

Stature Unknown Method:-

Pathology/Trauma Unknown Pathology: - Bone: -

Trauma: - Bone: -

Cultural Modification(s) Unknown Location: - Type: -

132 Burial 51A – cont.

Burial Specifications Grave Type: Simple

Body Position: Extended, on left side, arms along sides, head to the east

Cranium Orientation: East

Feet Position: -

Grave Good(s): 1. Dish, complex unrestricted; self-slipped, polished light yellowish brown/moderate orange, yellow to black; concave worn base.

Position(s): 1. On edge, just south of cranium.

133 Burial 63A

*Secondary Burial (?)

Source: Agrinier, 1964

Location: North side of Mound 1; A-83S.

Dating: Francesa Phase – Late Preclassic B (450 – 250 B. C.)

Radiocarbon Dating: Unknown

Inventory Cranial Unknown

Inventory Postcranial Unknown

MNI 1 Based on: Unknown

Age at Death Child Method: Unknown

Dental Attrition Unknown

Sex Unknown Based on: -

Stature Unknown Method:-

Pathology/Trauma Unknown Pathology: - Bone: -

Trauma: - Bone: -

Cultural Modification(s) Unknown Location: - Type: -

134 Burial 63A – cont.

Burial Specifications Grave Type: Simple

Body Position: Disturbed or secondary burial.

Cranium Orientation: -

Feet Position: -

Grave Good(s): 1. Bowl, composite unrestricted; slipped, burnished brown-black; grooved rim, slightly concave worn base.

2. Bowl, composite, restricted; self-slipped brown-black interior, slipped exterior matte; grooved rim, slightly concave worn base.

3. Necklace comprised of approximately 100 Olivella shells (some cut in half), a worked bivalve shell with five drilled holes, and a jade bead.

Position(s): 1. -3. Unknown

135 Burial 65

Source: Agrinier, 1964

Location: North side of Mound 1; A-83S; 1.03 m. below surface Dating: Francesa Phase – Late Preclassic B (450 – 250 B. C.)

Radiocarbon Dating: Unknown

Inventory Cranial Unknown

Inventory Postcranial Unknown

MNI 1 Based on: Unknown

Age at Death Child Method: Unknown dental Attrition Unknown

Sex Unknown Based on: -

Stature Unknown Method:-

Pathology/Trauma Unknown Pathology: - Bone: -

Trauma: - Bone: -

Cultural Modification(s) Unknown Location: - Type: -

136 Burial 65– cont.

Burial Specifications Grave Type: Simple, covered with broad stone slab.

Body Position: Extended on back, head to the north.

Cranium Orientation: North

Feet Position: -

Grave Good(s): 1. Bowl, composite unrestricted; slipped, burnished strong brown to black; concave worn base.

2. Bowl, simple restricted; slipped, burnished black; concave worn base.

3. Neckless jar, complex restricted; slipped, polished moderate brown to black; grooved rim, concave base.

4. Bowl, simple unrestricted; slipped, polished brownish orange; notched medial flange, concave worn base.

5. Bowl, simple unrestricted; unslipped, polished medium gray; grooved interior rim, mulitiple-scribe incised curvilinear lines on interior bottom.

6. Bowl, simple unrestricted; slipped, polished brownish orange; concave worn base.

7. Shell pendant with two drilled holes.

Position(s): 1. – 7. Unknown

137 Burial 74

Source: Agrinier, 1964

Location: South side of Mound 1; A-100; 1.34 m. below surface Dating: Francesa Phase – Late Preclassic B (450 – 250 B. C.)

Radiocarbon Dating: Unknown

Inventory Cranial Cranium present.

Inventory Postcranial Upper and lower limbs, torso, and pelvis present.

MNI 1 Based on: Unknown

Age at Death Adult Method: Unknown

Dental Attrition Unknown

Sex Male Based on: -

Stature Unknown Method:-

Pathology/Trauma Unknown Pathology: - Bone: -

Trauma: - Bone: -

Cultural Modification(s) Unknown Location: - Type: -

138 Burial 74 – cont.

Burial Specifications Grave Type: Simple

Body Position: Extended on back, arms along sides, head to the south.

Cranium Orientation: South

Feet Position: -

Grave Good(s): 1. Shell earplug flares (two), each with a cut and incised shell ear adornment in the form of a plumed serpent.

2. Bowl, composite unrestricted; slipped, burnished moderate reddish brown to black; concave worn base.

3. Jar, complex independent restricted; slipped, polished light brown/strong yellowish brown to black; medial flange, concave worn base; vessel was coated with white and yellow stucco.

4. Bowl, composite restricted; slipped, burnished light brown to black; incised rim, concave worn base.

5. Bowl, complex unrestricted; slipped, burnished black; concave worn base.

Position(s): 1. – 5. Unknown

Cinnabar/Red Ochre/Unspecified Red Pigment: Yes - skeleton covered with red pigment.

139 Burial 75

Source: Agrinier, 1964

Location: South side of Mound 1; A-100-9; 60 cm. below surface Dating: Francesa Phase – Late Preclassic B (450 – 250 B. C.)

Radiocarbon Dating: Unknown

Inventory Cranial Fragmentary cranium.

Inventory Postcranial Upper and lower limb bones, ribs, pelvis, and hands present.

MNI 1 Based on: Unknown

Age at Death Adult Method: Unknown

Dental Attrition Unknown

Sex Unknown Based on: -

Stature Unknown Method:-

Pathology/Trauma Unknown Pathology: - Bone: -

Trauma: - Bone: -

Cultural Modification(s) Unknown Location: - Type: -

140 Burial 75 – cont.

Burial Specifications Grave Type: Simple

Body Position: Extended, on back, hands on pelvis, head to the west.

Cranium Orientation: West

Feet Position: -

Grave Good(s): 1. Jar, complex independent restricted; slipped, polished black; concave worn base.

2 Vase, composite unrestricted; slipped, polished brownish-orange; grooving above shoulder, concave worn base.

3. Fragment of orange plate.

Position(s): 1. Unknown

2. Unknown

3. Above right shoulder

141 Burial 78

Source: Agrinier, 1964

Location: South side of Mound 1; A-100-4; 1.00 m. below surface Dating: Francesa Phase – Late Preclassic B (450 – 250 B. C.)

Radiocarbon Dating: Unknown

Inventory Cranial Unknown

Inventory Postcranial Fragments of torso and arms.

MNI 1 Based on: Unknown

Age at Death Adult Method: Unknown

Dental Attrition Unknown

Sex Unknown Based on: -

Stature Unknown Method:-

Pathology/Trauma Unknown Pathology: - Bone: -

Trauma: - Bone: -

Cultural Modification(s) Unknown Location: - Type: -

142 Burial 78 – cont.

Burial Specifications Grave Type: Simple

Body Position: Badly disturbed and fragmentary.

Cranium Orientation: -

Feet Position: -

Grave Good(s): 1. Bowl fragment, complex unrestricted; slipped, burnished black.

Position(s): 1. Unknown

143 Burial 81

Source: Mason, 1960

Location: Mound 13 terrace; N40-W3 1.00 m. below surface Dating: Francesa Phase – Late Preclassic B (450-250 B.C.)

Radiocarbon Dating: Unknown

Inventory Cranial Crushed and decayed but identifiable.

Inventory Postcranial Femur length 40 cm., knee to astralgus (talus) 47 cm., radius 21 (?) cm., humerus 27 cm.

MNI 1 Based on: Unknown

Age at Death Adult Method: Unknown

Dental Attrition Unknown

Sex Unknown Based on: -

Stature 153.36 cm. - 160.20 cm. Method: Genovés method

Pathology/Trauma Unknown Pathology: - Bone: -

Trauma: - Bone: -

Cultural Modification(s) Unknown Location: - Type: -

144 Burial 81 – cont.

Burial Specifications Grave Type: Cist, at the foot of a line of 6 thin stone slabs to the south. The slabs lay at an angle of >45˚. These varied in length and were laid longest to smallest, west (head) to feet.

Body Position: Extended, supine, parallel to and 50cm from Burial 82, head to the west and slightly turned to the (right) south, arms close to the sides, hands at hips.

Cranium Orientation: West but turned to the south (slightly)

Feet Position: Feet and toes pointed up

Grave Good(s): 1. Bowl, broad, shallow, smooth, very black pottery, 20 x 4 cm., with “kill hole” in center of recurved base.

2. Bowl, shallow, heavy, unslipped brownish pottery, 14 x 5 cm., with recurved base.

3. Jade bead (small).

Position(s): 1. Inverted over skull.

2. Inverted, just left (north) of jaw and neck – lower level than grave good no.1.

3. Beneath bowl cover – in position that suggests it may have been placed in the mouth of the deceased.

145 Burial 82

Source: Mason, 1960

Location: Mound 13 terrace; N40-W3 110 cm. below surface, 50 cm. north of Burial 81. Dating: Francesa Phase – Late Preclassic B (450-250 B.C.)

Radiocarbon Dating: Unknown

Inventory Cranial Crushed and decayed but identifiable.

Inventory Postcranial Femur length 18 cm., upper limb bones and torso present, hands and feet missing.

MNI 1 Based on: Unknown

Age at Death Child Method: Unknown

Dental Attrition Unknown

Sex Unknown Based on: -

Stature 103.64 cm. - 110.50 cm. * Noted that total skeleton length (minus feet) 78 cm. Method: Genovés method

Pathology/Trauma Unknown Pathology: - Bone: -

Trauma: - Bone: -

Cultural Modification(s) Unknown Location: - Type: - 146 Burial 82 – cont.

Burial Specifications Grave Type: Cist, at the foot of a line of 6 thin stone slabs to the south. The slabs lay at an angle of >45˚. These varied in length and were laid longest to smallest, west (head) to feet (of Burial 81 – hands and feet of Burial 82 missing.)

Body Position: Extended, parallel to and 50 cm. to the north from Burial 81 (at about N40 and at a depth of about 110 cm.), head to the west, jaws apart, right arm (south) lay at the side, left arm crossed over the chest.

Cranium Orientation: West

Feet Position: -

Grave Good(s): 1. Bowl, upright, large, shallow. Smooth, black slip, 19 x 6.5 cm. Baked in a reducing atmosphere. Slightly indented on the rim in four places (equidistant). (Francesa Phase)

2. Bowl, upright, large, shallow. 18 x 6.5 cm., smooth, reddish finish, smudged black in places. (Francesa Phase)

Position(s): 1. - 2. Southwest of head, in an east-west line, 5 cm. apart.

147 Burial 100

Source: Agrinier, 1964

Location: Mound 1 Plaza; A-121-I; 1.24 m. below surface. Dating: Francesa Phase – Late Preclassic B (450 – 250 B. C.)

Radiocarbon Dating: Unknown

Inventory Cranial Cranium present.

Inventory Postcranial Torso and limbs present, feet absent.

MNI 1 Based on: Unknown

Age at Death Adult Method: Unknown

Dental Attrition Unknown

Sex Unknown Based on: -

Stature Unknown Method: Unknown

Pathology/Trauma Unknown Pathology: - Bone: -

Trauma: - Bone: -

Cultural Modification(s) Unknown Location: - Type: -

148 Burial 100 – cont.

Burial Specifications Grave Type: Simple

Body Position: Extended, on back, head to west, feet absent.

Cranium Orientation: West

Feet Position: -

Grave Good(s): 1. Bowl, complex, unrestricted; slipped, polished, grayish, reddish orange to black; concave, worn base.

2. Bowl, complex, unrestricted; slipped, polished, grayish, reddish orange to black; concave, worn base.

3. Bowl, simple unrestricted; grayish, reddish orange to black; wide everted rim, flat base with “kill-hole”.

4. Solid clay figurine body.

5. Bowl fragment, composite unrestricted; slipped, polished moderate orange; flat base.

6. Bowl fragment, composite unrestricted; slipped, polished black.

7. Obsidian chips.

8. Shell fragments.

Position(s): 1. – 8. Unknown

149 Burial 101

Source: Agrinier, 1964

Location: Mound 1 Plaza; A-121-J; 1.3 m. below surface. Dating: Francesa Phase – Late Preclassic B (450 – 250 B. C.)

Radiocarbon Dating: Unknown

Inventory Cranial Cranium present.

Inventory Postcranial Upper and lower limbs present. Ribs, pelvis, hands and feet also present.

MNI 1 Based on: Unknown

Age at Death Adult Method: Unknown

Dental Attrition Unknown

Sex Female Based on: Unknown

Stature Unknown Method: Unknown

Pathology/Trauma Unknown Pathology: - Bone: -

Trauma: - Bone: -

Cultural Modification(s) Unknown Location: - Type: -

150 Burial 101 – cont.

Burial Specifications Grave Type: Simple

Body Position: Extended, on back, head to south.

Cranium Orientation: South

Feet Position: -

Grave Good(s): 1. Bowl, complex, unrestricted; slipped, burnished black; grooved rim, notched shoulder, concave, worn base.

2. Jar, complex independent restricted; slipped, polished black; modeled and grooved exterior rim.

3. Metate fragment.

4. Obsidian flake-blade.

5. Shell.

Position(s): 1. – 4. Unknown

5. Next to right leg

151 Burial 102

Source: Agrinier, 1964

Location: Mound 1 Plaza; A-121-M; 1.11 m. below surface Dating: Francesa Phase – Late Preclassic B (450 – 250 B.C.)

Radiocarbon Dating: Unknown

Inventory Cranial Unknown

Inventory Postcranial Unknown

MNI 1 Based on: Unknown

Age at Death Child Method: Unknown

Dental Attrition Unknown

Sex Unknown Based on:-

Stature Unknown Method:-

Pathology/Trauma Unknown Pathology: - Bone: -

Trauma: - Bone: -

Cultural Modification(s) Unknown Location: - Type: -

152 Burial 102– cont.

Burial Specifications Grave Type: Simple

Body Position: Extended, on back, head to the north. Badly disintegrated and disturbed(?). Associated with stone pavement.

Cranium Orientation: North

Feet Position: -

Grave Good(s): 1. Vase, composited, Unrestricted; unslipped, matte light grayish brown/light brown; concave worn base.

2. Bowl, composite unrestricted; slipped, black; concave base.

3. Bowl, simple unrestricted; slipped, matte grayish reddish orange; flat worn base.

4. Fragment of vase; slipped, polished grayish reddish orange.

5. Bowl fragment, simple unrestricted; polished grayish reddish orange; wide everted rim.

6. Grinding stone (mano).

Position(s): 1. – 6. Unknown

153 Burial 103

Source: Agrinier, 1964

Location: Mound 1 Plaza; A-121-M; 1.35 m. below surface Dating: Francesa Phase – Late Preclassic B (450 - 250 B.C.)

Radiocarbon Dating: Unknown

Inventory Cranial Cranium absent.

Inventory Postcranial Feet absent.

MNI 1 Based on: Unknown

Age at Death Adult Method: Unknown

Dental Attrition Unknown

Sex Unknown Based on:-

Stature Unknown Method:-

Pathology/Trauma Unknown Pathology: - Bone: -

Trauma: - Bone: -

Cultural Modification(s) Unknown Location: - Type: -

154 Burial 103– cont.

Burial Specifications Grave Type: Simple

Body Position: Extended, on back, hands crossed over pelvis, head to the west. Poor condition.

Cranium Orientation: West

Feet Position: -

Grave Good(s): None

Position(s): -

155 Burial 104

Source: Agrinier, 1964

Location: Mound 1 Plaza; A-121-M; 1.63 m. below surface Dating: Francesa Phase – Late Preclassic B (450 - 250 B.C.)

Radiocarbon Dating: Unknown

Inventory Cranial Cranium present.

Inventory Postcranial Upper and lower limb bones present. Vertebrae and ribs present. Hands and feet present.

MNI 1 Based on: Unknown

Age at Death Adult Method: Unknown

Dental Attrition Unknown

Sex Unknown Based on:-

Stature Unknown Method:-

Pathology/Trauma Unknown Pathology: - Bone: -

Trauma: - Bone: -

Cultural Modification(s) Unknown Location: - Type: -

156 Burial 104– cont.

Burial Specifications Grave Type: Simple, with large stone over burial.

Body Position: Extended, on back, elbows bent, hands under chin, head to east. Large bowl covering skull.

Cranium Orientation: East

Feet Position: -

Grave Good(s): 1. Bowl, simple unrestricted; slipped, polished brownish orange; wide everted grooved rim; pattern of resist painting on interior – moderate reddish brown.

2. Bowl, simple unrestricted; double-slipped, polished moderate reddish brown; concave worn base.

3. Bridge-spout jar, complex independent restricted; unslipped, matte light olive gray to light brown; outer rim flange, groove shoulder and flat base.

4. Jar, complex independent restricted; slipped, burnished black; concave worn base.

5. Bowl, simple unrestricted; slipped, burnished moderate reddish brown to black; concave worn base.

6. Vase, complex restricted; slipped, burnished black; concave worn base.

7. Pumice polishing stones (three).

8. Necklace of small jade beads (15).

9. Mano.

10. Earplugs.

Position(s): 1. Over skull.

2. - 10. Unknown 157 Burial 105

Source: Agrinier, 1964

Location: Mound 1 Plaza; A-121-R; 1.20 m. below surface Dating: Francesa Phase – Late Preclassic B (450 - 250 B.C.)

Radiocarbon Dating: Unknown

Inventory Cranial Unknown – Only lower extremities excavated.

Inventory Postcranial Lower limbs and feet present.

MNI 1 Based on: Unknown

Age at Death Adult Method: Unknown

Dental Attrition Unknown

Sex Unknown Based on:-

Stature Unknown Method:-

Pathology/Trauma Unknown Pathology: - Bone: -

Trauma: - Bone: -

Cultural Modification(s) Unknown Location: - Type: -

158 Burial 105– cont.

Burial Specifications Grave Type: Simple

Body Position: Extended, on left side, head to west.

Cranium Orientation: West

Feet Position: -

Grave Good(s): 1. Bowl, simple unrestricted; slipped, polished, grayish reddish orange; wide everted rim, concave worn base.

Position(s): 1. Near feet.

159 Burial 106

Source: Agrinier, 1964

Location: Mound 1 Plaza; A-121-R; 1.30 m. below surface. Dating: Francesa Phase – Late Preclassic B (450 - 250 B.C.)

Radiocarbon Dating: Unknown

Inventory Cranial Unknown – Only lower extremities excavated.

Inventory Postcranial Lower limbs and feet present.

MNI 1 Based on: Unknown

Age at Death Adult Method: Unknown

Dental Attrition Unknown

Sex Unknown Based on:-

Stature Unknown Method:-

Pathology/Trauma Unknown Pathology: - Bone: -

Trauma: - Bone: -

Cultural Modification(s) Unknown Location: - Type: -

160 Burial 106– cont.

Burial Specifications Grave Type: Simple

Body Position: Extended, on right side, head to west.

Cranium Orientation: West

Feet Position: -

Grave Good(s): 1. Spouted jar, complex independent restricted; slipped, polished moderate reddish brown; flat worn base.

2. Bowl, composite unrestricted; reddish brown.

Position(s): 1. Under vessel 2.

2. Inverted over vessel 1.

161 Burial 107

Source: Agrinier, 1964

Location: Mound 1 Plaza; A-121-R; 1.20 m. below surface Dating: Francesa Phase – Late Preclassic B (450 - 250 B.C.)

Radiocarbon Dating: Unknown

Inventory Cranial Unknown

Inventory Postcranial Unknown

MNI 1 Based on: Unknown

Age at Death Adult Method: Unknown

Dental Attrition Unknown

Sex Unknown Based on:-

Stature Unknown Method:-

Pathology/Trauma Unknown Pathology: - Bone: -

Trauma: - Bone: -

Cultural Modification(s) Unknown Location: - Type: -

162 Burial 107– cont.

Burial Specifications Grave Type: Simple

Body Position: Extended, on back, head to west.

Cranium Orientation: West

Feet Position: -

Grave Good(s): 1. Bowls (two), composite unrestricted; slipped, matte light grayish yellowish brown/light yellowish brown; flat base.

Position(s): 1. Unknown

163 Burial 108

Source: Agrinier, 1964

Location: Mound 1 Plaza; A-121-O; Level 10 Dating: Francesa Phase – Late Preclassic B (450 - 250 B.C.)

Radiocarbon Dating: Unknown

Inventory Cranial Cranium present.

Inventory Postcranial Upper extremities present. Ribs present. Lower extremities not excavated.

MNI 1 Based on: Unknown

Age at Death Child Method: Unknown (Dentition?)

Dental Attrition Unknown

Sex Unknown Based on:-

Stature Unknown Method:-

Pathology/Trauma Unknown Pathology: - Bone: -

Trauma: - Bone: -

Cultural Modification(s) Unknown Location: - Type: -

164 Burial 108– cont.

Burial Specifications Grave Type: Simple

Body Position: Extended, on back, head to west. Vessel covering skull.

Cranium Orientation: West

Feet Position: -

Grave Good(s): 1. Bowl, composite restricted; slipped, polished brownish orange; slightly concave worn base.

2. Bowl, complex unrestricted; brownish orange.

3. Greenstone bead.

4. Olivella shells from necklace (16).

Position(s): 1. Covering skull

2. – 4. Unknown

165 Burial 109

Source: Agrinier, 1964

Location: Mound 1 Plaza; A-121-S-Ext., Level 11 Dating: Francesa Phase – Late Preclassic B (450 - 250 B.C.)

Radiocarbon Dating: Unknown

Inventory Cranial Cranium present. *Note on dentition – shovel shaped incisors.

Inventory Postcranial Upper and lower extremities present. Ribs, pelvis, hands and feet present.

MNI 1 Based on: Unknown

Age at Death Adult Method: Unknown

Dental Attrition LM2 – degree unknown

Sex Unknown Based on:-

Stature Unknown Method:-

Pathology/Trauma Yes Pathology: Dental Caries (large) Bone: LM2 mesial side

Trauma: - Bone: -

Cultural Modification(s) Possible Location: LI1 and RI1 Type: Abnormal wear of the buccal faces – preparation for inlay(?) Romero E-5 (Romero, 1958) 166 Burial 109– cont.

Burial Specifications Grave Type: Simple

Body Position: Extended, on back, head to west.

Cranium Orientation: West

Feet Position: -

Grave Good(s): 1. Neckless jar, simple restricted; brownish orange.

Position(s): 1. Left side of skull

167 Burial 110

Source: Agrinier, 1964

Location: Mound 1 Plaza; A-121-S-Ext., Level 12 Dating: Francesa Phase – Late Preclassic B (450 - 250 B.C.)

Radiocarbon Dating: Unknown

Inventory Cranial Cranium present. *Note on dentition – shovel shape incisors.

Inventory Postcranial Upper and lower extremities present. Ribs, pelvis, hands and feet present.

MNI 1 Based on: Unknown

Age at Death Child (Approximately 12 years) Method: Unknown

Dental Attrition Unknown

Sex Unknown Based on:-

Stature Unknown Method:-

Pathology/Trauma Yes Pathology: Lower part of enamel removed – dentine exposed (?) Bone: LI1

Pathology: Shovel-Shape Incisors Bone: Incisors (maxillary or mandibular not noted)

Trauma: - Bone: -

168 Burial 110– cont.

Cultural Modification(s) Possible(?) Location: LI1 Type: Lower part of enamel removed – dentine exposed

Burial Specifications Grave Type: Simple

Body Position: Extended, on back, head to east, vessel covering skull.

Cranium Orientation: East

Feet Position: -

Grave Good(s): 1. Bowl, simple unrestricted; slipped, polished grayish reddish orange; exteriorly thickened rim, slightly concave worn base with “kill-hole”.

2. Neckless jar, simple restricted; slipped, polished light yellowish brown and black; incised and punctate geometric designs on the exterior rim and wall; flat worn base.

3. Bowl, simple unrestricted; slipped, polished grayish reddish orange; resist painting; flat worn base.

4. Shell beads (three).

5. Jade beads (two).

6. Fragment of a stone chisel.

Position(s): 1. Covering skull

2. -6. Unknown

169 Burial 111

Source: Agrinier, 1964

Location: Mound 1 Plaza; A-121-G; 1.15 m. below surface Dating: Francesa Phase – Late Preclassic B (450 - 250 B.C.)

Radiocarbon Dating: Unknown

Inventory Cranial Unexcavated

Inventory Postcranial Unexcavated

MNI Unknown Based on:-

Age at Death Unknown Method:-

Dental Attrition Unknown

Sex Unknown Based on:-

Stature Unknown Method:-

Pathology/Trauma Unknown Pathology: - Bone: -

Trauma: - Bone: -

Cultural Modification(s) Unknown Location: - Type: -

170 Burial 111– cont.

Burial Specifications Grave Type: Simple

Body Position: Unexcavated

Cranium Orientation: -

Feet Position: -

Grave Good(s): 1. Bowl, complex unrestricted; slipped, polished black; concave worn base.

2. Jar, complex independent restricted; slipped, polished black; grooved rim, concave worn base.

Position(s): 1. -2. Unknown

171 Burial 112

Source: Agrinier, 1964

Location: Mound 1 Plaza; A-121-Wall H, Level 7 Dating: Francesa Phase – Late Preclassic B (450 - 250 B.C.)

Radiocarbon Dating: Unknown

Inventory Cranial Cranium present.

Inventory Postcranial Upper and lower limbs present. Ribs, pelvis, hands and feet present.

MNI 1 Based on: Unknown

Age at Death Adult Method: Unknown

Dental Attrition Unknown

Sex Unknown Based on:-

Stature Unknown Method:-

Pathology/Trauma Unknown Pathology: - Bone: -

Trauma: - Bone: -

Cultural Modification(s) Unknown Location: - Type: -

172 Burial 112– cont.

Burial Specifications Grave Type: Simple

Body Position: Extended, face down, left arm under torso, right arm along side, legs crossed, head to the north.

Cranium Orientation: North

Feet Position: -

Grave Good(s): 1. Bowl, composite restricted; slipped, polished black; concave worn base.

2. Neckless jar, composite restricted; slipped, burnished black; concave worn base.

3. Cylindrical vase, simple unrestricted; slipped, matte strong brown; wide everted groove rim, flat base.

4. Olivella shell beads (large quantity)

Position(s): 1. Near feet.

2. Unknown

3. Near feet.

4. Unknown

173 Burial 114

*Secondary Burial

Source: Agrinier, 1964

Location: Mound 1 Plaza; A-121-Wall O, Level 8 Dating: Francesa Phase – Late Preclassic B (450 - 250 B.C.)

Radiocarbon Dating: Unknown

Inventory Cranial Unknown

Inventory Postcranial Unknown

MNI 1 Based on: Unknown

Age at Death Adult Method: Unknown

Dental Attrition Unknown

Sex Unknown Based on:-

Stature Unknown Method:-

Pathology/Trauma Unknown Pathology: - Bone: -

Trauma: - Bone: -

Cultural Modification(s) Unknown Location: - Type: -

174 Burial 114– cont.

Burial Specifications Grave Type: Simple

Body Position: Secondary burial, badly decomposed.

Cranium Orientation: -

Feet Position: -

Grave Good(s): 1. Bowl, complex unrestricted; slipped, polished moderate brown to black; concave worn base.

2. Jar, complex independent restricted; slipped, polished black-brown.

Position(s): 1. Inverted, inside vessel 2.

2. Over vessel 1.

175 Burial 115

Source: Agrinier, 1964

Location: Mound 1 Plaza; A-121-Wall L, Level 9, depth 1.40 m. below surface. Dating: Francesa Phase – Late Preclassic B (450 - 250 B.C.)

Radiocarbon Dating: Unknown

Inventory Cranial Unknown

Inventory Postcranial Unknown

MNI 1 Based on: Unknown

Age at Death Adult Method: Unknown

Dental Attrition Unknown

Sex Unknown Based on:-

Stature Unknown Method:-

Pathology/Trauma Unknown Pathology: - Bone: -

Trauma: - Bone: -

Cultural Modification(s) Unknown Location: - Type: -

176 Burial 115– cont.

Burial Specifications Grave Type: Simple

Body Position: Extended, on back, hands on pelvis, head to north.

Cranium Orientation: North

Feet Position: -

Grave Good(s): Position(s): 1. Bowl, simple unrestricted; slipped, 1. Unknown burnished black; concave worn base. 2. Bowl, composite unrestricted; slipped, 2. Unknown burnished black, incised rim; concave worn base. 3. Vase, complex unrestricted; slipped, 3. Unknown burnished black; geometric red-filled incising on wall; concave worn base. 4. Jar, complex unrestricted; slipped, 4. Unknown burnished strong brown to black; incised rim, concave worn base. 5. Miniature onyx vase or cup, cylindrical, 5. Unknown 5 cm. 6. Serpentine earplugs, tubular (two). 6. One on each side of the cranium (right and left) 7. Necklace of 153 tubular jade beads. 7. Neck area between chin and clavicle. 8. Fragments of nacre (mother of pearl) 8. Right side of skeletal material in ornament (three). between right arm and torso. 9. Bivalve seashell (one)with three 9. Right side of skeletal material in perforations on one side. between right arm and torso. 10. Bracelet of 126 tubular jade beads. 10. Left arm. 11. Bracelet of worked Olivella shell beads 11. Right arm. and 32 small circular jade beads. 12. Jade beads, tiny circular (50) 12. Pelvic region. 13. Olivella shells, small (40) 13. Pelvic region. 14. River clam shell with three perforations 14. Unknown and central carved motif. Edge modified and decorated with an incision. 15. Clay stamps (three) – fine; two flat, one 15. Unknown cylindrical. Carved geometric and naturalistic ideographic designs. 177 Burial 127

Source: Agrinier, 1964

Location: Mound 1 Plaza; A-133-R00, 1.20 m. below surface. Dating: Francesa Phase – Late Preclassic B (450 - 250 B.C.)

Radiocarbon Dating: Unknown

Inventory Cranial Cranium present.

Inventory Postcranial Upper and lower limbs present - fragmentary. Torso disturbed.

MNI 1 Based on: Unknown

Age at Death Youth Method: Unknown

Dental Attrition Unknown

Sex Unknown based on:-

Stature Unknown Method:-

Pathology/Trauma Unknown Pathology: - bone: -

Trauma: - Bone: -

Cultural Modification(s) Unknown Location: - Type: -

178 Burial 127– cont.

Burial Specifications Grave Type: Simple

Body Position: Extended, on back, arms along sides, head to west. Badly disintegrated.

Cranium Orientation: West

Feet Position: -

Grave Good(s): 1. Cylindrical vase, simple unrestricted; buff.

2. Olivella shell beads (100).

3. Pieces of worked nacre (mother of pearl) shell (four).

4. Clay double-rings (six).

Position(s): 1. Top broken from base and laid above torso.

2. Pelvic region.

3. Pelvic region.

4. At waist.

179 Burial 128

*Secondary Burial

Source: Agrinier, 1964

Location: Mound 1 Plaza; A-133-R39, 1.15 m. below surface. Dating: Francesa Phase – Late Preclassic B (450 - 250 B.C.)

Radiocarbon Dating: Unknown

Inventory Cranial Cranium present.

Inventory Postcranial Upper and lower limbs present - fragmentary. Torso disturbed.

MNI 1 Based on: Unknown

Age at Death Child Method: Unknown

Dental Attrition Unknown

Sex Unknown Based on:-

Stature Unknown Method:-

Pathology/Trauma Unknown Pathology: - Bone: -

Trauma: - Bone: -

Cultural Modification(s) Unknown Location: - Type: -

180 Burial 128– cont.

Burial Specifications Grave Type: Simple

Body Position: -

Cranium Orientation: -

Feet Position: -

Grave Good(s): 1. Bowl, complex unrestricted; slipped, burnished black; concave base.

2. Bowl, complex unrestricted; slipped, polished black; shallow encircling grooves on exterior wall, concave base.

Position(s): 1.-2. Unknown

181 Burial 131

Source: Agrinier, 1964

Location: Mound 5b; A-131-N120R3; 1.25 m. below surface. Dating: Francesa Phase – Late Preclassic B (450 - 250 B.C.)

Radiocarbon Dating: Unknown

Inventory Cranial Unknown

Inventory Postcranial Unknown

MNI 1 Based on: Unknown

Age at Death Child Method: Unknown

Dental Attrition Unknown

Sex Unknown Based on:-

Stature Unknown Method:-

Pathology/Trauma Unknown Pathology: - Bone: -

Trauma: - Bone: -

Cultural Modification(s) Unknown Location: - Type: -

182 Burial 131– cont.

Burial Specifications Grave Type: Simple

Body Position: Extended, on left side, head to south. Badly disintegrated.

Cranium Orientation: South

Feet Position: -

Grave Good(s): 1. Bowl, simple unrestricted; unslipped, matte light grayish brown.

Position(s): 1. Unknown

183 Burial 132

*Secondary Burial (?)

Source: Agrinier, 1964

Location: Mound 5b; A-131-N129L6; 70 cm. below surface. Dating: Francesa Phase – Late Preclassic B (450 - 250 B.C.)

Radiocarbon Dating: Unknown

Inventory Cranial Unknown

Inventory Postcranial Unknown

MNI 1 Based on: Unknown

Age at Death Adult Method: Unknown

Dental Attrition Unknown

Sex Unknown Based on:-

Stature Unknown Method:-

Pathology/Trauma Unknown Pathology: - Bone: -

Trauma: - Bone: -

Cultural Modification(s) Unknown Location: - Type: -

184 Burial 132– cont.

Burial Specifications Grave Type: Simple; south end faced with one limestone and three sandstone slab fragments. Two oval limestone boulders were found in the north section of the grave. Small stones scattered over center section.

Body Position: Secondary or badly disturbed.

Cranium Orientation: -

Feet Position: -

Grave Good(s): 1. Cylindrical vase, inflected unrestricted; slipped exterior, partially slipped interior, matte, grayish, reddish orange; flat worn base.

2. Bowl, composite restricted; slipped, burnished grayish brown to black; concave worn base.

3. Fragment of zoomorphic vessel.

4. Jade bead.

Position(s): 1. North end of grave; slightly east of the two oval limestone boulders. Noted that this vase was covered by a low, broad bowl that was not restored.

2. South end of grave; west side of slab fragments.

3. Northwest corner of grave; found with fragments of skull and tibia.

4. North of slab fragments at south end of grave.

185 Burial 133

Source: Agrinier, 1964

Location: Field northeast of Mound 5a; A-131-N171L36; 1.40 m. below surface. Dating: Francesa Phase – Late Preclassic B (450 - 250 B.C.)

Radiocarbon Dating: Unknown

Inventory Cranial Unknown

Inventory Postcranial Unknown

MNI 1 Based on: Unknown

Age at Death Infant Method: Unknown

Dental Attrition Unknown

Sex Unknown Based on:-

Stature Unknown Method:-

Pathology/Trauma Unknown Pathology: - Bone: -

Trauma: - Bone: -

Cultural Modification(s) Unknown Location: - Type: -

186 Burial 133– cont.

Burial Specifications Grave Type: Simple

Body Position: Semi-flexed, on left side, head to north.

Cranium Orientation: North

Feet Position: -

Grave Good(s): 1. Bowl, simple unrestricted; slipped, polished strong brown; wide everted rim; slightly concave worn base, with “kill-hole” in center.

2. Bowl, simple unrestricted; unslipped, matte light brown to black; flat base.

Position(s): 1. Inverted, covering skeletal material.

2. South end of grave.

187 Burial 134

Source: Agrinier, 1964

Location: North side of Mound 5a; A-131-N180L54; 1.85 m. below surface. Dating: Francesa Phase – Late Preclassic B (450 - 250 B.C.)

Radiocarbon Dating: Unknown

Inventory Cranial Unknown

Inventory Postcranial Unknown

MNI 1 Based on: Unknown

Age at Death Infant Method: Unknown

Dental Attrition Unknown

Sex Unknown Based on:-

Stature Unknown Method:-

Pathology/Trauma Unknown Pathology: - Bone: -

Trauma: - Bone: -

Cultural Modification(s) Unknown Location: - Type: -

188 Burial 134– cont.

Burial Specifications Grave Type: Simple

Body Position: Flexed, on left side, head to south, vessel covering skull.

Cranium Orientation: South

Feet Position: -

Grave Good(s): 1. Bowl, composite unrestricted; slipped, polished grayish brown; concave base.

2. Fragment of metate.

Position(s): 1. Covering skull.

2. Unknown

189 Burial 135

Source: Agrinier, 1964

Location: Mound 5b; A-131-N123R0; 40 cm. to top of urn. Dating: Francesa Phase – Late Preclassic B (450 - 250 B.C.)

Radiocarbon Dating: Unknown

Inventory Cranial Unknown

Inventory Postcranial Unknown

MNI 1 Based on: Unknown

Age at Death Infant Method: Unknown

Dental Attrition Unknown

Sex Unknown Based on:-

Stature Unknown Method:-

Pathology/Trauma Unknown Pathology: - Bone: -

Trauma: - Bone: -

Cultural Modification(s) Unknown Location: - Type: -

190 Burial 135– cont.

Burial Specifications Grave Type: Urn burial, vessel covered and surrounded by boulders (most likely for protection).

Body Position: Tightly flexed in urn.

Cranium Orientation: -

Feet Position: -

Grave Good(s): 1. Cover: Bowl, simple unrestricted; unslipped, matte light yellowish brown, red pigment on base and exterior.

2. Urn: Barrel-shape, simple unrestricted; unslipped, matte light brown/moderate orange; 4 pairs of holes around vessel, below rim, incised line encircles exterior rim; flattened base.

Position(s): 1. Inverted over urn.

2. Contained skeletal material; beneath cover (grave good 1).

191 Burial 139

Source: Agrinier, 1964

Location: Mound 5a; A-131-N177L54; 70 cm. below Structure 5-H1 eastern wall. Dating: Francesa Phase – Late Preclassic B (450 - 250 B.C.)

Radiocarbon Dating: Unknown

Inventory Cranial Cranium present.

Inventory Postcranial Upper and lower limbs present. Hands and feet present. Torso and pelvis present.

MNI 1 Based on: Unknown

Age at Death Adult Method: Unknown

Dental Attrition Unknown

Sex Male Based on:Unknown

Stature Unknown Method:-

Pathology/Trauma Unknown Pathology: - Bone: -

Trauma: - Bone: -

Cultural Modification(s) Unknown Location: - Type: -

192 Burial 139– cont.

Burial Specifications Grave Type: Simple

Body Position: Extended, on right side, hands crossed, legs slightly flexed, feet crossed, head to the north.

Cranium Orientation: North

Feet Position: Crossed

Grave Good(s): 1. Bowl, complex restricted; slipped, burnished moderate reddish brown to black; row of repousseé and grooved arcs encircling the shoulder, groove encircling exterior rim.

2. Bowl, complex unrestricted; slipped, burnished grayish brown to black; incised geometric design on wall; concave worn base.

3. Bowl fragment, simple unrestricted; slipped, polished grayish brown to black.

Position(s): 1. East of upper leg bones.

2. East of upper leg bones.

3. East of (behind) cranium.

Note: Pile of ashes south and slightly east of feet.

193 Burial 140

*Secondary Burial (?)

Source: Agrinier, 1964

Location: Mound 5b; A-131-N123L6; depth 95 cm. Dating: Francesa Phase – Late Preclassic B (450 - 250 B.C.)

Radiocarbon Dating: Unknown

Inventory Cranial Unknown

Inventory Postcranial Unknown

MNI 1 Based on: Unknown

Age at Death Youth Method: Unknown

Dental Attrition Unknown

Sex Unknown Based on:-

Stature Unknown Method:-

Pathology/Trauma Unknown Pathology: - Bone: -

Trauma: - Bone: -

Cultural Modification(s) Unknown Location: - Type: -

194 Burial 140– cont.

Burial Specifications Grave Type: Simple

Body Position: *Secondary or much disturbed burial.

Cranium Orientation: -

Feet Position: -

Grave Good(s): 1. Fragment of six clay “ spearheads” made from pot sherds; unslipped, matte light yellowish brown.

2. Bowl, composite unrestricted; slipped, burnished light brown/brownish orange to black; incised line and molding encircling exterior rim; concave base.

Position(s): 1. South and slightly west of vessel 1.

2. North and slightly east of “spearheads” (grave good 1).

195 Burial 141

Source: Agrinier, 1964

Location: Mound 5a; A-131-N174L54; outside, below, and parallel to the western wall of Structure 5a-I2. Dating: Francesa Phase – Late Preclassic B (450 - 250 B.C.)

Radiocarbon Dating: Unknown

Inventory Cranial Cranium present.

Inventory Postcranial Upper and lower limbs present. Hand and feet present. fragmentary vertebrae and ribs. Pelvis present.

MNI 1 Based on: Unknown

Age at Death Adult Method: Unknown

Dental Attrition Unknown

Sex Male Based on:-

Stature Unknown Method:-

Pathology/Trauma Unknown Pathology: - Bone: -

Trauma: - Bone: -

Cultural Modification(s) Unknown Location: - Type: - 196 Burial 141– cont.

Burial Specifications Grave Type: Simple

Body Position: Extended, on right side, head to the north, vessel over skull; intrusive to Burial 142.

Cranium Orientation: North

Feet Position: -

Grave Good(s): 1. Fragment of a black bowl; slipped, polished.

2. Bowl, composite unrestricted; slipped, polished strong brown to black; outflaring rim, grooved shoulder, concave worn base with center “kill-hole”.

3. Bowl, complex unrestricted; slipped, polished moderate brown to black; grooved exterior rim, shoulder notched, concave worn base.

4. Bowl, complex unrestricted; slipped, polished moderate brown to black; grooved exterior rim, shoulder notched, concave worn base.

5. Jar, compound independent restricted; slipped, polished moderate brown to black; grooved exterior rim and shoulder, flat worn base.

6. Two worked seashells, both with two drilled holes, one with incised anthropomorphic face and red pigment.

Position(s): 1. Just north of cranium.

2. Covering cranium.

3. Inside of vessel 4, located just below right knee-level.

4. Just below right knee level, contained vessel 3.

5. At feet.

197 Burial 141– cont.

Position(s): 6. Between mandible and clavicle.

Cinnabar/Red Ochre/Unspecified Red Pigment: Yes - one seashell with red pigment.

198 Burial 142

Source: Agrinier, 1964

Location: Mound 5a. Below Burial 141.

Dating: Francesa Phase – Late Preclassic B (450 - 250 B.C.)

Radiocarbon Dating: Unknown

Inventory Cranial Cranium missing.

Inventory Postcranial Lower limbs present. Right hand present. Fragmentary vertebrae and ribs. Pelvis present.

MNI 1 Based on: Unknown

Age at Death Adult Method: Unknown

Dental Attrition Unknown

Sex Unknown Based on:-

Stature Unknown Method:-

Pathology/Trauma Unknown Pathology: - Bone: -

Trauma: - Bone: -

Cultural Modification(s) Unknown Location: - Type: -

199 Burial 142– cont.

Burial Specifications Grave Type: Simple

Body Position: Extended, on back, right hand under pelvis. Head to the southwest. Skull missing, disturbed by placement of Burial 141 – legs of 141 covered the cranial area and left side of Torso.

Cranium Orientation: Southwest

Feet Position: -

Grave Good(s): 1. Jade bead.

Position(s): 1. Feet area.

200 Burial 149

Source: Agrinier, 1964

Location: East of Mound 5a; A-131- N162L30; depth 1.75 m. Dating: Francesa Phase – Late Preclassic B (450 - 250 B.C.)

Radiocarbon Dating: Unknown

Inventory Cranial Cranium present.

Inventory Postcranial Fragmentary long bones, ribs, pelvis and feet.

MNI 1 Based on: Unknown

Age at Death Adult Method: Unknown

Dental Attrition Unknown

Sex Male Based on:-

Stature Unknown Method:-

Pathology/Trauma Unknown Pathology: - Bone: -

Trauma: - Bone: -

Cultural Modification(s) Unknown Location: - Type: -

201 Burial 149– cont.

Burial Specifications Grave Type: Covered burial cist. The north and south walls formed by four standing sandstone slabs – approximately 30 cm. apart, space between filled with three layers of relatively flat limestone, forming individual short walls. West wall composed of a single sandstone slab. East wall was unlined. roof slabs were large and carefully fitted. A large irregular slab covered a significant portion of the cist; remaining slabs were of varying sizes. Cist contained a layer of very loose granulated brown silt with significant sulfur content (strong smell noted by observers).

Body Position: Extended, on back, arms along sides, head to the east. Skeleton badly disturbed either by rodents or ancient thieves.

Cranium Orientation: East

Feet Position: -

Grave Good(s): Position(s): 1. - 3. Sherds of black vessel (not 1. - 3. Eastern side of grave. restored) 4. Jar, composite independent restricted; 4. East and slightly south of cranium. slipped, polished moderate orange; four nubbin feet, worn; resist-painted parallel vertical lines and blotches (Usulutan); modeled vertical ribbing on shoulder, two modeled protrusions on grooved exterior rim, flat worn base. 5. Bowl, composite restricted; slipped, 5. Directly above cranium (not covering). burnished moderate reddish brown to Inverted and slightly covering grave black, evidence of red painted good no. 6. stuccoing on exterior; concave worn base. 6. Jar, complex independent restricted; 6. Above cranium, slightly under grave slipped, burnished brownish orange to good no. 5. black; concave worn base. 7. Cylindrical vase, inflected unrestricted; 7. West and slightly south of grave good slipped, polished light reddish brown; no. 4. slightly concave base. 202

Burial 149– cont.

Grave Good(s): Position(s): 8. Bowl, composite restricted; slipped, 8. Covering vessel 7. burnished black; grooved exterior rim, concave worn base; two graffitti: La Venta style human head on interior, another on exterior. 9. Bowl, complex unrestricted; slipped, 9. Just south of grave good no. 7. burnished moderate reddish brown to black; slightly concave worn base. 10. Jar, composite independent restricted, 10. Slightly under grave good no. 9. slipped and polished black; shoulder modeled and grooved in five arcs, resembling squash; concave worn base. 11. - 13. Pumice polishing stones with 11. - 13. Unknown smoothed faces. 14. - 15. Worked turtle plastron bones, 14. - 15. South of grave goods no. 9 and each with drilled holes at one end. no. 10. 16. Cylindrical vase, simple unrestricted; 16. West of grave goods no. 14 and no. 15. self-slipped, polished light brown/dark orange yellow; flat base. 17. Jar, complex independent restricted; 17. West of cranium – upper torso area. slipped, burnished black; concave worn base. 18. Bowl, complex unrestricted; slipped; 18. West and adjacent to grave good burnished brownish orange to black; no. 16. grooved rim and shoulder, incised arch design repeated four times around vessel wall; flat worn base with shallow circular indentation. 19. Bowl, simple restricted; slipped, 19. West of grave good no. 18. burnished moderate brown to black; concave worn base. 20. Vase, complex unrestricted; slipped, 20. South and adjacent of pelvis, almost matte brown; grooved below rim; flat center of burial, base. 21. Bowl, composite unrestricted; 21. Northwest corner of grave, near feet. slipped, burnished strong brown to black.

203 Burial 149– cont.

Grave Good(s): Position(s): 22. Earplugs (two) of a thin light yellow- 22. Slightly south and west of cranium, greenstone. near cranium base. 23. Jade tubular bead. 23. Just east of grave good no. 7. 24. Sherd. 24. Near southeast corner. 25. Bivalve seashell pectoral, two holes. 25. West of grave good no. 22.

Cremation/Burning (?): Yes Some bones showed evidence of charring – undetermined if intentional or accidental.

204 Burial 151

Source: Agrinier, 1964

Location: South side of Mound 5b; A-131- N114L6; depth 80 cm. Dating: Francesa Phase – Late Preclassic B (450 - 250 B.C.)

Radiocarbon Dating: Unknown

Inventory Cranial Cranium present.

Inventory Postcranial Hands and pelvis present.

MNI 1 Based on: Unknown

Age at Death Child Method: Unknown

Dental Attrition Unknown

Sex Unknown Based on:-

Stature Unknown Method:-

Pathology/Trauma Unknown Pathology: - Bone: -

Trauma: - Bone: -

Cultural Modification(s) Unknown Location: - Type: -

205 Burial 151– cont.

Burial Specifications Grave Type: Simple

Body Position: Semi-flexed, on left side, hands joined at pelvis level, head to northeast.

Cranium Orientation: Northeast

Feet Position: -

Grave Good(s): None

Position(s): -

206 Burial 170

Source: Agrinier, 1964

Location: Mound 5d; A-131-N0E0; depth 1.2 m. Dating: Francesa Phase – Late Preclassic B (450 - 250 B.C.)

Radiocarbon Dating: Unknown

Inventory Cranial Cranium present.

Inventory Postcranial Lower extremities, left arm present.

MNI 1 Based on: Unknown

Age at Death Child Method: Unknown

Dental Attrition Unknown

Sex Unknown Based on:-

Stature Unknown Method:-

Pathology/Trauma Unknown Pathology: - Bone: -

Trauma: - Bone: -

Cultural Modification(s) Unknown Location: - Type: -

207 Burial 170– cont.

Burial Specifications Grave Type: Simple

Body Position: Slightly flexed, face down, left arm bent, right leg crossing left, head to southeast.

Cranium Orientation: Southeast

Feet Position: -

Grave Good(s): None

Position(s): -

208 Burial 177

Source: Agrinier, 1964

Location: Mound 5d; A-131-N0E0; depth 1.75 m. Dating: Francesa Phase – Late Preclassic B (450 - 250 B.C.)

Radiocarbon Dating: Unknown

Inventory Cranial Cranium present.

Inventory Postcranial Only cranium excavated.

MNI 1 Based on: Unknown

Age at Death Child Method: Unknown

Dental Attrition Unknown

Sex Unknown Based on:-

Stature Unknown Method:-

Pathology/Trauma Unknown Pathology: - Bone: -

Trauma: - Bone: -

Cultural Modification(s) Unknown Location: - Type: -

209 Burial 177– cont.

Burial Specifications Grave Type: Simple

Body Position: Probably extended, on back, head to east.

Cranium Orientation: East

Feet Position: -

Grave Good(s): 1. Bowl, composite unrestricted; slipped, polished light brown/moderate orange to black; convex base.

Position(s): 1. Unknown

210 Burial Tr. B-1

Source: Lowe, 1962

Location: Approximate center of Mound 33; beneath the uppermost Stage F floor. Dating: Francesa Phase – Late Preclassic B (450 - 250 B.C.)

Radiocarbon Dating: Unknown

Inventory Cranial Unknown – *Only a few fragments of bone recovered.

Inventory Postcranial Unknown - *Only a few fragments of bone recovered.

MNI Multiple burial. Based on: Position of offering bowls in the north, west, and southwest faces of the 2.5 m. – square pot-hunter’s trench indicated that more than one burial had been destroyed.

Age at Death Unknown Method: -

Dental Attrition Unknown

Sex Unknown Based on:-

Stature Unknown Method:-

Pathology/Trauma Unknown Pathology: - Bone: -

Trauma: - Bone: -

Cultural Modification(s) Unknown Location: - Type: - 211 Burial Tr. B-1– cont.

Burial Specifications Grave Type: Apparently simple

Body Position: Undetermined – very few fragments of bone recovered.

Cranium Orientation: -

Feet Position: -

Grave Good(s): 1. Red-brown, everted rim bowl.

2. Unbaked mudware vessel.

3. Jade beads (two).

4. Black-brown composite-silhouette bowl with grooved slash-and-crescent design.

5. Course-ware vertical-wall cup 8 cm. high and 8 cm. wide*.

*Note that landowner explained that he had taken out three similar small vessels during his excavations.

Position(s): 1. Inverted over charcoal and ashes located in the south face of the pit.

2. Found in west face of pit.

3. Found inside grave good 2 (unbaked mudware vessel).

4. Found in south face of pit.

5. Center of pit (reportedly).

212 Mango Seco Burial 1

*The Mango Seco group is a group of four small mounds about 800m east of the main site of Chiapa de Corzo. Source: Lowe, 1962

Location: About midway on the northwest slope of the central mound of the Mango Seco group. Originally(?) 2 m. below the original summit of the 4 m. – high mound. Exposed by erosion. Dating: Francesa Phase – Late Preclassic B (450 - 250 B.C.)

Radiocarbon Dating: Unknown

Inventory Cranial Cranium present.

Inventory Postcranial Lower and upper limbs present. Right foot present.

MNI 1 Based on: Unknown.

Age at Death Adult Method: Unknown

Dental Attrition Unknown

Sex Unknown Based on:-

Stature Unknown Method:-

Pathology/Trauma Unknown Pathology: - Bone: -

Trauma: - Bone: -

213 Mango Seco Burial 1 – cont.

Cultural Modification(s) Unknown Location: - Type: -

Burial Specifications Grave Type: Simple interment in fill.

Body Position: Extended, supine, arms at sides, head to the west.

Cranium Orientation: West

Feet Position: -

Grave Good(s): 1. Black-brown vessel.

2. Pottery vessels (number not specified).

3. Pecked and ground “mushroom stone”.

4. Necklace made from jade and other materials.

5. Earspools (greenstone).

Position(s): 1. Over the face.

2. Right of the lower right limb.

3. Below right foot and slightly east.

4. Around the neck.

5. Beside head (not recovered).

214 Chiapa de Corzo - Guanacaste Phase Burials

Tomb 7

Source: Lowe and Agrinier, 1964 Lowe and Agrinier, 1960* Location: Approximate center of Mound 1; beneath the uppermost Stage F floor. Dating: Guanacaste Phase* Late Preclassic C (250 – 0 B.C.)

(*Originally misidentified as Early Horcones Phase)

Radiocarbon Dating: Unknown

Inventory Cranial Cranium present but crushed by collapse of roof slabs. Dentition recovered.

Inventory Postcranial Upper and lower limb bones present. Clavicles present, as well as some ribs and vertebrae. Pelvis, hands and feet present. However, all bones were badly crushed and splintered – too much so for study.

MNI 1 Based on: Non-duplication of skeletal material.

Age at Death Young Adult Method: Dentition wear analysis – fair condition with little attrition indicative of age status.

Dental Attrition Little noted.

Sex Unknown Based on:-

Stature Approximate stature between 1.70 and 1.80m. Method:In situ measurements of deteriorated bones.

215 Tomb 7 – cont.

Pathology/Trauma Unknown Pathology: - Bone: -

Trauma: - Bone: -

Cultural Modification(s) Unknown Location: - Type: -

Burial Specifications Grave Type: Tomb. For the construction, an excavation was made through the 1-F1 and 1-F2 floors, through refuse accumulation to bedrock. The cut into the limestone measured 3.25 m. by 1.45 m. The upper east and west walls were constructed on the edges of the cut. These walls were made from fours courses of adobe bricks approximately 10 x 50 x 40 cm. The north and south ends of the tomb were closed by upright slabs. The sandstone roof appears to have been supported by timbers. The occupant appears to have been on a litter of wooden planks. However, it also appears that there was a post-interment ignition resulting from a smoldering incense burial offering that consumed combustible items in the tomb including some of the roof timbers.

Body Position: Extended, supine, head to the south. Appears to have been placed on a wooden litter.

Cranium Orientation: South

Feet Position: North

216

Tomb 7 – cont. Grave Good(s): Position(s):

1. Polished red florero (vase) 1. Right side of skeletal material, shoulder area. 2. Oxidized-rim smudged-black bowl (one of 2. Right side of skeletal material, five) shoulder area, slightly under left side of grave good no.1. 3. Polished red bowl 3. Right side of skeletal material, elbow area. Just north of grave good no.1. 4. Polished red bowl 4. Stacked with grave good no. 3. 5. Oxidized-rim smudged-black bowl (two of 5. Right side of skeletal material, north five) and slightly east of grave good nos. 3 and 4. 6. Polished red florero (vase) 6. Right side of skeletal material, north and slightly west of grave good no. 5. 7. Polished red florero (vase) 7. Right side of skeletal material, feet area. 8. Stucco-painted Usulutan effigy whistling 8. Right side of skeletal material , vessel slightly north of grave good no. 7. 9. Incised-rim black-brown roundside bowl 9. Due north of feet. (one of six) 10. Incised-rim black-brown roundside bowl 10. Stacked with grave good no. 9. (two of six) 11. Polished red “cuspidor” vessel 11. Right side of skeletal material, north of grave good no. 8. 12. Polished black jar 12. Slightly north and west of grave good no.11. 13. Polished red composite vessel 13. Far north end of tomb. 14. Polished red tall fluted vessel 14. Left side of skeletal material, slightly west and south of grave good no. 13. 15. Usulutan spouted effigy jar 15. Below grave good no. 14. 16. Shallow Usulutan tetrapod bowl 16. South of grave good nos. 14 and 15. 17. Polished gray bridge-spout face-neck jar 17. Left side of skeletal material, feet area. South of grave good no. 16 18. Incised-rim black-brown roundside bowl 18. Left side of skeletal material, next (three of six) to left foot. 19. Polished brown bridge-spout face-neck jar 19. In northwestern corner of second bench, directly north of no. 17 217

Tomb 7 – cont.

Grave Good(s): Position(s):

19a. Worked sherd lid for grave good no. 19 19a. Top of neck of grave good no. 19 20. Polished gray bridge-spout face-neck jar 20. Left side of skeletal material, slightly below knee level. 21. Polished gray bridge-spout face-neck jar 21. Left side of skeletal material, slightly above knee level. 22. Stucco-painted Usulutan effigy whistling 22. South and west of grave good vessel no.21. 23. Oxidized-rim smudged-black bowl (three 23. Left side of skeletal material, near of five) top of left femur. 24. Oxidized-rim smudged-black bowl (four 24. Stacked in grave good no. 23 of five) 25. Polished red plate 25. Directly west of grave good nos. 23 and 24, slightly overlapping them. 26. Polished red “cuspidor” vessel 26. Left side of skeletal material, upper arm level. 27. Polished red florero (vase) 27. South and slightly west of grave good no. 26. 28. Incised-rim black-brown roundside bowl 28. Southeast corner of tomb. (four of six) 29. Incised-rim black-brown roundside bowl 29. Between legs just above knees. (five of six) 29a. Incised-rim black-brown roundside bowl 29a. On top of occupant’s left knee. (six of six) 30. Polished red bridge-spout jar 30. Below grave good no. 13. 31. Polished brown vertical-wall bowl 31. Northwest corner of tomb. 32. Oxidized-rim smudged-black bowl (five 32. Stacked in grave good nos. 31 and of five) 33 in northwest corner of tomb. 33. Stucco-painted Usulutan tetrapod vessel 33. Stacked in grave good no. 32 in northwest corner of tomb. 34. Limestone rod 34. Next to and just north of grave good no. 8. 35. Worked bivalve shell fragment 35. Slightly south and west of grave good no. 12. 36. Sheet of mica 36. Next to grave good no. 35.. 37. Pair of worked mammal bones (ulna) 37. Inside grave good no. 12. 38. Mold of hard-shell tropical fruit (?) 38. Unknown 39. Stucco from gourd or wooden vessel 39. Just north of grave good no. 26.

218

Tomb 7 – cont.

Grave Good(s): Position(s):

40. Charcoal rings; carbonized reed containers 40. Far south end of tomb. or posts (?) 41. Smooth pebbles (ten) 41. Next to cranium on left side of skeletal material. 42. Tear-shaped nacre (mother of pearl) 42. Next to cranium on left side of ornaments (four) skeletal material, north of grave good no. 41. 43. Shell pectoral or mouthpiece 43. Next to cranium on left side of skeletal material, north of grave good no. 42. 44. Jade beads 44. Neck and clavicle area of skeletal material. 45. Jade earplug flares, resin earspool and 45. Right side of skeletal material, next shell cruciform component to cranium at ear level. 46. Carbonized plank (charcoal remains) 46. Above and around cranium area. 47. Cabonized plank (charcoal remains) 47. Right side of skeletal material, around grave good nos. 1, 2, 3, and 4. 48. Chalcedony spearhead 48. Stacked in northwest corner of tomb. 49. Obsidian blade 49. Stacked in northwest corner of tomb. 50. Chalcedony spearhead 50. Stacked in northwest corner of tomb.

Burning: Yes Some bones showed evidence of charring – it appears to be due to the post-interment ignition from smoldering incense in burial offering.

219 Tomb 8

Source: Lowe, 1962

Location: Edge of arroyo at base of Mound 3. Exposed by erosion. Excavation was clandestine. Dating: Guanacaste Phase Late Preclassic C (250 – 0 B.C.)

Radiocarbon Dating: Unknown

Inventory Cranial Nothing present, removed and possibly reburied elsewhere either by discoverers or landowner out of fear and respect.

Inventory Postcranial Nothing present, removed and possibly reburied elsewhere either by discoverers or landowner out of fear and respect.

MNI Unknown Based on: -

Age at Death Unknown Method: -

Dental Attrition Unknown

Sex Unknown Based on:-

Stature Unknown Method:-

Pathology/Trauma Unknown Pathology: - Bone: -

Trauma: - Bone: -

Cultural Modification(s) Unknown Location: - Type: -

220 Tomb 8 – cont.

Burial Specifications Grave Type: Chamber

Body Position: Unknown due to looter excavation.

Cranium Orientation: Unknown due to looter excavation.

Feet Position: Unkown due to looter excavation.

Grave Good(s): *1. Fragments from 12 pottery vessels – typical to Guanacaste Phase forms.

*Total contents are unknown due to looter excavation.

Position(s): 1. Unknown due to looter excavation.

221 Burial 10

Source: Agrinier, 1964

Location: Edge of arroyo bank southeast of Mound 1; A-27; depth 70 cm. Dating: Guanacaste Phase Late Preclassic C (250 – 0 B.C.)

Radiocarbon Dating: Unknown

Inventory Cranial Cranium missing.

Inventory Postcranial Upper and lower extremities present. Torso present. Very bad condition.

MNI 1 Based on: -

Age at Death Adult Method: -

Dental Attrition Unknown

Sex Unknown Based on:-

Stature Unknown Method:-

Pathology/Trauma Unknown Pathology: - Bone: -

Trauma: - Bone: -

Cultural Modification(s) Unknown Location: - Type: -

222 Burial 10 – cont.

Burial Specifications Grave Type: Cist, lined and covered with thin sandstone slabs.

Body Position: Extended, supine, arms along sides, head to the west.

Cranium Orientation: West

Feet Position: -

Grave Good(s): 1. Bowl, simple unrestricted; unslipped, matte brownish pink; concave base.

2. Dish, composite unrestricted; unslipped, matte light brown; concave base.

3. Similar bowl to grave good no. 1 – unrestorable.

4. Similar dish to grave good no. 2 – unrestorable.

Position(s): 1. Inverted inside grave good no. 2.

2.-5. Unknown

223 Burial 22

Source: Agrinier, 1964

Location: South side of southwest corner of Structure 1-H5, Mound 1, 90 cm. below base of wall. Dating: Guanacaste Phase Late Preclassic C (250 – 0 B.C.)

Radiocarbon Dating: Unknown

Inventory Cranial Cranium present.

Inventory Postcranial Upper and lower limbs present, vertebrae and pelvis present, hands present.

MNI 1 Based on: Unknown.

Age at Death Adult Method: Unknown

Dental Attrition Unknown

Sex Unknown Based on:-

Stature Unknown Method:-

Pathology/Trauma Unknown Pathology: - Bone: -

Trauma: - Bone: -

Cultural Modification(s) Unknown Location: - Type: -

224 Burial 22 – cont.

Burial Specifications Grave Type: Simple with stone slabs laid over burial at 45 degree angle.

Body Position: Extended, supine, hands on pelvis head to the west.

Cranium Orientation: West

Feet Position: -

Grave Good(s): 1. Bowl, composite unrestricted; unslipped, matte light brown; convex base.

2. Bowl, composite unrestricted; slipped, matte moderate orange; concave base..

3. Bowl, simple unrestricted; unslipped, matte light yellowish brown; concave worn base.

4. Bowl, simple restricted; slipped, polished grayish reddish orange; flat worn base.

5. Bowl, simple unrestricted; slipped, polished moderate yellowish brown, white painted rim; flat base with “kill-hole”.

6. Neckless jar, complex independent restricted; slipped, polished grayish reddish orange; concave worn base.

7. Bowl, simple unrestricted; slipped, polished moderate reddish brown; slightly concave worn base.

8. Necklace of 25 white shell beads and 13 black stone beads.

9. Olla fragment which was possibly a lid or a separate container.

10. Worked sherd lid for grave good no. 6.

225 Burial 22 – cont.

Position(s): 1. – 7. Unknown

8. Inside grave good no. 7

9. – 10. Unknown

226 Burial 24

Source: Lowe and Agrinier, 1960

Location: On 1-F1 floor (covered over Francesa Phase) at base of Mound 1-H15 fill. Dating: Guanacaste Phase* Late Preclassic C (250 – 0 B.C.)

(*Originally misidentified as Early Horcones Phase)

Radiocarbon Dating: Unknown

Inventory Cranial Cranium present.

Inventory Postcranial Unknown

MNI 1 Based on: Unknown.

Age at Death Child (small) Method: Unknown

Dental Attrition Unknown

Sex Unknown Based on:-

Stature Unknown Method:-

Pathology/Trauma Unknown Pathology: - Bone: -

Trauma: - Bone: -

Cultural Modification(s) Unknown Location: - Type: -

227 Burial 24 – cont.

Burial Specifications Grave Type: Simple with stone slab and pottery vessel fragment protecting the head.

Body Position: Extended, supine, head to the west and facing south.

Cranium Orientation: West but facing south.

Feet Position: -

Grave Good(s): 1. Fragment of polished red vessel.

Position(s): 1. Covering cranium.

*Author noted that this burial was possibly a dedicatory or sacrificial offering that occurred at the time of construction or possibly in conjunction with the sealing of Tomb 7.

228 Burial 51

Source: Agrinier, 1964

Location: Edge of arroyo, south of Mound 1; A-68 (west of A-27); depth 60 cm. Dating: Guanacaste Phase Late Preclassic C (250 – 0 B.C.)

Radiocarbon Dating: Unknown

Inventory Cranial Cranium present.

Inventory Postcranial Upper and lower limb bones present, torso present.

MNI 1 Based on: Unknown.

Age at Death Child Method: Unknown

Dental Attrition Unknown

Sex Unknown Based on:-

Stature Unknown Method:-

Pathology/Trauma Unknown Pathology: - Bone: -

Trauma: - Bone: -

Cultural Modification(s) Unknown Location: - Type: -

229 Burial 51 – cont.

Burial Specifications Grave Type: Simple

Body Position: Extended, on back, arms along sides, head to the west, vessel over skull.

Cranium Orientation: West

Feet Position: -

Grave Good(s)*: 1. Bowl, composite unrestricted; unslipped, matte light brown; slightly concave base with “kill-hole”.

2. Bowl, composite restricted; slipped, light brown; concave worn base.

3. Bowl, simple unrestricted; slipped, light brown; concave worn base.

*Noted that two additional brown bowls were stolen from the excavation.

Position(s): 1. Covering cranium.

2. 3. Unknown

230 Burial 52

Source: Agrinier, 1964

Location: Edge of arroyo, south of Mound 1; A-68 (west of A-27); depth 60 cm. Dating: Guanacaste Phase Late Preclassic C (250 – 0 B.C.)

Radiocarbon Dating: Unknown

Inventory Cranial Cranium present.

Inventory Postcranial Upper and lower limb bones present. Vertebrae and ribs present. Pelvis and hands present.

MNI 1 Based on: Unknown.

Age at Death Child Method: Unknown

Dental Attrition Unknown

Sex Unknown Based on:-

Stature Unknown Method:-

Pathology/Trauma Unknown Pathology: - Bone: -

Trauma: - Bone: -

Cultural Modification(s) Unknown Location: - Type: -

231 Burial 52 – cont.

Burial Specifications Grave Type: Simple

Body Position: Extended, on back, arms along sides, head to the west.

Cranium Orientation: West

Feet Position: -

Grave Good(s): 1. Jade pectoral with two drilled holes.

Position(s): 1. On the chest.

232 Burial 53

Source: Agrinier, 1964

Location: Edge of arroyo, south of Mound 1; A-68 (west of A-27); depth 60 cm. Dating: Guanacaste Phase Late Preclassic C (250 – 0 B.C.)

Radiocarbon Dating: Unknown

Inventory Cranial Cranium present.

Inventory Postcranial Upper and lower limb bones present. Vertebrae and ribs present. Pelvis and hands present. Very fragmentary.

MNI 1 Based on: Unknown.

Age at Death Child Method: Unknown

Dental Attrition Unknown

Sex Unknown Based on:-

Stature Unknown Method:-

Pathology/Trauma Unknown Pathology: - Bone: -

Trauma: - Bone: -

Cultural Modification(s) Unknown Location: - Type: -

233 Burial 53 – cont.

Burial Specifications Grave Type: Simple

Body Position: Extended, on back, arms along sides, head to the west.

Cranium Orientation: West

Feet Position: -

Grave Good(s): 1. Brown vessel too disintegrated to be recovered.

2. Brown vessel too disintegrated to be recovered.

Position(s): 1. Over the skull.

2. Placed near pelvis and contained carbonized copal incense (?).

234 Burial 54

Source: Agrinier, 1964

Location: Edge of arroyo, south of Mound 1; A-68 (west of A-27); depth 60 cm. Dating: Guanacaste Phase Late Preclassic C (250 – 0 B.C.)

Radiocarbon Dating: Unknown

Inventory Cranial Cranium present.

Inventory Postcranial Upper and lower limb bones present. Torso present.

MNI 1 Based on: Unknown.

Age at Death Child Method: Unknown

Dental Attrition Unknown

Sex Unknown Based on:-

Stature Unknown Method:-

Pathology/Trauma Unknown Pathology: - Bone: -

Trauma: - Bone: -

Cultural Modification(s) Unknown Location: - Type: -

235 Burial 54 – cont.

Burial Specifications Grave Type: Simple

Body Position: Extended, on back, arms along sides, head to the west.

Cranium Orientation: West

Feet Position: -

Grave Good(s): 1. Large bowl.

2. Small bowl.

Position(s): 1. Over the skull.

2. Over the chest.

236 Burial 55

Source: Agrinier, 1964

Location: Edge of arroyo, south of Mound 1; A-68 (west of A-27); depth 75 cm. Dating: Guanacaste Phase Late Preclassic C (250 – 0 B.C.)

Radiocarbon Dating: Unknown

Inventory Cranial Cranium present.

Inventory Postcranial Upper and lower limb bones present. Vertebrae and ribs present. Pelvis present. Very fragmentary.

MNI 1 Based on: Unknown.

Age at Death Child Method: Unknown

Dental Attrition Unknown

Sex Unknown Based on:-

Stature Unknown Method:-

Pathology/Trauma Unknown Pathology: - Bone: -

Trauma: - Bone: -

Cultural Modification(s) Unknown Location: - Type: -

237 Burial 55 – cont.

Burial Specifications Grave Type: Simple, covered with a stone slab measuring 96 x 42 cm.

Body Position: Extended, on back, arms along sides, head to the north, bowl covering cranium.

Cranium Orientation: North

Feet Position: -

Grave Good(s): 1. Bowl, composite unrestricted; unslipped, matte light brown; concave base.

2. Bowl, composite restricted; unslipped, matte light brown; conave base.

3. Jar, inflected independent restricted; slipped, polished moderate reddish brown; flat base.

4. Bowl, composite unrestricted; slipped, polished moderate reddish brown; three triple protrusions modeled onto shoulder flange; flat base.

5. Bowl, composite unrestricted; unslipped, matte light brown; concave base with “kill-hole”.

6. Cylindrical vase, simple unrestricted; unslipped, matte light brown; flat base.

Position(s): 1. – 4. Unknown

5. Covering the cranium.

6. Unknown

238 Burial 56

Source: Agrinier, 1964

Location: Edge of arroyo, south of Mound 1; A-68 (west of A-27); depth 60 cm. Dating: Guanacaste Phase Late Preclassic C (250 – 0 B.C.)

Radiocarbon Dating: Unknown

Inventory Cranial Cranium present.

Inventory Postcranial Upper and lower limb bones present. Vertebrae and ribs present. Pelvis present. Very fragmentary.

MNI 1 Based on: Unknown.

Age at Death Adult Method: Unknown

Dental Attrition Unknown

Sex Unknown Based on:-

Stature Unknown Method:-

Pathology/Trauma Unknown Pathology: - Bone: -

Trauma: - Bone: -

Cultural Modification(s) Unknown Location: - Type: -

239 Burial 56 – cont.

Burial Specifications Grave Type: Simple

Body Position: Extended, on back, arms along sides, head to the north, bowl covering cranium.

Cranium Orientation: West

Feet Position: -

Grave Good(s): 1. Bowl, simple unrestricted; slipped, polished moderate orange to black; concave worn base with “kill-hole”.

2. Jar, composite independent restricted; unslipped, matte light yellowish brown, black painted glyphs on exterior; convex base.

3. Bowl, simple unrestricted; interior slipped black, exterior unslipped matte light brown; concave base.

4. Bowl, inflected unrestricted; unslipped, matte light brown; flat base.

Position(s): 1. Covering the cranium.

2. Right side of skeletal material, partially on right knee.

3. Over upper left torso and upper left arm bone.

4. Unknown

240 Burial 76

Source: Agrinier, 1964

Location: South side of Mound 1; A-100-2; 1.00 m. below surface. Dating: Guanacaste Phase Late Preclassic C (250 – 0 B.C.)

Radiocarbon Dating: Unknown

Inventory Cranial Cranium present.

Inventory Postcranial Upper and lower limb bones present. Vertebrae and ribs present. Pelvis present. Hands and feet present.

MNI 1 Based on: Unknown.

Age at Death Adult Method: Unknown

Dental Attrition Unknown

Sex Unknown Based on:-

Stature Unknown Method:-

Pathology/Trauma Unknown Pathology: - Bone: -

Trauma: - Bone: -

Cultural Modification(s) Unknown Location: - Type: -

241 Burial 76 – cont.

Burial Specifications Grave Type: Simple

Body Position: Extended, on back, hands on pelvis, head to the south.

Cranium Orientation: South

Feet Position: -

Grave Good(s): None

Position(s): -

242 Burial 77

Source: Agrinier, 1964

Location: South side of Mound 1; A-100-2; 1.00 m. below surface. Dating: Guanacaste Phase Late Preclassic C (250 – 0 B.C.)

Radiocarbon Dating: Unknown

Inventory Cranial Cranium present.

Inventory Postcranial Upper and lower limb bones present. Vertebrae and ribs present. Pelvis present. Hands and feet present.

MNI 1 Based on: Unknown.

Age at Death Adult Method: Unknown

Dental Attrition Unknown

Sex Unknown Based on:-

Stature Unknown Method:-

Pathology/Trauma Unknown Pathology: - Bone: -

Trauma: - Bone: -

Cultural Modification(s) Unknown Location: - Type: -

243 Burial 77 – cont.

Burial Specifications Grave Type: Simple

Body Position: Extended, on back, hands on pelvis, head to the west.

Cranium Orientation: West

Feet Position: -

Grave Good(s): 1. Bowl, composite unrestricted; slipped, burnished moderate reddish brown; concave worn base.

2. Bowl, composite restricted; slipped, burnished black; concave worn base.

3. Bowl, simple unrestricted; unslipped matte light brown; convex base with “kill-hole”.

4. Bowl, simple restricted; slipped, polished moderate reddish brown; base slightly concave, with “kill-hole”.

Position(s): 1. Upper left side of torso, partially covering upper left arm.

2. Just east of grave good no. 1, partially covering skeletal material on left side.

3. Inverted in grave good no. 1.

4. Covering the cranium.

244 Burial 144

Source: Agrinier, 1964

Location: Mound 5a; A-131-N180L54, parallel to and 70 cm. below east wall of Structure 5-H1. Dating: Guanacaste Phase Late Preclassic C (250 – 0 B.C.)

Radiocarbon Dating: Unknown

Inventory Cranial Cranium present.

Inventory Postcranial Upper and lower limb bones present. Vertebrae and ribs present. Pelvis present. Hands and feet present.

MNI 1 Based on: Unknown.

Age at Death Adult Method: Unknown

Dental Attrition Unknown

Sex Female Based on:Unknown

Stature Unknown Method:-

Pathology/Trauma Unknown Pathology: - Bone: -

Trauma: - Bone: -

Cultural Modification(s) Unknown Location: - Type: -

245 Burial 144 – cont.

Burial Specifications Grave Type: Simple

Body Position: Extended, on back, hands reposing on chest at the clavicle level, the left leg crossed over the right leg, head to the north.

Cranium Orientation: North

Feet Position: Left crossed over right.

Grave Good(s): 1. Bowl, simple unrestricted, altered hemisphere (ovaloid); unslipped, matte light brown , red-painted exterior rim, traces of red pigment on interior; flat base with “kill-hole”.

2. Bowl, composite unrestricted; unslipped, matte light brown; concave base.

3. Bowl, composite unrestricted; unslipped matte light grayish brown; concave base.

4. Tubular travertine ear spools (two).

Position(s): 1. Covering the cranium.

2. Covering right side of upper torso.

3. Next to upper right arm.

4. Left side of cranium.

Cinnabar/Red Ochre/Unspecified Red Pigment: Possible - grave good no.1 exhibited traces of red pigment on interior.

246 Table 1. Preclassic Chiapa de Corzo Burial Divisions(Temporal)

Dated Burial Number Middle Preclassic Burial 63B (Dili Phase) Burial 117 Burial 118 Burial 130 Late Preclassic A Burial 1 (Escalera Phase) Burial 2 Burial 3 Burial 4 Burial 5 Burial 6 Burial 9 Burial 23 Burial 26 Burial 64 Burial 178 & 178A Burial 179 Burial 180 Burial 181 Burial 182 Late Preclassic B Burial 8 (Francesa Phase) Burial 11A Burial 12 Burial 13 Burial 14 Burial 15 Burial 16 Burial 18 Burial 19 Burial 20 Burial 28 Burial 29 Burial 30 Burial 33 Burial 34 Burial 35 Burial 46 Burial 47 Burial 48 Burial 49 A, B, C (3 individuals) Burial 50 247 Table 1. Preclassic Chiapa de Corzo Burial Divisions(Temporal) – cont.

Dated Burial Number Late Preclassic B Burial 51A (Francesa Phase) – cont. Burial 63A Burial 65 Burial 74 Burial 75 Burial 78 Burial 81 Burial 82 Burial 100 Burial 101 Burial 102 Burial 103 Burial 104 Burial 105 Burial 106 Burial 107 Burial 108 Burial 109 Burial 110 Burial 111: (no. of individuals unknown) Burial 112 Burial 114 Burial 115 Burial 127 Burial 128 Burial 131 Burial 132 Burial 133 Burial 134 Burial 135 Burial 139 Burial 140 Burial 141 Burial 142 Burial 149 Burial 151 Burial 170 Burial 177 Burial Tr.B-1: ( no. of indiv. unknown) Mango Seco Burial 1 248 Table 1. Preclassic Chiapa de Corzo Burial Divisions(Temporal) – cont.

Dated Burial Number Late Preclassic C Tomb 7 (Guanacaste Phase) Tomb 8: (no. of individuals unkown) Burial 10 Burial 22 Burial 24 Burial 51 Burial 52 Burial 53 Burial 54 Burial 55 Burial 56 Burial 76 Burial 77 Burial 144

249 Table 2 Preclassic Chiapa de Corzo Age Distribution

Age at Death Burial Number Infant Francesa Phase - Late Preclassic B Burial 11A Burial 133 Burial 134 Burial 135 Child Escalera Phase - Late Preclassic A Burial 64 Burial 178 &178A (1 individual) Burial 182 Francesa Phase - Late Preclassic B Burial 29 Burial 30 Burial 33 Burial 34 Burial 46 Burial 49 A, B, C (1individual) Burial 63A Burial 65 Burial 82 Burial 102 Burial 108 Burial 110 Burial 128 Burial 131 Burial 151 Burial 170 Burial 177 Guanacaste Phase - Late Preclassic C Burial 24 Burial 51 Burial 52 Burial 53 Burial 54 Burial 55 Young Adult/Youth Escalera Phase - Late Preclassic A Burial 2 Burial 178 & 178A (1 individual) Burial 180 Francesa Phase - Late Preclassic B Burial 127 250 Table 2 Preclassic Chiapa de Corzo Age Distribution

Age at Death Burial Number Young Adult/Youth – cont. Francesa Phase - Late Preclassic B – cont. Burial 140 Guanacaste Phase - Late Preclassic C Tomb 7 (Young Adult) Adult Dili Phase - Middle Preclassic Burial 63B Burial 117 Burial 118 Burial 130 Escalera Phase - Late Preclassic A Burial 1 Burial 3 Burial 4 Burial 5 Burial 6 Burial 9 Burial 23 Burial 26 Burial 179 Burial 181 Francesa Phase - Late Preclassic B Burial 8 Burial 12 Burial 13 Burial 14 Burial 15 Burial 16 Burial 18 Burial 19 Burial 20 Burial 28 Burial 35 Burial 47 Burial 48 Burial 49 A, B, C (2 individuals) Burial 50 Burial 51A Burial 74 Burial 75 251 Table 2 Preclassic Chiapa de Corzo Age Distribution – cont.

Age at Death Burial Number Adult – cont. Francesa Phase Middle-Late Preclassic cont. Burial 78 Burial 81 Burial 100 Burial 101 Burial 103 Burial 104 Burial 105 Burial 106 Burial 107 Burial 109 Burial 112 Burial 114 Burial 115 Burial 132 Burial 139 Burial 141 Burial 142 Burial 149 Mango Seco Burial 1 Guanacaste Phase - Late Preclassic C Burial 10 Burial 22 Burial 56 Burial 76 Burial 77 Burial 144 Old Adult Unknown

252 Table 3. Preclassic Chiapa de Corzo Sex Distribution

Sex Burial Number Male Dili Phase - Middle Preclassic Burial 117 Escalera Phase – Late Preclassic A Burial 178 &178A (1 individual) Burial 180 Francesa Phase - Late Preclassic B Burial 12 Burial 74 Burial 139 Burial 141 Burial 149 Female Francesa Phase - Late Preclassic B Burial 47 Burial 101 Guanacaste Phase - Late Preclassic C Burial 144 Unknown Dili Phase – Middle Preclassic Burial 63B Burial 118 Burial 130 Escalera Phase – Late Preclassic A Burial 1 Burial 2 Burial 3 Burial 4 Burial 5 Burial 6 Burial 9 Burial 23 Burial 26 Burial 64 Burial 178 & 178A (1 individual) Burial 179 Burial 181 Burial 182 Francesa Phase - Late Preclassic B Burial 8 Burial 11A Burial 13 Burial 14 253 Table 3. Preclassic Chiapa de Corzo Sex Distribution – cont.

Unknown – cont. Francesa Phase - Late Preclassic B – cont. Burial 15 Burial 16 Burial 18 Burial 19 Burial 20 Burial 28 Burial 29 Burial 30 Burial 33 Burial 34 Burial 35 Burial 46 Burial 48 Burial 49 A, B, C (3 individuals) Burial 50 Burial 51A Burial 63A Burial 65 Burial 75 Burial 78 Burial 81 Burial 82 Burial 100 Burial 102 Burial 103 Burial 104 Burial 105 Burial 106 Burial 107 Burial 108 Burial 109 Burial 110 Burial 112 Burial 114 Burial 115 Burial 127 Burial 128 Burial 131 Burial 132 254 Table 3. Preclassic Chiapa de Corzo Sex Distribution – cont.

Unknown – cont. Francesa Phase - Late Preclassic B – cont. Burial 133 Burial 134 Burial 135 Burial 140 Burial 142 Burial 151 Burial 170 Burial 177 Mango Seco Burial 1 Guanacaste Phase – Late Preclassic C Tomb 7 Burial 10 Burial 22 Burial 24 Burial 51 Burial 52 Burial 53 Burial 54 Burial 55 Burial 56 Burial 76 Burial 77

255 Table 4. Preclassic Chiapa de Corzo Burial Positions

Position Burial Number Extended Position Dili Phase - Middle Preclassic Burial 63B Burial 117 Burial 130 Escalera Phase - Late Preclassic A Burial 1 Burial 2 Burial 3 Burial 4 Burial 5 Burial 6 Burial 9 Burial 23 Burial 64 Burial 178 & 178A Burial 179 Burial 180 Burial 181 Burial 182 Francesa Phase - Late Preclassic B Burial 8 Burial 13 Burial 14 Burial 15 Burial 16 Burial 19 Burial 20 Burial 28 Burial 29 Burial 30 Burial 33 Burial 34 Burial 35 Burial 47 Burial 48 Burial 49 A, B, C (3 individuals) Burial 50 Burial 51A Burial 65 Burial 74 256 Table 4. Preclassic Chiapa de Corzo Burial Positions - cont.

Position Burial Number Extended Position – cont. Francesa Phase Late Preclassic B - cont. Burial 75 Burial 81 Burial 82 Burial 100 Burial 101 Burial 102 Burial 103 Burial 104 Burial 105 Burial 106 Burial 107 Burial 108 Burial 109 Burial 110 Burial 112 Burial 115 Burial 127 Burial 131 Burial 139 Burial 141 Burial 142 Burial 149 Burial 177 Mango Seco Burial 1 Guanacaste Phase - Late Preclassic C Tomb 7 Burial 10 Burial 22 Burial 24 Burial 51 Burial 52 Burial 53 Burial 54 Burial 55 Burial 56 Burial 76 Burial 77 Burial 144 257 Table 4. Preclassic Chiapa de Corzo Burial Positions - cont.

Position Burial Number Flexed Position Francesa Phase - Late Preclassic B Burial 12 Burial 46 Burial 133 Burial 134 Burial 135 Burial 151 Burial 170 Seated Position Francesa Phase - Late Preclassic B Burial 11A Supine Position Dili Phase - Middle Preclassic Burial 117 Escalera Phase - Late Preclassic A Burial 1 Burial 2 Burial 3 Burial 4 Burial 178 & 178A (2 individuals) Burial 179 Burial 181 Burial 182 Francesa Phase - Late Preclassic B Burial 8 Burial 13 Burial 14 Burial 15 Burial 16 Burial 19 Burial 29 Burial 30 Burial 35 Burial 47 Burial 48 Burial 49 A, B, C (3 individuals) Burial 50 Burial 65 Burial 74 Burial 75 Burial 81 Burial 82 258 Table 4. Preclassic Chiapa de Corzo Burial Positions – cont.

Position Burial Number Supine Position – cont. Francesa Phase Late Preclassic B - cont. Burial 100 Burial 101 Burial 102 Burial 103 Burial 104 Burial 107 Burial 108 Burial 109 Burial 110 Burial 115 Burial 127 Burial 142 Burial 149 Burial 177 Mango Seco Burial 1 Guanacaste Phase - Late Preclassic C Tomb 7 Burial 10 Burial 22 Burial 24 Burial 51 Burial 52 Burial 53 Burial 54 Burial 55 Burial 56 Burial 76 Burial 77 Burial 144 Prone Position Dili Phase - Middle Preclassic Burial 130 Escalera Phase - Late Preclassic A Burial 9 Francesa Phase - Late Preclassic B Burial 112 Burial 170

259 Table 4. Preclassic Chiapa de Corzo Burial Positions – cont.

Position Burial Number Left Side Escalera Phase – Late Preclassic A Burial 180 Francesa Phase - Late Preclassic B Burial 34 Burial 51A Burial 105 Burial 131 Burial 133 Burial 134 Burial 151 Right Side Francesa Phase - Late Preclassic B Burial 12 Burial 28 Burial 33 Burial 46 Burial 106 Burial 139 Burial 141

260 Table 5. Preclassic Chiapa de Corzo Burial Directional Orientation Positions

Body Part – Directional Orientation Burial Number Cranium East Escalera Phase - Late Preclassic A Burial 64 Burial 181 Francesa Phase - Late Preclassic B Burial 46 Burial 49 A, B, C (1individual) Burial 50 Burial 51A (* see note) Burial 104 Burial 110 Burial 149 Burial 177 Cranium North Dili Phase - Middle Preclassic Burial 117 Escalera Phase - Late Preclassic A Burial 1 Burial 2 Burial 3 Burial 178 &178A (1 individual) Burial 180 (facing east) Francesa Phase - Late Preclassic B Burial 11A (?) (facing north) Burial 20 Burial 28 Burial 29 Burial 34 Burial 49 A, B, C (2 individuals) Burial 65 Burial 102 Burial 112 Burial 115 Burial 133 Burial 139 Burial 141 Guanacaste Phase - Late Preclassic C Burial 55 Burial 144 Cranium Northeast Francesa Phase - Late Preclassic B Burial 151

261 Table 5. Preclassic Chiapa de Corzo Burial Directional Orientation Positions

Body Part – Directional Orientation Burial Number Cranium Northwest Francesa Phase - Late Preclassic B Burial 33 Cranium South Dili Phase - Middle Preclassic Burial 63B Escalera Phase - Late Preclassic A Burial 4 Burial 5 (?) Burial 6 (?) Burial 179 Francesa Phase - Late Preclassic B Burial 16 Burial 48 Burial 74 Burial 101 Burial 131 Burial 134 Guanacaste Phase - Late Preclassic C Tomb 7 Burial 76 Cranium Southeast Francesa Phase - Late Preclassic B Burial 170 Cranium Southwest Francesa Phase - Late Preclassic B Burial 142 Cranium West Dili Phase - Middle Preclassic Burial 130 Escalera Phase – Late Preclassic A Burial 178 & 178A (1 individual) Burial 182 Francesa Phase - Late Preclassic B Burial 8 Burial 12 Burial 13 Burial 14 Burial 15 Burial 19 Burial 30 Burial 35 Burial 47 Burial 75

262 Table 5. Preclassic Chiapa de Corzo Burial Directional Orientation Positions – cont.

Body Part – Directional Orientation Burial Number Cranium West –cont. Francesa Phase Late Preclassic B - cont. Burial 81* (turned South) Burial 82 Burial 100 Burial 103 Burial 105 Burial 106 Burial 107 Burial 108 Burial 109 Burial 127 Mango Seco Burial 1 Guanacaste Phase - Late Preclassic C Burial 10 Burial 22 Burial 24* (facing south) Burial 51 Burial 52 Burial 53 Burial 54 Burial 56 Burial 77 Pedal East Dili Phase - Middle Preclassic Burial 130 Pedal North Guanacaste Phase - Late Preclassic C Tomb 7 Pedal South Escalera Phase - Late Preclassic A Burial 4 (Feet within South Wall) Pedal Crossed Position Francesa Phase - Late Preclassic B Burial 139 Guanacaste Phase - Late Preclassic C Burial 144 (Left over Right) Pedal Position – Feet and Toes Up Francesa Phase - Late Preclassic B Burial 81

263 Table 6. Preclassic Chiapa de Corzo Pathology/Trauma

Pathology/Trauma Burial Number Caries Francesa Phase - Late Preclassic B Burial 109 Osteo-trauma Escalera Phase – Late Preclassic A Burial 178 &178A (1 individual) Shovel-Shape Incisors Francesa Phase - Late Preclassic B Burial 110

264 Table 7 Preclassic Chiapa de Corzo Cultural Modifications and Trephination

Modification Burial Number Cranial Unknown Dental Escalera Phase – Late Preclassic A Burial 178 &178A (1 individual) Francesa Phase - Late Preclassic B Burial 109 possible preparation for inlay Romero E5 (?) Burial 110 (?) Trephination Unknown

265 Table 8 Preclassic Chiapa de Corzo Cinnabar/Red Ochre/Unspecified Red Pigment

Cinnabar/Red Ochre/Unspecified Red Burial Number Pigment Escalera Phase - Late Preclassic A Unspecified red pigment Burial 1 Unspecified red pigment Burial 6 Francesa Phase - Late Preclassic B Unspecified red pigment Burial 15 Unspecified red pigment Burial 20 Unspecified red pigment Burial 74 Unspecified red pigment Burial 141 Guanacaste Phase - Late Preclassic C Unspecified red pigment Burial 144

266 Table 9 Preclassic Chiapa de Corzo Evidence of Burning

Object Burial Number Francesa Phase - Late Preclassic B Interred Individual (partial cremation?) Burial 149 Guanacaste Phase - Late Preclassic C Interred Individual Tomb 7 (post-interment ignition?)

267 Table 10. Preclassic Chiapa de Corzo Grave Goods

Artifact(s) Burial Number Alabaster (travertine) Francesa Phase - Late Preclassic B Burial 48 Bead Dili Phase - Middle Preclassic Burial 118 Escalera Phase - Late Preclassic A Burial 64 Burial 178 &178A Francesa Phase - Late Preclassic B Burial 20 Burial 34 Burial 63A Burial 81 Burial 104 Burial 108 Burial 110 Burial 112 Burial 115 Burial 127 Burial 132 Burial 142 Burial 149 Burial Tr. B-1 Guanacaste Phase - Late Preclassic C Tomb 7 Burial 22 Bone Escalera Phase - Late Preclassic A (H = Human, F = Faunal, (?) =Unknown) Burial 1 (F) Burial 6 (F) Burial 180 (F) Francesa Phase - Late Preclassic B Burial 149 (F) Guanacaste Phase - Late Preclassic C Tomb 7 (F) Chalcedony Guanacaste Phase - Late Preclassic C Tomb 7 Figurine Francesa Phase - Late Preclassic B Burial 100

268 Table 10. Preclassic Chiapa de Corzo Grave Goods – cont.

Artifact(s) Burial Number Greenstone Francesa Phase - Late Preclassic B Burial 108 Mango Seco Burial 1 Jade Dili Phase - Middle Preclassic Burial 118 Escalera Phase - Late Preclassic A Burial 64 Burial 178 & 178A Francesa Phase - Late Preclassic B Burial 18 Burial 20 Burial 34 Burial 63A Burial 81 Burial 104 Burial 110 Burial 115 Burial 132 Burial 142 Burial 149 Burial Tr. B-1 Mango Seco Burial 1 Guanacaste Phase - Late Preclassic C Tomb 7 Burial 52 Lithic Francesa Phase - Late Preclassic B Burial 20 Burial 35 Burial 100 Burial 101 Burial 110 (fragment of stone chisel) Guanacaste Phase - Late Preclassic C Tomb 7 Mano and/or Metate Francesa Phase - Late Preclassic B Burial 101 (metate fragment) Burial 102 (mano) Burial 104 (mano) Burial 134 (metate fragment)

269 Table 10. Preclassic Chiapa de Corzo Grave Goods – cont.

Artifact(s) Burial Number Mica Guancaste Phase Tomb 7 “Mushroom” Stone Francesa Phase - Late Preclassic B Mango Seco Burial 1 Nacre (mother of pearl) Francesa Phase - Late Preclassic B Burial 115 Burial 127 Guanacaste Phase - Late Preclassic C Tomb 7 Obsidian Francesa Phase - Late Preclassic B Burial 20 Burial 35 Burial 100 Burial 101 Guanacaste Phase - Late Preclassic C Tomb 7 Onyx Francesa Phase - Late Preclassic B Burial 115 Serpentine Francesa Phase - Late Preclassic B (dull-green mottled mineral/rock) Burial 115 Shell Francesa Phase - Late Preclassic B Burial 29 Burial 46 Burial 63A Burial 65 Burial 74 Burial 100 Burial 101 Burial 108 Burial 110 Burial 112 Burial 115 Burial 127 Burial 141 Burial 149 Guanacaste Phase - Late Preclassic C Tomb 7 Burial 22

270 Table 10. Preclassic Chiapa de Corzo Grave Goods – cont.

Artifact(s) Burial Number Stingray Spine Escalera Phase – Late Preclassic A Burial 178 & 178A Stone (worked) Escalera Phase - Late Preclassic A Burial 6 Francesa Phase - Late Preclassic B Burial 104 Burial 149 Guanacaste Phase - Late Preclassic C Tomb 7 Burial 22 Vessel/Pottery Escalera Phase - Late Preclassic A (includes sherd material) Burial 1 Burial 2 Burial 3 Burial 4 Burial 5 Burial 6 Burial 9 Burial 23 Burial 26 Burial 64 Burial 178 & 178A Burial 180 Burial 181 Burial 182 Francesa Phase - Late Preclassic B Burial 8 Burial 11A Burial 12 Burial 13 Burial 14 Burial 15 Burial 16 Burial 18 Burial 19 Burial 20 Burial 28 Burial 29 Burial 34 Burial 35 271 Table 10. Preclassic Chiapa de Corzo Grave Goods – cont.

Artifact(s) Burial Number Vessel/Pottery Francesa Phase (includes sherd material) – cont. Late Preclassic B - cont. Burial 47 Burial 48 Burial 49 A, B, C Burial 50 Burial 51A Burial 63A Burial 65 Burial 74 Burial 75 Burial 78 Burial 81 Burial 82 Burial 100 Burial 101 Burial 102 Burial 104 Burial 105 Burial 106 Burial 107 Burial 108 Burial 109 Burial 110 Burial 111 Burial 112 Burial 114 Burial 115 Burial 127 Burial 128 Burial 131 Burial 132 Burial 133 Burial 134 Burial 135 Burial 139 Burial 140 Burial 141 Burial 149 Burial 177 272 Table 10. Preclassic Chiapa de Corzo Grave Goods – cont.

Artifact(s) Burial Number Vessel/Pottery Francesa Phase (includes sherd material) – cont. Late Preclassic B - cont. Burial Tr.B-1 Mango Seco Burial 1 Guanacaste Phase - Late Preclassic C Tomb 7 Tomb 8 Burial 10 Burial 22 Burial 24 Burial 51 Burial 53 Burial 54 Burial 55 Burial 56 Burial 77 Burial 144

273 Chart 1. Preclassic Chiapa de Corzo Burial* Divisions (Temporal)

70 61

60

50

274 40

30 15 14

20 4

10

0 Middle Preclassic Late Preclassic A Late Preclassic B Late Preclassic C (Dili Phase) (Escalera Phase) (Francesa Phase) (Guanacaste Phase)

*94 Burials containing 94 Individuals Chart 1a. Preclassic Chiapa de Corzo Burial Divisions (Temporal) Percentages of Total Burials*

Late Preclassic B (Francesa Phase) 64.89%

Late Preclassic A (Escalera Phase) 15.96% 275

Middle Preclassic Late Preclassic C (Dili Phase) 4.26% (Guanacaste Phase) 14.89% Middle Preclassic (Dili Phase) Late Preclassic A (Escalera Phase) Late Preclassic B (Francesa Phase) Late Preclassic C (Guanacaste Phase)

*94 Burials containing 94 Individuals Chart 1b. Preclassic Chiapa de Corzo Aggregate of Burials and Individuals

90 90

100

80 276 60

40 44

20

0 Middle Preclassic Late Preclassic

Burials Individuals

94 Burials containing 94 Individuals Chart 2. Preclassic Chiapa de Corzo Burial Age at Death Distribution

70 58

60

50 277 40 26

30

20 6 4 10 0

0 Infant Child Young Adult Old Adult Adult/Youth

Total: 94 Individuals Chart 2a. Preclassic Chiapa de Corzo Burial Age at Death Distribution by Phase

60

50 38 40

30

278 17 20 10

10 6 4 6 4 3 3 2 00 0 0 0 1 0 Infant Child Young Adult/Youth Adult

Middle Preclassic (Dili Phase) 0004 Late Preclassic A (Escalera Phase) 03310 Late Preclassic B (Francesa Phase) 417238 Late Preclassic C (Guanacaste Phase) 0616

Total: 94 Individuals All individuals aged; Old Adult Total = 0. Chart 2b. Preclassic Chiapa de Corzo Burial Age at Death Distribution Percentages of Individuals

Young Adult/Youth Child 27.66% 6.38% 279

Infant 4.26% Adult 61.70%

Infant Child Young Adult/Youth Adult

Total: 94 Individuals All individuals aged; Old Adult Total = 0. Chart 3. Preclassic Chiapa de Corzo Burial Sex Distribution by Phase

60 54

50

40

30 14 12

280 20 5 12 2 3 10 0 00 1

0 Male Female Unknown Middle Preclassic (Dili Phase) 103 Late Preclassic A (Escalera Phase) 2014 Late Preclassic B (Francesa Phase) 5254 Late Preclassic C (Guanacaste Phase) 0112

Totals by Sex: 8 3 83

Total: 94 Individuals 83 Individuals – no information given. Chart 3a. Preclassic Chiapa de Corzo Burial Sex Relative Distribution

Female 3.19% Male 8.51%

100%

281 80% Sex Unknown 88.30%

60%

40%

20% Female

0% Male 94 Individuals Sex Unknown Chart 4. Preclassic Chiapa de Corzo Burial Position Relative Distribution

Extended 81.92% 282

Unknown Seated 1.06% Flexed 7.45% 9.57%

Extended Flexed Seated Unknown

Total: 94 Individuals Chart 4a. Preclassic Chiapa de Corzo Burial Position Distribution by Phase

50 46

40

30

20 15 13 283 7 7

10 3 00 0 00 10 11 0

0 Extended Flexed Seated Unknown Middle Preclassic (Dili Phase) 3001 Late Preclassic A (Escalera Phase) 15 0 0 1 Late Preclassic B (Francesa Phase) 46 7 1 7 Late Preclassic C (Guanacaste Phase) 13 0 0 0

Totals by Position: 77 7 1 9

Total: 94 Individuals Chart 4b. Preclassic Chiapa de Corzo Burial Position Distribution by Phase

40 35

30

20 13 284 9 7 7 10 1 11 2 0 0 1 0 00 0

0 Supine Prone Left Side Right Side Middle Preclassic (Dili Phase) 1100 Late Preclassic A (Escalera Phase) 9110 Late Preclassic B (Francesa Phase) 35 2 7 7 Late Preclassic C (Guanacaste Phase) 13 0 0 0

Total: 94 Individuals 17 Individuals - no information given. Chart 4c. Preclassic Chiapa de Corzo Burial Position Relative Distribution

Right Side 9.09%

Left Side 10.39% 285 Supine 75.32%

Prone 5.20%

Supine Prone Left Side Right Side

Total: 94 Individuals 17 Individuals - no information given. Chart 5. Preclassic Chiapa de Corzo Burial Directional Orientation Cranium Positions by Phase

30

21

20

14 286 9

10 8 8 6 5 4 3 2 2 1 2 2 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 0 0 00 0 00 0 00 0 00 0 0 0 East North Northeast Northwest South Southeast Southwest West Unknown

Dili 0 100100 11 Escalera 250040023 Francesa 8141 16 11218 Guanacaste 020020090

Totals by Direction: 10 22 1 1 13 1 1 33 12

Total: 94 Individuals Chart 5a. Preclassic Chiapa de Corzo Burial Directional Orientation Pedal Positions by Phase

5

4

3

287 2

1 1 1 11 1 1

000 000 0 00 00 00 0

0 Feet and Toes East North South Crossed Up Middle Preclassic (Dili Phase) 10000 Late Preclassic A (Escalera Phase) 00100 Late Preclassic B (Francesa Phase) 00011 Late Preclassic C (Guanacaste Phase) 01010

Total: 94 Individuals Chart 6. Preclassic Chiapa de Corzo Pathology/Trauma

01234

Anemia Antemortem Tooth Loss/Alveolar Resorption Arthritic Degeneration Calc ulus Caries 1 Cribra Orbitalia Fracture Intentional/Sacrificial (?) Trauma Kyphosis 288 Linear Enamel Hypoplasia Lipping and Pitting of Vertebrae Osteo-trauma 1 Osteophytic Grow ths Pacchonian Depressions Periodontal Disease Periostitis Shovel-Shape Incisors 1 Spongy Porotic Hyperostosis Squatting Facets Systemic Infection Treponemal Infection

Total: 94 Individuals Chart 7. Preclassic Chiapa de Corzo Burial Grave Good(s)* Distribution

90 80 80

70

60

50 289 40

30 19 18 20 16 11 10 5 6 4 5 5 3 1 1 1 2 1 1 1 1 1 0 d e e a e ll s) ne ne y ine tate ic cre ian nyx rti Bea Bon Jad M She pine rked) Lithic Na O S igur enstone " Sto pentin Potter F e r Me Obsid (wo Good( Trave ve Chalcedony Gr Ser sel/ room tingraytone and/o S Ves ush S ano "M No Gra M

*83 of the 94 burials contained at least one type of grave good; 11 burials (11.70%) contained no grave goods. Chart 7a. Preclassic Chiapa de Corzo Burial Grave Good(s)* Distribution

0% 20% 40% 60% 80% 100%

Bead 22.89% Bone 6.02% Chalcedony 1.20% Figurine 1.20% Greenstone 2.41% Jade 21.69% Lithic 7.23% Mano and/or Metate 4.82%

290 Mica 1.20% "Mushroom" Stone 1.20% Nacre 3.61% Obsidian 6.02% Onyx 1.20% Serpentine 1.20% Shell 19.28% Stingray Spine 1.20% Stone (worked) 6.02% Travertine 1.20% 96.39% Vessel/Pottery

*83 of the 94 burials contained at least one type of grave good; 11 burials contained no grave goods. Chapter Five

Chiapa de Corzo Findings

Data Summary

The analysis of the Preclassic burials from Chiapa de Corzo exhibits a number of

trends. These are shown in both the tables, which give specific interment information,

and the charts, which give percentage and visual representation of trend distribution.

The temporal distribution (Table 1, Charts 1 1a), of the 94 burials containing 94

individuals indexed in the Preclassic Chiapa de Corzo interments is the first trend

addressed. This distribution shows the greatest number represented in the Francesa Phase

(Late Preclassic B - ca. 450 B. C.) with 61 inhumations (64.89%). The next largest

group, showing a considerable decline, is the Escalera Phase (Late Preclassic A - ca. 550

B.C.) with 15 interments (15.96%). Following that, the Guanacaste Phase (Late

Preclassic C - ca. 250 B. C.) and the Dili Phase (Middle Preclassic - ca. 1000 B.C.) have

14 (14.89%) and four (4.26%) documented burials respectively. When the Escalera,

Francesa, and Guanacaste Phases (Late Preclassic A, B, and C) are observed as an aggregate (Chart 1b), as simply Late Preclassic, they contain 90 interments (95.74%) of

the 94 total indexed.

An analysis of the age at death provides information for the demographics (Table

2, Charts 2, 2b) of the interred individuals. Considering the four phases as a whole, the overwhelming majority are adults (58, 61.70%), 26 (27.66%) are children, six (6.38%) are young adults, and four (4.26%) are infants. In the data breakdown by phase (Chart

291 2a) it is interesting that the adult demographic in three of the four phases directly

correlates with the aggregate; four adults (100%) in the Dili Phase, ten adults (62.50%) in

the Escalera Phase, and 38 adults (62.29%) in the Francesa Phase. For the Guanacaste

Phase there are six adults (46.15%) and six children (46.15%) with one young adult

(7.69%). In addition, the Francesa Phase, the most populous, correlates with the top two categories of the aggregate breakdown; the two largest groups are the adult (38, 62.29%) and the children (17, 27.87%).

The distribution of sex (Table 3, Charts 3, 3a) that was observed reflects a male

to female ratio for Preclassic Chiapa de Corzo of almost three to one. However, this may

not be truly representative due to the fact that 83 individuals (88.30%) were not sexed.

Roughly 32% (children or infants) were not sexed due to age. The Francesa Phase, being

the most populous, has the majority with 54 individuals (57.45%) not sexed.

Breakdown of the burial position distribution (Table 4, Charts 4, 4a, 4b, 4c)

reveals that the majority of inhumations are extended (77, 81.92%) and supine (58,

75.32%). This same majority trend is also observed in the individual phases. Of note,

but perhaps not surprising given the large number of interments, the Francesa Phase has

the only seated burial. While the other phases exhibited variation (small) in burial

positions, all Guanacaste interments were extended and supine.

Cranial orientation (Table 5, Chart 5) shows that the highest totals are to the

west and to the north, with 33 (35.10%) and 22 (23.40%) interments positioned

respectively. There are ten (10.64%) to the east, giving a total of 43 interments (45.74%)

292 with an east-west axis. The total with an orientation to the south is 13 (13.83%). This

gives a total of 45 interments (47.87%) with a north-south axis.

Regarding pedal orientation (Table 5, Chart 5a) only six burials (6.38%) had any

pedal designation and therefore can not contribute value to the analysis. However, one

noteworthy item is that two of those noted gave the position of feet crossed. These

burials dated to the Francesa and Guanacaste Phases.

The pathology and trauma exhibited (Table 6, Chart 6) at Chiapa de Corzo are

minimal with only one incidence of caries noted, one case of an osteo-trauma (or

unspecified bone injury), and one occurrence of shovel-shaped incisors.

There are few observed cultural modifications at Preclassic Chiapa de Corzo

(Table 7, Chart 42). Three occurrences of dental modification (Figure 4) are present:

one is from the Escalera Phase (Burial 178) and exhibits both Romero A2 and B5, and

two date to the Francesa Phase (Burials 109, 110). Burial 109 appears to show Romero

E5, while Burial 110 shows the removal of the lower enamel and the exposure of the

dentine, apparently in preparation for dental modification. No cranial modifications or

trephination were noted.

Seven burials exhibit the presence of an unspecified red pigment at Chiapa de

Corzo (Table 8, Chart 43). Two date to the Escalera Phase (Burial 1, 6) - one adult and one probable adult, both of unknown sex. Four adult burials date to the Francesa Phase; two are identified as males (Burials 74, 141) and two are unknown (Burials 15, 20). One adult female (Burial 144) is dated to the Guanacaste Phase. One of the males (Burial 74) and one of unknown sex (Burial 20) exhibited red staining directly on the skeletal 293 material and/or the surrounding ground. The five other burials, including the female, had

red pigment only on grave good items, e.g. the inside of a pot, the outside of a pot, etc.

Of note, both Escalera Phase burials (Burials 1, 6) contained vases with small mammal

bones and it was this skeletal material that was painted with the red pigment.

Evidence of burning analysis (Table 9, Chart 44) reveals two instances at

Preclassic Chiapa de Corzo. Burial 149 and Tomb 7 respectively date to the Escalera and

Guanacaste Phases. Burial 149 was a covered cist and Tomb 7 was composed of

limestone slabs and adobe bricks. Both interments were elaborate constructions.

The grave goods distribution of Chiapa de Corzo (Table 10, Charts 7, 7a) reveals that 83 burials (88.30%) included grave goods. For 11 burials (11.70%), no offerings were observed or found. The 83 interments that contained grave goods, 80 (96.39%) had vessels or some type of pottery. Nineteen (22.89%) had a bead or beads, 18 (21.69%) contained jade, and 16 (19.28%) included shell. Bone, obsidian, and worked stone were each counted in five (6.02%) of the subject inhumations. Lithic material was included in six (7.23%), while greenstone occurred in two (2.41%) and nacre (mother of pearl) was found in three (3.61%). Chalcedony, mica, onyx, serpentine, and travertine each counted in one interment (1.20%). Also included in single burials were a figurine (Burial 100), a

“mushroom” stone (Mango Seco Central Mound Burial), and a stingray spine (Burial

178/178A). It is interesting to note that all three of those burials date to the Francesa

Phase (again, the most populous). Four inhumations (4.82%) contained either manos and/or metates (whole or fragmentary); of these, only one was sexed and was thought to be female. 294 Burial type distribution reflects that 87 (92.55%) are simple, three (3.19%) are

cist, two (2.13%) are urn, and two (2.13%) are tomb inhumations. The breakdown of primary versus secondary burials reflect that eighty-four (89.36%) are primary, seven

(7.45%) are secondary, and three (3.19%) are designated as unknown. The site distribution of inhumation shows the highest number of interments in the Mound 1 Plaza

(29, 30.85%), in Mound 1 (14, 14.89%), and on the south side of Mound 1 (8, 8.51%).

The next highest interment figures are from Mound 5a and Mound 5b with seven (7.45%) each.

Data Interpretation

The temporal distribution offers a significant numerical difference between the

Francesa and the Escalera which demonstrates what must surely have been a significant

population rise during the Francesa Phase. This population rise, as discussed in Chapter

Three, would have given rise to debris close to the occupation areas thereby allowing

ample environment for burial closer to the occupation areas. However, it is difficult to

ascribe this trend strictly as the reason for the recovery of more burials. Consideration

must be given to two other factors, one being the severely eroded state of the Dili Phase

burials and the other being the bias created by the excavation focus on the southwest

quadrant. Lowe (1964) noted that equal investigation of the other quadrants might

change the statistics of the burial sample but that he considered the sample “reasonably

representative”. As stated previously, if the Late Preclassic is considered as an aggregate

(encompassing the Escalera, Francesa, and Guanacaste Phases), it contained 90

interments (95.74%). This, contrasted with the Middle Preclassic, represented solely by 295 the Dili Phase and only four burials (4.26%), clearly demonstrates, despite the possible sample errors, a population rise between the Middle and Late Preclassic.

Age at death analysis revealed a high number of child burials (17, 27.87%) at

Chiapa de Corzo. Sacrifice is an interesting postulation to account for the large number of child burials. Landa noted that upon the death of both parents, the children of slaves, orphans, or the offspring of deceased male relatives and slave women were sacrificed

(Tozzer 1941), however, only two of the overall aggregate of 26 child interments appear to have been sacrificial - Burial 24 (Guanacaste) (Lowe and Agrinier 1960) and Burial

178A (Escalera) (Agrinier 1975). Thus, the high rate of child age at death incidence seems to be due to childhood susceptibility to disease and general vulnerabilities. A noteworthy point is that the total of old adults was zero. This does not seem representative of the expected age at death distribution. However, it is possible that since the site was not excavated by physical anthropologists or osteologists and that many burials were exposed and observed, but not removed (which is almost a necessity at times for defining the nuances of age in skeletal material), some individuals classified as adults may actually have been old adults.

The sex distribution ratio, of almost three to one, seemingly correlates well with the social organization of the male-dominated Maya culture and with the probability that male inhumations would be more carefully constructed and thereby more likely to survive the ravages of time. However, as previously noted in the data summary, this may not be truly representative due to the fact that a high percentage of individuals (88.30%) were not sexed. One contributing factor is that it is not possible (or at the very least, 296 incredibly difficult) to sex the juvenile population (approximately 32%). Another factor

(stated previously in the data summary) is perhaps the high number from the Francesa

Phase (57.45%). Other factors may have been that the Chiapa de Corzo burials were not

excavated by osteologists and some were solely examined in situ (in matrix) by

inexperienced personnel. It must also be noted that this ratio is not representative of

current or past male to female ratios and perhaps represents a data bias with regard to

excavation (southwest quadrant focus); however, the extreme ratio is most likely created

by the contributing factors listed above.

In the assessment of cranial orientation, a total of four burials (4.26%) deviated

from the cardinal directions; it is possible that since so few deviated, they were subjected

to taphonomic processes such as roots or accidental disturbance which caused the axis to

change after inhumation was completed. However, it should also be noted that these four burials all dated to the Francesa Phase (again, the most populous) and that it is possible the deviations were intentional.

The pathology and trauma data for Chiapa de Corzo is sorely lacking with only

three (3.19%) noted occurrences. As with the age at death and sex distributions, this

could possibly be due to the lack of observation by an osteologist trained at looking for

manifestations of disease processes in bone. It cannot be overemphasized that skeletal

remains observed by a trained physical anthropologist, working a burial and/or skeletal material excavation, usually insures the observation and recovery of in situ information that is otherwise lost if the skeletal material does not survive removal and collection (Saul and Saul 1997). 297 The small percentage (3.19%) of cultural modifications, and their restriction to

dentition, is remarkable given the generous sample size; however, this is possibly due to

the fact that though dental modification originated in the Preclassic, it reached its height

during the Classic and Postclassic (Romero 1970).

Red pigment, if it can be connotated with prestige or social importance (Coe

1959, Weaver 1993), or perhaps supernatural belief (Lowe 1964; Ruz 1965), presents an interesting analysis at Chiapa de Corzo. If the four unknown sex burials are excluded

from the seven interments containing red pigment, the male to female ratio would be 2:1.

The higher incidence of male burials containing red pigment would again fit with the

Maya male-dominated social organization; however, due to the small percentage of

burials (3.19%) used, it can hardly be considered a reliable assessment.

The evidence of burning at Chiapa de Corzo is also limited. Burial 149, dated to

the Francesa Phase, was of a male individual whose skeletal material exhibited burning

such that it was postulated to be a partial cremation. The second occurrence of burning

was found in Tomb 7 (Guanacaste Phase); it appeared to be an instance of post-interment

ignition perhaps due to smoldering grave offerings rather than cremation (Agrinier 1964).

While the small sample precludes definite hypotheses, it is possible to proffer that the

extremely small percentage (2.13%) of 94 individuals sampled, could dictate that

cremation was not practiced during the Preclassic at Chiapa de Corzo and that the

practice, as noted in ancestor veneration for the Classic Maya by Landa (Tozzer 1941),

Welsh (1988), and McAnany (1995), had not yet emerged in the Preclassic. This concurs

with Wauchope (1948) that cremation had a late incidence in Mesoamerica. It is also 298 noted that the partial or “incomplete” cremation is similar to one seen at the site of

Piedras Negras (Coe 1959).

Grave good analyses by phase present thought-provoking data regarding belief

systems and ritual practices (Geller 2004). The following discussion of grave goods is

for the Dili, Escalera, Francesa, and Guanacaste Phases.

The Dili Phase interments contained no grave goods except for one small jade

bead (Burial 118) that may or may not have been deliberate. A single finding does not

enable one to offer interpretation of meaning for the Dili Phase grave goods component, however, it is possible to suggest the connotation of the jade bead as perhaps an offering for use as a commodity in the afterlife as noted by Landa (Tozzer 1941).

The Escalera Phase grave goods showed a slight variation where the grave goods

belonging to individuals buried within structures appear to be of better quality and in

greater number. However, with a sample size of 15 it is not possible to achieve a realistic

distribution. There are three burials with distinct grave goods. Burial 2, a youth,

unsexed, contained a pottery whistling vessel. According to Welsh (1988)

“whistles…are more commonly associated with child burials in the Maya Lowlands”.

The placement of the whistle with a youth correlates with other Maya sites, such as

Cuello, where the presence of whistles in juvenile interments was noted (Robin 1989). In

contrast, a whistle found at the site of Colha was interred with an adult burial (Buttles

1992). As stated earlier, Burial 1 and Burial 6 each had a principal vase that contained

the bones of a small mammal painted with red pigment. The placement within a vase and

the red pigment clearly point to an offering for the benefit of the deceased. Four of the 299 Escalera burials had vessels that covered or partially covered the cranium. Interestingly

though, not one of the vessels was perforated with a “kill-hole”, a practice seen in later

phases at Chiapa de Corzo and other Maya sites.

The Francesa Phase grave good analysis indicated, as stated in Chapter 3, that the

non-mound and structural burials exhibited the unexpected disparity of the non-mound

burials containing the more elaborate grave goods. This is a curious statistic and is

juxtaposed with the concept of nobility being buried within structures as a matter of

prestige. One then might infer that the Francesa Phase burials within the mounds were

for reasons other than privileged status (Lowe 1964). The only exception to this is the

Mango Seco Burial which is within the Central Mound of that zone, however, given it

was considered an extension of the northeast quadrant it was perhaps not part of the

ceremonial center and therefore could be considered an outlier. Other notable burials

from the Francesa Phase include Burial 115 and 149, both non-mound burials. Burial

149 is of interest not only because it was most numerous in grave goods but also due to

its size; it was interred in a large, covered cist that was as large as the tomb burial of the

Guanacaste Phase (included later). Burial 115 contained the only stingray spine found and was also interred with the second most number of grave goods and yet, interestingly,

this individual was placed in a simple grave apparently surrounded by graves of lesser

prestige, an interesting contrast to the elite status and the bloodletting connotations of the

presence of the stingray spine (Weaver 1993). The Guanacaste burial grave goods are

notable because they represent a direct shift from the non-mound elaborate offerings of

the preceding Francesa Phase and also have an apparent dichotomy between themselves 300 as well. The only elaborate ceramic vessels noted for the Guanacaste are found in Tomb

7 with all 35 being apparent imports (Lowe 1964). This contrasts not only with the

Francesa Phase of which only three of the 150 vessels found were imported, but also with

Tomb 8 in which all are considered to be of local origin (Lowe 1964). Of the 14

Guanacaste burials, eight had vessels over the face or skull and five of those vessels had

“kill-holes”, it was noted that this was the climax of this practice and only two later

incidences of cranium vessels with “kill-holes” are noted at Chiapa de Corzo.

The site distribution of burials at Chiapa de Corzo appears to reflect the

ceremonial importance of Mound 1 and the Mound 1 Plaza. However, while these

interments may indeed signify ritual importance, it must be noted that they are all within

the southwest quadrant (Figure 23), the excavation focus of the New World

Archaeological Foundation Project.

301 Chapter Six

Kaminaljuyu Description and Background

Given its name by Licenciado J. Antonio Villacorta in 1936, Kaminaljuyu in the

Quiche language means “Hills of the Dead” (Kidder, Jennings, and Shook 1946). The archaeological site of Kaminaljuyu (Figure 24) is located in the Valley of the Central

Highlands of Guatemala, partially within and just west of Guatemala City. The site contains over 200 earthen mounds.

The first mentions of Kaminaljuyu were made in travelogues of early explorers.

The written observations of Fuentes y Guzman, an eighteenth-century Spanish governor of Guatemala, were published in Madrid in 1883. A few others noted the site during the nineteenth century and a few photographs were published, but the first useful contribution was by Alfred Maudslay in 1899. Maudslay recorded some 150 mounds and sketched a map of them during his stay.

In the early twentieth century, Kaminaljuyu began to draw the attention of

American archaeologists; S. G Morely, H. J. Spinden, S. K. Lothrop, M. H. Saville, and

W. H. Holmes visited the site (Kidder, Jennings and Shook (1946). In 1926, Lothrop published information about the sculpture of Kaminaljuyu and its antiquity (Lothrop

1926).

1925 saw the first systematic excavations at Kaminaljuyu, conducted by Manuel

Gamio (Gamio 1926-27). Though his work was restricted to one area of the site and to strategraphic tests, it confirmed Lothrop’s hypothesis on the antiquity of the site and he 302

Figure 24

303 published his findings in 1927 (Michels 1979).

In the early 1930’s, the published work of Gamio (1926-27) and Lothrop(1926-

27) made known the archaeological potential of Kaminaljuyu, that attracted the attention

of the Carnegie Institution of Washington. The interest of the Carnegie Project was to increase and promote knowledge of the Maya culture. The Kaminaljuyu site allowed them to focus on the development and distribution of various elements of the Maya culture. According to Kidder (1937), their reasons for choosing the site were twofold: 1)

they wanted to establish a chronology and examine it in conjunction with the relationship of other cultures in regional proximity, and 2) since the Kaminaljuyu site was perceived to be on a possible highland trade and migration route, it could yield valuable trade artifacts. The Carnegie Institution of Washington went on to conduct an eighteen-year project at Kaminaljuyu under the direction of A. V. Kidder. Originally the Carnegie

Project was intended to be short, two or three seasons; however, as noted by Kidder, “…it occupied various members of the staff, off and on for no less than 18 years and” (Michels

1979).

According to William Sanders, the contributions of the Carnegie work from the

site of Kaminaljuyu can not be overestimated and “should be considered one of the

greatest achievements in American archaeology” (Sanders and Michels 1969). He states

that not only did the contributions include the first detailed map of the site, the excavation

of several ball courts and temple substructures, and the inspection of areas threatened by

urban expansion, the research findings challenged then-held popular beliefs with regard to the Formative (Preclassic) Period in Mesoamerica. Prior to the Carnegie Project 304 findings, the Preclassic was perceived as a time of sedentary agricultural and social

homogeneity. The excavations revealed a scale of architecture and a wealth

(demonstrated by the tomb excavations) that clearly indicated a much more stratified

society as opposed to a more egalitarian agriculturally based one as previously thought.

Their establishment of a long consecutive chronological sequence for the Guatemalan

Highlands area was a first. This was also, at the time, one of the most complete local sequences established. All of these things, according to Sanders, sparked a long series of

academic controversies. Their excavations of Mound A and B, produced both ceramic

artifacts from Teotihuacan (or copied in a style from Teotihuacan) and copies of

Teotihuacan architecture, namely the talud-tablero style. This called into question the

relationship between Teotihuacan and Kaminaljuyu; was it one of peaceful influence or

one of domination that replaced local leaders with Teotihuacanos? The Classic Maya had

been thought to have developed earlier and been the stimulus for other Classic

Mesoamerican civilizations; however, these findings (the artifacts from Mound A and B,

and architecture) exposed the contemporaneous development of the various regional

cultures. During the Carnegie Project, Mound E-III-3 (in which two elaborate Preclassic

tomb burials were found) was excavated, as well as the Preclassic burials named the

Finca Miraflores Burials (1 and 2).

After the Carnegie Project ended, a succession of excavations conducted by

Guatemalan archaeologists took place under the direction of Gustavo Espinoza. His

excavations included extensive work in the Acropolis that again revealed the heavy

Teotihuacan influence at Kaminaljuyu. Charles Cheek later investigated what had been 305 exposed by Espinoza and published the architectural findings at the Acropolis; a description of the Teotihuacan influence seen in the architectural style of the Acropolis.

In addition to the work done by Guatemalan archaeologists, during the years

1952-1968 the American archaeologists Stephan Borhegyi, Edwin Shook, and Susanna

Miles also excavated in and around the site of Kaminaljuyu. It should be noted here that three Preclassic burials were discovered during this time, two by Borhegyi (Mound D-IV-

2) and one by Shook (Pit 1).

The excavation results during this period served to reinforce the Carnegie findings; a heavy Teotihuacan influence was confirmed. The burials excavated showed an inequality that suggested the existence of a complex, stratified society – originally not considered possible during the Preclassic. With the excavation of more mounds, the immensity of the Preclassic architecture was confirmed, and these factors established without a doubt the importance of the Kaminaljuyu site. However, based on these previous excavations, an understanding of the site was still not possible. An extensive, problem-oriented research program was needed that would allow data to be gathered that would facilitate work with regard to socio-political organization and economic processes at Kaminaljuyu, as well as to achieve understanding of the development of society in the

Guatemalan highlands. This project was the Pennsylvania State University Project at

Kaminaljuyu.

Kaminaljuyu faced imminent destruction due to urban expansion and in the

1960’s the Pennsylvania State University Kaminaljuyu Project took on the massive task of salvaging all available archaeological information in a finite amount of time. Due to 306 the salvage nature of the project, they were forced to draw heavily on information from

previous excavations at Kaminaljuyu.

The Pennsylvania State University Project was conceived in 1967 when William

Sanders met with G. Willey, A.L. Smith, and W. Coe to determine the urgency and

possibility of a salvage archaeological project at Kaminaljuyu. The plan was discussed again with R. E. W. Adams, S. Borhegyi, W. Coe, P. Culbert, K. Day (representing G.

Willey), A. Kidder II, and W. Sanders. It was decided at this meeting that Sanders would apply for support from the National Science Foundation to fund a salvage archaeological project at the Kaminaljuyu site and, if granted, would direct the project from the

Pennsylvania State University. Prior to granting support, the National Science

Foundation requested and supported a feasibility study of the possibility of the fulfillment of the research objectives in the proposal.

There were four objectives put forth by the Pennsylvania State University

Kaminaljuyu Project. First, they wanted to advance the consecutive chronological sequence put forth by the Carnegie Project. They wanted to resolve issues between the absolute and relative datings of the various Preclassic ceramic phases. Their strategy was

to address the fact that the previous excavations were primarily of mounds, mound fill,

and tombs, not household middens which could provide a more stratified sample for review. Second, to address the questions of status hierarchy, the project intended to excavate residential structures and areas within the Kaminaljuyu site in order to demonstrate changes in demographics (economic, hierarchical, and ethnic) and population in Kaminaljuyu society, phase by phase. The third project objective would 307 address any temple mounds or civic structures that were in immediate danger of

destruction. The project would salvage archaeological remains and/or information and conduct test (or full) excavations, as needed. A complete and systematic survey of the site would be conducted with the goal of classifying the function, chronology, and architectural style of every mound. The fourth and final goal of the Kaminaljuyu Project was to take the 80 site survey of the Guatemala Valley by Shook and extend it so that it included rural settlement. The intention was to present a realistic view of the settlement changes over time and apply these to Kaminaljuyu.

The 1968 field season of the Pennsylvania State University Kaminaljuyu Project

was the feasibility study for the large-scale salvage operation proposed to the National

Science Foundation. It was fruitful and fortuitous. Mound B-V-2 had been previously

determined to be the focus excavation due to the fact that it appeared both undisturbed

and a residential as opposed to temple platform. However, upon arrival, a contractor

anxious to build on the lots containing B-II-1 and B-III-1 offered a labor force and tools

to facilitate the excavation of those mounds. These unexpected resources enabled

excavations at all three mounds to take place. It should be noted here that in those

excavations one Preclassic burial was discovered, Mound B-III-1/Feature 7 (Burial 1). In

addition, a survey of the mounds mapped by Carnegie Project was conducted to assess

their condition and do a preliminary functional evaluation of the structures. Surface

collections were made to work toward the initiative of ceramic phasing. However, when

compared to the test trenches excavated on several of the lots from which surface

collections were made, the artifact comparison did not correlate and it was decided that 308 another excavation method would have to be used to produce an accurate settlement history. It was determined that they would use large-scale test trench excavation. This was successful as was the valley survey that was conducted to enhance the data from

Shook’s 80 site survey. Between 60 and 70 new sites were documented, of which the vast majority lacked surface architecture and were the remains of rural habitation. This field season confirmed that a large scale operation was possible and as a result, they were funded by the National Science Foundation (Michels 1979).

For their excavations, the Kaminaljuyu Project established an extensive grid system of horizontal provenience designation (Sanders and Michels 1969). In this system, the largest measurement is a Zone (5 km by 5 km). The Valley of Guatemala is divided into 40 Zones, of which Zone 46 contains the site of Kaminaljuyu. Each Zone is subdivided into units called Areas (1 sq km), there are 25 Areas in a Zone. The Areas are further subdivided into 400 units called Sectors (50 m by 50 m). Using the designation of

Zone-Area-Sector enabled the Kaminaljuyu Project to designate positions to the nearest

50 x 50 meter square. It should be noted that this designation was the minimal horizontal control used and when needed, finer measurements utilized for provenience.

The 1969-1970 season excavations were focused in Areas 23 and 32 (Michels

1979). In Area 23, extensive excavations took place in the Palangana and Preclassic burials were found in Mound C-II-12. In Area 32, Mounds B-V-6, B-V-15, A-VI-5*, and

A-VI-6 were excavated and revealed Preclassic burials (Michels 1979).

309 Though A-VI-5* was excavated by the Kaminaljuyu Project, it was the 1984

excavations of Marion Popenoe de Hatch and María Teresa Robles that revealed the

Preclassic burial – Mound A-VI-5/Operation D-311.

Dating at Kaminaljuyu is either reflected by obsidian hydration technique (6,

31.58%) or ceramic phase (12, 61.16%) with one unknown. I have attempted to correlate

the subdivisions of Early, Middle, Late, and Terminal Preclassic with ceramic phases at

Kaminaljuyu. I have used the following ceramic phase/date breakdown by Shook and

Marion Popenoe de Hatch (Popenoe de Hatch 1997):

Early Preclassic 1100 B.C. – 1000 B.C. Arévalo Middle Preclassic 1000 B.C. – 700 B.C. Las Charcas Middle Preclassic 700 B.C. – 650 B.C. Majadas Middle Preclassic 650 B.C. – 400 B.C. Providencia Late Preclassic 400 B.C. – 200 B.C. Verbena Late Preclassic 200 B.C. – A.D. 100 Arenal Terminal Preclassic A.D. 100 – A.D. 200 Santa Clara Early Classic A.D. 200 – A.D. 400 Aurora Early Classic A.D. 400 – A.D. 550 Esperanza Late Classic A.D. 550 – A.D. 800 Amatle Late Classic A.D. 800 – A.D. 900 Pamplona Early Postclassic A.D. 900 – A.D. 1200 Ayampuc Late Postclassic A.D. 1200 – A.D. 1500 Chinautla

Although Michels (1979) states that Kaminaljuyu grew from a simple farming

community dating to around 2500B.C., for our purposes the archaeological occupation of

Kaminaljuyu dates to the Early Preclassic (ca. 1100 B.C.) through the Postclassic (ca.

A.D. 1500 (Weaver 1993). Throughout the occupation, the site enjoyed the benefits of

both a strategic location (between the Pacific Slope and the Maya Lowlands) and the

control of a large obsidian source – El Chayal. Undoubtedly these factors influenced its continual growth, which lead to its eventual zenith beginning in the Late Preclassic. 310 The Middle Preclassic (Las Charcas, ca. 1000 B. C.) had only one burial which

seemed to have no formal grave goods and appeared to be placed in a midden. The

pottery from the midden did not appear to have been smashed offerings as the vessels,

when reconstructed, showed significant wear.

The Middle Preclassic (Providencia, ca. 650 B. C.) also offered only one burial in

which no formal grave goods were noted; the artifacts found were thought to have

already been present when the interment occurred. This burial was also a simple

interment dug into the existing landscape.

The Late Preclassic (Verbena-Arenal, ca. 400 B.C. – 100 A.D.) saw a marked

change in inhumation practices. The site began to see the construction of monumental

architecture some of which served as burial structures for those in power. The tombs

constructed during this time period are some of the most elaborate interments ever seen at

this site. They represent a high degree of social stratification and demonstrate that the

wealth and power was concentrated in the hands of the elite (Weaver 1993). Three of the

19 interments are designated as tombs (15.79%); 16 are designated as pit burials. Of

these pits, four of the 16 (25.00%) were constructed in such a manner that, using the grave type terminology of Welsh (1988), they would be either a crypt or a cist. As mentioned earlier, a good example of this is B-V-15 Burial 1/Feature 9 (Figure 12) which would be defined as a cist by Welsh (1988).

The Late Preclassic to Terminal Preclassic (Arenal-Santa Clara Phases, ca. 200

B.C. – 200 A.D.) presents one burial containing three individuals found in the Palangana.

While one burial is obviously too limited a sample to postulate any sweeping 311 generalizations, it could be argued, based on grave good examination, that it

demonstrates a continued stratification by containing both a figurine and a slab of red

pigment. Conversely, it could also be argued that it represents a decline in stratification for the same reason if it is compared to the tomb burials witnessed in the Late Preclassic.

The Late Terminal Preclassic to Late Classic (Santa Clara-Aurora-Esperanza-

Amatle Phases, ca. A.D. 100 – A.D. 800) also proffers but one burial. However,

interestingly enough, this burial had a ceramic disc among its grave goods. Though often

made from sherds, some discs have been recovered that were specially manufactured. It

is thought that they are game pieces and represent a behavior that would possibly have

been restricted by social rank and therefore could be used as an indicator of social

stratification (Michels 1979).

312 Chapter Seven

Kaminaljuyu Burial Data

The burial data submitted in this chapter for Kaminaljuyu imparts each burial as its own entity. The burials are presented in chronological order by phase: Las Charcas,

Providencia, Verbena-Arenal, Arenal-Santa Clara, and Santa Clara-Aurora-Esperanza-

Amatle. Within each phase, the burials are presented in alphabetical and numerical order.

The order of materials contained in the burials is presented according to the order given in Chapter Two. That chapter may be referenced for the definition of terms.

313 Kaminaljuyu - Las Charcas Phase Burials

Pit 1

Source: Shook, 1950-1951

Location: 1 km. south of main site

Dating: Middle Preclassic

Ceramic Dating: Las Charcas

Inventory Cranial Unknown

Inventory Postcranial Unknown

MNI 1 Based on: Unknown

Age at Death Young Adult Method: Unknown

Dental Attrition Unknown

Sex Unknown Based on: -

Stature Unknown Method: -

Pathology/Trauma Unknown Pathology: - Bone: -

Trauma: - Bone: -

Cultural Modification(s) Unknown Location: - Type: -

314 Pit 1 – cont.

Burial Specifications

Grave Type: Pit

Body Position: Extended, supine

Cranium Orientation: -

Feet Position: -

Grave Good(s): No formal grave goods*

*The skeletal material was covered by a rich midden which contained soil, ashes, carbonized wood, corn cobs, fruit seeds, faunal material, disarticulated human skeletal material, fragments of metates, manos, polishers, and simple sculptures, bone tools, pottery vessels (broken),figures, whistles, incensarios, and a large hollow cylindrical seal.

Position(s): In fill (?)

315 Kaminaljuyu – Providencia Phase Burials

Mound B-V-6 Burial 1

Source: Bebrich and Wynn, 1973

Location: Unit 10 (40-42N/55-56W); elevation of 17.72-17.67 m. AZEP; ca. 75-85 cm. below top of Stratum 208.

Dating: Middle Preclassic

Ceramic Dating: Providencia

Inventory Cranial Cranial material with portions of temporal, maxilla, and nasal completely eroded.

Inventory Postcranial Articulated skeleton – poorly preserved, completely eroded: hands, wrists, feet, and ankles; shoulder and knee joints, rib bones, pelvis and vertebral column are slightly observable.

MNI 1 Based on: Unknown

Age at Death Adult under 50 years of age. Method: Unknown

Dental Attrition Unknown

Sex Probable male Based on: Unknown

Stature Unknown Method: -

Pathology/Trauma Pathology: Supernumery molars Bone: Left mandibular body

Trauma: - Bone: - 316 Mound B-V-6 Burial 1 – cont.

Cultural Modification(s) Unknown Location: - Type: -

Burial Specifications Grave Type: Grave Pit – Simple, dug into existing land surface.

Body Position: Tightly flexed, lying on right side, facing west, right hand under chin, left arm less tightly flexed and parallel to right arm; left leg partially overlying right leg, and right shoulder tucked under torso.

Cranium Orientation: North

Feet Position: -

Grave Good(s): No grave goods with corpse. Artifacts recovered from the fill were not arranged in any discernible pattern. They are thought to have already been present when the interment occurred.

Position(s): -

317 Kaminaljuyu - Verbena-Arenal Phases Burials

Mound A-VI-5/Operation D-311

Source: Popenoe de Hatch, 1997

Location: Mound A-VI-5; Op D – 311 g-h

Dating: Late Preclassic

Ceramic Dating: Arenal

Inventory Cranial Extremely fragmentary cranium

Inventory Postcranial Left radius and ulna, two humerii, partial ribs, and left femur. Hand and foot bones were completely eroded

MNI 1 Based on: Unknown

Age at Death Adult, 20-30 years old Method: Dentition

Dental Attrition Unknown

Sex Possible Female Based on: Cranial Morphology – small mastoid processes but masculine chin.

Stature 140.5 cm. Method: Genoves Formula based on a maximum humeral measurement (260 mm.)

Pathology/Trauma Pathology: *Absence of third molar on left side of mouth.

Bone: Mandible

*This is a possible pathology due to a congenital condition since it is not possible that the age-at-death occurred before the age of 18. Trauma: - Bone: - 318 Mound A-VI-5/Operation D-311 – cont.

Cultural Modification(s) Teeth do not exhibit any modification but impossible to evaluate for cranial modifications. Location: - Type: -

Burial Specifications

Grave Type: Simple, semi-circle of rocks and ceramic fragments around cranium.

Body Position: Extended (north-south), left arm over pelvis.

Cranium Orientation: East

Feet Position: -

Grave Good(s): 1. Obsidian blade-large

2. Vessel (broken) - Arenal

3. Orange ware bowl (complete) - Usulutan decoration

Position(s): 1. Near left hand

2. Directly over tibia

3. Unknown

319 Mound A-VI-6 Burial 1

Source: Kirsch, 1973

Location: 102.5-104 E/101.5-103 N; elevation of 1806-1835 AZEP; northwest corner of A-VI-6.

Dating: Late Preclassic

Obsidian Hydration Dating: Sample 7370: 197 B.C. + 111

Inventory Cranial Severely eroded cranium*

Inventory Postcranial Two Femorae, two tibiae, ilium fragment, possible ulna, humerus, and scapula

MNI 1 Based on: Severely eroded cranium* found 70 cm. south of legs *May or may not belong to postcranial material – possible second individual.

Age at Death Adult Method: Unknown

Dental Attrition Unknown

Sex Probable Male Based on: Long bone analysis (robustness)

Stature Not possible from available skeletal material. Method: -

Pathology/Trauma None observed except for postmortem fracture of left (?) femur. Pathology: - Bone: -

Trauma: - Bone: -

320 Mound A-VI-6 Burial 1 – cont.

Cultural Modification(s) Unknown Location: - Type: -

Burial Specifications Grave Type: Shallow pit

Body Position: Extended, possibly supine, lying east-west

Cranium Orientation: Extended Individual – East Cranium* - Northwest (not included in Table 15) *Dental arcade indicated that the cranium was face down with the crown oriented northwest.

Feet Position: -

Grave Good(s): Position(s): 1. *Fragmentary undecorated brown-gray ware vessel 1. Approximately 0.40 m. with small pointed handle (*designated Feature 3 with north of skeletal material concentration of other, unnamed artifacts) 2. Cylindrical ceramic bead 2. - 5. South of skeletal 3. Hammerstone material 4. Large rock - unknown function 5. Fragmentary large red ware vessel 6. Concentration of Verbena-Arenal and Amatle 1-2 6. - 8. Near cranium. sherds 7. Deer antler 8. Complete black-brown, fine incised fluted vessel 9. Incensario vessel sherds (ten) 9. - 10. East of skeletal 10. Verbena white ware flat-bottom bowl sherds (three) material

321 Mound A-VI-6 Burial 2

Source: Kirsch, 1973

Location: 103-104.5 E/99-100.5 N; elevation of 1798-1810 AZEP.

Dating: Late Preclassic

Obsidian Hydration Dating: Sample 7373: 355 B.C. + 115

Inventory Cranial Individual A - Cranium and mandible intact, erosion of facial bones Individual B - Disarticulated cranium (inverted)

Inventory Postcranial Individual A - Right and left clavicles, rib fragments, right and left humerii, right ulna and radius, right metacarpals and phalanges, right ilium, right and left femorae, right and left tibiae, possible fibular fragments, miscellaneous unidentifiable bones and fragments

MNI 2 Based on: Presence of two crania.

Age at Death Individual A - Adult (Primary Occupant) Individual B - Adult Method: Unknown

Dental Attrition Unknown

Sex Individual A - Possible Female Individual B - Probable Male

Based on: Individual A - Gracile bone composition and artifact assemblage*. Individual B – Cranial robusticity.

Stature Unknown Method: -

322 Mound A-VI-6 Burial 2 – cont.

Pathology/Trauma Unknown Pathology: - Bone: -

Trauma: - Bone: -

Cultural Modification(s) Location: Individual A - Frontal Type: Unspecified modification

Burial Specifications Grave Type: Shallow pit

Body Position: Individual A - Extended supine, north-south orientation Individual B - Beneath legs of Individual A (disarticulated inverted cranium)

Cranium Orientation: Individual A - South Individual B - North (facing)

Feet Position: -

Grave Good(s): Position(s):

1. Mano and metate with kill-hole(?). 1. Directly to the east of the lower body of Individual A 2. Small effigy cup (hemispherical shape) 2. Near the left shoulder of Individual A 3. Red flat base bowl, black-brown incised 3. All located between the legs of bowl, and black-brown fine incised Individual A effigy vase, nested 4. Handled cup candelero 4. Near Individual A 5. Ceramic sherds (271) (predominately 5. East of the right shoulder of orange ware) Individual A 6. Sherds (10)of a large, shallow black- 6. East of the right shoulder of brown dish Individual A 7. Fragmentary red ware vessel 7. Extreme east of Individual A

323

Mound A-VI-6 Burial 2 – cont.

Grave Good(s): Position(s):

8. Simple slab metate (complete) 8. East of the legs of Individual A (inverted, two holes punched in base) 9. Tabular mano (fragment) 9. Beneath metate (grave good no. 8) 10. Large rocks (two) – one functioned as 10. East and northeast of metate (grave rubbing platform good no. 8) 11. Sherds (63 )(includes one incensario 11. North of metate (grave good no. 8) sherd) 12. Vessel Fragments (1313) (includes 12. In burial fill above Individual A three incensario sherds and eight burnt clay fragments)

*Kirsch noted the presence of a mano and metate in the sex assessment of the extended individual stating that those artifacts are associated with traditional female activities. He also offers counter-evidence stating that ten of the twelve Middle Classic burials of Mound A (F-VI-1) and B (F-VI-2) contained manos and metates and, of those, only two were positively associated with females. He therefore notes that his sex assessment is tenuous on this evidence.

324 Mound A-VI-6 Burial 3

Source: Kirsch, 1973

Location: 98 E/98-100 N; elevation of 1766-1816 AZEP.

Dating: Late Preclassic

Obsidian Hydration Dating: Samples 7448 and 7472: 12 A.D. + 110

Inventory Cranial Present but facial bones and part of the right side had significant deterioration.

Inventory Postcranial Nearly complete - Long bones of upper and lower limbs, carpals,metacarpals, tarsals, metatarsals, and phalanges os coxae and vertebral column observable; individual vertebrae impossible to tell apart.

MNI 1 Based on: Unknown

Age at Death Adult, 20-35 years old Method: Unknown

Dental Attrition Unknown

Sex Probable female Based on: Innominate, gracile appearance of long bones, proportion between cranium and postcranial material; and associated artifactual assemblage*.

Stature Unknown Method: -

Pathology/Trauma Unknown Pathology: - Bone: -

Trauma: - Bone: - 325 Mound A-VI-6 Burial 3 – cont.

Cultural Modification(s) Unknown Location: - Type: -

Burial Specifications Grave Type: Shallow pit, intrusive feature to artifact concentration (Feature no. 11 - elevation 1791-1793 AZEP)

Body Position: Semi-reclined, facing south; torso leaning back at roughly 45° angle; head collapsed on chest; right lower leg tucked under upper right leg; thigh in front of body; right foot beneath right hip; left leg same position but knee elevated approximately 30 cm. with left foot resting in front of pelvis; arms in front of body, hands placed on thighs.

Cranium Orientation: South (facing)

Feet Position: Right foot beneath right hip; left foot in front of pelvis

Grave Good(s): Position(s):

1. Rectilinear tetrapod effigy vessel 1. Directly south of right leg decorated with Usulutan resist painting 2. Obsidian prismatic blades (nine) - 2. South of skeletal material complete 3. Cluster of human bone fragments 3. South of skeletal material 4. Cluster of wood fragments 4. South of skeletal material 5. Deposit of charcoal 5. South of skeletal material 6. Large rock of unknown function (one). 6. Directly east of skeletal material 7. Large flaring neck jar with handles 7. Directly northwest of skeletal material 8. Tabular manos (two) 8. Atop skeletal material 9. Vesicular basalt rubbing platform 9. Above the right elbow 10. Large plain red ware bowl 10. Atop skeletal material 11. Unclassified perforated ceramic 11. Beneath basalt rubbing platform artifact of unknown function (grave good no. 9) 12. Small red cylindrical ceramic beads 12. Near neck (three)

326

Mound A-VI-6 Burial 3 – cont.

Grave Good(s): Position(s):

13. Pottery sherds (596) including one 13. In burial fill above skeletal material incensario sherd, burnt clay fragments (15), and reconstructable fragments of a black-brown fine incised bowl with a flat base and medial flange

*Kirsch again noted the presence the artifact assemblage in the sex assessment of the individual stating that those artifacts are associated with traditional female activities. This burial, however, is not a tenuous assessment due to the presence of sufficient osteological evidence.

327 Mound A-VI-6 Burial 4

Source: Kirsch, 1973

Location: 99 E/102-104 N; elevation 1777-1814 AZEP.

Dating: Late Preclassic *Coeval with A-VI-6 Burial 2 (?)

Obsidian Hydration Dating: Sample 7469: 332 B.C. + 114*

Inventory Cranial Cranium inclusive of mandible and dentition.

Inventory Postcranial Fragmentary cervical vertebrae; clavicle (unsided); right humerus and ulna; right and left femora, right and left tibiae.

MNI 1 Based on: Unknown

Age at Death Adolescent Method: Cranial analysis

Dental Attrition Unknown

Sex Unable to assess due to age and poor preservation of skeletal material. Based on: -

Stature 1.32 m. Method: In situ measurements of skeletal material

Pathology/Trauma Unknown Pathology: - Bone: -

Trauma: - Bone: -

328 Mound A-VI-6 Burial 4 – cont.

Cultural Modification(s) Unknown Location: - Type: -

Burial Specifications Grave Type: Shallow pit

Body Position: Extended, ventral surface down (face down); north-south orientation.

Cranium Orientation: South

Feet Position: North

Grave Good(s): Position(s):

1. Ceramic vessels (two) nested: shallow 1. Approximately 0.22 m. southeast of hemispherical tetrapod bowl, inside the cranium black-brown fine incised cylindrical vase 2. Mottled orange bowl 2. Directly east of the cranium 3. Large wide-mouth, round bottom jars 3. Approximately 0.60 m. north of legs (two); in association with numerous vessel fragments and stone artifacts – unclassified 4. Small pumice stone pebble 4. East of grave good no. 3 5. Sherds (54) inclusive of flesh-orange 5. Above and slightly west of legs tripod bowl and small, shallow brown- gray bowl with medial flange fragments 6. Sherds (491) inclusive of 12 6. Burial fill above skeletal remains incensario sherds and six burnt clay fragments

*While this date is consistent with some of the Late Preclassic fill materials, it most likely does not date the interment. It is most probable that the interment took place during the Verbena Phase of the Terminal Preclassic.

329 Mound A-VI-6 Burial 6

(*Not recognized as a burial until data analysis)

Source: Kirsch, 1973

Location: 100 E/107 N; elevation of 1814- 1823 AZEP. Dating: Late Preclassic

Obsidian Hydration Dating: Sample 7488: 458 B.C. + 117*

Inventory Cranial Unknown

Inventory Postcranial Diaphysis of long bone – Femur(?); miscellaneous bone fragments 0.30 m. west of diaphysis.

MNI 1 Based on: Unknown

Age at Death Adult Method: Long bone analysis – Diaphysis.

Dental Attrition Unknown

Sex Probable Male Based on: Long bone analysis – Diaphysis

Stature Unknown Method: -

Pathology/Trauma Unknown Pathology: - Bone: -

Trauma: - Bone: -

Cultural Modification(s) Unknown Location: - Type: - 330 Mound A-VI-6 Burial 6 – cont.

Burial Specifications Grave Type: Shallow pit

Body Position: Femur (?) position indicative of extended burial with north- south orientation

Cranium Orientation: Possibly South

Feet Position: -

Grave Good(s): 1. Black-brown fine incised cylindrical vase

2. Sherds (316)

Position(s): 1. Approximately 0.40 m. west of the diaphysis

2. Near skeletal remains

*From the artifact assemblage it is positive that interment occurred during the Terminal Preclassic and that the obisidian hydration sample actually represents earlier material included in the fill.

331 Mound A-VI-6 Central Pit/Feature 17 (*No Osteological Remains: Included as a burial due to grave construction and contents – see note after grave goods.)

Source: Kirsch, 1973

Location: 100.30-101.50 E/100.00-102.20 N; elevation of 1751-1825 AZEP.

Dating: Late Preclassic

Ceramic Dating: Verbena-Arenal

Inventory Cranial None present

Inventory Postcranial None present

MNI Unknown Based on: Unknown

Age at Death Unknown Method: Unknown

Dental Attrition Unknown

Sex Unknown Based on: -

Stature Unknown Method: -

Pathology/Trauma Unknown Pathology: - Bone: -

Trauma: - Bone: -

Cultural Modification(s) Unknown Location: - Type: -

332 Mound A-VI-6 Central Pit/Feature 17 – cont.

Burial Specifications Grave Type: Pit construction, western edge lined with four talpetate blocks; whole pit filled with course yellow arena with 8 cm. cover of hard pumice clay – tomb appearance.

Body Position: -

Cranium Orientation: -

Feet Position: -

Grave Good(s): Position(s): * ONLY - Pumice-clay (top layer) contained artifact fragments, yellow arena fill was sterile.

1. Sherds (139); Sacatepequez-Arenal 1. – 4. Fill – Pumice clay layer (ostensibly incensario fragments) 2. Obsidian fragments (five) 3. Lithic detritus fragments (two) 4. Lump of burnt clay 5. Sherds (76), Sacatepequez-Arenal 5. - 6. West end of pit (apparently incensario fragments) 6. Biconvex mano fragment 7. Fragmentary olla (complete) 7. West end of pit, on small bench 8. Figurine head 8. Inside grave good no. 7 9. Complete inverted shallow flat bottom 9. East end of pit dish 10. Sherds (103); Verbena-Arenal-Aurora 10. Fill - Pumice clay layer (Inclusive of one incensario sherd)

*This feature, which occupies a central position in Mound A-VI-6, is included in the burials because its construction and contents have the appearance of a Terminal Formative (Preclassic) tomb except for the absence of any skeletal material. This is the only Mound A-VI-6 ‘burial’ that used a contrasting sterile sandy fill which, according to Kirsch, could be interpreted as the preparation of a tomb for future use with the sand being non-cohesive for later removal or, it could be interpreted as the grave for an individual whose body was not recovered.

333 Mound B-III-1/Feature 7 (Burial 1)

Source: Bebrich, 1969

Location: Center of base of Structure 2.

Dating: Late Preclassic

Ceramic Dating: Miraflores

Inventory Cranial Severely eroded cranium and mandible

Inventory Postcranial Poorly preserved ulnae, radii, humerii, femora, tibae, fibulae, and ribs. Thoracic and lumbar vertebrae, and os coxae in fragmentary condition. Hands and feet were absent.

MNI 1 Based on: Unknown

Age at Death Child, five years or < of age Method: Size, bone development, and dentition.

Dental Attrition Unknown

Sex Unable to assess due to age Based on: -

Stature Unknown Method: -

Pathology/Trauma Unknown Pathology: - Bone: -

Trauma: - Bone: -

334 Mound B-III-1/Feature 7 (Burial 1) – cont.

Cultural Modification(s) Unknown Location: - Type: -

Burial Specifications

Grave Type: Simple, on prepared surface of compacted clay.

Body Position: Extended and supine, north-south, head tilted slightly right.

Cranium Orientation: South

Feet Position: -

Grave Good(s): 1. Obsidian blade

2. Composite silhouette bowl (interior-incised)

Position(s): 1. Northeast of cranium

2. Northeast of cranium

*This burial was found at the base of Structure 2 which was considered the first monumental attempt at this site. However, since there was no elaborate grave, i.e. tomb, constructed for this burial it is considered a dedicatory offering and not a burial based on status in the community.

335 Mound B-V-15 Burial 1/Feature 9

Source: Ball, 1973

Location: Center of Structure C-l, second terrace.

Dating: Late Preclassic

Obsidian Hydration Dating: *

Inventory Cranial Cranium present

Inventory Postcranial Articulate and present, long bones, hands and feet, torso and pelvis.

MNI 1 Based on: Unknown

Age at Death Adult Method:Unknown

Dental Attrition Unknown

Sex Male Based on: Unknown

Stature Unknown Method: -

Pathology/Trauma Unknown Pathology: - Bone: -

Trauma: - Bone: -

Cultural Modification(s) Location: Cranium Type: Artificial Broadening – Extreme

336 Mound B-V-15 Burial 1/Feature 9 – cont.

Burial Specifications Grave Type: Pit – oval with fired-clay lined sides and floor. Capped with clay - 4 cm. thick and bedding of fist-sized stones 10-15 cm. thick and use of same type stones lined the interior to a height of 25 cm.

Body Position: Face down with north–south orientation; legs: loosely flexed, turned sideways, and drawn toward pelvis; arms beside body.

Cranium Orientation: South

Feet Position: -

Grave Good(s): 1. Broken mano

2. Obsidian scrapers, knives, and flakes (numerous)

3. Domestic ware sherds

Position(s): 1. Directly east of the cranium

2. Scattered about, within fill

3. Scattered about, within fill

*Obsidian Hydration Dating for Cache C/1 from Structure C-1 supports the ceramic dating with dates of 555 B.C. - 321 B.C.

337 Mound D-IV-2 Retainer Burial

Sacrifical victim(?) for Mound D-IV-2 Tomb Burial

Source: Borhegyi, 1956

Location: Side platform of tomb in Mound D-IV-2.

Dating: Late Preclassic

Ceramic Dating: Miraflores

Inventory Cranial Present but undetailed

Inventory Postcranial Present but undetailed

MNI 1 Based on: Unknown

Age at Death Young Adult Method: Unknown

Dental Attrition Unknown

Sex Male Based on: Unknown

Stature Unknown Method: -

Pathology/Trauma Pathology: - Bone: -

Trauma: Intentional/Sacrificial(?) Trauma (obsidian blade lodged in the neck) Bone: Cervical Vertebrae

338 Mound D-IV-2 Retainer Burial – cont.

Cultural Modification(s) Unknown Location: - Type: -

Burial Specifications Grave Type: Extended on platform in tomb – not thought to be primary occupant but sacrificial retainer.

Body Position: Extended, ventrally (face down or prone), head to the east, facing south.

Cranium Orientation: East

Feet Position: -

Grave Good(s): None directly associated with this individual*.

Position(s): -

*See Mound D-IV-2 Tomb Burial for grave good(s) detail.

339 Mound D-IV-2 Tomb

*Incomplete excavation Source: Borhegyi, 1956

Location: Mound D-IV-2

Dating: Late Preclassic

Ceramic Dating: Miraflores

Inventory Cranial Unknown due to discontinued excavation

Inventory Postcranial Unknown due to discontinued excavation

MNI Unknown due to discontinued excavation Based on: -

Age at Death - Method: -

Dental Attrition -

Sex - Based on: -

Stature - Method: -

Pathology/Trauma Pathology: - Bone: -

Trauma: - Bone: -

Cultural Modification(s) Location: - Type: -

340 Mound D-IV-2 Tomb – cont.

Burial Specifications Grave Type: Tomb

Body Position: -

Cranium Orientation: -

Feet Position: -

Grave Good(s): 1. Usulutan ware “toad” bowl

2. Fine incised Miraflores red ware tripod bowls (50)

3. Three-pronged incense burners (two) with plain solid prongs, vertical side flanges, and effigy faces; painted red, black, and white with geometrical designs.

4. Fragmentary coarse ware tall-legged, tripod cups (two) – associated with one of grave good no. 3 incense burners.

5. Flaring-sided, flat-bottomed cache bowls (12)

6. Small, unworked green stone (greenstone?) pebbles

7. Jade beads, small (several) – exact no. unknown

8. Mica sheets (several) – exact no. unknown

9. Obsidian blades (several) – exact no. unknown

10. Tetrapod stone mortars (nine) with covers and pestles

11. Sacrificial retainer burial as grave offering(?)

Position(s): 1. - 10 Large deposit over tomb/upper portion of tomb.

11. Side platform in upper portion of tomb

*This Tomb is included as a burial due to its architecture and assemblage. Only the upper portion was excavated, revealing the above grave goods and a sacrificed “retainer” burial (grave good no. 11) on a side platform. 341 Mound E-III-3 Tomb I

Source: Shook and Kidder, 1952

Location: Center of Mound E-in-3 Structure 5.

Dating: Late Preclassic

Ceramic Dating: Miraflores

Inventory Cranial Unknown

Inventory Postcranial Individual A (Principal Occupant) - Fragmentary long bones

MNI 2 Based on: Unknown

Age at Death Individual A (Principal Occupant) - Adult Individual B* - Adult Method: Unknown

Dental Attrition Unknown

Sex Individual A (Principal Occupant) – Male Individual B - Male Based on: Unknown

Stature Unknown Method: -

Pathology/Trauma Unknown Pathology: - Bone: -

Trauma: - Bone: -

Cultural Modification(s) Unknown Location: - Type: -

342 Mound E-III-3 Tomb I – cont.

Burial Specifications Grave Type: Tomb. A four-tiered, rectangular, terrace-like structure. The three upper tiers or levels are benches and the tomb chamber makes the lowest or deepest level. Postholes 1.30 m. deep were situated in the boundaries of the east and west walls of burial chamber and held four 2 m. long wooden posts with 40 cm. diameters. These posts supported two large north-south timbers which set in specifically prepared openings and grooves on the lowest bench; on these posts a roof comprised of timbers was positioned east-west.

Body Position: Individual A (Principal Occupant) - Extended north-south supine (on litter), arms at sides. Individual B - Extended supine along lowest western bench; legs extend on top of roof of tomb

Cranium Orientation: Individual A (Principal Occupant) - South

Feet Position: -

Grave Good (s) Specifications: Abbreviations after Shook and Kidder 1952 BF - Black-Brown, Fine Incised BFS- Black-Brown, Standard Shallow Bowls BP - Black-Brown, Undecorated BPS- B|ack-Brown, Standard Shallow Bowls, Undecorated BC - Black-Brown, Coarse Incised FR - Fine Red SC - Small Coarse Unslipped Bowls

*Individual B was a proposed “retainer” (sacrificial) occupant (Shook and Kidder 1952).

343

Mound E-III-3 Tomb I – cont. Grave Good(s): Position(s):

1. Bowl, “toad”, FR 1. On second southern bench, east of north-south axis 2. Bowl,BFS 2. On second southern bench, approx. 1.2 m. west of no. 1 3. Jar,BF 3. On second southern bench, directly west of no. 2 4. Vessel with restricted orifice, BF 4. On second southern bench, directly northwest of no. 3 5. Bowl, "toad" 5. On second southern bench, directly southwest of no. 4 6. Bowls, EPS 6. On second southern bench, directly southwest of no. 5 7. Bowl,BFS 7. On second western bench, approx. 0.2 m. northwest of no. 6 8. Effigy vessel, human, BP 8. On second western bench, directly west of no. 7 9. Bowl,BFS 9. On second western bench, approx. 0.6 m. north of no. 7 10. Bowl, BFS 10. On second western bench, approx. 0.2 m. north of no. 9 11. Bowl,BFS 11. On second western bench, approx. 2.6 m. north of no. 10 12. Bowl, “toad”, FR 12. On second western bench, directly north of no. 11 13. Effigy vessel, monkey, BP 13. On second western bench, directly northeast of no. 12 14. Bowl, BFS 14. On second western bench, directly north of no. 13 15. Bowl, BP 15. On second western bench, slightly northwest of no. 14 16. Bowl, BFS 16. On second western bench, approx. 0.3 m. west of no. 15 17. Bowls, BFS 17. On second western bench, approx. 0.6 m. northeast of no. 16 18. Bowl, coarse, red-on-buff 18. On second western bench, directly east of no. 17 19. Bowl, BP 19. In northwestern corner of second bench, directly north of no. 17

344

Mound E-III-3 Tomb I – cont. Grave Good(s): Position(s):

20. Bowl, BP 20. Partially beneath and west of no. 19 21. Bowl, small, BF 21. In northwestern corner of second bench, directly north of no. 19 22. Bowl, small, BP 22. In northwestern corner of second bench, approx. 0.2 m. northwest of no. 21 23. Bowl, small, BF 23. In northwestern corner of second bench, directly east of no. 22 24. Bowl, EPS 24. In northwestern corner of second bench, partially beneath and east of no. 23 25. Bowl, small, BP 25. In northwestern corner of second bench, inside no. 24 26. Bowl, BFS 26. In northwestern corner of second bench, directly east of no. 24 27. Bowl, BFS 27. In northwestern corner of second bench partially beneath and north of nos. 22, 23, and 29 28. Bowl, BFS 28. In northwestern corner of second bench, partially beneath and east of no. 27 29. Bowl, small, BFS 29. In northwestern corner of second bench, on top of nos. 28 and 29 30. Bowl, small, BP 30. In northwestern corner of second bench, directly east of no. 28 31. Marble jar 31. In northwestern corner of first bench, approx. 0.2 m. south of northern wall 32. Bowl, BP 32. Partially beneath and west of no. 31 33. Bowl, BPS 33. In northwestern corner of first bench, directly north of no. 32 34. Stone vase, carved, stuccoed 34. Inside no. 33 35. Gutter-spout Pottery utensil 35. In northwestern corner of first bench, directly northeast of no.33 36. Muscovite vase 36. In northwestern corner of first bench, directly south of no. 35 37. Muscovite vase 37. In northwestern corner of first bench, directly northeast of no. 36

345

Mound E-III-3 Tomb I – cont. Grave Good(s): Position(s):

38. Soapstone jar, carved 38. In northwestern corner of first bench, directly east of no. 37 39. Jar, miniature, verbena white 39. In northwestern corner of first bench, directly northwest of no. 38 40. Marble bowl 40. Southern edge of first northern bench, west of north-south axis 41. Chlorite schist bowl, animal head 41. Southern edge of first northern bench, directly east of no. 40 42. Chlorite schist bowl 42. Southern edge of first northern bench, Partially beneath and east of no. 40 43. Chlorite schist bowl 43. Southern edge of first northern bench, directly east of no. 41 44. Chlorite schist bowl 44. Southern edge of first northern bench, partially beneath and north of no. 43 45. Marble gutter-spout bowl 45. Southern edge of first northern bench, directly east of no. 43 46. Marble bowl 46. Southern edge of first northern bench, beneath no. 45 47. Marble bowl, flanged 47. Southern edge of first northern bench, directly east of no. 45 48. Marble bowl 48. Southern edge of first northern bench, partially beneath and directly north of no. 47 49. Muscovite inlay (?) 49. Southern edge of first northern bench, directly northeast of no. 48 50. Marble bowl 50. Southern edge of first northern bench, partially on top of and east of nos. 47 and 48 51. Chlorite schist bowl, gutter-spout 51. Southern edge of first northern bench, partially beneath and east of no. 50 52. Bowl, coarse, red-on-buff 52. Middle of first southern bench, just east of north-south axis 53. Bowl, small, BP 53. On first southern bench, directly south of no. 52

346

Mound E-III-3 Tomb I – cont. Grave Good(s): Position(s):

54. Bowl, Usulutan 54. On first southern bench, directly southeast of no. 53 55. Jade bead, fragment 55. On first southern bench, directly northwest of no. 52 56. Usulutan jar, stuccoed 56. On first southern bench, partially beneath and west of nos. 52 and 53 57. Bowl, SC 57. On first southern bench, directly south of no. 53 58. Goblet, small, BP 58. Along southern edge of first southern bench, directly south of no. 54 59. Goblet, small, BP 59. Along southern edge of first southern bench, directly west of no. 58 60. Goblet, small, BP 60. Along southern edge of first southern bench, directly west of no. 59 61. Jade earplug flares (two) 61. Along southern edge of first southern bench, directly north of no. 60 62. Cylinder, BF 62. Along southern edge of first southern bench, directly west of no. 57 and north of no. 61 63. Jar, incised 63. North of no. 62 64. Mano 64. West of no. 52, resting against nos. 56 and 63 on southside 65. Bowl, EPS 65. Along southern edge of first southern bench, directly west of no. 61 66. Goblet, BF 66. On first southern bench, west of no. 63 67. Cylinder, BF 67. On first southern bench, directly north and partially on top of no. 66 68. Pedestal bowl or cover (?), BP 68. Along southern edge of first southern bench, southwest of no. 66 69. Bowl, SC 69. On first southern bench, directly northwest and partially on top of no. 67 70. Figurine head (from fill) 70. Inside no. 72 71. Stamp, stemmed (from fill) 71. Inside no. 72

347

Mound E-III-3 Tomb I – cont. Grave Good(s): Position(s):

72. Usulutan effigy vessel, stuccoed 72. Partially on top and southwest of no. 69 73. Tetrapod (?) vase, stuccoed, FR, 73. Along southern edge of first southern fragments bench, directly south of no. 72 74. Obsidian flake-blades (eight) 74. Along southern edge of first southern bench, directly west of no. 73 75. Bowl, “toad”, FR 75. Along southern edge of first southern bench, directly west of no. 74 76. Bowl, BP 76. Along southern edge of first southern bench, partially beneath and southwest of no. 75 77. Effigy jar, human, verbena white 77. Along southern edge of first southern bench, partially beneath and west of no. 75 78. Goblet, BF 78. Partially on top and west of no. 77 79. Bowl, small, BPS 79. Partially on top and west of no. 77 80. Cylinder, BF 80. West of no. 79 81. Cylinder, BF 81. Along southern edge of first southern bench, directly south of no. 80 82. Bowl, “toad”, FR 82. Along southern edge of first southern bench, partially beneath and west of nos. 80 and 81 83. Bowl, “toad”, FR 83. Along southern edge of first southern bench, beneath no. 82 84. Bowl, coarse, red-on-buff 84. Along western side of first western bench, directly north of no. 82 85. Bowl, BP 85. Inside no. 84 86. Goblet, BF, contained iron oxide 86. Along southern wall of chamber, east of north-south axis 87. Pear-shaped vessel, Fluted, BP 87. Partially on top and west of no. 86 88. Goblet, BP 88. Directly north of no. 87 89. Jade earplug flare and inlays 89. Northwest of no. 88 90. Bowl, BP 90. Northwest of no. 88 91. Bowl 91. South of no. 90 92. Bowl, BFS 92. Beneath no. 87

348

Mound E-III-3 Tomb I - cont. Grave Good(s): Position(s):

93. Bowl, SC 93. - 96. Along southern wall of 94. Bowl, SC chamber, directly south of no. 91, 95. Bowl, SC nested 96. Bowl, SC 97. Bowl, SC 97. Partially beneath and west of nos. 90 and 91 98. Bowl, BFS 98. - 107. Along southern wall of 99. Pedestal bowl or cover (?), BP chamber, directly west of no. 91, 100. Bowl, BP nested 101. Bowl, SC 102. Bowl, SC 103. Bowl, SC 104. Bowl, SC 105. Bowl, SC 106. Bowl, SC 107. Bowl, SC 108. Goblet, BF 108. Directly north of and partially beneath no. 107 109. Goblet, BF 109. Directly north of and partially beneath no. 108 110. Bowl, coarse, red-on-buff 110. Directly north of and partially beneath no. 109 111. Bowl, BFS 111. Directly north of and partially beneath no. 110 112. Bowl, BPS 112. Directly north of and partially beneath no. 111 113. Goblet, small, BP 113. Partially on top and west of nos. 111 and 112 114. Bowl, BF 114. Partially on top and west of no. 113 115. Bowl, BFS 115. Along southern wall of chamber, south of no. 114 116. Bowl, BF 116. Partially on top of and west of no. 114 117. Bowl, BF 117. On top of no. 116 118. Metates (five) 118. On top of no. 115 119. Manos (four) 119. Along southern wall of chamber, on top of no. 118 349

Mound E-III-3 Tomb I – cont. Grave Good(s): Position(s):

120. Bowl, BFS 120. Scattered on top of no. 118 121. Bowl, BFS 121. beneath no. 115 122. Obsidian blades (three) 122. Scattered west of no. 115 123. Pebbles (11), unworked 123. Along southern wall of chamber, directly west of no. 119 124. Goblet, BF 124. Along southern wall of chamber, directly west of no. 123 125. Vessel with restricted orifice, verbena 125. On top of no. 124 white 126. Shell Pendant 126. - 130. Beneath and between nos. 127. Beads, fish vertebrae (?) 124 and 131 128. Shell beads 129. Armadillo Plates 130. Stone beads 131. Cover, BF 131. Along southern wall of chamber, directly west of no. 124 132. Effigy vessel, Pisote, BP 132. On top of no. 131 133. Jaguar or Puma stone 133. Beneath no. 131 134. Marble vessel 134. Directly west of no. 133 135. Jar, miniature, BF 135. On top of no. 134 136. Soapstone implement 136. On top of no. 137 137. Vessel with restricted orifice, BF 137. Partially beneath and west of no. 134 138. Cylinder, miniature, BF 138. Partially beneath and north of nos. 134-138 139. Eccentric flint and obsidian chip 139. Directly north of no. 134 140. Mica and matting Prints on eccentric 140. Directly east of southwestern flint Posthole 141. Goblet, BF 141. Along western wall of chamber 142. Effigy bowl, human head, BP 142. Along western wall of chamber, on top of no. 144 143. Bowl, SC 143. Directly north of no. 142 144. Bowl, EPS 144. Partially beneath and east of no. 142 145. Goblet, BF 145. On top of no. 144 146. Bowl, BF 146. Partially beneath and east of no. 144

350

Mound E-III-3 Tomb I – cont. Grave Good(s): Position(s):

147. Bowl, BF 147. Partially beneath and north of no. 146 148. Cylinder, BF 148. Partially beneath and east of no. 146 149. Bowl, SC 149. Partially beneath and east of no. 148 150. Goblet, small, BP 150. Directly north of nos. 148 and 149 151. Cylinder, BP 151. Directly east of no. 150 152. Goblet, small, BP 152. Partially on top and east of no. 151 153. Obsidian blade, large 153. Directly northeast of no. 152 154. Goblet, BF 154. Roughly 0.2 m northwest of no. 152 155. Goblet, BF 155. Directly west of no. 154 156. Bowl, SC 156. Directly west of no. 155 157. Bowl, SC 157. Directly west of no. 156, beneath fragments of human bone 158. Metatarsal, human 158. Slightly northeast of no. 154 159. Squat vessel with handles, BF 159. Directly northwest of no. 154 160. Base, BP 160. Directly west of no. 159 161. Cylinder, BF 161. Partially beneath and west of no. 160 162. Bowl, SC 162. Partially on top of and west of no. 161, along western wall of chamber 163. Goblet, small, BP 163. Directly northwest of no. 159 164. Bowl, SC 164. Partially beneath and north of nos. 160 and 161 165. Bowl, SC 165. Partially on top and west of no. 164 166. Bowl, SC 166. Partially on top and west of no. 165, along western wall of chamber 167. Bowl, BF 167. Slightly northwest of no. 163 168. Bowl, SC 168. Directly beneath and between no. 167 and 169 169. Bowl, SC 169. Approx. 0.2 m. west of no. 167

351

Mound E-III-3 Tomb I – cont. Grave Good(s): Position(s):

170. Bowl, SC 170. - 173. Along western wall of chamber, directly north of no. 169, beneath fragments of human bone 171. Bowl, SC 172. Bowl, SC 173. Bowl, SC 174. Bowl, SC 174. Directly north of nos. 170-173, beneath nos. 175-177 175. Bowl, SC 175. On top of no. 174 176. Jade earplug flare 176. On top of no. 177 177. Bowl, effigy, BC 177. On top of nos. 174 and 175, along western wall of chamber 178. Jade beads (two) 178. Slightly northeast of no. 167 179. Jade bead 179. Approx. 0.5 m. southeast of no.178 along north-south axis of chamber 180. Armadillo Plates 180. Approx. 0.6 m. slightly northwest of no. 179 181. Bowl, BFS 181. Approx. 0.3 m. west of no. 180 182. Bowl, BFS 182. On top of no. 181 183. Bowl, BFS 183. On top of nos. 181 and 182 184. Jade pendants (two) 184. On western Portion of no. 183 185. Cover, verbena white 185. Along western wall of chamber, slightly northwest of no. 183 186. Sherd, BP, and Jade mosaic (?) element 186. Along western wall of chamber, directly north of no. 185 187. Goblet, BF 187. Partially beneath and north of no. 185 188. Bowl, small, BP 188. Slightly beneath and north of no. 187 189. Jar, BF 189. Slightly east of no. 188 190. Usulutan vessel with cover 190. Directly northeast of no. 188 191. Bowl, coarse, red-on-buff 191. Partially beneath and west of no. 190 192. Bowl, BP 192. Partially on top of and north of no. 191 193. "Mushroom" stone 193. Approx. 0.8 m. north of no. 180 194. Vase, BP 194. Partially beneath and west of no. 193 352

Mound E-III-3 Tomb I – cont. Grave Good(s): Position(s):

195. Bowl, BP 195. Partially on top of and west of no. 194 196. Bowl, SC 196. Partially on top of and west of no. 195 197. Bowl, SC 197. Partially beneath and south of no. 196 198. Bowl, BP 198. Partially on top of and north of no. 194, beneath no. 207 199. Bowl, BP 199. On top of no. 207, partially beneath and north of no. 200 200. Bowl, BP 200. Partially on top of and north of no. 195 201. Bowl, BP 201. Partially on top of and north of no. 200 202. Bowl, SC 202. Partially beneath and west of no. 201 203. Sherd of BC large jar, containing Pyrite- 203. Approx. 0.2 m. northwest of no. encrusted sherds 202 204. Goblet, small, BP 204. Directly north of no. 202, along western wall of chamber 205. Bowl, BP 205. Partially beneath and east of no. 204 206. Effigy vessel, Pisote, BP 206. On top of the northern Portion of no. 207 207. Bowl, coarse, red-on-buff 207. Approx. 0.2 m. northwest of no. 193 208. Goblet, small, BP 208. Approx. 0.4 m. north of no. 193 209. Effigy jar, human, Usulutan 209. Partially beneath and north of no. 206 210. Bowl, SC 210. Beneath northern Portion of no. 209 211. Bowl, SC 211. Beneath center of no. 209 212. Bowl, SC 212. - 214. Approx. 0.3 m. east of 213. Bowl, SC northwestern Posthole, stacked 214. Bowl, SC 215. Bowl, SC 215. Directly east of northwestern Posthole 216. Goblet, small, BP 216. Beneath no.215 353

Mound E-III-3 Tomb I – cont. Grave Good(s): Position(s):

217. Goblet, small, BP 217. Directly east of northwestern Posthole, north of no. 215 218. Bowl, SC 218. Directly east of northwestern Posthole, north of no. 217 219. Bowl, SC 219. Directly east of northwestern Posthole, north of no. 218 220. Bowl, SC 220. Directly east of no. 218 221. Bowl, SC 221. Partially beneath and east of no. 222 222. Bowl, SC 222. Partially beneath and east of no. 220 223. Bowl, small, BP 223. Partially on top and southeast of no. 220 224. Bowl, BFS 224. Partially on top and east of no. 223 225. Bowls (two), SC 225. Beneath and west of no. 227 226. Bowl, SC 226. Beneath and west of no. 225 227. Bowl, coarse, red-on-buff 227. Beneath and east of no. 224 228. Bowl, coarse, red-on-buff 228. Partially beneath and southeast of no. 224 229. Bowl, SC 229. Partially beneath and east of no. 228 230. Bowl, effigy, BC 230. Beneath and between nos. 227 and 232 231. Bowl, BFS 231. Partially beneath and east of no. 229 232. Bowl, BFS 232. Partially on top and north of no. 231 233. Bowl, BFS 233. Partially beneath and east of no. 232 234. Bowl, SC 234. Partially beneath and slightly northeast of no. 233, along northern chamber wall 235. Bowl, SC 235. Directly east of no. 234, along northern chamber wall 236. Bowl, SC 236. Partially beneath and south of no. 235 237. Bowl, effigy, BC 237. Partially beneath and to the south of no. 236

354

Mound E-III-3 Tomb I – cont. Grave Good(s): Position(s):

238. Jade bead, tubular 238. Approx. 0.2 m. south of no. 237 239. Bowl, BFS 239. - 241. Approx.0.2 m. east of no. 237, nested 240. Bowl, BFS 241. Bowl, BFS 242. Bowl, small, BP 242. Partially beneath and west of nos. 239-241 243. Bowl, small, BP 243. Partially beneath and southwest of nos. 230 - 241 244. Bowl, BFS and BF 244. - 345. Vessels found in debris, assigned to Tomb I 245. Bowl, BFS and BF 246. Bowl, BFS and BF 247. Bowl, BFS and BF 248. Bowl, BFS and BF 249. Bowl, BFS and BF 250. Bowl, BFS and BF 251. Bowl, BFS and BF 252. Bowl, BFS and BF 253. Bowl, BFS and BF 254. Bowl, BFS and BF 255. Bowl, BFS and BF 256. Bowl, BFS and BF 257. Bowl, BFS and BF 258. Bowl, BFS and BF 259. Bowl, BFS and BF 260. Bowl, BFS and BF 261. Bowl, BFS and BF 262. Cylinder, BF 263. Cylinder, BF 264. Cylinder, BF 265. Cylinder, BF 266. Cylinder, BF 267. Goblet, BF 268. Goblet, BF 269. Goblet, BF 270. Goblet, BF

355

Mound E-III-3 Tomb I – cont. Grave Good(s): Position(s):

244. - 345. Vessels found in debris, assigned to Tomb I

271. Goblet, BF 272. Goblet, BF 273. Goblet, BF 274. Goblet, BF 275. Goblet, BF 276. Goblet, BF 277. Goblet, BF 278. Jar, globular, BF 279. Jar, globular, BF 280. Jar, globular, BF 281. Jar, miniature, BF 282. Cover, BF 283. Bowl, BPS 284. Bowl, BPS 285. Bowl, BPS 286. Bowl, BPS 287. Bowl, BPS 288. Bowl, BPS 289. Bowl, BP 290. Bowl, BP 291. Bowl, BP 292. Bowl, BP 293. Bowl, BP 294. Bowl, BP 295. Bowl, BP 296. Bowl, BP 297. Bowl, BP 298. Bowl, BP 299. Bowl, BP 300. Bowl, BP 301. Bowl, BP 302. Bowl, BP 303. Bowl, BP 304. Goblet, BP 305. Goblet, BP 356

Mound E-III-3 Tomb I – cont. Grave Good(s): Position(s):

245. - 345. Vessels found in debris, assigned to Tomb I 306. Goblet, BP 307. Goblet, BP 308. Vase, BP 309. Jar, BP 310. Jar, BP 311. Cover, BP 312. Cover, BP 313. Bowl, coarse incised 314. Bowl, coarse incised 315. Bowl,”toad”,FR 316. Bowl,”toad”,FR 317. Bowl,”toad”,FR 318. Effigy vessel, human, FR, fragments 319. Jar, incised, FR 320. Cover, FR 321. Vessel, subglobular, red 322. Bowl, coarse, red-on-buff 323. Bowl, coarse, red-on-buff 324. Bowl, coarse, red-on-buff 325. Bowl, coarse, red-on-buff 326. Bowl, coarse, red-on-buff 327. Bowl, coarse, red-on-buff 328. Bowl, coarse, red-on-buff 329. Effigy vessel, human, red, fragmentetary 330. Bowl, small, gutter-spout 331. Effigy, human, unslipped, fragmentary 332. Effigy, human, unslipped, fragmentary 333. Bowl, SC 334. Bowl, SC 335. Bowl, SC 336. Bowl, SC 337. Bowl, SC 338. Bowl, SC 339. Bowl, SC 340. Bowl, SC 341. Bowl, SC 357 Mound E-III-3 Tomb I – cont. Grave Good(s): Position(s):

246. - 345. Vessels found in debris, assigned to Tomb I 342. Bowl, SC 343. Bowl, SC 344. Bowl, SC 345. Bowl, SC

Cinnabar/Red Ochre/Unspecified Red Pigment: Yes - Individual A (Principal Occupant) exhibits red staining.

358 Mound E-III-3 Tomb II

Source: Shook and Kidder, 1952

Location: Center of Mound E-III-3, Structure 6.

Dating: Late Preclassic

Ceramic Dating: Miraflores

Inventory Cranial Unknown

Inventory Postcranial Individual A (Principal Occupant) - Upper and lower limb bones, hand and foot bones present.

MNI 4 Based on: Unknown

Age at Death Individual A -Principal Occupant- Adult Individual B* - Child, six-eight years old Individual C* - Child, six-eight years old Individual D* - Young Adult, 18-20 years Method: Unknown

Dental Attrition Unknown

Sex Individual A - Male Based on: -

Stature Individual A - 1.62 m. Method: Long Bone Metric Analysis

Pathology/Trauma Unknown Pathology: - Bone: -

Trauma: - Bone: -

359 Mound E-III-3 Tomb II – cont.

Cultural Modification(s) Unknown Location: - Type: -

Burial Specifications Grave Type: Tomb. Rectangular pit cut through summit platform of Structure 6 in a series of five narrow benches positioned on all four sides; timber beam roof running east-west.

Body Position: Individual A - Fully extended, supine on mat-covered wooden litter; elaborately bundled.

Individual B - Extended face down

Individual C - Lying on side, facing southeast

Individual D - Extended ventrally (face down or prone) on east third bench

Cranium Orientation: Individual A - South Individual B - North Individual C - South Individual D - South

Feet Position: -

Grave Good Specifications: Abbreviations after Shook and Kidder 1952 BF – Black-Brown, Fine Incised BFS –Black-Brown, Standard Shallow Bowls BP - Black-Brown, Undecorated FR – Fine Red FRI- Fine Red Tripod Incised Bowls

*Suggested/postulated sacrificial victims (Kidder and Shook 1952)

360

Mound E-III-3 Tomb II –cont. Grave Good(s): Position(s):

1. Vessel with restricted orifice, BF 1. Middle of second northern bench, along north-south axis 2. Usulutan cylinder, stuccoed 2. On second northern bench, south of no. 1 3. Bowl, BFS 3. On second eastern bench, approx. 1.6 m. from the northern edge 4. Bowl, FRI 4. On second eastern bench, approx. 0.8 m. south of no. 3 5. Bowl, FRI 5. On second eastern bench, approx. 0.4 m. south of no. 4 6. Bowl, FRI 6. On second eastern bench, approx. 0.5 m. south of no. 5 7. Bowl, BFS 7. On second eastern bench, directly southeast of no. 6 8. Bowl, BFS 8. On second eastern bench, directly southwest of no. 7 9. Bowl, FRI 9. On second eastern bench, directly southeast of no. 8 10. Bowl, FRI 10. Along eastern edge of second eastern bench, directly south of no. 9 11. Bowl, BP 11. On second eastern bench, directly northwest of no. 10 12. Bowl, FRI 12. On western edge of second eastern bench, directly south of no. 11 13. Bowl, FRI 13. On second eastern bench, slightly south of no. 12 14. Jar, red, fragment 14. On first northern bench, along north- south axis 15. Bowl, FRI 15. On first northern bench, directly south of no. 14 16. Bowl, FRI 16. Directly beneath no. 15 17. Bowl, BFS 17. On first northern bench, directly east of no. 14 18. Bowl, Verbena white 18. Partially beneath and east of no. 17 19. Bowl, FRI 19. Partially on top and southeast of no. 18 20. Bowl, Usulutan 20. Partially on top and east of no. 19

361

Mound E-III-3 Tomb II –cont. Grave Good(s): Position(s):

21. Bowl, Usulutan 21. Directly northeast of no. 20 22. Bowl, coarse, red-on-buff 22. Directly east of no. 20 23. Bowl, coarse, red-on-buff 23. Directly east of no. 22 24. Bowl, FRI 24. Directly northeast of no. 23 25. Bowl, Usulutan 25. Partially beneath and to the southeast of no. 24 26. Bowl, FRI 26. Approx. 0.1 m. northeast of no. 25 27. Bowl, FR 27. Beneath no. 26 28. Goblet, BF 28. Approx. 0.2 m. southeast of nos. 26 and 27 29. Bowl, Usulutan 29. Directly southwest of no. 28 30. Bowl, FRI 30. Partially beneath and south of no. 29, along first eastern bench 31. Bowl, Usulutan 31. Partially beneath and south of no. 30, along first eastern bench 32. Cylinder, BF 32. Directly south of no. 31, along first eastern bench 33. Vessel with restricted orifice, Usulutan 33. Directly southeast of no. 32, along first eastern bench 34. Bowl, Usulutan 34. Directly south of no. 33, along first eastern bench 35. Bowl, coarse, red-on-buff 35. Along eastern edge of first eastern bench, approx. 0.4 m. southeast of no. 34 36. Bowl FRI 36. Partially beneath and west of no. 35 37. Bowl, FR 37. Directly south of no. 35 38. Bowl, coarse, red-on-buff 38. Approx. 0.2 m. south of no.36 39. Beads (two), stone 39. Between ribs and left pelvis of Individual D 40. Vase, tetrapod, FR 40. Directly to the southeast of the cranium of Individual D 41. Vase, tetrapod, FR 41. Partially beneath and southeast of no. 40, southeast of the cranium of Individual D 42. Bowl, FR 42. Partially on top and south of no. 41 43. Bowl, BF 43. Directly southwest of the cranium of Individual D 44. Bowl, BFS 44. Inside no. 43 362

Mound E-III-3 Tomb II –cont. Grave Good(s): Position(s):

45. Bowl, Usulutan 45. Directly southwest of nos. 43 and 44, along the northern edge of the first southern bench 46. Bowl, Usulutan 46. Directly west of no. 45 47. Bowl, Usulutan 47. Directly west of no. 46 48. Bowl, FRI 48. Partially on top and west of no. 47 49. Bowl, FRI 49. Partially on top and west of no. 48 50. Bowl, Usulutan 50. Partially beneath and south of nos. 48 and 49 51. Bowl, FRI 51. Partially beneath and south of no. 50 52. Bowl, Usulutan 52. Partially on top and west of no. 51 53. Bowl, tetrapod, Usulutan 53. Directly northwest of no. 52 54. Bowl, FRI 54. Partially on top and west of no. 53 55. Bowl, Usulutan 55. Partially beneath nos. 54 and 52, to the south of no. 54, to the west of no. 52 56. Bowl, coarse, red-on-buff 56. Partially on top and west of no. 54 57. Bowl, Usulutan 57. Partially beneath and south of no. 56 58. Bowl, Usulutan 58. Partially beneath and west of no. 56 59. Bowl, Verbena white 59. Partially on top and southwest of no. 58 60. Bowl, FR 60. Partially beneath and west of no. 58 61. Bowl, FR 61. Partially on top and slightly northwest of no. 59 62. Bowl, BF 62. Partially on top of nos. 59 and 61, to the south of no. 61 and west of no. 59 63. Vase, tetrapod, FR 63. Partially on top and northwest of no. 61 64. Bowl, coarse, red-on-buff 64. Directly southwest of no. 61, along southern edge of first southern bench 65. Bowl, BP 65. Partially on top and northwest of no. 64 66. Bowl, FR 66. Partially on top and northwest of no. 65, along northern edge of first southern bench 67. Goblet, BF 67. Partially on top of western portion of no. 66

363

Mound E-III-3 Tomb II –cont. Grave Good(s): Position(s):

68. Bowl, coarse, red-on-buff 68. Directly south of no. 66, partially beneath no. 65 69. Bowl, Verbena white 69. Directly west of no. 66 70. Bowl, FR 70. Partially on top and south of no. 69 71. Bowl, FR 71. Partially on top and south of of no. 70 72. Bowl, FRI 72. Partially on top and west of no. 69 73. Bowl, FR 73. Partially on top and west of no. 71 74. Bowl, FRI 74. Partially on top and west of no. 72 75. Bowl, Verbena white 75. Partially on top and west of no. 73 76. Bowl, FRI 76. Partially on top and west of no. 74 77. Bowl, FR 77. Partially on top and west of no. 76 78. Bowl, BP 78. Partially on top and west of no. 75 79. Bowl, Usulutan 79. Partially beneath and west of no. 77 80. Bowl, Usulutan 80. Partially on top and south of no. 79 81. Bowl, coarse, red-on-buff 81. Partially on top and west of no. 79, beneath and northwest of no. 80 82. Bowl, coarse, red-on-buff 82. Partially on top and west of no. 81 83. Vessel with restricted orifice, Usulutan 83. Partially on top and west of no. 82 84. Vessel with restricted orifice, Usulutan 84. Directly northwest of no. 83 85. Vessel with restricted orifice, Usulutan 85. Partially beneath and north of no. 84 86. Bowl, FR 86. Partially beneath and north of nos. 82 and 83 87. Bowl, BFS 87. Partially beneath and north of no. 85 88. Bowl, FRI 88. Directly north of no. 86 89. Bowl, FR 89. Partially on top and north of no. 88 90. Bowl, FRI 90. Partially on top and north of no. 89 91. Bowl, FRI 91. Partially beneath and north of no. 90 92. Bowl, Usulutan 92. Approx. 0.1 m. northeast of no. 91 93. Bowl, FR 93. Partially on top and north of no. 92 94. Bowl, FR 94. Partially beneath and north of no. 93 95. Bowl, coarse, red-on-buff 95. Approx. 0.1 m. northeast of no. 94 96. Bowl, Usulutan 96. Partially beneath and to the west of no. 95 97. Bowl, FRI 97. Directly northeast of no. 96

364

Mound E-III-3 Tomb II –cont. Grave Good(s): Position(s):

98. Vase, pedestal base, BP 98. In northwest corner of chamber 99. Goblet, small, BF 99. In northwest corner of chamber, directly northeast of no. 98 100. Goblet, BF 100. Beneath no. 99 101. Jade beads (two), tubular 101. Directly east of northwestern posthole 102. Muscovite earplug flare 102. Approx. 0.2 m. east of no. 101 103. Bowl, FRI 103. Beneath the leg bone fragments of Individual B, south of no. 102 104. Bowl, serpent head, crab, BP 104. Beneath the left hand of Individual B, approx. 0.1 m. east of no. 100 105. Iron oxide, molded lumps 105. Roughly 0.3 m. southeast of the cranium of Individual 2 106. Bowl, small, orange-red 106. On top of no. 105 107. Obsidian flake-blades (15) 107. Scattered about the northern area of the chamber 108. Jade bead, tubular 108. Directly north of potential litter of Individual A, along north-south axis 109. Mica and bones of small animal 109. Along northern wall of chamber, along north-south axis 110. Jade bead, tubular 110. On top of no. 109 111. Mica sheet and matting print 111. Directly north of potential litter of Individual A, along north-south axis 112. Jade, mosaic (?) element 112. Approx. 0.2 m. east of no. 111 113. Bowl, BF 113. Eastern portion of northern wall of chamber 114. Bowl, BFS 114. Directly east of no. 113, northeastern corner of chamber 115. Gourd (?) stuccoed 115. Approx. 0.2 m. southwest of northeastern posthole, along eastern wall of chamber 116. Pebbles (arranged on floor) 116. Directly northwest of no. 115 117. Jade beads (11) 117. Directly west of no. 116 118. Bowl, BFS 118. Directly south of no. 117 119. Obsidian flake-blade 119. Approx. 0.2 m. south of no. 115, along eastern wall

365

Mound E-III-3 Tomb II –cont. Grave Good(s): Position(s):

120. Cylinder, BF 120. Approx 0.1 m. southeast of no. 118 121. Goblet, BF 121. Directly west of no. 120 122. Bowl, BFS 122. Approx 0.1 m. southeast of no. 120 123. Goblet, BF 123. Approx 0.1 m. west of no. 122 124. Goblet, BF 124. Approx. 0.3 m. south of no. 122 125. Hematite (crystalline) fragment 125. Directly west of no. 124 126. Jade beads (two), tubular 126. Directly south of no. 125 127. Clay cylinder, red 127. Approx. 0.1 m. southwest of no. 126 128. Basalt implements (six) 128. Approx. south of no. 127 129. Cylinder, BF 129. Approx. 0.2 m. south of no. 126 130. Jade beads (two), tubular 130. Approx. 0.3 m. south of no. 129 131. Human teeth 131. On eastern edge of southern portion of potential litter of Individual A 132. Jade bead, tubular 132. Directly west of no. 131 133. Animal bone, burned, fragment 133. Approx. 0.1 m. west of southeastern posthole 134. Bowl, BP 134. Partially beneath and west of no. 135 135. Mask or headdress 135. Approx. 0.1 m. south of no. 133 136. Jade bead, tubular 136. Near southeastern corner of potential litter of Individual A 137. Obsidian rattle (?) stones (two) 137. Extreme southern end of chamber, along north-south axis 138. Jade beads (two), tubular 138. Approx. 0.1 m. southeast of the southwestern posthole 139. Pyrite-encrusted sherd or sherds 139. Directly northeast of the southwestern posthole 140. Cylinder, BF 140. Directly east of pelvis of Individual B 141. Cylinder, BF 141. Directly southeast of no. 140 142. Cylinder, BF 142. Partially on top and south of no. 141 143. Bowl, BP 143. Beneath left foot bone fragments of Individual A 144. Cylinder, BP 144. Partially beneath no. 143 and the lower left leg bones of Individual A, south of no. 143 145. Cylinder, BF 145. Partially on top and south of no. 144, beneath the lower left leg bones of Individual A

366

Mound E-III-3 Tomb II –cont. Grave Good(s): Position(s):

146. Cylinder, BF 146. Beneath the lower right leg bones of Individual A 147. Cylinder, BF 147. Directly west of right foot bones of Individual A 148. Goblet, BF 148. Directly south of no. 147 149. Mica 149. Approx. 0.2 m. south of no. 148 150. Gourd (?), stuccoed, and iron oxide 150. Directly northeast of right hand bone fragments of Individual A 151. Cup, miniature, BF 151. Directly west of no. 150 152. Effigy vessel, human, miniature, 152. Directly west of no. 151 red-on-buff 153. Soapstone implement 153. Directly east of lower right arm bones of Individual A 154. Bone objects (two), problematical 154. Approx. 0.2 m. southeast of no. 153 155. Fish teeth (six) 155. Directly west of no. 154 156. Quartz crystals (four) 156. Directly west of no. 155 157. Perishable object and jade mosaic (?) 157. Among upper leg bones of Individual elements A 158. Sting-ray spines (seven) 158. Strewn along right side of Individual A 159. Bone object, spatulate 159. Directly west of no. 156 160. Human bone, fragments 160. On remains of chest of Individual A 161. Hematite (crystalline), small bit 161. Near cranial fragments of Individual A, indicative of possible placement in the mouth 162. Bowl, Usulutan 162. Along outer eastern wall of chamber, north end 163. Bowl, FRI 163. Directly south of no. 162 164. Bowl, FRI 164. Approx. 0.2 m. south of no. 163 165. Bowl, coarse, red-on-buff 165. Directly south of no. 164 166. Bowl, FRI 166. Directly south of no. 165 167. Bowl, FR 167. Directly south of no. 166 168. Bowl, FRI 168. Directly south of no. 167 169. Vase, tetrapod, FR 169. Directly southeast of no. 168 170. Goblet, BF 170. Directly southwest of no. 169, approx. 0.2 m. south of no. 168 171. Bowl, FR 171. Partially beneath and south of no. 170

367

Mound E-III-3 Tomb II –cont. Grave Good(s): Position(s):

172. Bowl, BFS 172. Approx. 0.2 m. south of no. 171 173. Bowl, BFS 173. Approx. 0.5 m. south of no. 172 174. Vessel with restricted orifice, BF 174. Partially on top and southeast of no. 173, beneath right arm bone fragments of Individual D 175. Bowl, Usulutan, large, spouted 175. Beneath and south of no. 174 176. Bowl, FRI 176. - 182. Vessels found in talus, assigned 177. Bowl, FRI to Tomb II 178. Bowl, FRI 179. Bowl, FRI 180. Bowl, FRI 181. Bowl, FRI 182. Bowl, FRI 183. Bowl, FR 183. Unknown 184. Bowl, FR 184. Unknown 185. Bowl, FR 185. Unknown 186. Bowl, FR 186. Unknown 187. Bowl, FR 187. Unknown 188. Vase, FR 188. Unknown 189. Vase, FR 189. Unknown 190. Jar(?), FR 190. Unknown 191. Bowl, Usulutan 191. Unknown 192. Bowl, Usulutan 192. Unknown 193. Bowl,Usulutan 193. Unknown 194. Bowl, Usulutan 194. Unknown 195. Bowl, Usulutan 195. Unknown 196. Vessel with restricted orifice, Usulutan 196. Unknown 197. Vessel with restricted orifice, Usulutan 197. Unknown 198. Vessel with restricted orifice, Usulutan 198. Unknown 199. Vessel with restricted orifice, tripod, 199. Unknown Usulutan 200. Cylinder, Usulutan 200. Unknown

Cinnabar/Red Ochre/Unspecified Red Pigment: Yes - Individual A exhibits red staining.

368 Finca Miraflores Burial 1

Source: Kidder, Jennings, and Shook, 1946 Michels and Sanders, 1973 Location: Finca Miraflores

Dating: Late Preclassic

Ceramic Dating: Miraflores

Inventory Cranial Unknown

Inventory Postcranial Unknown

MNI 1 Based on: Unknown

Age at Death Adult (probable)

Method: -

Dental Attrition Unknown

Sex Unknown Based on: -

Stature Unknown Method: -

Pathology/Trauma Unknown Pathology: - Bone: -

Trauma: - Bone: -

Cultural Modification(s) Unknown Location: - Type: -

369 Finca Miraflores Burial 1 - cont.

Burial Specifications Grave Type: Pit – simple interment.

Body Position: Length of grave – apparently extended, prone.

Cranium Orientation: North

Feet Position: -

Grave Good(s) 1. Jade disc, small

2. Pottery vessels number unknown

Position(s) 1.-2. Unknown

370 Finca Miraflores Burial 2

Source: Kidder, Jennings, and Shook, 1946 Michels and Sanders, 1973 Location: Finca Miraflores

Dating: Late Preclassic

Ceramic Dating: Miraflores

Inventory Cranial Unknown

Inventory Postcranial Unknown

MNI 1 Based on: Unknown

Age at Death Adult (probable)

Method: -

Dental Attrition Unknown

Sex Unknown Based on: -

Stature Unknown Method: -

Pathology/Trauma Unknown Pathology: - Bone: -

Trauma: - Bone: -

Cultural Modification(s) Unknown Location: - Type: -

371 Finca Miraflores Burial 2 - cont.

Burial Specifications Grave Type: Pit – simple interment.

Body Position: Length of grave – apparently extended.

Cranium Orientation: -

Feet Position: -

Grave Good(s): 1. Pottery vessels (number unknown)

Position(s): 1. Unknown

372 Kaminaljuyu – Arenal-Santa Clara Phases Burials

Mound C-II-12 (Palangana) Burial 4/Features 274, 275

Source: Cheek, 1977

Location: 21-17W/6N

Dating: Late Preclassic-Terminal Preclassic

Radiocarbon Dating: Unknown

Inventory Cranial Individual A (Skeleton 4a) – Cranium

Individual B (Skeleton 4b) - Mandible (*Individual B - Possible secondary burial or grave offering associated with 4a or 4b.)

Individual C (Skeleton 4c) -Three Adult molars

Inventory Postcranial Individual A (Skeleton 4a) – Poorly preserved; some ribs, and some unidentifiable long bones

Individual B (Skeleton 4b) - Possible shoulder girdle; some ribs

MNI 3 Based on: Unknown

Age at Death Individual A (Skeleton 4a) - Young Adult Individual B (Skeleton 4b) – Adult Individual C (Skeleton 4c) - Adult

Method: Individual A (Skeleton 4a) - Young Adult Individual B (Skeleton 4b) – Adult Individual C (Skeleton 4c) - Adult

Dental Attrition Unknown

373 Mound C-II-12 (Palangana) Burial 4/Features 274, 275 – cont.

Sex Unknown Based on: -

Stature Unknown Method: -

Pathology/Trauma Unknown Pathology: - Bone: -

Trauma: - Bone: -

Cultural Modification(s) Unknown Location: - Type: -

Burial Specifications Grave Type: Pit (large), 2.20 m. E-W x (+) l.0 m. N-S (* horizontal dimensions uncertain because burial extended beyond excavation trench. Approximately 1.61 m. deep.)

Body Position: Individual A (Skeleton 4a) - Seated, legs crossed; possible bundling

Individual B (Skeleton 4b) - Lying on side, facing north, spine oriented to the east

Cranium Orientation: Individual A (Skeleton 4a) – South

Individual B – (Skeleton 4b) - South

Feet Position: - Grave Good(s)*: Position(s):

1. Jade bead 1. Next to right maxilla of Individual A, near canine area and PM1 2. Ceramics (unspecified number) 2. Southwest of skeletal remains 3. Stone artifacts (unspecified number) 3. East of skeletal remains 4. Triple cup of fine incised black-brown 4. North of skeletal remains ware (associated with Individual C ?) 374

Mound C-II-12 (Palangana) Burial 4/Features 274, 275 – cont.

Grave Good(s): Position(s):

5. Stone artifacts (two), unclassified 5. South of skeletal remains 6. Ceramic artifacts (two), unclassified 6. South of skeletal remains 7. Deer antler tine 7. South half of the pit, above burial fill 8. Flaking tool (?) 8. South half of the pit, above burial fill 9. Orange-brown jar 9. South half of the pit, above burial fill 10. Orange vase - Arenal style 10. South half of the pit, above burial fill 11. Small pot containing a small bowl 11. South half of the pit, above burial fill (stone) and slab of red pigment 12. White-slipped figurine head 12. South half of the pit, above burial fill 13. Large red sherd 13. South half of the pit, above burial fill

Cinnabar/Red Ochre/Unspecified Red Pigment: Yes - Individual A (Skeleton 4a) had red ochre on the dentition, and grave good no. 11 had a “slab of red pigment listed”.

*Most grave goods appear to have been associated with Individual A (Skeleton 4a)

375 Kaminaljuyu – Santa Clara–Aurora–Esperanza-Amatle Phases Burials

Mound A-VI-6 Burial 5

(*Secondary Burial)

Source: Kirsch, 1973

Location: 100 E/104 N; elevation of 1794- 1805 AZEP

Dating: Late Terminal Preclassic – Late Classic*

Obsidian Hydration Dating: Sample 7470: A. D. 81 + 104**

Inventory Cranial Possible cranial fragments in extremely poor condition.

Inventory Postcranial Long bone fragments; miscellaneous bone fragments (numerous)

MNI 1 Based on: Disarticulate remains

Age at Death Unable to assess Method: -

Dental Attrition No dentition present.

Sex Unable to assess Based on: -

Stature Unable to assess Method: -

Pathology/Trauma Unknown Pathology: - Bone: -

Trauma: - Bone: -

376 Mound A-VI-6 Burial 5 – cont.

Cultural Modification(s) Unknown Location: - Type: -

Burial Specifications Grave Type: Shallow pit

Body Position: -

Cranium Orientation: -

Feet Position: -

Grave Good(s): Position(s):

1. Large hemispherically shaped rock 1. Next to cranial fragments (?) flat side toward remains 2. Lithic beads (two), cylindrical 2. -4. Unknown 3. Large black bead 4. Small unspecified bead 5. Unperforated ceramic disc (from 5. -6. Approximately 0.40 m. southwest sherd) 6. Large rock (unknown function) 7. Sherds (734 ) inclusive of one 7. Above skeletal remains incensario sherd and other unspecified artifact fragments

*The Late Classic is considered/suggested due to the ceramic dating of Amatle sherds which were among those collected.

**A second sample (7449) dated to A.D. 1330 + 60 but was considered anomalous since the chronological evidence suggests either a very Late Terminal Preclassic or a Late Classic re-interment.

377 Table 11. Preclassic Kaminaljuyu Burial Divisions(Temporal)

Dated Burial Number Middle Preclassic Pit 1 Mound B-V-6 Burial 1 Late Preclassic Mound A-VI-5/Operation D-311 Mound A-VI-6 Burial 1 Mound A-VI-6 Burial 2 (2 individuals) Mound A-VI-6 Burial 3 Mound A-VI-6 Burial 4 Mound A-VI-6 Burial 6 Mound A-VI-6 Central Pit/Feature 17: (no. of individuals unknown) Mound B-III-1/Feature 7 (Burial 1) Mound B-V-15 Burial 1/Feature 9 Mound D-IV-2 Retainer Burial Mound D-IV-2 Tomb Mound E-III-3 Tomb I (2 individuals) Mound E-III-3 Tomb II (4 individuals) Finca Miraflores Burial 1 Finca Miraflores Burial 2 Late Preclassic - Terminal Preclassic Mound C-II-12 (Palangana) Burial 4/ Burials Features 274,275: (3 individuals) Late Terminal Preclassic - Late Classic Mound A-VI-6 Burial 5 Burials

378 Table 12 Preclassic Kaminaljuyu Age Distribution

Age at Death Burial Number Infant None Child Late Preclassic Burials Mound B-III-1/Feature 7 (Burial 1) Mound E-III-3 Tomb II (2 individuals) Young Adult/Youth Middle Preclassic Burials Pit l Late Preclassic Burials Mound A-VI-6 Burial 4 (adolescent) Mound D-IV-2 Retainer Burial Mound E-III-3 Tomb II (1 individual) Late Preclassic - Terminal PreclassicBurials Mound C-II-12 (Palangana) Burial 4/ Features 274,275 (1 individual) Adult Middle Preclassic Burials Mound B-V-6 Burial 1 Late Preclassic Burials Mound A-VI-5/Operation D-311 Mound A-VI-6 Burial 1 Mound A-VI-6 Burial 2 (2 individuals) Mound A-VI-6 Burial 3 Mound A-VI-6 Burial 6 Mound B-V-15 Burial 1/Feature 9 Mound E-III-3 Tomb I (2 individuals) Mound E-III-3 Tomb II (1 individual) Finca Miraflores Burial 1 Finca Miraflores Burial 2 Late Preclassic - Terminal Preclassic Burials Mound C-II-12 (Palangana) Burial 4/ Features 274,275 (2 individuals) Old Adult None Unknown Late Terminal Preclassic - Late Classic Burials Mound A-VI-6 Burial 5

379 Table 13 Preclassic Kaminaljuyu Sex Distribution

Sex Burial Number Male Middle Preclassic Burials Mound B-V-6 Burial 1(probable) Late Preclassic Burials Mound A-VI-6 Burial 1 Mound A-VI-6 Burial 2 (1 probable) Mound A-VI-6 Burial 6 (probable) Mound B-V-15 Burial 1/Feature 9 Mound D-IV-2 Retainer Burial Mound E-III-3 Tomb I (2 individuals) Mound E-III-3 Tomb II (1 individual) Female Late Preclassic Burials Mound A-VI-5/Operation D-311 Mound A-VI-6 Burial 2 (1 probable) Mound A-VI-6 Burial 3 (probable) Unknown Middle Preclassic Burials Pit 1 Late Preclassic Burials Mound A-VI-6 Burial 4 Mound B-III-1/Feature 7 (Burial 1) Mound E-III-3 Tomb II (3 Individuals) Finca Miraflores Burial 1 Finca Miraflores Burial 2 Late Preclassic - Terminal Preclassic Burials Mound C-II-12 (Palangana) Burial 4/ Features 274, 275 (3 individuals) Late Terminal Preclassic - Late Classic Burials Mound A-VI-6 Burial 5

380 Table 14. Preclassic Kaminaljuyu Burial Positions

Position Burial Number Extended Position Middle Preclassic Burials Pit l Late Preclassic Burials Mound A-VI-5/Operation D-311 Mound A-VI-6 Burial 1 Mound A-VI-6 Burial 2 (1 individual) Mound A-VI-6 Burial 4 Mound A-VI-6 Burial 6 (possible) Mound B-III-1/Feature 7 (Burial 1) Mound D-IV-2 Retainer Burial Mound E-III-3 Tomb I (2 individuals) Mound E-III-3 Tomb II (3 individuals) Finca Miraflores Burial 1 Finca Miraflores Burial 2 Flexed Position Middle Preclassic Burials Mound B-V-6 Burial 1 Late Preclassic Burials Mound B-V-15 Burial 1/Feature 9 Seated Position Late Preclassic Burials Mound A-VI-6 Burial 3 Late Preclassic - Terminal Preclassic Burials Mound C-II-12 (Palangana) Burial 4/ Features 274,275 (1 individual) Supine Position Middle Preclassic Burials Pit l Late Preclassic Burials Mound A-VI-6 Burial 1 Mound A-VI-6 Burial 2 (1 individual) Mound B-III-1/Feature 7 (Burial 1) Mound E-III-3 Tomb I (2 individuals) Mound E-III-3 Tomb II (1 individual) Prone Position Late Preclassic Burials Mound A-VI-6 Burial 4 Mound B-V-15 Burial 1/Feature 9 Mound D-IV-2 Retainer Burial Mound E-III-3 Tomb II (2 individuals)

381 Table 14. Preclassic Kaminaljuyu Burial Positions – cont.

Position Burial Number Prone cont. Late PreclassicBurials Finca Miraflores Burial 1 Left Side Late Preclassic - Terminal Preclassic Burials Mound C-II-12 (Palangana) Burial 4/ Features 274,275 (1 individual) Right Side Middle Preclassic Burials Mound B-V-6 Burial 1 Late Preclassic Burials Mound E-III-3 Tomb II (1 individual) Unknown Late Preclassic Burials Mound A-VI-6 Burial 2 (1 individual) Mound E-III-3 Tomb II (1 individual) Late Preclassic - Terminal Preclassic Burials Mound C-II-12 (Palangana) Burial 4/ Features 274, 275 (2 individuals) Late Terminal Preclassic –Late Classic Burials Mound A-VI-6 Burial 5

382 Table 15. Preclassic Kaminaljuyu Burial Directional Orientation Positions

Body Part – Directional Orientation Burial Number Cranium East Late Preclassic Burials Mound A-VI-5/Operation D-311 Mound A-VI-6 Burial 1 Mound D-IV-2 Retainer Burial Cranium North Middle Preclassic Burials Mound B-V-6 Burial 1 Late Preclassic Burials Mound A-VI-6 Burial 2 (1 individual) Mound E-III-3 Tomb II (1 individual) Finca Miraflores Burial 1 Cranium South Late Preclassic Burials Mound A-VI-6 Burial 2 (1 individual) Mound A-VI-6 Burial 3 Mound A-VI-6 Burial 4 Mound A-VI-6 Burial 6 (possible) Mound B-III-1/Feature 7 (Burial 1) Mound B-V-15 Burial 1/Feature 9 Mound E-III-3 Tomb I (1 individual) Mound E-III-3 Tomb II (3 individuals) Late Preclassic - Terminal Preclassic Burials Mound C-II-12 (Palangana) Burial 4/ Features 274,275 (2 individuals) Unknown Middle Preclassic Burials Pit 1 Late Preclassic Burials Mound E-III-3 Tomb I (1 individual) Finca Miraflores Burial 2 Late Preclassic - Terminal Preclassic Burials Mound C-II-12 (Palangana) Burial 4/ Features 274, 275 (1 individual) Late Terminal Preclassic - Late Classic Burials Mound A-VI-6 Burial 5

383 Table 16. Preclassic Kaminaljuyu Pathology/Trauma

Pathology/Trauma Burial Number Congential Tooth Absence Late Preclassic Burials Mound A-VI-5/Operation D-311 (?) Intentional/Sacrificial(?) Trauma Late Preclassic Burials Mound D-IV-2 Retainer Burial Supernumery Teeth Middle Preclassic Burials (mandibular molars) Mound B-V-6 Burial 1

384 Table 17. Preclassic Kaminaljuyu Cultural Modifications and Trephination

Modification Burial Number Cranial Late Preclassic Burials Mound A-VI-6 Burial 2 (1 individual) Mound B-V-15 Burial 1/Feature 9 Dental Unknown Trephination Unknown

385 Table 18 Preclassic Kaminaljuyu Cinnabar/Red Ochre/Unspecified Red Pigment

Cinnabar/Red Ochre/Unspecified Red Burial Number Pigment Late Preclassic Burials Unspecified red pigment Mound E-III-3 Tomb I (1 individual) Unspecified red pigment Mound E-III-3 Tomb II (1 individual) Late Preclassic - Terminal Preclassic Red Ochre and Unspecified red pigment Burials Mound C-II-12 (Palangana) Burial 4/ Features 274,275

386 Table 19 Preclassic Kaminaljuyu Evidence of Burning

Object Burial Number Bone Late Preclassic Burials Mound E-III-3 Tomb II (Faunal) Clay Fragment Late Preclassic Burials Mound A-VI-6 Burial 2 Mound A-VI-6 Burial 3 Mound A-VI-6 Burial 4 Mound A-VI-6 Central Pit/Feature 17

387 Table 20. Preclassic Kaminaljuyu Grave Goods

Artifact(s) Burial Number Bead Late Preclassic Burials Mound A-VI-6 Burial 1 Mound A-VI-6 Burial 3 Mound D-IV-2 Tomb Mound E-III-3 Tomb I Mound E-III-3 Tomb II Late Preclassic - Terminal Preclassic Burials Mound C-II-12 (Palangana) Burial 4/ Features 274,275 Late Terminal Preclassic - Late Classic Burials Mound A-VI-6 Burial 5 Bone Late Preclassic Burials (H = Human, F = Faunal, (?) = Unknown) Mound A-VI-6 Burial 1 (F) Mound A-VI-6 Burial 3 (H) Mound E-III-3 Tomb I (H) Mound E-III-3 Tomb II (F) (H) Late Preclassic - Terminal Preclassic Burials Mound C-II-12 (Palangana) Burial 4/ Features 274,275 (F) Ceramic Disc or Sherd Disc Late Terminal Preclassic - Late Classic Burials Mound A-VI-6 Burial 5 Chlorite Schist Late Preclassic Burials Mound E-III-3 Tomb I Figurine Late Preclassic Burials Mound A-VI-6 Central Pit/Feature 17 Mound E-III-3 Tomb I* (from fill) Late Preclassic - Terminal Preclassic Burials Mound C-II-12 (Palangana )Burial 4/ Features 274,275 Greenstone Late Preclassic Burials Mound D-IV-2 Tomb Hammerstone Late Preclassic Burials Mound A-VI-6 Burial 1

388 Table 20. Preclassic Kaminaljuyu Grave Goods – cont.

Artifact(s) Burial Number Hematite (crystalline) Late Preclassic Burials Mound E-III-3 Tomb II Iron Oxide Late Preclassic Burials Mound E-III-3 Tomb II Jade Late Preclassic Burials Mound D-IV-2 Tomb Mound E-III-3 Tomb I Mound E-III-3 Tomb II Finca Miraflores Burial 1 Late Preclassic - Terminal Preclassic Burials Mound C-II-12 (Palangana) Burial 4/ Features 274,275 Lithic Late Preclassic Burials Mound A-VI-5/Operation D-311 Mound A-VI-6 Burial 3 Mound A-VI-6 Central Pit/Feature 17 Mound B-III-1/Feature 7 (Burial 1) Mound B-V-15 Burial 1/Feature 9 Mound D-IV-2 Tomb Mound E-III-3 Tomb I Mound E-III-3 Tomb II Late Terminal Preclassic - Late Classic Burials Mound C-II-12 (Palangana) Burial 4/ Feature 274, 275 Late Terminal Preclassic - Late Classic Burials Mound A-VI-6 Burial 5 Mano and/or Metate Late Preclassic Burials Mound A-VI-6 Burial 2 (mano and metate) Mound A-VI-6 Burial 3 (manos) Mound A-VI-6 Central Pit/Feature 17 (mano) Mound B-V-15 Burial 1/Feature 9 (mano) Marble Late Preclassic Burials Mound E-III-3 Tomb I

389 Table 20. Preclassic Kaminaljuyu Grave Goods – cont.

Artifact(s) Burial Number Mica Late Preclassic Burials Mound D-IV-2 Tomb Mound E-III-3 Tomb I Mound E-III-3 Tomb II Mortar and/or Pestle Late Preclassic Burials Mound D-IV-2 Tomb Mound E-III-3 Tomb I Muscovite Late Preclassic Burials Mound E-III-3 Tomb I Mound E-III-3 Tomb II “Mushroom” Stone Late Preclassic Burials Mound E-III-3 Tomb I Obsidian Late Preclassic Burials Mound A-VI-5/Operation D-311 Mound A-VI-6 Burial 3 Mound A-VI-6 Central Pit/Feature 17 Mound B-III-1/Feature 7 (Burial 1) Mound B-V-15 Burial 1/Feature 9 Mound D-IV-2 Tomb Mound E-III-3 Tomb I Mound E-III-3 Tomb II Pyrite Late Preclassic Burials Mound E-III-3 Tomb I Mound E-III-3 Tomb II Quartz Late Preclassic Burials Mound E-III-3 Tomb II Shell Late Preclassic Burials Mound E-III-3 Tomb I Stingray Spine Late Preclassic Burials Mound E-III-3 Tomb II Soapstone Late Preclassic Burials Mound E-III-3 Tomb I Mound E-III-3 Tomb II Stone (worked) Late Preclassic Burials Mound A-VI-6 Burial 4 Mound E-III-3 Tomb I Mound E-III-3 Tomb II

390 Table 20. Preclassic Kaminaljuyu Grave Goods – cont.

Artifact(s) Burial Number Stone (worked) – cont. Late Preclassic - Terminal Preclassic Burials Mound C-II-12 (Palangana) Burial 4/ Features 274,275 Vessel/Pottery Late Preclassic Burials (includes sherd material) Mound A-VI-5/Operation D-311 Mound A-VI-6 Burial 1 Mound A-VI-6 Burial 2 Mound A-VI-6 Burial 3 Mound A-VI-6 Burial 4 Mound A-VI-6 Burial 6 Mound A-VI-6 Central Pit/Feature 17 Mound B-III-1/Feature 7 (Burial 1) Mound B-V-6 Burial 1 Mound B-V-15 Burial 1/Feature 9 Mound D-IV-2 Tomb Mound E-III-3 Tomb I Mound E-III-3 Tomb II Finca Miraflores Burial 1 Finca Miraflores Burial 2 Late Preclassic - Terminal Preclassic Burials Mound C-II-12 (Palangana) Burial 4/ Features 274,275

391 Chart 8. Preclassic Kaminaljuyu Burial* Divisions (Temporal)

15 16

12

392 8

2 4 1 1

0 Middle Preclassic Late Preclassic Late Preclassic - Late Terminal Terminal Preclassic Preclassic - Late Classic

*19 Burials containing 24 Individuals Chart 8a. Preclassic Kaminaljuyu Burial Divisions (Temporal) Percentages of Total Burials*

Late Preclassic 78.95%

Late Preclassic - Terminal Preclassic 5.26% 393

Middle Preclassic 10.53% Late Terminal Preclassic - Late Classic 5.26%

Middle Preclassic Late Preclassic Late Preclassic - Terminal Preclassic Late Terminal Preclassic - Late Classic

*19 Burials containing 24 Individuals Chart 8b. Preclassic Kaminaljuyu Aggregate of Burials and Individuals

18 20 15

15 394 10

3 5 2 2 1 1 1

0 Middle Preclassic Late Preclassic Late Preclassic - Late Terminal Terminal Preclassic Preclassic - Late Classic

Burials Individuals

19 Burials containing 24 Individuals Chart 9. Preclassic Kaminaljuyu Burial Age at Death Distribution

20

15

15 395

10

5

3 5 1 0 0

0 Infant Child Young Adult Old Adult Unknown Adult/Youth

Total: 24 Individuals Chart 9a. Preclassic Kaminaljuyu Burial Age at Death Distribution by Phase

15 12

10

396 5 3 3 2 1 1 1 1 0 00 0 0 00 0

0 Young Child Adult Unknown Adult/Youth Middle Preclassic 0110 Late Preclassic 33120 Late Preclassic - Terminal Preclassic 0120 Late Terminal Preclassic - Late 0001 Classic

Total: 24 Individuals Chart 9b. Preclassic Kaminaljuyu Burial Age at Death Distribution Percentages of Individuals

Young Adult/Youth 20.83%

Child 12.50%

Adult 62.50% 397

Unknown 4.17%

Child Young Adult/Youth Adult Unknown

Total: 24 Individuals Chart 10. Preclassic Kaminaljuyu Burial Sex Distribution by Phase

10 8 8 7

6

4 3 3 398 1 1 1 2 0 0 0 0 0

0 Male Female Unknown Middle Preclassic 101 Late Preclassic 837 Late Preclassic - Terminal Preclassic 003 Late Terminal Preclassic - Late 001 Classic

Totals by Sex: 9 3 12

Total: 24 Individuals Chart 10a. Preclassic Kaminaljuyu Burial Sex Relative Distribution

Female 12.50%

Male 37.50% 100%

399 80% Sex Unknown 50.00% 60%

40%

20%

Female 0% Male 24 Individuals Sex Unknown Chart 11. Preclassic Kaminaljuyu Burial Position Relative Distribution

Extended 62.50%

Flexed 8.33% 400

Unknow n 20.84% Seated 8.33%

Extended Flexed Seated Unknown

Total: 24 Individuals Chart 11a. Preclassic Kaminaljuyu Burial Position Distribution by Phase

15 13

10

5 3 401 1 1 11 1 1 1 1 0 00 0 0 0

0 Extended Flexed Seated Unknown Middle Preclassic 1100 Late Preclassic 13 1 1 3 Late Preclassic - Terminal Preclassic 1011 Late Terminal Preclassic - Late 0001 Classic

Totals by Position: 15 2 2 5

Total: 24 Individuals Chart 11b. Preclassic Kaminaljuyu Burial Position Distribution by Phase

8

6 6 6

4 402

2 1 1 11

00 0 00 00 0 00

0 Supine Prone Left Side Right Side Middle Preclassic 1001 Late Preclassic 6601 Late Preclassic - Terminal 0010 Preclassic Late Terminal Preclassic - Late 0000 Classic

Total: 24 Individuals 8 Individuals - no information given. Chart 11c. Preclassic Kaminaljuyu Burial Position Relative Distribution

Left Side 6.25% Right Side 12.50% 403

Prone 43.75% Supine 43.75%

Supine Prone Left Side Right Side

Total: 24 Individuals 8 Individuals - no information given. Chart 12. Preclassic Kaminaljuyu Burial Directional Orientation Cranium Positions by Phase

12 10

8

404 4 3 3 2 2 1 1 11 0 00 0 0 0 0 0 East North South Unknown Middle Preclassic 0101 Late Preclassic 33102 Late Preclassic - Terminal Preclassic 0021 Late Terminal Preclassic - Late 0001 Classic

Totals by Direction: 3 4 12 5

Total: 24 Individuals Chart 13. Preclassic Kaminaljuyu Pathology/Trauma

01234

Anemia Antemortem Tooth Loss/Alveolar Resorption Arthritic Degeneration Calculus Caries Congenital Tooth Absence 1 Cribra Orbitalia Fracture Intentional/Sacrificial (?) Trauma 1 405 Kyphosis Linear Enamel Hypoplasia Lipping and Pitting of Vertebrae Osteophytic Growths Pacchonian Depressions Periodontal Disease Periostitis Shovel-Shape Incisors Spongy Porotic Hyperostosis Squatting Facets Supernumery Teeth 1 Systemic Infection Treponemal Infection

Total: 24 Individuals Chart 14. Preclassic Kaminaljuyu Burial Grave Good(s)* Distribution

20

16 16

12 10

406 8 8 7

5 5 4 4 4 3 3 3 2 2 2 2 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1

0 e e ll ) isc e) de te e ne thic rble one dian ed d(s) Bead Bone chist urine tone llin Ja Li Mica t yrite Sh g ns Ma /Pestl bsi P Fi erston Quartz y Spi apstone Pottery herd Drite S O Iron Oxide no/Meta Muscovite So e Goo Gree mm a ortar sel/ ic/S e (crysta M M tingra ne (work Chlo Ha S to tit S Ves Grav "Mushroom" S No Ceram Hema

*16 of the 19 burials contained at least one type of grave good; 3 burials (15.79%) contained no grave goods. Chart 14a. Preclassic Kaminaljuyu Burial Grave Good(s)* Distribution

0% 20% 40% 60% 80% 100%

Bead 43.75% Bone 31.25% Ceramic/Sherd Disc 6.25% Chlorite Schist 6.25% Figurine 18.75% Greenstone 6.25% Hammerstone 6.25% Hematite (crystalline) 6.25% Iro n Oxide 6.25%

Jade 31.25% Lithic 62.50% 407 M ano and/or M etate 25.00% Marble 6.25% Mica 18 . 7 5 % Mortar/Pestle 12 . 5 0 % Muscovite 12.50% "Mushroom" Stone 6.25% Obsidian 50.00% Pyrite 12 . 5 0 % Quartz 6.25% Shell 6.25% Stingray Spine 6.25% Soapstone 12.50% Stone (worked) 25.00% 10 0 . 0 0 % Vessel/Pottery

*16 of the 19 burials contained at least one type of grave good; 3 burials contained no grave goods. Chapter Eight

Kaminaljuyu Findings

Data Summary

The analysis of the Preclassic burials from Kaminaljuyu exhibits a number of trends; these are shown in both the tables, which give specific interment information, and the charts, which give percentage and visual representation of trend distribution.

The first trend examined is the temporal distribution (Table 11, Charts 8 and 8a) of the 19 burials containing 24 individuals indexed in the Preclassic Kaminaljuyu interments. This distribution shows the greatest number represented in the Late

Preclassic (Verbena-Arenal Phases – ca. 400 B.C. – A.D. 100) with 15 inhumations

(78.95%). The other four burials include two (10.53%) in the Middle Preclassic - one in the Las Charcas Phase (ca. 1000 B.C.) and one in the Providencia Phase (ca 650 B.C.); and one (5.26%) each in the Late Preclassic – Terminal Preclassic (Arenal–Santa Clara

Phases ca. 200 B.C. – ca. A.D. 200) and the Late Terminal Preclassic – Late Classic

(Santa Clara-Aurora-Esperanza-Amatle Phases, ca. A.D. 100 – A.D. 800). For the aggregate of the number of individuals versus burials per phase (Chart 8b), the individual distribution shows two individuals (8.33%) in the Middle Preclassic, 18

(75.00%) in the Late Preclassic, three (12.50%) in the Late Preclassic to Terminal

Preclassic, and one (4.17%) in the Late Terminal Preclassic to Late Classic7.

7 The last category is not intended to take into account the Classic burials at Kaminaljuyu. The focus of 408 An analysis of the age at death provides information for the demographics (Table

12, Charts 9, 9a, and 9b) of the interred individuals. Considering the phases as a whole,

the overwhelming majority are adults (15, 62.50%), five (20.83%) are young adult/youth,

three (12.50%) are children, and one (4.17%) is unknown.

The distribution of sex (Table 13, Chart 10 and 10a) that was noted gives

Preclassic Kaminaljuyu a male to female ratio of three to one. Twelve (50.00%) of the

Preclassic remains from Kaminaljuyu were not sexed. Of those, three (25%) were

children and unable to be sexed, leaving nine individuals (37.50%) unsexed.

Breakdown of the burial position distribution (Table 14, Charts 11, 11a, 11b,

and 11c) reveals that the majority of inhumations are extended (15, 62.50%) and of

those, seven (46.67%) were supine. There were slight variations when burial positions

were compared by phase, but with the majority of the interments attributed to the Late

Preclassic there is nothing remarkable from this representation.

Cranial orientation (Table 15, Chart 12) appears to have a predilection to the south. For the known individuals (19) there is a 3 to 1 ratio south to north, and a 4 to 1

ratio south to east.

There are three incidences of pathology and/or trauma noted (Table 16, Chart

13) at Kaminaljuyu. There is one incidence of intentional (or sacrificial) trauma noted

(Mound D-IV-2 Retainer Burial).

this dissertation is only the Preclassic and the category was necessary as it is the outer limit timeline for a burial that had conflicting data between the C-14 dating and the presence of Amatle sherds within its grave offerings. Micaela Obledo in her Master’s Report (2004) indexed 38 Classic period burials. 409 There are two instances of cultural modifications at Preclassic Kaminaljuyu

(Table 17, Chart 42). Both Mound A-VI-6 Burial 2 and Mound B-V-15 Burial

1/Feature 9 contain individuals that exhibit cranial modification. Unfortunately there is not enough information to categorize them according Dembo and Imbelloni (1938) (see

Figures 2, 3, 4, 5). They were simply described; one with artificial broadening - extreme, and the other frontal – unspecified modification. Considering that it is such a small sample (24 individuals), it is unrealistic to try and project the 8.33% rate of occurrence onto the Kaminaljuyu population as a whole. There were no dental modifications or trephination noted.

Three individuals (12.50%) of the 24 interred at Preclassic Kaminaljuyu exhibit the presence of either unspecified red pigment or red ochre (Table 18, Chart 43). Two are in burials dating to the Late Preclassic (the elaborate Mound E-III-3 Tombs I and II) and one in the C-II-12 (Palangana) Burial 4/Features 274,275, dating to the Late

Preclassic – Terminal Preclassic.

Evidence of burning analysis (Table 19, Chart 44) is particularly interesting at

Kaminaljuyu not only because there are five (burial) instances, 26.32%, of the 19 burials, but also because four of these occur in Mound A-VI-6 (Burials 2, 3, 4, and Central

Pit/Feature 17). One interment with evidence of burning is found in Mound E-III-3

(Tomb II).

The grave goods distribution of Kaminaljuyu (Table 20, Chart 14) reveals that

16 burials (84.21%) included one or more grave goods. For three burials (15.79%), no offerings were observed or found. Of the 16 interments that contained grave goods, all of 410 those had vessels or some type of pottery. Ten (62.50%) had lithic material, eight

(50.00%) contained obsidian, and seven (43.75%) included a bead or beads. Bone and

jade were each counted in five (31.25%) of the subject burials. Worked stone was

included in four (25.00%), while figurines and mica occurred in three (18.75%). Mortars

and pestles, muscovite, pyrite and soapstone were each counted in two interments

(12.50). Ceramic/sherd discs, chlorite schist, greenstone, hammerstone, hematite, iron

oxide, marble, quartz, and shell were each included in one (6.25%) of the inhumations. A

“mushroom” stone (Mound E-III-3 Tomb I) and a stingray spine (Mound E-III-3 Tomb

II) were also counted in single burials. Four graves (25.00%) contained either manos

and/or metates (whole or fragmentary).

Burial type distribution reflects that seven (29.17%) are tomb, and 17 (70.83%) are pit inhumations. The breakdown of primary versus secondary burials reflects that one

(5.26%) of the 19 was designated as secondary. The site distribution of inhumation shows the highest number of burials in the Mound A-VI-6 (7, 36.84%). Following are

Mounds D-IV-2 and E-III-3, and Finca Miraflores with two (10.53%) each. The Las

Charcas Pit, and Mounds A-VI-5, B-III-1, B-V-15, B-V-6, and C-II-12 (Palangana) each contained one burial (5.26%).

Data Interpretation

The temporal distribution reveals a significant rise from the Middle to the Late

Preclassic that demonstrates a definite population increase, but unlike the decrease in later phases at Chiapa de Corzo which culminated with abandonment by the Maya in the

Terminal Preclassic, it is difficult to account for the decrease of burials found in the two 411 later phases. Possibilities include that the vast amount of unexcavated mounds at

Kaminaljuyu coupled with a problematical chance of archaeological recovery could contribute to the apparently skewed data. Another issue, of course, is poor preservation.

However, it is most likely a combination of the above listed concerns in conjunction with the fact that Late Preclassic Kaminaljuyu saw a shift from a predominately rural settlement pattern with active ceremonial centers to one with more clustered ceremonial centers with monumental architecture (Cheek 1971; Michels 1979). These factors undoubtedly caused a shift in the mortuary practices.

The age at death analysis provides an interesting note; the child death rate appears

low and this is perplexing given the dangers of disease and chance that accompany

childhood. Of note, all three children (100%) are postulated to have been sacrificial burials. Two were found in Mound E-III-3 Tomb II, interred with a principal individual with elaborate grave furnishings (Shook and Kidder 1952), and one in Mound B-III-

1/Feature 7 (Burial 1). Mound B-III-1 is thought to be the first monumental architectural attempt at the site and Bebrich postulated that this child burial was dedicatory in nature

(Bebrich 1969). A definite explanation for the lack of child burials is uncertain, but it is possibly the preservation issues that are elevated for children given the immaturity of their bone development. That reason, in conjunction with the Maya practice of interring children in fill burials, is a probable deduction. There are a total of six total sacrificial burials (25.00%) at Kaminaljuyu. In addition to the three child burials listed previously, sacrificial burials are found in both Tomb I and Tomb II of Mound E-III-3, and one is found in the Mound D-IV-2 Retainer Burial. The Mound D-IV-2 Retainer burial, a 412 young adult male, is the only sacrifice for which the cause of death could be postulated as he was interred with an obsidian blade in his cervical vertebrae.

The sex distribution ratio ostensibly, as noted at Chiapa de Corzo, correlates well with the social organization of the patrilineal and patrilocal Maya (Haviland 1968; Welsh

1988; McAnany 1995). However, as also noted at Chiapa de Corzo, a fair amount of the individuals were not sexed and this ratio is not representative of current or past male to female ratios. It is entirely possible that this is due to observation and analysis by inexperienced personnel; however, given that the excavators were able to age eight of the nine individuals, it is quite feasible that it was not possible to sex the remains based on their preservation.

In the review of the documented cranial orientation it is interesting to note that there is no deviation from cardinal directions (N, S, E, and W). Of note, the one pedal orientation observed was to the north.

The pathology and trauma for Kaminaljuyu, though noted as a relatively low occurrence, is interesting; there are two cases of dental pathology – one is a congenital

(from birth) tooth absence (Mound A-VI-5/Operation D-311) and the other is the presence of supernumery (extra) teeth (Mound B-V-6 Burial 1). It is most likely the case that this minimal representation of pathology and/or trauma is not necessarily indicative of a healthy population, but is instead the result of insufficient expertise during examination of the remains for the presence of disease process manifestations. As noted previously for Chiapa de Corzo, the presence in the field and excavation by a physical

413 anthropologist would help insure the preservation of data otherwise lost if excavated by

persons unfamiliar with osteology (Saul and Saul 1997).

Although cultural modifications occur in only two individuals, it is worthwhile to

note that these two individuals were not buried in tombs and that the inhabitants of the elaborate tomb burials of Mound E-III-3 did not exhibit any type of modification. While an explanation is unclear, Romero (1970) and Smith (1972) have postulated that cranial

shaping and dental decoration were not restricted by wealth, and it is noted that while the

practices of cranial and dental modifications originated in the Preclassic, full vogue was

not reached until the Classic period (Romero 1970).

Of the three burials at Kaminaljuyu that contain red pigment, two are male – the

tomb burials – and one is of unknown sex and a pit burial. Even if it was determined that

the unknown individual was female, at the very least, that makes the male to female ratio

2 to 1. If the unknown individual was considered to be male, that would show all burials occurring with red ochre or pigment to be male. This ratio and percentage for the

numbers of the inhumed population with red ochre among their grave offerings correlates

well with the typical gender hierarchy of the male-dominated Maya culture. The social

hierarchy construction would have more investment made in the inhumations of males

than females, shown by the controlled use of an offering, such as red ochre or pigment,

perceived to indicate social importance.

The evidence of burning at Preclassic Kaminaljuyu presents some notable points.

First, there were no individuals in the Mound A-VI-6 Central Pit/Feature 17. It was

proposed to be an “empty” grave, a tomb that had been prepared for a burial that either 414 (1) never took place or (2) the remains were unrecoverable (Kirsch 1973). Second, the

Mound E-III-3 Tomb II contained the burned fragment of a mammal bone, not unusual

given the vast amount of grave goods presented. Third, the evidence of burning

contained in the burials of Mound A-VI-6 is of special interest because in all four

instances the offerings were burned clay fragments, possibly indicative of some rite of

mortuary termination. What is further intriguing about these particular burials is that

three of those four (from Mound A-VI-6) are also found with manos and/or metates. The

patterns between the grave goods and the burned materials are particularly interesting when compared with the sex; in two cases (Mound A-VI-6 Burial 2 and 3) the occupants

are thought to be women. Mound A-VI-6 Burial 2 is also the only burial (of these four)

that contained a second occupant (represented by a decapitated male cranium). The

individual inhumed in Mound A-VI-6 Burial 4 was unable to be sexed.

Though Buttles (1992) work centered on the contextual analysis of all Preclassic

artifacts recovered from excavations conducted at Colha, her statement, that “through

contextual analysis, the human behavior associated with artifact disposal may be

discerned”, is applicable to the contextualization of grave goods. The following is an

interpretive analysis of the grave goods at Preclassic Kaminaljuyu and the proposed

human behavior they perhaps indicate.

At Kaminaljuyu, a sting ray spine and a “mushroom” stone were found within

Mound E-III-3 Tomb I and Mound E-III-3 Tomb II respectively. The stingray spine was an instrument of bloodletting and a clear symbol of status, while the “mushroom stone” indicates postulated connotations of divination and the supernatural (Sharer 1994). Given 415 the associations of power and prestige, it is not surprising that these particular grave

goods are contained in the most elaborate constructions with personages of proposed high

status.

Of the four graves containing manos and/or metates, two were sexed as female

and two as male, and three of the burials occurred in Mound A-VI-6 as pit interments.

The Mound A-VI-6 inhumations also contained the highest sherd concentration which

included both utility and fine wares. It was postulated by Kirsch (1973) that the use of

such vessels could have been food preparation (utility) and serving (fine) but mostly

likely the fine wares were simply displays of wealth. Within these same burials there was

also an unexpected amount of personal adornment items, beads (Kirsch 1973). The

Mound A-VI-6 burials are incredibly interesting for their combination of (1) grave goods

with postulated gender-specific activities and (2) their simple interment with the apparent

contradiction of some wealth indicated by other grave goods.

The burial type distribution reflects a rather high tomb interment percentage but it

must be noted that of the seven individuals contained in the tombs, five are considered to have been sacrificial victims: one in Mound D-IV-2, one in Mound E-III-3 Tomb I, and three in the Mound E-III-3 Tomb II. The trends evidenced in the Mound A-VI-6 burials demonstrate (1) an increase of investment shown in lesser interments, i.e. pit interments,

with an apparent combination of service and wealth indicated by grave goods and (2) an

increase in numbers, being the most numerous concentration of burials found at

Preclassic Kaminaljuyu. It is postulated that this is perhaps indicative of a rise in the

minor elite concentration of Kaminaljuyu during the Late Preclassic. 416 Chapter Nine

Tikal Description and Background

The archaeological site of Tikal (Figure 25), Guatemala is the largest known

Maya center. A Maya lowland site, it is located in the northeastern region of Guatemala

known as the Peten, 43 kilometers from Flores, the departmental capital. This area is

classified as a seasonal rain forest; however, it differs little from the true rain forests that

are located further to the south. The canopy is at times 50 meters above the forest floor

and the undergrowth is dense (Sharer 1994). The site is part of the government created

Tikal National Park that covers 576 square kilometers, with the central part of the site

alone encompassing 16 square kilometers and over 3,000 structures (Coe and Haviland

1982) (Weaver 1993). Impressive due to its sheer size, it is no wonder that early

explorers made a reasonable assumption as to the significant role that Tikal must have

played in Maya prehistory.

The official discovery of Tikal was made by in 1848 by Ambrosio Tut, a chiclero

(raw gum collector), who notified the then governor of the Peten Province, Modesto

Mendez, of its existence. Together, on a government expedition and, with the help of an artist, they made the first recordings of the site. These were published in 1853 by the

Berlin Academy of Sciences. In 1877, an expedition by Gustav Bernoulli, a botanist, removed several carved wooden lintels and took them to Switzerland. Alfred Maudslay was the first to produce a photographic record of the sculpture and architecture of Tikal

417

Figure 25

418 during his expeditions in 1881 and 1882 (Sharer 1994). He is considered to have laid the scientific foundation for later work (Weaver 1993).

Teobert Maler, working for the Peabody Museum of Harvard University, continued to record the site, of Tikal, in 1895 and in 1904. Subsequently, the Peabody

Museum sent Alfred Tozzer and R. E. Merwin to finish Maler’s work. They completed the first map of the site which was published in 1911. Sylvanus Morley systematically recorded the monuments and inscriptions at Tikal during his study of hieroglyphic texts in 1914, 1921, 1922, and 1928. Edwin Shook visited the site in 1926 and discovered a building group and two causeways that had previously gone unnoticed.

In 1956, The University Museum of the University of Pennsylvania together with the government of Guatemala began the Tikal Project under the direction of Shook.

Besides the preservation of the site, the initial goal of the project, according to Shook, was the “investigation of the relationship of site size to change – resistance or receptivity to innovation – and to strength as a source of diffusion” (Shook 1958). This project was intended to produce considerable information on the Preclassic; however, the driving force was an interest in the Classic Maya ceremonialism, its “origin, development and substance” (Shook 1958). The excavations of the Tikal Project took place over fourteen years, from 1956 until 1970.

A primary objective was the production of an accurate topographic map of the area. A grid system was used for the excavation layout of the site. The grid is oriented to magnetic north due to the fact that the orientation of the structures is closer to magnetic north rather than true north (Carr and Hazard 1961). The area mapped, as partially 419 shown in Figure 25, is 16 square kilometers with each square on the grid having an area

of 500 square meters. The system is the same one used for Chichen Itza, the east-west

line of gird squares bearing an Arabic number, and the north-south line a capital letter,

thus giving each square a number-letter designation and allowing each structure to have a

hyphenated structure number. This allowed for a systematic numbering of the structures

and a renumbering of the Tozzer-Morley numbers. It should be noted that the Tikal

Project understood that the names such as Temple I, Temple II, the Acropolis, and the

Temple of the Inscriptions would never be forgotten; however, they needed a systematic

classification scheme to effectively conduct their investigations.

Preclassic burials were found in the North Acropolis (in grid square 5D), and also

in grid squares 6E, 5F, and 2G as shown on Figure 25. It is interesting to note that of

those thirteen burials, ten (76.92%) were located in the Acropolis. I believe this directly

reflects on the excavation directive on the ceremonial complex.

The dating at Tikal is based on radiocarbon technique (6, 46.15%) and ceramic

complex (5, 38.46%) with two (15.39%) based on radiocarbon dates from spatial

associations.

The archaeological occupation sequence at Tikal dates from the Middle Preclassic

(ca. 800 -600 B.C.) to the Postclassic (ca. A. D. 950 – 1200-?). This period has been

divided into ten ceramic complexes, five of which are pertinent to this study. Those five are the Eb Complex - Middle Preclassic (ca. 800 B.C), the Tzec Complex – Middle

Preclassic (ca. 600 B. C.), the Chuen Complex – Late Preclassic (ca. 350 B.C.), the

Cauac Complex – Late Preclassic (ca. 0 B.C.), and the Cimi Complex – Late Preclassic 420 (ca. A.D. 150). These dates are specific to the Tikal ceramic phases found in Culbert

(1993).

The Eb Complex (ca. 800 B.C) presented two (15.39%) of the 13 burials, one of which was the only chultun inhumation (Burial 62) for the site - an interesting point is that there were 197 chultuns mapped by the Tikal Project. Possibly this mortuary practice never caught on. The other burial (Burial 120) was located in the North

Acropolis and represents the oldest one for the site. It did exhibit interment preparation with an intentional layout on stones. While these burials do show preparation, it is limited. Burial 62 had one grave good; Burial 120 had none.

The Tzec Complex (ca. 600 B.C.) proffered one burial, an uncapped cist with minimal grave offerings (three ceramic pieces). The ceramic bowl was placed over the cranium and, as typical of the Middle Preclassic, it did not have a “kill-hole”.

The Chuen Complex (ca. 350 B.C.) offered five (38.46%) of the 13 Preclassic burials. They show an increase in interment preparation and grave offerings, including a burial with obsidian and one with a stingray spine. Four of the five are buried in simple pit burials and one is buried in an uncapped cist. It should be noted that four of the five are buried in the North Acropolis which is theorized to be the focus of ancestral tombs

(Weaver 1993).

The Cauac Complex (ca. 0 B.C.) presented four burials and shows a dramatic increase in the investment in the inhumation practices offering three of the four tomb burials dating to the Preclassic, all located in the North Acropolis. The other was a crypt

421 burial with the remains placed in an urn – thought to be a secondary burial. This crypt burial was found in Structure 6E-1, which was considered a household shrine.

The Cauac-Cimi Transition (ca. 0 B.C./A.D. - A.D. 150) offered only one burial; however, interment investment was still evident, the burial was a rock-cut tomb with 100 pieces of obsidian scrap and 210 pounds of flint flakes recovered from the upper fill

(another estimated ten pounds lay beyond the excavation boundaries). This burial is thought to be in the most important spot in the Acropolis, and “thus in all of Tikal”; however, there was no indication of any grave goods. It should be noted that one of the individuals was deliberately placed within the fill, but Coe declined to speculate on whether it was a sacrificial victim or merely a grave worker with an untimely death (Coe

1990).

422 Chapter Ten

Tikal Burial Data

The burial data submitted in this chapter for Tikal imparts each burial as its own

entity. The burials are presented in chronological order by complex: Eb, Tzec, Chuen,

Cauac, and Cauac-Cimi (Transition). Within each phase, the burials are presented in

numerical order. The order of materials contained in the burials is presented according to the order given in Chapter Two. That chapter may be referenced for the definition of terms.

423 Tikal – Eb Complex Burials Burial 62

Source: Welsh, 1988

Location: Structure 2G-61, housemound.

Dating: 800-600 B.C. (Middle Preclassic)

Ceramic Dating: Eb Complex

Inventory Cranial Cranium present.

Inventory Postcranial Unknown

MNI 1 Based on: Unknown

Age at Death Adult Method: Unknown

Dental Attrition Unknown

Sex Male Based on:Unknown

Stature Unknown Method:-

Pathology/Trauma Unknown Pathology: - Bone: -

Trauma: - Bone: -

424 Burial 62 – cont.

Cultural Modification(s) Unknown Location: - Type: -

Burial Specifications Grave Type: Chultun

Body Position: Flexed on right side.

Cranium Orientation: North

Feet Position: -

Grave Good(s): 1. Pottery vessel.

Position(s): 1. Unknown

425 Burial 120

*Earliest known burial at Tikal. Source: Coe, 1990

Location: Platform 5D-4 within large Unit 223 pit in bedrock. Refuse pit.

Dating: 800-600 B.C. (Middle Preclassic)

Ceramic Dating: Stratigraphy only with pure Eb ceramic situation.

Inventory Cranial Cranium present.

Inventory Postcranial Present, undisturbed.

MNI 1 Based on: Non-duplication of skeletal material.

Age at Death Adult (20-30 years of age) Method: Unknown

Dental Attrition Unknown

Sex Male (?) Based on: Unknown

Stature 140 cm. Method: In situ measurement of left femur – 39 cm.

Pathology/Trauma Unknown Pathology: - Bone: -

Trauma: - Bone: -

Cultural Modification(s) Unknown Location: - Type: -

426 Burial 120 – cont.

Burial Specifications Grave Type: Simple, laid out on layer (intentional?) of stones.

Body Position: Flexed on right side, chest down, right arm under body, left hand near face.

Cranium Orientation: West

Feet Position: -

Grave Good(s): None

Position(s): -

427 Tikal – Tzec Complex Burials

Burial 158

Source: Welsh, 1988

Location: Sturcture 5F-17, house platform.

Dating: 600-350 B.C. (Middle Preclassic)

Ceramic Dating: Tzec Complex

Inventory Cranial Cranium present.

Inventory Postcranial Unknown

MNI 1 Based on: Unknown

Age at Death Adult Method: Unknown

Dental Attrition Unknown

Sex Male Based on: Unknown

Stature Unknown Method:-

Pathology/Trauma Unknown Pathology: - Bone: -

Trauma: - Bone: -

Cultural Modification(s) Unknown Location: - Type: -

428 Burial 158 – cont.

Burial Specifications Grave Type: Uncapped cist.

Body Position: Seated

Cranium Orientation: Facing east.

Feet Position: -

Grave Good(s): 1. Bowl

2. Jar

3. Plate

Position(s): 1. Over cranium.

2. Unknown

3. Unknown

Cinnabar/Red Ochre/Unspecified Red Pigment: Yes – cinnabar.

429 Tikal – Chuen Complex Burials

Burial 121

Source: Coe, 1990

Location: Platform 5D-4 within round pit cut into bedrock adjacent to north rim of large pit Unit 223. Ceremonial platform. Dating: 350-0 B.C./A.D. (Late Preclassic)

Ceramic Dating: Chuen Complex

Inventory Cranial Cranium present.

Inventory Postcranial Present

MNI 1 Based on: Non-duplication of skeletal material.

Age at Death 11-13 years of age. Method: Unknown

Dental Attrition Unknown

Sex Female Based on: Unknown

Stature 90-100 cm. Method:Field estimate, in situ.

Pathology/Trauma Unknown Pathology: - Bone: -

Trauma: - Bone: -

Cultural Modification(s) Unknown Location: - Type: - 430 Burial 121 – cont.

Burial Specifications Grave Type: Simple pit.

Body Position: Tightly flexed, seated, both hands in lap.

Cranium Orientation: Face to east.

Feet Position: -

Grave Good(s): 1. Necklace of eight shell pendants, three jade beads, and three Spondylus beads.

2. Pot sherds

3. Flint flakes

4. Pottery figurine fragments .

Position(s): 1. Arrayed beneath right facial part. Six beads behind and under mandible.

2. In fill.

3. In fill.

4. In fill.

431 Burial 122

Source: Coe, 1990

Location: Structure 5D-substructure 14-1st, sealed construction fill overlapping Platform 5D-4:Unit 71. Ceremonial platform. Dating: 350-0 B.C./A.D. (Late Preclassic)

Radiocarbon Dating: Yes. Sample P-753. 87 g. of wood charcoal – MASCA corrected range 180-80 B.C. Possible issue with Zapote wood post sample growth error.

Inventory Cranial Present

Inventory Postcranial Present

MNI 1 Based on: Unknown

Age at Death Infant (six - nine months of age) Method: Unknown

Dental Attrition Unknown

Sex Indeterminate Based on: -

Stature In situ 55 cm. Method:Field measurement.

Pathology/Trauma Unknown Pathology: - Bone: -

Trauma: - Bone: -

Cultural Modification(s) Unknown Location: - Type: - 432 Burial 122 – cont.

Burial Specifications Grave Type: Simple, pit, “informal”.

Body Position: Extended on back, arms at sides, right hand on pelvis.

Cranium Orientation: East

Feet Position: Covered by large sherd (grave good no. 2).

Grave Good(s): 1. One-half of large Sierra Red dish.

2. Large sherd of similar vessel to grave good no. 1.

3. Pomacea (snail) shell.

Position(s): 1. Locus 7.

2. Inverted covering legs and feet.

3. Close by interment.

433 Burial 123

Source: Coe, 1990

Location: Structure 5D-substructure 14-1st, sealed construction fill: NW of Bu. 122. Ceremonial platform.

Dating: 350-0 B.C./A.D. (Late Preclassic)

Radiocarbon Dating: Yes. .Sample P-753. 87 g. of wood charcoal – MASCA corrected range 180-80 B.C. Possible issue with Zapote wood post sample growth error.

Inventory Cranial Present, poor condition.

Inventory Postcranial Poor condition, pelvis not intact.

MNI 1 Based on: Non-duplication of skeletal material.

Age at Death Adult Method: Unknown

Dental Attrition Unknown

Sex Male Based on: Unknown

Stature Field estimate – 170 cm. Method:In situ measurement.

Pathology/Trauma Unknown Pathology: - Bone: -

Trauma: - Bone: -

434 Burial 123 – cont.

Cultural Modification(s) Unknown Location: - Type: -

Burial Specifications Grave Type: Simple, pit, “informal”.

Body Position: Tightly flexed, legs and knees to east, torso on right side, arms almost fully extended along sides. Head and shoulders crushed.

Cranium Orientation: South, face up.

Feet Position: -

Grave Good(s): 1. Sierra Red dish.

2. Modified univalve - “tinklers” (two).

3. Broken spatulate bone object.

4. Obsidian flake-blade end portion.

Position(s): 1. Inverted over head and shoulders (locus 5).

2. Locus 4.

3. Locus 6

4. Probably extraneous to burial.

435 Burial 126

Source: Coe, 1990

Location: Structure 5D-substructure 14 – 1st, sealed construction fill, north of Bu. 123. Ceremonial platform.

Dating: 350-0 B.C./A.D. (Late Preclassic)

Radiocarbon Dating: Yes. Sample P-753. 87 g. of wood charcoal – MASCA corrected range 180-80 B.C. Possible issue with Zapote wood post sample growth error.

Inventory Cranial Present

Inventory Postcranial Present

MNI 1 Based on: Unknown

Age at Death Child (16 - 20 months of age) Method: Unknown

Dental Attrition Unknown

Sex Indeterminate Based on: -

Stature In situ – ca.70 cm. Method:Field measurement.

Pathology/Trauma Unknown Pathology: - Bone: -

Trauma: - Bone: -

436 Burial 126 – cont.

Cultural Modification(s) Unknown Location: - Type: -

Burial Specifications Grave Type: Simple, pit, “informal”.

Body Position: Laid on back, head to west, face up with right arm extended, left bent and hand on abdomen.

Cranium Orientation: West

Feet Position: Crossed

Grave Good(s): 1. Sierra Red dish.

2. Repasto Black-on-red dish.

3. Close set group of sherds, reconstructed to a Repasto Black-on red jar.

Position(s): 1. Locus 3, over lower part of individual.

2. Locus 1, over the head and shoulders.

3. Locus 2, *deposited already shattered.

*All but feet were protected by inverted, large vessels.

437 Burial 164

Source: Coe, 1990

Location: Platform 5D-4 within upper Unit 82, platform fill (Platform 5D-4- 9th). Ceremonial platform.

Dating: 350-0 B.C./A.D. (Late Preclassic)

Radiocarbon Dating: Yes. Sample P-758 MASCA corrected range 170 – 10 B.C.

Inventory Cranial Cranium present but damaged.

Inventory Postcranial Intact and articulated

MNI 1 Based on: Unknown

Age at Death Adult (under 50 years of age) Method: Unknown

Dental Attrition Unknown

Sex Male Based on: Unknown

Stature 165 cm. Method: In situ field measurement.

Pathology/Trauma Yes Pathology: Squatting facets noted by Haviland. Bone: Talus

Trauma: - Bone: -

438 Burial 164 – cont.

Cultural Modification(s) Unknown Location: - Type: -

Burial Specifications Grave Type: Uncapped cist.

Body Position: Extended, dorsally (face up or supine), hands over pelvis.

Cranium Orientation: South

Feet Position: -

Grave Good(s): 1. Sierra Red striated-sided dish.

2. Polvero Black round-sided dish.

3. Sierra Red narrow-mouthed jars (two).

4. Jade beads (three) (necklace?).

5. Olivella shell “tinklers” (27).

6. Stingray spine – 10 cm. – proximal portion.

Position(s): 1. Locus 1.

2. Set near right arm (locus 2).

3. Loci 3, 4.

4. Close to mandible, among fallen teeth and upper most vertebrae. In mouth placement suspected.

5. Strewn, along the left lower arm, pelvis, and thigh.

6. Unrecorded.

Cinnabar/Red Ochre/Unspecified Red Pigment: Yes – cinnabar, traces noted on stingray spine.

439 Tikal – Cauac Complex Burials

Burial 85

Source: Coe, 1990

Location: Below 5D-substructure 2 – 2nd. North Acropolis. Temple. Dating: 0 B.C./A.D. –A.D. 150 (Late Preclassic)

Radiocarbon Dating: Yes. Sample P-535. MASCA corrected range 10 B.C. – A.D. 130

Inventory Cranial Cranium removed, no traces of mandible or dentition.

Inventory Postcranial Femurs removed. Tibiae, fibulae, foot bones, and arms, clavicle present. Vertebrae present except for atlas. No patellae.

MNI 1 Based on: No mixed parts of other skeletons.

Age at Death Adult Method: Unknown

Dental Attrition Unknown

Sex Male Based on: Robusticity

Stature 169 + 8.7 cm. Method: Intact humeral measurement of 324 mm.

Pathology/Trauma Pathology: - Bone: -

Trauma: Butchering/Intentional Removal of Skeletal Material Bone: Cranium and Femora

440 Burial 85 – cont.

Cultural Modification(s) Unknown Location: - Type: -

Burial Specifications Grave Type: Tomb; stone-lined 2.5 m. long N-S, 2.20 m E-W. 2.5 m. deep to bedrock.

Body Position: Seated in bundle, facing south (based on arm placement), on already broken vessel.

Cranium Orientation: Skull removed.

Feet Position: -

Grave Good(s): Position(s): 1. Sierra Red short-necked jar with 1. Locus 28. unbridged spout. 2. Sierra Red short-necked jars (three). 2. Loci 9, 10, and 11. 3. Sierra Red dishes (three). 3. Loci 2, 15, and 23. 4. Sierra Red dishes (two). 4. Locus 24 (northwestern loci) 5. Sierra Red dishes (two). 5. Locus 25 (northwestern loci) 6. Sierra Red dish. 6. Locus 12. 7. Incised flaring-sided bowls (four). 7. Loci 13, 16, 21, and 22. 8. Paila unslipped short-necked jars (two), 8. Loci 26, and 27. each with a small cup as a stopper. 9. Chic Red-on-orange jar, Usulutan 9. Locus 5. tetrapod. 10. Polvero Black short-necked jar 10. Locus 14. 11. Morfin Slipped flaring-sided bowl. 11. Locus 25. 12. Nearly paired Alta Mira Fluted urns 12. Loci 2,and 3 – chamber south end. (two). 13. Itsul Red-and-black-on-orange effigy jar 13. Locus 1. with unabridged spout. 14. Cylindrical jade bead. 14. Locus 18. 15. Mosaic mask – serpentine(?). 15. Locus 4. 16. Stingray spine, unmodified. 16. Over left tibia. 17. Perforated and scraped Spondylus sp. 17. Loci 18 and 19. valve. 18. Spondylus spherical bead. 18. Locus 18. 19. Fragmentary conch column. 19. Locus 18. 441 Burial 85 – cont.

Grave Good(s): Position(s):

20. Pomacea flagellate fragments (two). 20. Loci 16 and 25. 21. Stuccoed wooden bowl. 21. Locus 12, in ceramic vessel – grave good no. 6. 22. Modeled lumps of marl, each pierced with 22. Within grave good no. 21. a stick. 23. Obsidian lancet flake-blade (9.6 cm. long) 23. Under grave good nos. 6, 21, and 22. 24. Stuccoed wooden disc. 24. Locus 26, in orifice of grave good no. 8.) 25. Charcoal. 25. Locus 25, lowest of two dishes (grave good no. 5).

442 Burial 128

Source: Welsh, 1988.

Location: Household shrine, below special burial structure 6E-substructure 1-1st.

Dating: 0 B.C./A.D. –A.D. 150 (Late Preclassic)

Ceramic Dating: Cauac Complex

Inventory Cranial Unknown

Inventory Postcranial Unknown

MNI 1 Based on: Unknown

Age at Death Adult Method: Unknown

Dental Attrition Unknown

Sex Female Based on: Unknown

Stature Unknown Method:-

Pathology/Trauma Unknown Pathology: - Bone: -

Trauma: - Bone: -

Cultural Modification(s) Unknown Location: - Type: -

443 Burial 128 – cont.

Burial Specifications Grave Type: Simple crypt, secondary burial, skeletal material in urn.

Body Position: -

Cranium Orientation: -

Feet Position: -

Grave Good(s): 1. Urn containing skeletal material.

2. Pottery vessels (six).

3. Jade beads (165).

4. Jade earflare (one).

5. Shell beads (414).

6. Shells (three).

7. Flint nodule.

8. Stingray spine.

9. Bird bone.

10. Stucco.

Position(s): 1. – 10. Unknown

Cinnabar/Red Ochre/Unspecified Red Pigment: Yes – cinnabar.

444 Burial 166

Source: Coe, 1990

Location: Structure 5D-substructure 11, beneath and only approximately centered. Temple. . Dating: 0 B.C./A.D. –A.D. 150 (Late Preclassic) Approximately 50 B.C.*see below.

Radiocarbon Dating: No*. *Based on Sample P-560 of the adjacent substructure (3F) the estimate of 50 B.C. is used for the temporal assignment of Burial 166. (Coe, 1965).

Inventory Cranial Individual A – Cranium present. Individual B – Cranium present (severed skull and mandible - no dentition) Unknown: Two Adult molars found to the west of locus 12.

Inventory Postcranial Individual A – Postcranial present. Individual B – Postcranial present.

MNI 2 Based on: Unknown

Age at Death Individual A – Adult (34-45 years of age) Individual B – Adult (23-28 years of age) Method: Individual A – Unknown Individual B – Unknown

Dental Attrition Unknown

Sex Individual A – Female Individual B – Female Based on: Individual A – Unknown Individual B – Unknown

445 Burial 166 – cont.

Stature Individual A – 148 + 8.7 cm. Individual B – 148 + 8.7 cm. Method: Metric analysis, skeletal measurement.

Pathology/Trauma Individual A. Pathology: Antemortem dental loss and resorption. Bone: Maxilla and mandible.

Individual B. Pathology: Antemortem dental loss and resorption. Bone: Maxilla and mandible.

Pathology: Arthritic Bone: Unknown

Trauma: Butchering/Intentional Removal of Skeletal Material Bone: Cranium and Postcranial Skeleton

Cultural Modification(s) Individual A Location: Cranium Type: Psuedocircular type modification.

Individual B Location: Cranium Type: Psuedocircular type modification.

Burial Specifications Grave Type: Tomb; stone-lined, plastered walls painted orange-red with six fine black-line paintings.

Body Position: Individual A – Extended, supine, flexed left arm close to side with hand on left breast; right arm bent to bring hand onto lower stomach; lower parts positioned over Individual B and over locus 7 pottery.

Individual B – Tightly bound, knees to chin - seated. Entire cranium, 3 rib fragments, and 1 tooth found in separate vessel.

446 Burial 166 – cont.

Cranium Orientation: Individual A – North Individual B – Southwest (facing)

Feet Position: -

Grave Good(s): Position(s): 1. Alta Mira Fluted flaring-sided bowl with 1. Locus 1. worn base and rim. 2. Polvero Black short-necked jar with 2. Locus 2. possible worn base; orifice blocked with clay, lime, mud mix. 3. Sierra Red medial-flange dish with worn 3. Locus 3 – deliberately placed on flange and exterior traces of cinnabar. edge. 4. Chic Red-on-orange short-necked jar with 4. Locus 4. worn rim. 5. Sapote Striated small jar with worn rim. 5. Locus 5. 6. Sierra Red short-necked jar with worn rim 6. Locus 6. and base. Stone-core plastic (?) stopper. 7. Sierra Red medial-flange dish with worn 7. Locus 7, round-side vessel resting base, rim, and flange. Sierra Red round- against medial-flange dish. sided bowl. 8. Upright, nested vessels (three): Sierra 8. Locus 8. Red outcurving-sided bowl laterally containing Individual B skeletal parts. Alta Mira Fluted outcurving-sided bowl with worn base containing cranial fragments of Individual B and cinnabar lumps and powder as well as possible marine gorgonian. Chic Red-on-orange round-sided dish over above two vessels. 9. Vessels (four) closely set: Polvero Black 9. Locus 9. short-necked jar to the north. Paila unslipped short-necked jar to the south. Possible Flor Cream medial-flange dish worn inside and out with possible gorgonian to the northeast.Chic Red-on- orange short-necked jar with one circular worked sherd covering mouth of vessel.

447 Burial 166 – cont.

Grave Good(s): Position(s): 10. Sapote Striated short-necked jar, worn 10. Locus 10 with smudged exterior. 11. Chic Red-on-orange jar with unbridged 11. Locus 11. spout. 12. Miniature Sierra Red bowl with worn 12. Locus 12. base. Miniature Sierra Red bowl with worn base and rim. 13. Upright Alta Mira Fluted, flanged urn. 13. Locus 13. (unworn?) 14. Spondylus shell disc beads (264). 14. Amassed among fallen teeth with Individual A. 15. Cylindrical Spondylus bead. 15. Amassed among fallen teeth with Individual A. 16. Stingray spine, 16.8 cm. long 16. Overlying left wrist bones points unmodified. N-S. Associated with Individual A. 17. Stingray spine, unmodified. 17. On left pelvis. Associated with Individual A. 18. Jade irregular barrel bead. 18. Locus 14, associated with Individual A. 19. Bone needle with traces of cinnabar. 19. Between locus 13 vessel base and the chamber corner. 20. Obsidian lancet flake-blade 13.5 cm. 20. West of grave good no. 19. long. 21. Perforated bone disc (spindle whorl with 21. North of grave good no. 19. cinnabar on smooth side). 22. Limestone pebble (small) with traces of 22. Between needle (grave good no. cinnabar. 19) and blade (grave good no. 20) 23. Tiny jade beads (four). 23. Locus 12 next to side (N) of miniature pot.. 24. Jade beads (two). 24. Not specifically located but likely SW zone. 25. Piece of probable Spondylus shell carved 25. Not specifically located but likely to represent a profiled human head. SW zone. 26. Obsidian flake-blade fragments (two). 26. Screen material - unlocated.

Cinnabar/Red Ochre/Unspecified Red Pigment: Yes – cinnabar.

448 Burial 167

Source: Coe, 1990

Location: Below 5D-substructure 10 – 1st, intruded into apparently just demolished Structure 5D- substructure 10-2nd. Temple.

Dating: 0 B.C./A.D. –A.D. 150 (Late Preclassic)

Radiocarbon Dating: No. Uses Bu. 85 due to association for date.

Inventory Cranial Individual A – Cranium present, poor condition but intact. Individual B – Present but in disarray. Individual C – Present

Inventory Postcranial Individual A – Present Individual B – Present but dismembered. Individual C – Present

MNI 3 Based on: Duplication of skeletal material.

Age at Death Individual A – Adult Individual B – Adult Individual C – Infant (six-nine months of age) Method: Individual A – Unknown Individual B – Unknown Individual C – Unknown

Dental Attrition Unknown

Sex Individual A – Male Individual B – Female Individual C – Indeterminate Based on: Individual A – Rugged appearance of mandible and long bones. Individual B – Overall female appearance of remains. Individual C – Due to age.

449 Burial 167 – cont.

Stature Individual A – In situ 155 cm. Haviland calculates 162+ 8.7 cm. and notes individual’s proportionately long legs. Method: Metric measurements of skeletal parts.

Individual B 147 + 8.7 cm. Method: Reconstructed lengths of left femur 385 mm. and left radius 208 mm.

Pathology/Trauma Individual A Pathology: Spongy Porotic Hyperostosis Bone: Cranial Vault

Pathology: Alveolar Resorption Bone: Maxilla and Mandible

Pathology: Hunchback Condition Bone: Vertebral Column

Trauma: Unknown Bone: -

Individual B Pathology: Spongy Porotic Hyperostosis Bone: Cranial Vault

Trauma: Butchered*(?)/Intentional Removal of Skeletal Material *No cut marks, however consistent with a butchered individual is the proximity of the mandible. Bone: All, bones defleshed sufficiently to be broken in two before interment. Cranium severed and mandible separated.

Cultural Modification(s) Unknown Location: - Type: -

Burial Specifications Grave Type: Tomb; stone-lined.

450 Burial 167 – cont.

Burial Specifications – cont. Body Position: Individual A – Extended, supine. Arms close to sides, left wrist along pelvis, right arm over hip. Legs parallel

Individual B – Mass of bones in small, lidded pot; 33 cm. wide and 5 cm. deep. All long bones broken in two before placement. Placed over upper right chest and shoulders Individual A.

Individual C – Extended, supine,head to the north within a covered vessel (lidded pot) placed on pelvis of Individual A. Crown and toes protrude from container.

Cranium Orientation: Individual A – East Individual B – Unknown Individual C – North

Feet Position: Individual A – Unknown Individual B – Unknown Individual C – Unknown

Grave Good(s): Position(s): 1. Sierra Red flaring-sided bowl.. 1. Locus 8 (lower). 2. Holom incised dish containing 2. In grave good no. 1, contained Individual B. Individual B. 3. Paila unslipped flaring-sided bowl. 3. Inverted over grave good no. 2 as covering. 4. Sierra Red flaring-sided bowl with worn 4. Locus 7 (pelvis area of Individual underbase. A) contains Individual C (infant). 5. Holom incised dish. 5. Covering grave good no.4. 6. Chic Red-on-orange bowl. 6. Locus 4, inverted. 7. Sierra Red round-sided dish. 7. Nested in grave good no. 6. 8. Flor Cream round-sided dish. 8. Locus 2. 9. Chic-Red-on-orange bowl. 9. Nested in grave good no. 8. 10. Sierra Red basally worn jar. 10. Locus 3. 11. Black incised bowl. 11. Locus 3, side by side with grave good no. 10, tilted to the SE. 12. Black incised bowl. 12. Locus 10. 13. Black fluted stuccoed urn. 13. Locus 5, inverted.

451 Burial 167 – cont.

Grave Good(s): Position(s): 14. Sierra Red medial flange dish. 14. Locus 6. 15. Large thin-sized painted wood or gourd 15. Loci 9 and 11. vessels (two). 16. Discoidal shell beads (18 ), large with 16. Locus 6, beads clustered over and one pair human effigy shell pendants. under atlas and cervical vertebrae. One pendant under atlas and the other 0.10 m. to the north. 17. Shell beads (840) small with bone hasps. 17. Locus 13 (wrist area). 18. Shell beads (840) small with bone hasps. 18. Locus 14 (wrist area). 19. Stingray spine large, 15.3 cm. long, 19. Parallel to grave good no. 17. slightly modified. 20. Large stingray spine 16 cm. long, slightly 20. Parallel to grave good no. 18. modified. 21. Greenstone sculpture (head to south). 21. Beneath the displaced right pelvic bone, almost in contact with grave good nos. 17 and 18. 22. Pearl pendant. 22. Amid mandibular and thorasic parts of Individual C. 23. Jade bead. 23. Amid mandibular and thorasic parts of Individual C. 24. Spondylus bead. 24. Amid mandibular and thorasic parts of Individual C.

452 Tikal – Cauac –Cimi (Transition) Late Preclassic Burials

Burial 125

Source: Coe, 1990

Location: Ceremonial platform, below 5D- 22-6th- A. South base on axis. Grave intruded through stair and Structure 5D-substructure 7 and Structure 5D-4: Floor 7.

Dating: 0 B.C./A.D. – A.D. 150 (Cauac - Late Preclassic) A.D. 150-250 (Cimi - Late Preclassic)

Radiocarbon Dating: Yes. Sample P-768. MASCA corrected range 50 B.C. – A.D.120.

Inventory Cranial Individual A – Cranium present. Individual B – Present, scattered and disturbed by collapse of roof.

Inventory Postcranial Individual A – Present Individual B – Present, scattered and disturbed by collapse of roof.

MNI 2 Based on: Unknown

Age at Death Individual A – Adult (70-80 years of age) Individual B – Adult Method: Individual A – Unknown Individual B – Unknown

Dental Attrition Unknown

453 Burial 125 – cont.

Sex Individual A – Male Individual B – Male Based on: Individual A – Unknown Individual B – Unknown

Stature Individual A –180-190 cm., but Haviland calculates 169+8.7 cm. - a result of favoring a lower field estimate. Method: Long Bones Individual B – Unknown

Pathology/Trauma Individual A Pathology: Pronounced Limp Bone: Unknown

Trauma: - Bone: -

Cultural Modification(s) Unknown Location: - Type: -

Burial Specifications Grave Type: Tomb; rock-cut with uppermost fill containing 100 pieces of obsidian scrap and 210 1bs. of flint flakes.

Body Position: Individual A – Extended dorsally (face up or supine), arms to sides and legs parallel. Hands placed palms down.

Individual B – Above chamber roof, in flint layer above grave.

Cranium Orientation: Individual A – East Individual B – Unable to assess.

Feet Position: Individual A – Unknown Individual B – Unable to assess.

Grave Good(s): None

Position(s): -

454 Table 21. Preclassic Tikal Burial Divisions(Temporal)

Dated Burial Number Middle Preclassic Burials Burial 62 (Eb Complex) Burial 120 MiddlePreclassic Burials Burial 158 (Tzec Complex) Late Preclassic Burials Burial 121 (Chuen Complex) Burial 122 Burial 123 Burial 126 Burial 164 Late Preclassic Burials Burial 85 (Cauac Complex) Burial 128 Burial 166 (2 individuals) Burial 167 (3 individuals) Late Preclassic Burials Burial 125 (2 individuals) (Cauac - Cimi Transition)

455 Table 22 Preclassic Tikal Age Distribution

Age at Death Burial Number Infant Chuen Complex - Late Preclassic Burial 122 Cauac Complex - Late Preclassic Burial 167 (1 individual) Child Chuen Complex - Late Preclassic Burial 126 Young Adult/Youth Chuen Complex - Late Preclassic Burial 121 Adult Eb Complex - Middle Preclassic Burial 62 Burial 120 Tzec Complex - Middle Preclassic Burial 158 Chuen Complex - Late Preclassic Burial 123 Burial 164 Cauac Complex - Late Preclassic Burial 85 Burial 128 Burial 166 (2 individuals) Burial 167 (2 individuals) Cauac-Cimi (Transition) Late Preclassic Burial 125 Old Adult Cauac-Cimi (Transition) Late Preclassic Burial 125

456 Table 23 Preclassic Tikal Sex Distribution

Sex Burial Number Male Eb Complex - Middle Preclassic Burial 62 Burial 120 (?) Tzec Complex - Middle Preclassic Burial 158 Chuen Complex - Late Preclassic Burial 123 Burial 164 Cauac Complex - Late Preclassic Burial 85 Burial 167 (1 Individual) Cauac-Cimi (Transition) Late Preclassic Burial 125 (2 individuals) Female Chuen Complex - Late Preclassic Burial 121 Cauac Complex - Late Preclassic Burial 128 Burial 166 (2 individuals) Burial 167 (1 Individual) Unknown Chuen Complex - Late Preclassic Burial 122 Burial 126 Cauac Complex - Late Preclassic Burial 167 (1 Individual)

457 Table 24. Preclassic Tikal Burial Positions

Position Burial Number Extended Position Chuen Complex - Late Preclassic Burial 122 Burial 126 Burial 164 Cauac Complex - Late Preclassic Burial 166 (1 individual) Burial 167 (2 individuals) Cauac-Cimi (Transition) Late Preclassic Burial 125 (1 Individual) Flexed Position Eb Complex - Middle Preclassic Burial 62 Burial 120 Chuen Complex - Late Preclassic Burial 121 Burial 123 Seated Position Tzec Complex - Middle Preclassic Burial 158 Cauac Complex - Late Preclassic Burial 85 Burial 166 (1 individual) Supine Position Chuen Complex - Late Preclassic Burial 122 Burial 126 Burial 164 Cauac Complex - Late Preclassic Burial 166 (1 individual) Burial 167 (2 individuals) Cauac-Cimi (Transition) Late Preclassic Burial 125 (1 Individual) Right Side Eb Complex - Middle Preclassic Burial 62 Burial 120 Chuen Complex - Late Preclassic Burial 123 Unknown Cauac Complex - Late Preclassic Burial 128 Burial 167 (1 individual) Cauac-Cimi (Transition) Late Preclassic Burial 125 (1 Individual)

458 Table 25. Preclassic Tikal Burial Directional Orientation Positions

Body Part – Directional Orientation Burial Number Cranium East Tzec Complex - Middle Preclassic Burial 158 (facing east) Chuen Complex - Late Preclassic Burial 121 (facing east) Burial 122 Cauac Complex - Late Preclassic Burial 167 (1 individual) Cauac-Cimi (Transition) Late Preclassic Burial 125 (1 individual) Cranium North Eb Complex - Middle Preclassic Burial 62 Cauac Complex - Late Preclassic Burial 166 (1 individual) Burial 167 (1 individual) Cranium South Chuen Complex - Late Preclassic Burial 123 Burial 164 Cauac Complex - Late Preclassic Burial 85 (facing south) Cranium Southwest Cauac Complex - Late Preclassic Burial 166 (1 individual - facing southwest) Cranium West Eb Complex - Middle Preclassic Burial 120 Chuen Complex - Late Preclassic Burial 126 Pedal Crossed Chuen Complex - Late Preclassic Burial 126

459 Table 26. Preclassic Tikal Pathology/Trauma

Pathology/Trauma Burial Number Antemortem Tooth Loss and/or Alveolar Cauac Complex - Late Preclassic Resorption Burial 166 (2 individuals) Burial 167 (1 individual) Arthritic Degeneration Cauac Complex - Late Preclassic Burial 166 (1 individuals) Intentional/Sacrificial (?) Trauma Cauac Complex - Late Preclassic Burial 85 Burial 166 (1 individual) Burial 167 (1 individual) Kyphosis (hunchback) Cauac Complex - Late Preclassic Burial 167 (1 individual) Spongy Porotic Hyperostosis Cauac Complex - Late Preclassic Burial 167 (2 individual) Squatting Facets Chuen Complex - Late Preclassic Burial 164

460 Table 27. Preclassic Tikal Cultural Modifications and Trephination

Modification Burial Number Cranial Cauac Complex - Late Preclassic Burial 166 (2 individuals) Dental Unknown Trephination Unknown

461 Table 28 Preclassic Tikal Cinnabar/Red Ochre/Unspecified Red Pigment

Cinnabar/Red Ochre/Unspecified Red Burial Number Pigment Tzec Complex - Middle Preclassic Cinnabar Burial 158 Chuen Complex - Late Preclassic Cinnabar Burial 164 Cauac Complex - Late Preclassic Cinnabar Burial 128 Cinnabar Burial 166

462 Table 29 Preclassic Tikal Evidence of Burning

Object Burial Number

None noted -

463 Table 30. Preclassic Tikal Grave Goods

Artifact(s) Burial Number Bead Chuen Complex - Late Preclassic Burial 121 Burial 164 Cauac Complex - Late Preclassic Burial 85 Burial 128 Burial 166 Burial 167 Bone Cauac Complex - Late Preclassic (H = Human, F = Faunal, (?) = Unknown) Burial 128(F) Burial 166 (?) Burial 167(F) Ceramic/Sherd/Wooden Disc Cauac Complex - Late Preclassic Burial 85 Figurine Chuen Complex - Late Preclassic Burial 121 Burial 167 Greenstone Chuen Complex - Late Preclassic Burial 167 Jade Chuen Complex - Late Preclassic Burial 121 Burial 164 Cauac Complex - Late Preclassic Burial 85 Burial 128 Burial 166 Burial 167 Lithic Chuen Complex - Late Preclassic Burial 121 Burial 123 Cauac Complex - Late Preclassic Burial 85 Burial 128 Burial 166 Cauac-Cimi (Transition) - Late Preclassic Burial 125 (grave good?)

464 Table 30. Preclassic Tikal Grave Goods – cont.

Artifact(s) Burial Number Obsidian Chuen Complex - Late Preclassic Burial 123 Cauac Complex - Late Preclassic Burial 85 Burial 166 Cauac-Cimi (Transition) - Late Preclassic Burial 125 Pearl Cauac Complex - Late Preclassic Burial 167 Serpentine (?) Cauac Complex - Late Preclassic (dull-green mottled mineral/rock) Burial 85 Shell Chuen Complex - Late Preclassic Burial 121 Burial 122 Burial 123 Burial 164 Cauac Complex - Late Preclassic Burial 85 Burial 128 Burial 166 Burial 167 Stingray Spine Chuen Complex - Late Preclassic Burial 164 Cauac Complex - Late Preclassic Burial 85 Burial 128 Burial 166 Burial 167 Stone (worked) Cauac Complex - Late Preclassic Burial 166 Vessel/Pottery Eb Complex - Middle Preclassic (includes sherd material) Burial 62 Tzec Complex - Middle Preclassic Burial 158 Chuen Complex - Late Preclassic Burial 121 Burial 122 Burial 123 Burial 126

465 Table 30. Preclassic Tikal Grave Goods – cont.

Artifact(s) Burial Number Vessel/Pottery – cont. Chuen Complex - Late Preclassic – cont. (includes sherd material) Burial 164 Cauac Complex - Late Preclassic Burial 85 Burial 128 Burial 166 Burial 167 Wooden Artifact Cauac Complex - Late Preclassic Burial 85 Burial 167

466 Chart 15. Preclassic Tikal Burial* Divisions (Temporal)

8

6 5

4 467 4

2

1 1 2

0 Middle Preclassic Middle Preclassic Late Preclassic Late Preclassic Late Preclassic (Eb Complex) (Tzec Complex) (Chuen Complex) (Cauac Complex) (Cauac-Cimi Transition)

*13 Burials containing 17 Individuals Chart 15a. Preclassic Tikal Burial Divisions (Temporal) Percentages of Total Burials*

Late Preclassic (Chuen Complex) 38.46%

Middle Preclassic Late Preclassic (Tzec Complex) (Cauac Complex) 7.69% 30.77% 468

Middle Preclassic (Eb Complex) Late Preclassic 23.08% (Cauac-Cimi Transition) 7.69% Middle Preclassic (Eb Complex) Middle Preclassic (Tzec Complex) Late Preclassic (Chuen Complex) Late Preclassic (Cauac Complex) Late Preclassic (Cauac-Cimi Transition)

*13 Burials containing 17 Individuals Chart 15b. Preclassic Tikal Aggregate of Burials and Individuals

16 14

14 10 12

10 469 8

6 3 3

4

2

0 Middle Preclassic Late Preclassic

Burials Individuals

13 Burials containing 17 Individuals Chart 16. Preclassic Tikal Burial Age at Death Distribution

14 12

12

10

8 470 6

4 2 1 1 1 2

0 Infant Child Young Adult Adult Old Adult

Total: 17 Individuals Chart 16a. Preclassic Tikal Burial Age at Death Distribution by Phase

8

6 6

4

2 2 2 1

471 11 1 1 1 1 00 0 00 00 00 00 0000 0 Young Infant Child Adult Old Adult Adult/Youth Middle Preclassic (Eb Complex) 00020 Middle Preclassic (Tzec Complex) 00010 Late Preclassic (Chuen Complex) 11120 Late Preclassic (Cauac Complex) 10060 Late Preclassic (Cauac-Cimi Transition) 00011

Total: 17 Individuals Chart 16b. Preclassic Tikal Burial Age at Death Distribution Percentages of Individuals

Young Adult/Youth Adult 70.59% 5.88% 472

Child 5.88%

Old Adult 5.88% Infant 11.77%

Infant Child Young Adult/Youth Adult Old Adult

Total: 17 Individuals Chart 17. Preclassic Tikal Burial Sex Distribution by Phase

6

5 4 4

3 2 22 2 2

2 1 1 1

1 00 0 00 0 473 0 Male Female Unknow n

Middle Preclassic (Eb Complex) 200 Middle Preclassic (Tzec Complex) 100 Late Preclassic (Chuen Complex) 212 Late Preclassic (Cauac Complex) 241 Late Preclassic (Cauac-Cimi Transition) 200

Totals by Sex: 9 5 3

Total: 17 Individuals Chart 17a. Preclassic Tikal Burial Sex Relative Distribution

Female 29.41%

100% Male 52.94% 80% 474

60% Sex Unknown 17.65% 40%

20%

Female 0% 17 Individuals Male Sex Unknown Chart 18. Preclassic Tikal Burial Position Relative Distribution

Extended 41.17%

Flexed 23.53% 475

Unknown 17.65% Seated 17.65%

Extended Flexed Seated Unknown

Total: 17 Individuals Chart 18a. Preclassic Tikal Burial Position Distribution by Phase

5

4 33 3 2 2 2 2 2 1 1 1 1

476 00 0 00 0 0 0 000 0 Extended Flexed Seated Unknown Middle Preclassic (Eb Complex) 0200 Middle Preclassic (Tzec Complex) 0010 Late Preclassic (Chuen Complex) 3200 Late Preclassic (Cauac Complex) 3022 Late Preclassic (Cauac-Cimi Transition) 1001

Totals by Position: 7 4 3 3

Total: 17 Individuals Chart 18b. Preclassic Tikal Burial Position Distribution by Phase

5

4 33 3 2 2 1 1 1

477 00 00 0 0 0 0000 0 0 00 0 Supine Prone Left Side Right Side

Middle Preclassic (Eb Complex) 0002 Middle Preclassic (Tzec Complex) 0000 Late Preclassic (Chuen Complex) 3001 Late Preclassic (Cauac Complex) 3000 Late Preclassic (Cauac-Cimi Transition) 1000

Total: 17 Individuals 7 Individuals – no information given. Chart 18c. Preclassic Tikal Burial Position Relative Distribution

Right Side 30.00%

Left Side 0.00%

Supine 70.00% 478

Prone 0.00%

Supine Prone Left Side Right Side

Total: 17 Individuals 7 Individuals – no information given. Chart 19. Preclassic Tikal Burial Directional Orientation Cranium Positions by Phase

4

3

2 2 2 2 2

1 11 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 479

0 00 0 00 0 000 0 0 00 000 0 East North South Southw est West Unknow n

Middle Preclassic (Eb Complex) 010010 Middle Preclassic (Tzec Complex) 100000 Late Preclassic (Chuen Complex) 202010 Late Preclassic (Cauac Complex) 121102 Late Preclassic (Cauac-Cimi Transition) 100001

Totals by Direction: 5 3 3 1 2 3

Total: 17 Individuals Chart 20. Preclassic Tikal Pathology/Trauma

01234

Anemia

Antemortem Tooth Loss/Alveolar Resorption 3

Arthritic Degeneration 1

Calculus

Caries

Criba Orbitalia

Fracture

Intentional/Sacrificial (?) Trauma 3 Kyphosis 1

Linear Enamel Hypoplasia 480 Lipping and Pitting of Vertebrae

Osteophytic Growths

Pacchonian Depressions

Periodontal Disease

Periostitis

Shovel-Shape Incisors

Spongy Porotic Hyperostosis 2

Squatting Facets 1

Systemic Infection

Treponemal Infection

Unspecified Lesions

Total: 17 Individuals Chart 21. Preclassic Tikal Burial Grave Good(s)* Distribution

12 11

10 8 8 6 6 6

6 5

481 4 4 3 2 2 2 1 1 1 1 1 1

0

isc hic hell ery den Bead Bone Jade Pearl S ked) d D Lit sidian or ood(s) Figurine rpentine Woo Ob e el/Pott Greenstone S gray Spine ve G tin S Vess herd/Woo Stone (w No Gra ic/S

Ceram

*12 of the 13 burials contained at least one type of grave good; 1 burial (7.69%) contained no grave goods. Chart 21a. Preclassic Tikal Burial Grave Good(s)* Distribution

0% 20% 40% 60% 80% 100%

Bead 50.00%

Bone 25.00%

Ceramic/Sherd/Wooden Disc 8.33%

Figurine 16.67%

Greenstone 8.33%

Jade 50.00%

482 Lithic 50.00%

Obsidian 33.33%

Pearl 8.33%

Serpentine(?) 8.33%

Shell 66.67%

Stingray Spine 41.67%

Stone (worked) 8.33% 91.67%

Vessel/Pottery

Wooden Artifact 16.67%

*12 of the13 burials contained at least one type of grave good; 1 burial contained no grave goods. Chapter Eleven

Tikal Findings

Data Summary

The analysis of the Preclassic burials from Tikal exhibits a number of trends.

These are shown on both the tables, which give specific interment information, and the charts, which give percentage and visual representation of trend distribution.

The temporal distribution (Table 21, Charts 15, 15a) of the 13 burials containing

17 individuals indexed in the Preclassic Tikal interments is the first trend addressed. This

distribution shows the greatest number represented in the Chuen Complex (Late

Preclassic – ca. 350 B.C.) with five inhumations (38.46%). The next largest group is the

Cauac Complex (Late Preclassic – ca. 0 B.C./A.D.) with four interments (30.77%).

Following that, the Eb Complex (Middle Preclassic – ca. 800 B.C.) has two documented

burials (23.08%). The Tzec Complex (Middle Preclassic – ca. 600 B.C.) and the Cauac-

Cimi Transition (Late Preclassic ca. – 0 B.C./A.D. – A.D. 150) each had one interment

(7.69%). When the Chuen, Cauac, and Cauac-Cimi (Transition) Complexes are

combined and observed as an aggregate (Chart 15b) as simply Late Preclassic, they

contain ten (76.92%) of the 13 interments indexed for Tikal.

An analysis of the age at death provides information for the demographics (Table

22, Charts 16, 16a, 16b) of the interred individuals. Considering the five phases as a

whole, the overwhelming majority are adults (12, 70.59%), followed by two infants

(11.77%). The child, young adult and old adult categories contain one (5.88%) each. 483 The distribution of sex (Table 23, Charts 17, 17a) that was observed reflects a

male to female ratio for Preclassic Tikal of almost two to one. For this sample 14

(82.35%) of the 17 individuals were sexed, leaving only three (17.65%) categorized as

unknown. It must be noted that those three were unable to be sexed due to the fact that

one was a child (Burial 126) and two were infants (Burials 122 and 167).

Breakdown of the burial position distribution (Table 24, Charts 18, 18a) denotes

that the majority of the individuals are extended (7, 41.17%) followed by flexed (4,

23.53%) and then seated (3, 17.65%). There were three (17.65%) for which the burial

position was unknown. For supine, prone, left side, and right side designation (Charts

18b, 18c), there are seven (41.12%) which are undetermined and, of those that are, it is interesting to note that they are either supine (7, 70%) or right side (3, 30%).

Cranial orientation (Table 25, Chart 19) shows that the highest number is east with five (29.41%). North and south each have three (17.65%), while west has two

(11.76%). There is also one intercardinal direction, southwest, with one (5.88%), Three

(17.65%) were undetermined. Regarding pedal orientation (Table 25) only one burial had any designation and therefore can not contribute value to the analysis.

There are six types of pathology and trauma observed (Table 26, Chart 20) in the

17 individuals inhumed at Preclassic Tikal. There are three cases (17.65%) of

antemortem (before death) tooth loss and/or alveolar resorption and three cases (17.65%)

of intentional or sacrificial trauma. There is one case (5.88%) each of arthritic

degeneration, kyphosis, spongy porotic hyperostosis, and squatting facets.

484 There are two individuals that exhibit cultural modifications at Preclassic Tikal

(Table 27, Chart 42); both are cranial modifications. The individuals are interred in

Burial 166. There were no instances of dental modification or trephination noted.

Four (30.77%) of the 13 interments at Preclassic Tikal exhibit the presence of

cinnabar (Table 28, Chart 43); of these, two contain females (Burials 128 and 166) and

two contain males (Burials 158 and 164). There was no evidence of burning (Table 29,

Chart 44) noted among the Preclassic interments of Tikal.

The grave goods distribution at Tikal (Table 30, Charts, 21, 21a) reveals that 12

burials (92.31%) included one or more grave goods. For one burial (7.69%), no offerings

were observed or found. Of the 12 interments that contained grave goods, 11 (91.67%)

had vessels or some type of pottery offering. Eight (66.67%) had shell, five (41.67%) included stingray spine(s), four (33.33%) had obsidian, and three (25.00%) contained bone. Bead, jade, and lithic material were each counted in six (50.00%) of the subject

burials, while figurines and wooden artifacts occurred in two (16.67%). Discs (ceramic,

sherd, or wood), greenstone, pearl, serpentine, and worked stone were each included in

one (8.33%) of the interments.

Burial type distribution reflects that of the 17 individuals, eight (47.06%) were in

tomb inhumations, five (29.41%) were in simple/pit interments, and two (11.76%) were

contained in uncapped cist burials. One individual (5.88%) was found in a simple crypt8,

and one (5.88%) in a chultun.

8 This burial is actually an urn burial but was not classified as such by the excavators. It will be addressed later in the composite discussion and conclusions. 485 Data Interpretation

The temporal distribution reveals that for the Chuen Complex burials, four are

situated in the North Acropolis. This confinement to a limited locale is, I believe, a

consequence of the project directive toward ceremonial complex study. The Late

Preclassic which contained ten (76.92%) of the 13 burials, contrasted with the Middle

Preclassic total of three burials (23.08%), represented by the Eb and Tzec Complexes,

shows a disparity between the Middle and Late Preclassic interments with a significant

rise in the number of burials in the later.

For the age at death analysis, it is interesting to note that the Chuen Complex,

which has the highest amount of interments, also has the most variation in the age

demographic with individuals representing all categories9 except old adult. The most

variation seen throughout the other complexes is a two-category representation.

The distribution of sex shows a male to female ratio of almost two to one for

Preclassic Tikal. If interment preservation is taken as a product of the inhumation investment, and if the male-dominated culture of the Maya would dictate a larger investment in male burials, then this ratio correlates well with the social organization of

the Maya culture, as did the sex ratio demonstrated at both Chiapa de Corzo and

Kaminaljuyu. It must be noted that the two to one male to female ratio is not

representative of current or postulated past population demographics. An interesting side

note (at first glance) is that the Cauac Complex (Late Preclassic, ca. 0 B.C./A.D.) sex

distribution male to female ratio was actually one to two; a reversal of the overall trend.

9There are a total of five categories: Infant, Child, Young Adult/Youth, Adult, and Old Adult. 486 However, it must also then be noted that two of the females were postulated sacrificial

victims (Burials 166 and 167 – each with one individual) and one was considered a

secondary interment (Burial 128) (Coe 1990); in actuality, the apparent trend reversal is

not representative of an increased investment in female burials. In fact, there was only

one ostensible female burial (Burial 166 – one individual) and since there were two male

burials (Burials 85 and 167) the male to female ratio would remain two to one for the

Cauac Complex as well.

The analysis of burial position at Preclassic Tikal is informative given that the

position for 14 interments (of 17) was recorded. These descriptions revealed a

predilection for both extended and supine positions. This correlated with the assertion by

Welsh (1988), in his examination of the Classic Maya burials, that “the extended (and

extended supine) was preferred”.

The cranial orientation shows a prevalence of individuals (5) pointing to the east and, interestingly, this differs from the Classic Maya in which the predilection was to the north (Welsh 1988). It is notable that there was one deviation from the cardinal directions; it was the postulated sacrificial victim in the tomb Burial 166 where the severed skull of the individual was facing southwest. Although only one instance of pedal orientation was recorded, it is noteworthy that the feet of the individual were crossed (Burial 126).

Pathology and trauma analysis reveals ten cases of six different types. This information is of striking importance for a variety of reasons; most notable is the fact that all the cases of pathology and trauma are exhibited in just six (35.29%) of the 17 487 individuals interred. For Burial 166, the primary individual exhibited both antemortem tooth loss and the subsequent alveolar resorption. The sacrificial-retainer subject in

Burial 166, though younger, displayed dramatic antemortem tooth loss of all dentition

(along with some degree of resorption) and arthritic degeneration. Both can be indicative of old age but are also dependent on diet and habitual activities, respectively. The Burial

166 retainer, of course, was also the exhibitor of the sacrificial trauma; she was ostensibly defleshed when interred. In Burial 167, the primary individual exhibited antemortem tooth loss with alveolar resorption in conjuction with spongy porotic hyperostosis and kyphosis. This means that the individual had teeth missing, suffered or had suffered in the past from anemia, and was a hunchback. The sacrificial-retainer individual in Burial

167 also exhibited spongy porotic hyperostosis and, though no cut-marks were visible from the field observation, was completely disarticulated and placed in a ceramic vessel for interment. Burial 85 exhibited sacrificial trauma though it was not thought to be a

“sacrifice”; instead, it is postulated that the cranium and femora were removed for the mortuary practice of ancestor veneration. Landa noted that bones of the ancestors were frequently removed for inheritance purposes (Tozzer1941). Burial 164 contained the only individual to exhibit squatting facets, caused by the extreme dorsiflexion of the ankle when squatting. The squatting facets are particularly notable because Burial 164 was the only interment of those exhibiting pathology and trauma that was not in a tomb inhumation. It also correlates with the suggestion that squatting facets reflect the non- elite class (Haviland and Moholy-Nagy 1992).

488 The cultural modifications noted are especially intriguing with regard to Burial

166; it contained the obvious primary interment, extended and presumably robed, and a sacrificial-retainer individual, dismembered and possibly defleshed. Both individuals displayed the same type of cranial modification, described as pseudocircular (see Figures

4 and 5). This type of cranial modification has an almost conical effect and is created by wrappings tightly encircling the cranium. Interestingly enough, Robin (1989) stated that

“only tabular shaping has been found among the ancient Maya”. Both occupants were women; one aged as an old adult and one as a young adult. This burial type was a tomb and originally designated as a male burial, proposed due to the presence of a sacrificial victim, the wealth of grave goods, and the tomb construction e.g. the extensively painted walls (Coe 1965).

The use of cinnabar is noted in four Preclassic Tikal interments. A remarkable

not is that only one of these, Burial 166, is a tomb and that it is the tomb of a female. The

other interments are a simple crypt (Burial 128), a household platform (Burial 158), and

an uncapped cist (Burial 164). Burial 166 is a fascinating and perplexing example of the inclusion of cinnabar as a grave good in the tomb of female given the sex assessment and the symbolic status connotations of both the tomb and the cinnabar and, as noted above, the only burial to exhibit cranial shaping.

Grave good analysis reveals a number of interesting observations. Of special note

is Burial 125; the primary occupant was seemingly without offerings or personal

adornment, yet he was buried in the what was postulated to be the most important place

in the Acropolis “(and thus in all Tikal?)” (Coe 1990). The amount of minor, unmodified 489 flint flakes, perhaps specially produced, used to seal his tomb was staggering - approximately 210 pounds. This demonstrated an unprecedented use of lithic material.

Welsh (1988) hypothesized that Burial 125 was a king. Burial 85 was inhumed in a stone-lined tomb with elaborate grave goods inclusive of a jade mask. Curiously his skull and femora were removed – possibly ancestor veneration (Welsh 1988; McAnany

1995). Stingray spines were included four burials: three in the Cauac (two females –

Burial 128 and Burial 166, and one male – Burial 85), and one in the Chuen Complex

(unsexed). Burial 128 also contained 165 jade beads, 414 shell beads, and one jade ear-

flare – remarkable for both quality and content given the juxtaposition of a female burial.

Again, particularly notable in Burials 128 and Burial 166 is the inclusion of cinnabar,

given the association of cinnabar or red pigment with prestige and power…and males

(Weaver 1993).

The burial distribution figures appear to represent a high percentage of individuals

buried in tombs (as at Kaminaljuyu); they do so only because the sacrificial-retainer individuals are included in that count. Of the eight tomb inhabitants, three are considered to be retainers and one individual in Burial 125 is unknown since the subject was found in the 210 pounds of lithic flakes and fill that sealed the tomb. Therefore, the removal of those individuals from the count of the tomb inhabitants gives an actual number of four

(23.53%), a much more representative picture of the Preclassic individuals inhumed at

Tikal.

490 Chapter Twelve

Colha Description and Background

Colha is an ancient Maya site (Figure 26) located in the lowlands in northern

Belize. The site covers approximately six square kilometers and is considered a four-five

courtyard group by the center ranking system developed by R. E. W. Adams. For

comparison purposes, the site of Tikal is considered an 85 courtyard group (Hester et al.

1982). A majority of the site is on the ranch of John and Herbert Masson. Located in

Rancho Creek, the site is situated approximately 75 kilometers north of Belize City

(Hester et al. 1979). Northern Belize is a predominately flat and contains a wealth of

high quality chert or flint (Massey 1989). This chert was used by the ancient Maya in the

manufacture of stone tools and a great abundance of the material was noted at Colha.

Thus it has become a site of great interest for explorations to further the studies of the

temporal origination of craft specialization and the hierarchy present within such

communities.

Norman Hammond originally documented the site in 1973 while directing

investigations for the Cambridge University-British Museum Corozal Project (Hammond

1973). A survey was conducted and a map of much of the then cleared site was produced. The Corozal Project later conducted more surveys and mapping in 1975.

During 1975 and into 1976, Richard Wilk performed a controlled surface collection which revealed that the site of Colha had been a center of intensive lithic production,

491

Figure 26

492 obviously from the rich chert (flint) resources close at hand. A site with this level of a

craft specialization technique (in this case, lithic production) had never been reported for the Maya lowlands (Wilk 1976). In 1976, Hammond and Thomas Hester organized a

field symposium to evaluate the status of lithic research in northern Belize (Hester and

Hammond 1976); Colha was the focal point. At the conference it was suggested that

Harry Shafer and Thomas Hester consider a long-term project at Colha (Hester et al.

1979).

By 1976, they had secured funding for one season and were optimistic about funding

additional seasons. The Colha Project excavations were directed by Thomas Hester,

Harry J. Shafer, R. E. W. Adams, Giancarlo Ligabue, and Robert Heizer. The project co-

directors were Jack Eaton and Sandro Salvatori. The project was a collaborative effort

between The University of Texas at San Antonio, Center for Archaeological Research;

Texas A&M University; and the Centro Studi e Ricerche Ligabue in Venice. There were

also a number of supporting agencies throughout the five seasons of excavations in the

years 1979 through 1984 (Hester et al. 1979).

The long-term goal of the Colha Project would be to study the craft specialization

of lithic tool production in a cultural context. During that first season (1979) other

directives included the assessment of qualitative differences and variability, the temporal

assessment of the proposed lithic workshops, the development of a workable sampling

strategy, and the construction of a typology and a classification system for both the lithic artifacts and the debitage (lithic waste) collected. The first season revealed that “a highly

organized lithic production industry was present at Colha in Late Preclassic times” and 493 thus the future directive then became the study of “other aspects of craft specialization,

tool export and the role of the Colha lithic industry in the developing Late Preclassic

cultural system” (Hester et al. 1979).

Figure 27

494 The second season (1980) brought test investigations of structures in Operation

2012 (see Figure 27) on the western margin of Colha’s ceremonial center by Daniel

Potter. The are covered by Operation 2012 was described as being a relatively high stepped pyramid (Structure 27), approximately four meters high, situated on the eastern edge of a low platform (Structure 26). Together, they formed a structure approximately forty-two meters long and thirty meters wide. The long axis for the structure is situated east-west. The directives of Operation 2012 were to gather data regarding the architecture of the group, to obtain a ceramic sample and put together a chronological sequence for those structures, to record and collect lithic tools for frequency evaluation, and to pursue possible inhumations that could provide information regarding chert eccentrics and tool production from mortuary context. The findings of the 1980 excavations of Operation 2012 revealed that Structure 26 had the majority of its activity in the Middle to Late Preclassic times with use into the Late Classic. A possible shrine was discovered, and a large amount of broken formal ceramic vessels at the base of

Structure 27 was indicative of heavy ceremonial use. Evidence of domestic and workshop activities appeared to be associated with the platform edge (Structure 26). The long occupation sequence noted for Operation 2012 (Early Preclassic to the Terminal

Classic) made it a candidate for future excavations with specific goals. Termed the “most important research goal”, a further investigation of the Early Preclassic component under

Mound 26 and in the area around it was designated to be conducted through the use of deep test units. Another aim of the investigations was the recovery of additional elite burials from Structure 26, in the hopes of producing a realistic understanding of the 495 Colha elite population and the function of this particular structure within the site (Potter

1980).

The third season, designed to build on the project’s earlier objectives, saw continued excavations at Operation 2012. The platform turned out to have easily observed stratification that allowed episodes from Terminal Classic down through Middle

Preclassic to be observed. The excavation revealed Late Preclassic caches; directly below those on a plaster floor interments were encountered. Most of the burials found were crypt burials that had been cut through the plaster floor, with each having been reused a number of times. Interestingly enough, it seems that the previous occupants of the crypts were simply scattered aside and the new primary occupant placed at the bottom. Additional inhumations were found under the walls intruding into Floor 6.

Eventually, seventeen Preclassic burials were excavated from Operation 2012. It was postulated that this area was a preferred burial area (cemetery) in the Late Preclassic and that perhaps Structure 27 was a mortuary structure (Potter 1982). The third season concluded with the earliest occupation dates being determined by radiocarbon dating

(around 900 B. C.), and with a clear interpretation of the ceramic complexes found at

Colha by Fred Valdez, Jr. and R. E. W. Adams. It was also determined that the technology and raw materials were present at Colha during the Middle Preclassic, and were extremely important by the Late Preclassic; at the same time a great demand correlating with intensive agricultural development brought about the mass production of lithic tools (Hester et al. 1982). These developments furthered the studies of craft specialization and the trade relationships that developed between Colha and such sites as 496 Tikal, Palenque, and Copan where the lithic tools were in obvious use, but not in local

production (Shafer 1994).

The fourth season investigations at Colha changed directives slightly as the lithic workshops were no longer the high priority; the new focus was understanding the transition from Late Classic to Early Postclassic. However, further studies were conducted at Operation 2012 to understand the occupation development from the Middle and Late Preclassic, especially the shift in function from domestic to ritual. The fourth

season also brought the excavation of Operation 2031 by Stephen L. Black (Hester 1983).

Operation 2031 was the largest plaza of the monumental site center at Colha. The

buildings surrounding the main plaza are postulated to represent “civic and/or religious

buildings, shrines, or elite residential buildings” (Anthony and Black 1994). Test

excavations at Operation 2011 had taken place in 1980 and indicated a Preclassic

presence at relatively shallow depths, thus the goal with Operation 2031 was to expose as

large an area as possible examine the Preclassic occupation. Below the main plaza, a

structure was uncovered that was built on a terraced platform and was associated with

cooking features. Burials were found on the platform between the house foundation wall

and an outer terrace wall. A total of 34 square meters were excavated at Operation 2031.

It was a rich Middle Preclassic deposit that was expected, when combined with the data

from Operation 2012, to yield a comprehensive cultural understanding of Colha’s earliest

occupations (Hester 1983).

The excavations at Operation 2031 in 1983 yielded important information

regarding the Preclassic occupation of the plaza with a discovery of a deposit from the 497 Bolay Complex (Middle Preclassic, ca. 900-600 B.C.) at the the base of the cultural

material. Of the four burials encountered that season, it was postulated that all of the

interred individuals were of relatively high status based upon the presence of elaborate

grave offerings, a non-local effigy vessel and a jade celt, in conjunction with the complex architecture of the multiple terraces (Anthony and Black 1994).

In 1989, additional excavations of Operation 2031 were made with more burials

discovered. The total number of burials found during the combined 1983 and 1989

seasons at Operation 2031 was 26. It must be noted that the designation system of the

burials in the 1983 investigations employed the STRAT system (Black 1983) in which

strats were the equivalent of lots, and the 1989 excavations utilized lots.

The dating at Colha is based on radiocarbon technique and associated ceramic

dating. The ceramic complex chronology at Colha was developed by Fred Valdez, Jr.

and R. E. W. Adams. The Colha ceramic sequence is divided into ten complexes

covering a time span from ca. 900 B.C. to A.D. 1400. Four of these complexes are

pertinent to this dissertation; the Bolay Complex (Middle Preclassic, ca. 900 B.C. – 600

B. C.), the Chiwa Complex (Middle Preclassic, ca. 600 B.C. – 300 B.C.), the Onecimo

Complex (Late Preclassic, ca. 300 B.C. – 100 B. C.) and the Blossom Bank Complex

(Terminal Preclassic 250 B.C. – A.D. 250).

498 Chapter Thirteen

Colha Burial Data

The burial data submitted in this chapter for Colha imparts each burial as its own

entity. The burials are presented in chronological order by temporal division: Undated,

Middle Preclassic, Middle-Late Preclassic, and Late Preclassic. Within each phase, the burials are presented in numerical order. The order of materials contained in the burials

is presented according to the order given in Chapter Two. That chapter may be referenced for the definition of terms.

499 Colha – Preclassic (unspecified) Burials

CH Operation 2012 Subop 3 Burial 1

Source: Diane Ballinger, 1991

Location: West of Structure 27.

Dating: Preclassic

Ceramic Dating: Unknown

Inventory Cranial Multiple mandibular and cranial fragments.

Inventory Postcranial Eight left femorae, tibial fragments, and three pelves.

MNI 10 Based on: Eight left femorae, two Juveniles

Age at Death Three - Adult, one - Young Adult, two - Middle Adult, two - Old Adult, one – Juvenile (four years), one – Juvenile (six years)

Method: Three - Adults aged by pelves (one - Young Adult 25-29, two - Middle Adult 40-45), two - Old Adults aged by Dental Attrition, Edentulous Mandibles, and Suture Closures – 50+ ( Bass 1988; Steele and Bramblett 1988; Ortner and Putschar 1983).

Dental Attrition Significant wear, used to age two Old Adults.

Sex 1 Female Based on: Cranial and mandibular fragments

Stature Unknown Method: -

500 CH Operation 2012 Subop 3 Burial 1 – cont.

Pathology/Trauma Pathology: Anemia Bone: Cranial vault fragments show expansion of diploe and a thickening of the outer table. All parietal and occipital bones exhibit a thickening of the outer table.

Pathology: Cribra Orbitalia Bone: Female –Orbit roof of all cranial fragments.

Pathology: Treponemal Infection Bone: Tibia Shaft fragment (two) exhibiting slight sabering

Trauma: Gash to occipital bone on one individual, healed, and inner table was not disturbed or displaced with the injury. Bone: Occipital

Cultural Modification(s) Location: Cranium fragments of males. Type: Unknown

Burial Specifications Grave Type: Unknown

Body Position: -

Cranium Orientation: -

Feet Position: -

Grave Good(s): -

Position(s): -

501 Operation 2012 Subop 14 Burial 102 Source: Diane Ballinger, 1991

Location: Operation 2012, Subop14, east- west trench atop superstructure of Subop 13.

Dating: Preclassic

Ceramic Dating: Unknown Inventory Cranial Unknown

Inventory Postcranial Unknown

MNI 1 Based on: Unknown

Age at Death Old Adult Method: Edentulous Mandible ( Bass 1988; Steele and Bramblett 1988; Ortner and Putschar 1983).

Dental Attrition Unknown

Sex Male Based on: Unknown

Stature Unknown Method: -

Pathology/Trauma Unknown Pathology: - Bone: -

Trauma: - Bone: -

Cultural Modification(s) Unknown Location: - Type: -

502 Operation 2012 Subop 14 Burial 102 - cont.

Burial Specifications Unknown Grave Type: -

Body Position: -

Cranium Orientation: -

Feet Position: -

Grave Good(s): -

Position(s): -

503 Operation 2012 Subop 14 Burial 103

Source: Diane Ballinger, 1991

Location: Operation 2012, Subop14, east- west trench atop superstructure of Subop 13.

Dating: Preclassic

Ceramic Dating: Unknown Inventory Cranial Unknown

Inventory Postcranial Unknown

MNI 1 Based on: Unknown

Age at Death Unknown Method: -

Dental Attrition Unknown

Sex Unknown* *Of note, one supramastoid crest well marked, but short by comparison with other burials. Based on: -

Stature Unknown Method: -

504 Operation 2012 Subop 14 Burial 103 – cont.

Pathology/Trauma Pathology: Spongy Porotic Hyperostosis Bone: Cranium expanded diploe and thickened outer table.

Pathology: Pacchonian Depressions Bone: Parietal

Trauma: Unknown Bone: -

Cultural Modification(s) Unknown Location: - Type: -

Burial Specifications Unknown Grave Type: -

Body Position: -

Cranium Orientation: -

Feet Position: -

Grave Good(s): -

Position(s): -

505 Operation 2012 Subop 14 Burial 104

Source: Diane Ballinger, 1991

Location: Operation 2012, Subop14, east- west trench atop superstructure of Subop 13. Dating: Preclassic

Ceramic Dating: Unknown Inventory Cranial Unknown

Inventory Postcranial Unknown

MNI 1 Based on: Unknown

Age at Death Juvenile (eight to ten years of age) Method: Vascular markings on bones. ( Bass 1988; Steele and Bramblett 1988; Ortner and Putschar 1983).

Dental Attrition No dentition with burial.

Sex Unknown Based on: -

Stature Unknown Method: -

Pathology/Trauma Unknown Pathology: - Bone: -

Trauma: - Bone: -

Cultural Modification(s) Unknown Location: - Type: -

506 Operation 2012 Subop 14 Burial 104 – cont.

Burial Specifications Unknown Grave Type: -

Body Position: -

Cranium Orientation: -

Feet Position: -

Grave Good(s): -

Position(s): -

507 Colha – Bolay - Chiwa Complex Burials

Operation 2012 Subop 12 Strat 61

Source: Lori Wright, 1989

Location: Operation 2012. Subop 12. West and adjacent to Subop 5 – Ceremonial Platform.

Dating: Middle Preclassic

Ceramic Dating: Bolay - Chiwa

Inventory Cranial Wright noted that the site map shows “skull”; however, she was unable to locate it.

Inventory Postcranial Humerus fragment, five metatarsals, six pedal phalanges. Wright noted that the site map exhibits humeri, ribs, femora, and tibiae, again she was unable to locate them.

MNI 1 Based on: Unknown

Age Unknown Method: -

Dental Attrition Unknown

Sex Undetermined due to contextual uncertainty. Based on: Slight to moderate supraorbital ridges indicating either a female or a gracile male.

Stature Unknown Method: -

Pathology/Trauma Unknown Pathology: - Bone: -

508 Operation 2012 Subop 12 Strat 61 – cont.

Trauma: - Bone: -

Cultural Modification(s) Unknown Location: - Type: -

Burial Specifications Grave Type: Pit

Body Position: Supine and extended

Cranium Orientation: East

Feet Position: -

Grave Good(s): 1. Dish

2. Spouted vessels (two)

Position(s): 1. Over cranium.

2. By knee area.

509 Operation 2012 Subop 12 Strat 67

Source: Lori Wright, 1989

Location: Operation 2012. Subop 12. West and adjacent to Subop 5 – Ceremonial Platform. Dating: Middle Preclassic

Ceramic Dating: Bolay - Chiwa

Inventory Cranial Fragments of cranial vault – Parietal, occipital. portions of the mandible, ten mandibular teeth, three maxillary Incisors.

Inventory Postcranial Fragments of humerii, left radius, femora, left tibia, fibulae, fragments of two left carpals, one manual phalange, talus, right metatarsal (5th ), one pedal phalange.

MNI 1 Based on: Unknown

Age at Death Middle Adult Method: Attrition

Dental Attrition Moderate to heavy; extensive dentine patches

Sex Unable to assess. Based on: -

Stature Unknown Method: -

510 Operation 2012 Subop 12 Strat 67 – cont.

Pathology/Trauma Pathology: Calculus Bone: Mandibular Central Incisors

Pathology: Caries - Cervical Bone: LP4

Pathology: Linear Enamel Hypoplasia at three years of age. Bone: I2; RC1

Trauma: - Bone: -

Cultural Modification(s) Unknown Location: - Type: -

Burial Specifications Grave Type: Pit

Body Position: Supine and extended

Cranium Orientation: East

Feet Position: -

Grave Good(s): 1. Dish

2. Spouted vessels (two)

Position(s): 1. Over cranium.

2. By knee area.

511 Operation 2012 Subop 12 Strat 68

Source: Lori Wright, 1989

Location: Operation 2012. Subop 12. West and adjacent to Subop 5 – Ceremonial Platform. Dating: Middle Preclassic

Ceramic Dating: Bolay - Chiwa

Inventory Cranial None excavated – upper portion of burial extended into another lot.

Inventory Postcranial Left and right lower limb fragments, portion of the right ischium, majority of feet, few pedal phalanges. (*extra right talus packaged with right femur and ischium fragments – may be fill material rather than MNI 2.) Four carpals-three left and one right. Five metacarpals-two left, two right, one unidentified. 12 manual phalanges.

MNI 1 Based on: Unknown

Age at Death 17 years + Method: Fusion of distal femoral epiphysis.

Dental Attrition Unknown

Sex Unable to assess. Based on: Pelvis not present.

Stature Unknown Method: -

512 Operation 2012 Subop 12 Strat 68 – cont.

Pathology/Trauma Unknown Pathology: - Bone: -

Trauma: - Bone: -

Cultural Modification(s) Unknown Location: - Type: -

Burial Specifications Grave Type: Pit, small

Body Position: -

Cranium Orientation: -

Feet Position: East

Grave Good(s): 1. Dishes (three)

Position(s): 1. Unknown

513 Operation 2012 Subop 12 Strat 72

Source: Lori Wright, 1989

Location: Operation 2012. Subop 12. West and adjacent to Subop 5 – Ceremonial Platform. Dating: Middle Preclassic

Ceramic Dating: Bolay - Chiwa

Inventory Cranial Unknown

Inventory Postcranial Unknown

MNI 7 Based on: Unknown

Age at Death Unknown Method: -

Dental Attrition Unknown

Sex Unknown Based on: -

Stature Unknown Method: -

Pathology/Trauma Unknown Pathology: - Bone: -

Trauma: - Bone: -

Cultural Modification(s) Unknown Location: - Type: -

514 Operation 2012 Subop 12 Strat 72 – cont.

Burial Specifications Grave Type: Pit(s) (five), cut through floor.

Body Position: Primary Individuals (five) extended and supine.

Cranium Orientation: -

Feet Position: -

Grave Good(s): -

Position(s): -

515 Operation 2012 Subop 12 Strat 73

Source: Lori Wright, 1989

Location: Operation 2012. Subop 12. West and adjacent to Subop 5 – Ceremonial Platform. Dating: Middle Preclassic

Ceramic Dating: Bolay - Chiwa

Inventory Cranial Fragmentary: parietals, temporals, occipital. Complete: mandible, nine maxillary and 14 mandibular teeth.

*EXTRANEOUS cranial vault remains – left and right frontal, left and right temporal, right zygomatic (posited that these remains may belong to Strat 61 – by reason that external table is eroded as if a vessel had been covering and had prevented soil accumulation).

Inventory Postcranial Fragmentary: clavicle, right humerus, right ilium, right femur, and fibulae, four cervical and two unidentified vertebrae, four carpals, three metacarpals, three manual phalanges, four tarsals, six metatarsals, and six pedal phalanges. Complete: Right and left tali, right cuboid. MNI 1 Based on: Unknown

Age at Death Young Adult Method: Dentition, fully erupted 3rd molars and low attrition.

Dental Attrition Low

Sex Male Based on: Large mastoid processes, everted gonial angles, large right acetabulum diameter.

Stature Unknown Method: -

516 Operation 2012 Subop 12 Strat 73 – cont.

Pathology/Trauma Pathology: Calculus Bone: Maxillary and Mandibular Anterior Teeth.

Pathology: Caries 3 Bone: RC1 – Cervical, RM - Fissure Related

Pathology: Linear Enamel Hypoplasia Bone: P3 – three years of age, C1 – four and one half years of age

Trauma: - Bone: -

Cultural Modification(s) Unknown Location: - Type: -

Burial Specifications Grave Type: Pit

Body Position: -

Cranium Orientation: -

Feet Position: -

Grave Good(s): 1.-2. Vessels (two)

3. Shell beads

4. Fish

Position(s): 1. Over cranium.

2. Over os coxae

3. Wrists

4. Near right tibia

Cinnabar/Red Ochre/Unspecified Red Pigment: Yes – red stain over pelvis. 517 Operation 2012 Subop 12 Strat 74 Burials A & B

Source: Lori Wright, 1989

Location: Operation 2012. Subop 12. West and adjacent to Subop 5 – Ceremonial Platform. Dating: Middle Preclassic

Ceramic Dating: Bolay - Chiwa Burial 74A Disarticulated* Burial 74B Articulated

Inventory Cranial Burial A – Cranium – labeled extra cranium – Fragmentary: Right frontal, occipital, sphenoid. Miscellaneous vault fragments. Complete: Right temporal, right and left zygomatics. 13 Maxillary and mandibular teeth.

Burial B – Cranium Fragmentary: Frontal, left parietal, maxilla. Miscellaneous vault fragments. 14 Maxillary and 12 mandibular teeth

One extraneous mandibular lateral incisor crown.

Inventory Postcranial Burial A and B*(unable to separate remains, appears that Individual A was disturbed and rearranged for the later interment of Individual B)

Fragmentary portions of scapulae, clavicles, left radius, right ulna, right humerus, ischia, femora, tibae, fibulae, seven cervical vertebrae (two identified) and six thorasic vertebrae, one carpals, four tarsals, nine metacarpals, and eight metatarsals. Complete radii, ulnae, left humerus, three carpals, four tarsals, one metatarsal, 12 manual phalanges.

MNI 2 Based on: Multiple duplicate skeletal remains.

518 Operation 2012 Subop 12 Strat 74 Burials A & B – cont.

Age at Death Burial 74A - Young Adult Burial 74B – Young Adult

Method: Burial 74A and 74B– Dentition - fully erupted 3rd molars and low Attrition.

Dental Attrition Low

Sex 74A – Male 74B – Possibly female

Based on: 74A – Large mastoid processes, everted gonial angles.

74 B – Slightly inverted gonial angles.

Stature Unknown Method: -

Pathology/Trauma Pathology: Burial A - Calculus Bone: Narrow ring encircling almost all 23 teeth.

Pathology: Burial A - Caries 1 Bone: LM2 – Wear related, RM - cervical

Pathology: Burial A – Linear Enamel Hypoplasia Bone: LC1 – three years of age.

Pathology: Burial A - Periodontal Disease Bone: Posterior Interdental Septa

Pathology: Burial A – Systemic Infection Bone: Two Tibae and one Fibula with evidence of healed or healing infection. Longitudinal striations on medial midshaft surfaces.

519 Operation 2012 Subop 12 Strat 74 Burials A & B – cont.

Pathology: Burial B - Calculus Bone: Anterior Mandibular Teeth.

Pathology: Burial B – Caries – five recorded Bone: Posterior Teeth

Pathology: Burial B – Linear Enamel Hypoplasia Bone: RC1 – three and one half to four years of age.

Trauma: - Bone:

Cultural Modification(s) Unknown Location: - Type: -

Burial Specifications Grave Type: Pit

Body Position: Extended, supine, upper torso rotated to left side

Cranium Orientation: Burial A – South*(“extra cranium” placed on right shoulder of Burial B).

Burial B – South

Feet Position: -

Grave Good(s): 1. Tubular bone beads; beads

Position(s): 1. In fill foot to neck; both wrists

520 Operation 2012 Subop 12 Strat 75

Source: Lori Wright, 1989

Location: Operation 2012. Subop 12. West and adjacent to Subop 5 – Ceremonial Platform. Dating: Middle Preclassic

Ceramic Dating: Bolay - Chiwa

Inventory Cranial Fragmentary: Mandible, frontal, occipital, right temporal, RP3.

Inventory Postcranial Fragmentary: Right femur, right tibia, eight manual phalanges, two tarsals, four pedal phalanges, one cervical vertebrae. Complete: One left scaphoid.

*Wright notes that long bone fragments are not sufficient to account for long bones indicated on site map.

MNI 1 Based on: Unknown

Age at Death >14 and perhaps, Middle to Old Adulthood. Method: Phalangeal Epiphyseal Fusion (= age >14) Severe arthritic porosity and lipping of the single cervical fragment, heavy attrition on single premolar

Dental Attrition Heavy

Sex No diagnostic features. Based on: -

Stature Unknown Method: -

521 Operation 2012 Subop 12 Strat 75 - cont.

Pathology/Trauma Pathology: Arthritic Porosity and Lipping Bone: Cervical Vertebral Body Fragment

Trauma: - Bone: -

Cultural Modification(s) Unknown Location: - Type: -

Burial Specifications Grave Type: Pit

Body Position: -

Cranium Orientation: West

Feet Position: -

Grave Good(s): 1.-2. Vessels (two)

3. Beads

Position(s): 1. Over cranium.

2. Between femora.

3. Both wrists.

522 Operation 2012 Subop 12 Strat 76

Source: Lori Wright, 1989

Location: Operation 2012. Subop 12. West and adjacent to Subop 5 – Ceremonial Platform. Dating: Middle Preclassic

Ceramic Dating: Bolay - Chiwa

Inventory Cranial Adult Remains: Fragmentary - Mandible, frontal, parietals, occipital, zygomatics, maxilla, 14 maxillary and16 mandibular teeth.

Immature Remains: Miscellaneous cranial fragments.

Inventory Postcranial Adult Remains: Fragmentary - Clavicles, humerii, right radius, two cervical vertebrae, right ulna, left femur,right tibia, fibulae, right talus, left calcaneus, left cunneiform - two, right metatarsal (1st) left metatarsal (2nd and 5th), two unidentified metatarsals, right hamate, left metacarpals (2nd, 3rd, and 5th).

Complete: Cervical vertebrae (1st and 2nd), left and right scaphoid, left lunate, left triquetrum, right trapezium, right trapezoid, left capitate, left hamate, left metacarpal (1st and 4th) right metacarpals (1st, 4th,and 5th).

Immature Remains: Fragmentary – Right radius, tibia, ribs, right ulna.

MNI 2 Based on: Immature and adult bones commingled.

523 Operation 2012 Subop 12 Strat 76 – cont.

Age at Death Middle Adult, Infant or Full-Term Fetus Method: Middle Adult: Coronal Suture Fusion – Todd and Lyon (1924), Dental Attrition.

Infant or fetus: Fragment Size.

Dental Attrition Moderate

Sex Adult – Female Fetus - Undetermined Based on: Mastoid Processes - moderate to small, inverted gonial angles.

Stature Unknown Method: -

Pathology/Trauma Pathology: Adult Remains – Slight Calculus Bone: Mandibular Teeth (most).

Pathology: Adult Remains : Caries Bone: Cervical (two), Fissure Related (one).

Pathology: Adult Remains: Linear Enamel Hypoplasia Bone: RC1 – four and one half years of age.

Pathology: Adult Remains: Infectious Process/Evidence of Systemic Infection – advanced and active at time of death. Bone: Right Ulna: Midshaft: Active Periostitic Depositition Tibial Fragment: Severe Sclerotic Periosteal New Bone – Endosteal thinning of cortex and deposition in loose, lacy trabeculae.

Trauma: - Bone: -

524 Operation 2012 Subop 12 Strat 76 – cont.

Cultural Modification(s) Unknown Location: - Type: -

Burial Specifications Grave Type: Pit

Body Position: -

Cranium Orientation: Adult Remains - South

Feet Position: -

Grave Good(s): 1.-2. Vessels (two)

3. Female figurine

4. Shell beads

5. Immature human(?) bone

Position(s): 1. South of cranium

2. Over cranium

3. South of feet

4. Right wrist, probably left

5. Between femora

525 Operation 2012 Subop 12 Strat 77

Source: Lori Wright, 1989

Location: Operation 2012. Subop 12. West and adjacent to Subop 5 – Ceremonial Platform. Dating: Middle Preclassic

Ceramic Dating: Bolay - Chiwa

Inventory Cranial Fragmentary: Mandible, frontal, right and left parietal, occipital, right and left temporal .

Inventory Postcranial Fragmentary: Right scapula, clavicles, humerii, left ulna, left tibia, left fibula, right metacarpal (4th), four manual phalanges, cervical vertebrae (1st and 2nd), one unidentified cervical, five maxillary and two mandibular teeth.

MNI 1 Based on: Unknown

Age at Death Middle to Old Adulthood Method: Dental Attrition, Antemortem Tooth Loss, Severe Porosity and Lipping of Cervical Body

Dental Attrition Moderate

Sex Possible Male Based on: Large Mastoid Processes, Mental Trigonium (strong).

Stature Unknown Method: -

Pathology/Trauma Pathology: Antemortem Tooth Loss – Notable Resorption Bone: LM1, LM2, LM3, and RP4

Pathology: Caries Bone: LP4 – Wear Related, RM1 – Fissure Related

526 Operation 2012 Subop 12 Strat 77 – cont.

Pathology: Severe Porosity and Lipping Bone: Cervical Vertebral Body

Trauma: - Bone: -

Cultural Modification(s) Unknown Location: - Type: -

Burial Specifications Grave Type: Pit

Body Position: Extended and supine

Cranium Orientation: West

Feet Position: -

Grave Good(s): 1.-2. Vessels (two)

3. Beads

4. Bone art – turtle bone*

Position(s): 1. Over cranium

2. Adjacent to vessel no. 1, over right shoulder

3. Both wrists.

4. By right femur, east of hand.

*Modified and thought to be a clan or lineade marker. Same position (right side of skeletal material near leg bones) as fish remains found in Strat 73.

527 Operation 2031 Subop 3 Strat 54 Source: Diane Young, 1994

Location: Operation 2031 Subop3 Main Plaza. Lower portion of Strat 38A, a deep, Bolay Complex midden.

Dating: Middle Preclassic

Ceramic Dating: Bolay

Inventory Cranial Present but in fragmentary condition.

Inventory Postcranial Present, represented by large shaft fragments of the right humerus, the ulnae, radii, tibiae, and femora. Mulitple hand and foot bones present. Most dentition is present.

*Of note, individual exhibits pronounced muscle attachments on the ulnae for the supernator brevis and flexor digitorum profundus. The radii display pronounced attachements for the flexor pollicus longus. (The supernator turns the palms up and the flexors clench the fingers and thumb.)

MNI 1 Based on: Unknown

Age at Death Adult Method: Presence of 3rd molars and attrition noted on all teeth. No evidence of arthritis, however, few bones were available for analysis – the articular ends of the long bones were not preserved.

Dental Attrition Obliterated cusps on premolars and molars. Minimum exposure of dentin on premolars. Anterior teeth displayed more wear and also uneven wear. RI2 has a strong slant, angling down from the mesial to distal margin. Secondary dentin exposure on incisor and canine teeth.

Sex Probable Male Based on: Estimated mid-shaft circumference of the femora -85 mm., Black (1978); Maximum length of the talus – 51-52 mm., Steele, 1976; and the height of the mandibular body, Massey (1985). (Author cautions on the use of these methods uncritically across populations.)

528 Operation 2031 Subop 3 Strat 54 – cont.

Stature 154.86 + 3.417 cm. 156.74 + 3.8 cm. to 154.196 + 2.99 cm. Method: Genovés, Trotter and Gleser formulae respectively.

Pathology/Trauma Pathology: Alveolar Resorption Bone: Mandible and Maxilla

Pathology: Periodontal Disease Bone: Mandible and Maxilla

Trauma: - Bone: -

Cultural Modification(s) Unknown Location: - Type: -

Burial Specifications Grave Type: Midden

Body Position: Extended and supine , vessel covering skull.

Cranium Orientation: West

Feet Position: Covered by Strat 61.

Grave Good(s): 1. Shell beads (numerous) circular

2. Jade celt, small.

3. Bowl, Consejo Red – Bolay type.

Position(s): 1. Near pelvis and both wrists.

2. Near left arm.

3. Covering skull.

529 Operation 2031 Subop 3 Strat 57

Source: Diane Young, 1994

Location: Operation 2031 Subop3 Main Plaza. Lower portion of Strat 38A, a deep, Bolay Complex midden. Dating: Middle Preclassic

Ceramic Dating: Bolay

Inventory Cranial Present but fragmentary, poor condition. 1st and 2nd premolars still in place, other deciduous dentition recovered from burial but not in the mandible or maxilla.

Inventory Postcranial Shaft portions of humerii, ulnae, radii, femora, tibiae, and fibulae. Both clavicles, scapulae fragments, rib fragments, vertebral arch fragments, vertebral bodies, metatarsal fragments, and phalanges.

MNI 1 Based on: Unknown

Age at Death Child ( three to four years of age) Method: Presence of full set of deciduous dentition that displays attrition, and the development status of the permanent incisors, canines, and first molar, Schour and Massler (1944); Ubelaker (1978).

Dental Attrition Yes on deciduous dentition.

Sex Unable to assess. Based on: Due to age.

Stature Unknown Method: -

Pathology/Trauma Noted - no dental hypoplasia or caries. Pathology: - Bone: -

Trauma: - Bone: - 530 Operation 2031 Subop 3 Strat 57 – cont.

Cultural Modification(s) Unknown Location: - Type: -

Burial Specifications Grave Type: Midden, dug into or placed on top of Strat 61, probably postdating earlier interments.

Body Position: Tightly flexed and sitting,

Cranium Orientation: -

Feet Position: -

Grave Good(s): None

Position(s): -

531 Operation 2031 Subop 3 Strat 59

Source: Diane Young, 1994

Location: Operation 2031 Subop3 Main Plaza. Lower portion of Strat 38A, a deep, Bolay Complex midden.

Dating: Middle Preclassic

Ceramic Dating: Bolay

Inventory Cranial Present and fragmentary but in better condition than Strat 57. Fragments of major portions of mandible and maxilla.

Inventory Postcranial Shaft sections of humerii, ulnae, radii, and femora. Rib fragments, vertebral arch fragments, shaft fragments of metacarpals and phalanges.

MNI 1 Based on: Unknown

Age at Death Juvenile (10 - 11 years old) Method: Preserved eruption sequence of dentition, the degree of root completion on mandibular second molars, and the size of the crown of LM3, Schour and Massler (1944); Ubelaker (1978).

Dental Attrition Unknown

Sex Unable to assess Based on: Due to age

Stature Unknown Method: -

Pathology/Trauma Noted - no dental hypoplasia. Pathology: Caries Bone: LM2

Pathology: Shoveling Bone: Maxillary Incisors

532 Operation 2031 Subop 3 Strat 59 – cont.

Pathology: Double Shoveling Bone: LI1

Trauma: - Bone: -

Cultural Modification(s) Unknown Location: - Type: -

Burial Specifications Grave Type: Midden

Body Position: Semi-flexed on right side, facing south.

Cranium Orientation: (facing) South

Feet Position: -

Grave Good(s): 1. Shell beads (two).

2. Shell (one piece) drilled.

3. Bowl, Ramgoat Red, Bolay Complex.

Position(s): 1. Under vessel, grave good no. 3.

2. Under vessel, grave good no. 3.

3. Covering skull.

533 Operation 2031 Subop 3 Strat 63

Source: Diane Young, 1994

Location: Operation 2031 Subop3 Main Plaza. Lower portion of Strat 38A, a deep, Bolay Complex midden.

Dating: Middle Preclassic

Ceramic Dating: Bolay

Inventory Cranial Incomplete and badly fragmented remains. Major portion of edentulous mandible. No dentition recovered.

Inventory Postcranial Incomplete and badly fragmented remains. Shaft fragments of the right humerus, both femora, tibiae, and fibulae.

*Noted that the humerus had a pronounced muscle attachment for the pectoralis major – used for adduction (movement toward the body) of the arm.

MNI 1 Based on: Unknown

Age at Death Probable Old Adult Method: Degree of bone remodeling and resorption. Noted that while attrition rates do vary between populations, the condition of the mandible suggests at least an age of adult and most probably old adult.

Dental Attrition Unknown

Sex Probable Female Based on: Midshaft circumference of right femur – 80 cm., Black (1978), in conjunction with the small size of the mastoids and the morphology of the chin – more pointed than square.

Stature Unable to assess. Method: Based on bones recovered.

534 Operation 2031 Subop 3 Strat 63 – cont.

Pathology/Trauma Pathology: Antemortem Tooth Loss and Alveolar Resorption Bone: Left Mandibular Teeth (all), and Right Mandibular Central Incisor, Premolars, and Molars.

Trauma: - Bone: -

Cultural Modification(s) Unknown Location: - Type: -

Burial Specifications Grave Type: Midden

Body Position: Extended and supine.

Cranium Orientation: -

Feet Position: -

Grave Good(s): 1. Shell beads (numerous).

2. Effigy vessel of non-local manufacture – potbelly figurine.

Position(s): 1. Around the left wrist

2. On left femur.

535 Operation 2031 Lot 218

Source: Lori Wright, 1989

Location: Operation 2031. Main Plaza. Between two alignments of stones near northern edge of Suboperation 6.

Dating: Middle Preclassic

Ceramic Dating: Bolay - Chiwa

Inventory Cranial Unknown

Inventory Postcranial Unknown

MNI 1 Based on: Unknown

Age at Death Young Adult Method: Unknown

Dental Attrition Unknown

Sex Male Based on: Unknown

Stature Unknown Method: -

Pathology/Trauma Pathology: - Bone: -

Trauma: Healed Fractures Bone: Left Metatarsals (2nd and 3rd)

Cultural Modification(s) Unknown Location: - Type: -

536 Operation 2031 Lot 218 – cont.

Burial Specifications Grave Type: Cist(?) – between two alignments of stones.

Body Position: Supine with legs crossed or semi-flexed

Cranium Orientation: -

Feet Position: West

Grave Good(s): 1. Bone tubes (polished).

Position(s): 1. Alongside left leg.

537 Operation 2031 Lot 219

Source: Lori Wright, 1989

Location: Operation 2031 Main Plaza. Primary midden matrix directly over sterile soil

Dating: Middle Preclassic

Ceramic Dating: Bolay - Chiwa

Inventory Cranial Cranium and upper thorax

Inventory Postcranial Unknown

MNI 1 Based on: Unknown

Age at Death Old Adulthood Method: Antemortem Tooth Loss Severe Arthritic Joint Degeneration

Dental Attrition Unknown

Sex Probable female Based on: Unknown

Stature Unknown Method: -

Pathology/Trauma Pathology: Antemortem Tooth Loss Bone: Unknown

Pathology: Arthritic Joint Degeration Bone: Unknown

538 Operation 2031 Lot 219 – cont.

Trauma: - Bone: -

Cultural Modification(s) Unknown Location: - Type: -

Burial Specifications Grave Type: Midden

Body Position: Extended and supine

Cranium Orientation: Southwest

Feet Position: -

Grave Good(s): 1. Shell bead (one)

Position(s): 1. Unknown

539 Operation 2031 Lot 238

Source: Lori Wright, 1989

Location: Operation 2031. Main Plaza. Beneath floor – Lot 230 Structure1 - Subop. 1

Dating: Middle Preclassic

Ceramic Dating: Bolay - Chiwa

Inventory Cranial Unknown

Inventory Postcranial Unknown

MNI 1 Based on: Unknown

Age at Death 14 - 25 years Method: Unknown

Dental Attrition Moderate

Sex Male Based on: Unknown

Stature Unknown Method: -

Pathology/Trauma Pathology: Mixed Woven and Sclerotic Periostoses indicating Systemic Infection (severe) Bone: Long Bones (most), and Metatarsals

Trauma: - Bone: -

540 Operation 2031 Lot 238 – cont.

Cultural Modification(s) Unknown Location: - Type: -

Burial Specifications Grave Type: Pit, well-defined, beneath plaster floor.

Body Position: Extended and supine, left hand over hips, right hand at side body.

Cranium Orientation: Northwest

Feet Position: -

Grave Good(s): 1. Bowl (large)

Position(s): 1. Over cranium

541 Colha – Bolay – Chiwa – Onecimo Complex Burials

Operation 2012 Subop 3 (2nd Zone) Burial 1

Source: Daniel R. Potter, 1980

Location: Operation 2012. Subop 3 (2nd Zone). At juncture of Structure 26 and Structure 27. Midline of structures. Between Floor 4 and 5, largely in the west wall of Subop 3.

Dating: Middle to Late Preclassic

Ceramic Dating: Unknown

Inventory Cranial Individual A – Cranium present, articulated but damaged Individual B - Unknown

Inventory Postcranial Individual A – Present and articulated Individual B - Unknown

MNI 2 Based on: Unknown

Age at Death Individual A - Adult Individual B - Unknown Method: Unknown

Dental Attrition Unknown

Sex Unknown Based on: -

Stature Unknown Method: -

Pathology/Trauma Unknown Pathology: - Bone: - 542 Operation 2012 Subop 3 (2nd Zone) Burial 1 – cont.

Trauma: - Bone: -

Cultural Modification(s) Unknown Location: - Type: -

Burial Specifications Grave Type: Pit

Body Position: Individual A - Seated, knees up and laterally oriented, vertebral column vertical

Cranium Orientation: Individual A - East (facing)

Feet Position: Individual A - Together in front of the pelvic area

Grave Good(s)*: 1. Vessel, spouted

2. Bowls (two), shallow

3. Vessels (two), spouted

4. Bowl

Position(s): 1. – 2. Northside of individual

3. – 4. Southside of individual

*Six additional, reconstructable vessels were recovered from the fill along with human bone fragments. These could possibly indicate a previous interment that was disturbed with this burial episode.

543 Operation 2012 Subop 3 (2nd Zone) Burial 2

Source: Daniel R. Potter, 1980

Location: Operation 2012. Subop 3 (2nd Zone). At juncture of Structure 26 and Structure 27. Midline of structures. Between Floor 4 and 5, largely in the west wall of Subop 3.

Dating: Middle to Late Preclassic

Ceramic Dating: Unknown

Inventory Cranial Disarticulated fragmentary mass at bottom of pit.

Inventory Postcranial Disarticulated fragmentary mass at bottom of pit.

MNI 1 Based on: Unknown

Age at Death Unknown Method: -

Dental Attrition Unknown

Sex Unknown Based on: -

Stature Unknown Method: -

Pathology/Trauma Unknown Pathology: - Bone: -

Trauma: - Bone: -

Cultural Modification(s) Unknown Location: - Type: - 544 Operation 2012 Subop 3 (2nd Zone) Burial 2 – cont.

Burial Specifications Grave Type: Pit

Body Position: Disarticulated bone mass at base of burial pit.

Cranium Orientation: -

Feet Position: -

Grave Good(s): 1. Bowl, ( one – possible) fragmented, large, “resist” decoration of interior surface.

2. Bone tubes (two – possible).

Position(s): 1. Unknown

2. Mixed in with disarticulated bone mass at base of pit.

545 Colha – Onecimo Complex Burials

CH Operation 2012 Subop 3 Burial 2

Source: Diane Ballinger, 1991

Location: CH Operation 2012. Subop 3 Ceremonial Platform.

Dating: Late Preclassic (?)

Ceramic Dating: Onecimo

Inventory Cranial Four Adult dentitions and eight loose teeth, three edentulous mandibles.

Inventory Postcranial Unknown

MNI 7 Based on: Mandibles and dentitions

Age at Death Adult (seven) Based on: Dentition, slight lipping and pitting of inferior vertebral articular surfaces

Dental Attrition *Noted on 1 individual, the dentition was gracile enough to be female and had possible filed teeth. Distinctive wear pattern.

Sex Six Male with one possible female. Based on: Mandibles exhibited strongly everted gonial angles and large ascending rami. Strong nuchal cresting noted. Pronounced suprameatal crest and supraorbital ridges.

Stature Unknown Method: -

546 CH Operation 2012 Subop 3 Burial 2 – cont.

Pathology/Trauma Pathology: Anemias (healed) Bone: Unknown

Pathology: Arthritic Degeneration Bone: Inferior Vertebral Articulated Surfaces

Pathology: Caries Bone: Unknown

Pathology: Linear Enamel Hypoplasias Bone: Unknown

Pathology: Osteophytic Growths Bone: Margins of the vertebrae

Pathology: Periodontal Disease Bone: Unknown

Pathology: Periostitis Bone: Tibia (one) – shaft, localized, healed.

Trauma: Fracture (healed) Bone: Tibia - midshaft

Cultural Modification(s) Location: Dentition of possible female. Type: Filing

Burial Specifications Unknown Grave Type: -

Body Position: -

Cranium Orientation: -

Feet Position: -

Grave Good(s): -

Position(s): - 547 Operation 2012 Subop 5

Source: Diane Ballinger, 1991 Lori Wright, 1989

Location: Operation 2012. Subop 5. Cemetery – Ceremonial Platform.

Dating: Late Preclassic

Ceramic Dating: Onecimo

Inventory Cranial 14 Crania (two inclusive of mandible – included in count), six mandibles, numerous loose teeth.

Inventory Postcranial Multiple vertebrae, ribs, radii, ulnae, tibiae, fibulae, carpals, tarsals, pedal and manual phalanges, humerii, femora, and one left ishium.

MNI 17 Based on: Osteological inventory.

Age at Death Seven – Old Adult (Male), two – Young Adult (Male), two – Young Adult, one – Adult, two – Adolescent, one – Adult (possible Female), two – Unknown Method: Dental analyses, cranial morphology (size of mastoid processes, robusticity), nuchal lines, cranial suture closure, arthritic epiphyses.

Dental Attrition Severe wear used to age five Old Adults.

Sex See above Based on: Cranial morphology, preauricular sulcus presence noted.

Stature Unknown Method: -

Pathology/Trauma Pathology: Alveolar Resorption Bone: Mandible(s) – (six)

Pathology: Antemortem Tooth Loss Bone: Mandible(s) (four) and Maxilla (one) 548 Operation 2012 Subop 5 – cont.

Pathology: Arthritic Condition Bone: Radius (one) and Right Ulna (one)

Pathology: Arthritic Lipping (severe) Bone: Cervical Vertebrae (one individual)

Pathology: Dental Carie Bone: Molar (one – unspecified)

Pathology: Linear Enamel Hypoplasia Bone: Anterior Mandibular and Maxillary Teeth of individual (one)

Pathology: Peridontal Infection Bone: Mandible and Maxilla (one individual)

Trauma: Disarticulation and Defleshing* Bone: Cranial and Postcranial elements

Cultural Modification(s) Unknown Location: - Type: -

Burial Specifications Grave Type: Pit, connected pits (four)

Body Position: Unable to ascertain due to heavily disarticulated specimens.

Cranium Orientation: See above.

Feet Position: See above.

Grave Good(s): 1. (?) Ceramic sherds and stone tools

2. Bone tubes (four)

Position(s): 1. Stacked against amongst the cranial material , with minimal organization.

2. Behind and in front (as if strung) of two of the crania.

549 Operation 2012 Subop 5 – cont.

*While defleshing and disarticulation are evident, cleaning and reconstruction of the bones are needed to observe cut marks.

Cremation/Burning (?): Yes Cranial fragments show evidence of burning.

550 Operation 2031 Lot 87

Residential Burial Source: Lori Wright, 1989

Location: Operation 2031. Main Plaza. Beneath the floor, northernmost excavated structure in Suboperation 7.

Dating: Late Preclassic

Ceramic Dating: Onecimo

Inventory Cranial Parietals, occipital, frontal, facial, and basal cranium.

Inventory Postcranial Unknown

MNI 1 Based on: Unknown

Age at Death Adult Method: Unknown

Dental Attrition Unknown

Sex Female Based on: Osteometric analysis

Stature Unknown Method: -

Pathology/Trauma Unknown Pathology: - Bone: -

Trauma: - Bone: -

551 Operation 2031 Lot 87 – cont.

Cultural Modification(s) Unknown Location: - Type: -

Burial Specifications Grave Type: Simple, beneath floor. No pit outlines were visible.

Body Position: Flexed and seated with right arm wrapped around right leg with hand above the right foot and, left arm wrapped with hand beneath the left knee.

Cranium Orientation: Southeast

Feet Position: -

Grave Good(s): 1. Chicanel bucket

2. Ceramic disc

3. Stemmed macroblade (basal portion only)

4. Rodent incisor (large) – Gibnut?

Position(s): 1. Over skull

2. Inside base of vessel with rodent incisor (grave good no. 4).

3. Beneath occipital adjacent to the vessel.

4. Inside base of vessel with ceramic disc (grave good no. 2).

552 Operation 2031 Lot 95

Residential Burial Source: Lori Wright, 1989

Location: Operation 2031. Main Plaza. 1 m. west of Lot 87 same stratigraphy as Lot 87.

Dating: Late Preclassic

Ceramic Dating: Onecimo

Inventory Cranial Unknown

Inventory Postcranial Unknown

MNI 1 Based on: Unknown

Age at Death Child - five years (approximately) Method: Unknown

Dental Attrition Unknown

Sex Unknown Based on: -

Stature Unknown Method: -

Pathology/Trauma No indications of disease visible, remains extremely fragmentary. Pathology: - Bone: -

Trauma: - Bone: -

553 Operation 2031 Lot 95 – cont.

Cultural Modification(s) Unknown Location: - Type: -

Burial Specifications Grave Type: Simple, same stratigraphic context as Lot 87, no pit outlines observed.

Body Position: Tightly bundled in fetal position

Cranium Orientation: Southeast

Feet Position: -

Grave Good(s): 1. Chicanel red spouted jar, small

2. Sherd disc

Position(s): 1. West of cranium

2. Beneath cranium

554 Operation 2031 Lot 107

Source: Lori Wright, 1989

Location: Operation 2031. Main Plaza. Surface of Lot 155

Dating: Late Preclassic

Ceramic Dating: Onecimo

Inventory Cranial Unknown

Inventory Postcranial Unknown

MNI 12 Based on: Quantity of right temporal bones

Age at Death 11 Adult Method: Unknown

Age at Death Possible Subadult (one) Method: Femoral diaphysis

Dental Attrition Unknown

Sex At least three Male and three Female Based on: Mastoid Processes Morphology

Sex At least five Male and two Female Based on: Suggested by metric dimensions

Stature Unknown Method: -

555 Operation 2031 Lot 107 – cont.

Pathology/Trauma Pathology: - Bone: -

Trauma: - Bone: -

Cultural Modification(s) Unknown Location: - Type: -

Burial Specifications Grave Type: Crypt – “well-like”. Constructed, in a circular shape, built from roughly shaped limestone and marl blocks. A single marl capstone covered the opening. It was set on end into a Late Preclassic surface.

Body Position: Disarticulated mass of human bone .

Cranium Orientation: -

Feet Position: -

Grave Good(s): -

Position(s): -

556 Operation 2031 Lot 110

Source: Lori Wright, 1989

Location: Operation 2031. Main Plaza. Center of Lot 118.

Dating: Late Preclassic

Ceramic Dating: Onecimo

Inventory Cranial (Individual A) Relatively complete but not fully reconstructable. (Individual B) No cranium. (Individual C) No cranium. Five Secondary Crania (includes one juvenile) Cranium C (NOT INDIVIDUAL C) Cranium D Cranium G Cranium H Cranium I

Inventory Postcranial (Individual A) Generally complete. (Individual B) Torso, right and Left Arm. (Individual C) Partially articulated right and left forearms with hands, right hip and right foot. Mass of disarticulated remains of five(?) individuals. Data relatively content that these remains match the five crania listed above.

Secondary Individuals: Four Left and right femora, tibiae, and humerii. Three Left and right radii, and ulnae. A few cervical vertebrae carpals, tarsals, phalanges and ribs were recovered but greatly insufficient for the count of long bones and crania.

Juvenile remains included left clavicle and humerus, ulnae, femora, tibiae, and a fibula.

557 Operation 2031 Lot 110 – cont.

MNI 8 Based on: Articulated Individual (one – Individual A) Disarticulated Individuals (two – Individual B and Individual C) Disarticulated secondarily deposited Individuals (five)

Age at Death (Individual A) Old Adult (40-60 years)

(Individual B) Middle Adult

(Individual C) Middle Adult

Secondary Individuals: Cranium C – Adult Cranium D – Old Adult Cranium E – Adult Cranium H – Juvenile (nine and one half to ten years) Cranium I – Middle Adult

Method: (Individual A) Morphology of Auricular Surface of the Ilium Lovejoy et al. (1985).

(Individual B) Pelvic Morphology

(Individual C) Morphology of Auricular Surface of the Ilium Lovejoy et al. (1985).

558 Operation 2031 Lot 110 – cont.

Secondary Individuals: Cranium C – Unknown

Cranium D – Alveolar Resorption, Temporomandibular Joint Degeneration.

Cranium E – Unknown

Cranium H –Maxillary Dentition

Cranium I – Unfused epiphysis of femora, tibiae, ilia, ulnae, left clavicle and humerus, and a fibula

Dental Attrition Unknown with the exception of Cranium D - Old Adult Significant antemortem teeth loss and subsequent resorption.

Sex (Individual A) Female (Individual B) Female (Individual C) Unable to assess

Secondary Individuals: Cranium C – Male

Cranium D – Female

Cranium E – Female

Cranium H – Juvenile – Unable to assess.

Cranium I – Male

Based on: (Individual A) – Pelvic and cranial morphology (Individual B) – Pelvic and cranial morphology (Individual C) –

Secondary Individuals: Cranial morphology.

559 Operation 2031 Lot 110 – cont.

Stature Unknown Method: -

Pathology/Trauma Pathology: (Individual A) – Antemortem Tooth Loss, Alveolar Recession and Periodontal Disease Bone: Maxilla and/or Mandible

Pathology: (Individual A) – Periostosis Bone: Femora and Left Radius – Healed Tibiae, Fibulae – Active layer (thin)

Pathology: (Individual A) – Systemic Infectious Process Bone: Indicated by above Periostosis.

Trauma: (Individual A) – Collapsed Distal, Lateral Condyle, Osteophytes Bone: Right Middle Pedal Phalanx

Trauma: (Individual A) – Osteophytosis Bone: Vertebral Column Severe Cervical and Upper Thorasic Vertebrae

Pathology: Cranium C – Spongy Porotic Hyperostosis Bone: Occipital – Beneath the Lambda.

Trauma: Cranium C – Sclerotic Depression from healed Depressed Fracture (?) Bone: Frontal

560 Operation 2031 Lot 110 – cont.

Pathology: Cranium D – Anemia Bone: See below

Pathology: Cranium D – Cribra Orbitalia Bone: Both Orbits.

Pathology: Cranium D – Spongy Porotic Hyperostosis (healed) Bone: Parietals and Occipital

Pathology: Cranium D – Temporomandibular Joint Degeneration Bone: Glenoid Fossae

Trauma: Cranium D – Small round raised Sclerotic Area – possibly a reaction to traumatic damage (fracture?). Bone: Frontal

Pathology: Cranium E – Spongy Porotic Hyperostosis (healed) Bone: Parietals

Pathology: Cranium E – Temporomandibular Joint Degeneration Bone: Glenoid Fossae

Pathology: (Cranium H) – Arthritic Sclerotic Lytic Lesions Bone: Ventral Side of Thorasic Vertebral body *evidence of degenerative disease process(?).

Pathology: (Cranium H) – Slight Lipping and Porosity Bone: Occipital Condyles and Atlas.

Pathology: (Cranium H) – Systemic Infectious Process Bone: Shafts of Long Bones (all) – Periostosis (thick, woven).

561 Operation 2031 Lot 110 – cont.

Pathology: (Secondary Individuals/Postcranial) Arthritic Degeneration Bone: Cervical Vertebrae.

Pathology: (Secondary Individuals/Postcranial) Healed Sclerotic Periostosis Lesions. Bone: Left and Right Tibiae (two), Right Femur (one), Right and Left Ulna, Fibula (one).

Cultural Modification(s) Location: (Individual A) – Lambdoid Type: Slight Flattening – Cranial Shaping.

Location: (Cranium I ) – Occipital and Lambdoid Type: Definite Flattening – Cranial Shaping.

Burial Specifications Grave Type: Cist. Several large marl and limestone blocks arranged loosely around the edges and over the top of the feature.

Body Position: (Individual A) Seated, legs crossed, hands above knees. (Individual B) Cervical vertebrae and scapulae aligned to the south, with the pelvis to the north. Right arm at side with hand beneath right ilium, and left arm crossed over abdomen with the fingers fallen into the pelvic inlet. (Individual C) Unknown

Cranium Orientation: (Individual A) East (facing) (Cranium C) West (facing) (Cranium D) Southwest (facing) (Cranium I) Southwest (facing) (Cranium H) Southeast (facing)

Feet Position: -

Grave Good(s): (Individual A) 1. Vessel – Tecomate (small, brown, incised)

2. Vessel – depicting a tapir, small, brown

562 Operation 2031 Lot 110 – cont.

3. Dish, large, red

4. Jade and shell necklace

5. Earspool (bone)

6. Jade bead (large)

7. Gorget (shell)

Position(s): 1. Located to the north by the left femur.

2. Located to the north by the left femur.

3. In lap of Individual A containing stacked crania of secondary individuals.

4. Recovered from inside ribcage of Individual A.

5. Recovered from inside ribcage of Individual A.

6. Behind vertebral column of Individual A.

7. Among disarticulated remains near east rim of grave good no 3.

Cinnabar/Red Ochre/Unspecified Red Pigment: Yes - Individual A, Individual B, and Individual C exhibit red staining – listed as cinnabar or red ochre.

563 Operation 2031 Lot 116

Source: Lori Wright, 1989

Location: Operation 2031. Main Plaza. Surface of the Lot 123 floor (not in a pit)

Dating: Late Preclassic

Ceramic Dating: Onecimo

Inventory Cranial Maxillary central incisors (two)

Inventory Postcranial Fragmentary: Ulnae, radii, femora, tibiae, cervical vertebrae, metacarpals.

MNI 1 Based on: Unknown

Age at Death Unknown Method: -

Dental Attrition Unknown

Sex Unknown Based on: -

Stature Unknown Method: -

Pathology/Trauma Unknown Pathology: - Bone: -

Trauma: - Bone: -

564 Operation 2031 Lot 116 – cont.

Cultural Modification(s) Location: Maxillary incisors Type: B4 Romero (1970)

Burial Specifications Grave Type: Simple, deposited on floor (unique in that it is not a pit cutting through the floor)

Body Position: -

Cranium Orientation: -

Feet Position: -

Grave Good(s)*: 1. Large chert eccentric

2. Small chert eccentrics (three)

3. Stemmed macroblade

4. Macroblades (three) small

5. Bifaces (two)

(*Noted that partial vessels and lithics found nearby in Lots 119, 133, 159, and 168 may be associated with Lot 116.)

Position(s): 1. Beneath skeletal material

2. Above skeletal material

3. Unknown

4. Unknown

5. Unknown

565 Operation 2031 Lot 117

Source: Lori Wright, 1989

Location: Operation 2031. Main Plaza.

Dating: Late Preclassic

Ceramic Dating: Onecimo

Inventory Cranial Unknown

Inventory Postcranial Unknown

MNI 1 Based on: Articulated burial

Age at Death Young Adult Method: Unknown

Dental Attrition Unknown

Sex Male Based on: Unknown

Stature Unknown Method: -

Pathology/Trauma Pathology: Arthritic Degeneration (severe) Bone: Pedal Phalanges

Pathology: Spongy Porotic Hyperostosis (healed scars) Bone: Parietals and Frontal

Trauma: - Bone: -

566 Operation 2031 Lot 117 – cont.

Cultural Modification(s) Unknown Location: - Type: -

Burial Specifications Grave Type: Pit

Body Position: Seated

Cranium Orientation: Southwest

Feet Position: Crossed

Grave Good(s): 1. Dish, large, flat-bottomed - Sierra Red

2. Bucket, large – Sierra Red

3. Bead, jade, incised perforate

Position(s): 1. Over cranium

2. Between inidividual’s crossed feet.

3. Near pubic symphysis

567 Operation 2031 Lot 118

Burial Complex* Source: Lori Wright, 1989

Location: Operation 2031. Main Plaza. *Lot 18 is a burial complex. It contained 12 burial lots and the bone elements, Dating: Late Preclassic / Protoclassic sherds, and artifacts found in the fill were given this designation. It contains Ceramic Dating: Onecimo both Protoclassic and Chicanel ceramics, suggesting that perhaps some of these burials were intrusive and not contemporary.

Inventory Cranial Unknown

Inventory Postcranial Unknown

MNI Unknown Based on: -

Age at Death Unknown Method: -

Dental Attrition Unknown

Sex Unknown Based on: -

Stature Unknown Method: -

Pathology/Trauma Unknown Pathology: - Bone: -

Trauma: - Bone: -

568 Operation 2031 Lot 118 – cont.

Cultural Modification(s) Unknown Location: - Type: -

Burial Specifications Grave Type: Pit

Body Position: -

Cranium Orientation: -

Feet Position: -

Grave Good(s): -

Position(s): -

569 Operation 2031 Lot 122

Excavation Incomplete Source: Lori Wright, 1989

Location: Operation 2031. Main Plaza. Directly east of Lot 117 with contiguous burial pit.

Dating: Late Preclassic

Ceramic Dating: Onecimo

Inventory Cranial Unknown Occipital fragment

Inventory Postcranial Unknown

MNI 1 Based on: Unknown

Age at Death Adult Method: Unknown

Dental Attrition Unknown

Sex Female Based on: Unknown

Stature Unknown Method: -

Pathology/Trauma Pathology: - Bone: -

Trauma: - Bone: -

570 Operation 2031 Lot 122 – cont.

Cultural Modification(s) Unknown Location: - Type: -

Burial Specifications Grave Type: Pit (note that the top of the pit was “capped” by grave good no. 1).

Body Position: -

Cranium Orientation: -

Feet Position: -

Grave Good(s): 1. Vessel – Large basal flange dish – Sierra Red

Position(s): 1. Over cranium.

Evidence of Burning – Yes – occipital fragment.

571 Operation 2031 Lot 125

Source: Lori Wright, 1989

Location: Operation 2031. Main Plaza. Burial pit on southwest edge of Lot 118. Two features excavated; A and B Dating: Late Preclassic

Ceramic Dating: Onecimo

Inventory Cranial Feature A: Individual A – No cranium present Individual B – Cranium and mandible Individual C – No cranium present

Feature B: Individual A – No cranium present Individual B – No cranium present

Inventory Postcranial Feature A: Individual A – Spinal column, majority of bones with the exception of hands and feet. Individual B – None present Individual C – Fragmentary long bones, Small hand and foot bones.

Feature B: Individual A – Relatively articulated with complete spinal column, missing atlas, intact torso, forearms and legs disturbed. Individual B – Pelvic fragments, several long bones.

MNI 3* (see Age at Death notes) Based on: Feature A: Individual A – Juvenile bones* Individual B – Old Adult cranium* Individual C – Miscellaneous Adult bones

Based on: Feature B: Individual A – Old Adult postcranial material* Individual B – Young Adult Pelvic Assessment* 572 Operation 2031 Lot 125 – cont.

Age at Death Feature A: Individual A – 10-17 years (adolescent) Individual B – Old Adult* Individual C – Adult*

Method: Feature A: Individual A – Unknown Individual B – Cranial Assessment Individual C – Epiphyseal Fusion of Long Bones

Age at Death Feature B: Individual A – Old Adult* Individual B – Young Adult*

Method: Feature B: Individual A – Unknown Individual B – Unknown

Dental Attrition Unknown

Sex Feature A: Individual A – Unable to assess due to age. Individual B – Male Individual C – Unable to assess.

Based on: Feature A: Individual A – Individual B – Cranial Assessment Individual C –

Sex Feature B: Individual A – Male Individual B – Female

Based on: Feature B: Individual A – Unknown Individual B – Pelvic Assessment

Stature Unknown Method: -

573 Operation 2031 Lot 125 – cont.

Pathology/Trauma Pathology: Feature B Individual B – Periostosis (Mixed Woven Sclerotic Lesions). Bone: Most leg bones.

Trauma: Feature A Individual A – Cluster of parallel cut marks. Bone: Femoral Shaft

Cultural Modification(s) Location: Feature A Individual B - Lambdoid Type: Flattening

Burial Specifications Grave Type: Pit

Body Position: Feature B Individual A – Seated

Cranium Orientation: Feature B Individual A – East

Feet Position: -

Grave Good(s): Feature A 1. Bowl, small, brown

2. Chert biface

Position(s): 1. Above Feature A bones

2. Among Feature A bones

*Discrepencies between the MNI (minimum number of individuals) and the Age-at-Death categories are as follows: It is probable that the cranium and mandible found in Feature A (Individual B) actually belong with the postcranial skeleton in Feature B (Individual A). Ballinger also suggested that the pelvic fragments found in Feature B (Individual B) may belong with the miscellaneous fragments of Feature A (Individual C). Therefore, the MNI is three individuals despite an assessment of four age categories. For the purposes of the table and charts the age assessment of Young Adult is omitted. 574 Operation 2031 Lot 127 Source: Lori Wright, 1989

Location: Operation 2031. Main Plaza. Immediately west of Lot 117 and east of Lot 203.

Dating: Late Preclassic

Ceramic Dating: Onecimo

Inventory Cranial Unknown

Inventory Postcranial Unknown

MNI 2 Based on: Unknown

Age at Death Individual A – Adolescent 12-18 years Individual B – Middle/Old Adult

Method: Individual A – Epiphyseal fusion Individual B – Unknown

Dental Attrition Unknown

Sex Individual A – Possible Male Individual B – Male Based on: Individual A – Unknown Individual B – Unknown

Stature Unknown Method: -

Pathology/Trauma Pathology: Individual A – Systemic Bone Infection Bone: Femora and Tibiae

Pathology: Individual B – Spongy Porotic Hyperostosis (healed) Bone: Unknown

575 Operation 2031 Lot 127 – cont.

Trauma: Individual B – Colles Fracture (healed) Bone: Ulnae (both Ulna)

Cultural Modification(s) Unknown Location: - Type: -

Burial Specifications Grave Type: Pit

Body Position: Individual B – Seated (?)*

Cranium Orientation: Individual B – Facing East (?)*

*Inferred from articulated skeletal material in primary placement. Feet Position: -

Grave Good(s): 1. Dish (fragmentary) – Sierra Red

2. Bowl – Small, black, incomplete

3. Fushite bead

4. Biface

Position(s): 1. Over cranium of Individual A

2. Over cranium of Individual B in center of pit

3. Beneath cranium of Individual B

4. Beneath cranium of Individual B

576 Operation 2031 Lot 136

Residential Burial Source: Lori Wright, 1989

Location: Operation 2031. Main Plaza. Suboperation 5

Dating: Late Preclassic

Ceramic Dating: Onecimo

Inventory Cranial None, extended beyond the south profile of the unit

Inventory Postcranial Unknown

MNI 1 Based on: Unknown

Age at Death Adult Method: Unknown

Dental Attrition Unknown

Sex Unable to assess. Based on: -

Stature Unable to assess. Method: -

Pathology/Trauma Pathology: - Bone: -

Trauma: - Bone: -

577 Operation 2031 Lot 136 – cont.

Cultural Modification(s) Unknown Location: - Type: -

Burial Specifications Grave Type: Simple, beneath floor, no pit or frave outlines evident.

Body Position: Extended and supine

Cranium Orientation: South

Feet Position: -

Grave Good(s): 1. Chert bifaces (two) small

Position(s): 1. Near feet – but questionable association.

578 Operation 2031 Lot 137

Source: Lori Wright, 1989

Location: Operation 2031. Main Plaza. South margin of Lot 118 to the east of Lot 125. Contiguous with central pit joining Lots 223, 215, and 110.

Dating: Late Preclassic

Ceramic Dating: Onecimo

Inventory Cranial Individual A – No cranium Individual B – No cranium

Inventory Postcranial Individual A – Articulated from hips Individual B – Articulated from hips, radii, ulnae, and right humerus.

MNI 2 Based on: Unknown

Age at Death Individual A – Middle Adulthood Individual B – Middle Adulthood Method: Osteological analysis.

Dental Attrition Not possible to assess.

Sex Individual A – Male Individual B – Male Based on: Osteological analysis.

Stature Unknown Method: -

579 Operation 2031 Lot 137 – cont.

Pathology/Trauma Unknown Pathology: - Bone: -

Trauma: - Bone: -

Cultural Modification(s) Unknown Location: - Type: -

Burial Specifications Grave Type: Pit

Body Position: Individual A – Flexed (legs with pelvis only, upper body not found). Individual B – Flexed left leg beneath Individual A.

Cranium Orientation: -

Feet Position: -

Grave Good(s): None

Position(s): -

580 Operation 2031 Lot 142

Residential Burial Source: Lori Wright, 1989

Location: Operation 2031. Main Plaza. Against east wall of Suboperation 5.

Dating: Late Preclassic

Ceramic Dating: Onecimo

Inventory Cranial Unknown

Inventory Postcranial Unknown

MNI 1 Based on: Unknown

Age at Death Child – four years Method: Dentition

Dental Attrition Unknown

Sex Not possible to assess child Based on: -

Stature Unknown Method: -

Pathology/Trauma None observed Pathology: - Bone: -

Trauma: - Bone: -

Cultural Modification(s) Unknown Location: - Type: -

581 Operation 2031 Lot 142 – cont.

Burial Specifications Grave Type: Fill, against east wall of Subop 5. No pit or grave outlines visible.

Body Position: Flexed in fetal position on back

Cranium Orientation: Aligned northeast, facing west

Feet Position: -

Grave Good(s): -

Position(s): -

582 Operation 2031 Lot 165

Source: Lori Wright, 1989

Location: Operation 2031. Main Plaza. Westernmost pit of Lot 118 complex. Not contiguous with any other burial pits.

Dating: Late Preclassic

Ceramic Dating: Onecimo

Inventory Cranial Unknown

Inventory Postcranial Unknown

MNI 1 Based on: Unknown

Age at Death Middle Adulthood Method: Unknown

Dental Attrition Unknown

Sex Male Based on: Unknown

Stature Unknown Method: -

Pathology/Trauma Pathology: Systemic Infection/Periostosis (healed) Bone: Femora, Tibiae, Fibulae, Metatarsals

Trauma: - Bone: -

Cultural Modification(s) Unknown Location: - Type: -

583 Operation 2031 Lot 165 – cont.

Burial Specifications Grave Type: Pit

Body Position: Seated

Cranium Orientation: East

Feet Position: -

Grave Good(s): 1. Bowl – small, red, flat-bottomed

2. Biface fragment

3. Macroblade fragment

4. Jar

5. Sherds (two), large – different vessels

Position(s): 1. In lap.

2. Lap, beneath hands.

3. In mouth.

4. -5. In fill above cranium.

584 Operation 2031 Lot 184

Residential Burial Source: Lori Wright, 1989

Location: Operation 2031. Main Plaza. Burial feature within midden fill of Lot 183. East edge of Subop.5.

Dating: Late Preclassic

Ceramic Dating: Onecimo

Inventory Cranial Unknown

Inventory Postcranial Unknown

MNI 2 Based on: Unknown

Age at Death Individual A – Middle Adult Individual B – Old Adult Method: Unknown

Dental Attrition Unknown

Sex Individual A – Female Individual B – Male Based on: Unknown

Stature Unknown Method: -

585 Operation 2031 Lot 184 – cont.

Pathology/Trauma Pathology: Individual A – Periodontal Disease Bone: Dentition

Pathology: Individual A – Periostosis (healed) Bone: Lower limbs, left clavicle

Pathology: Individual B – Spongy Porotic Hyperostosis (healed) Bone: Long bones

Pathology: Individual B – Periostosis (healed) Bone: Long bones.

Trauma: Individual B – Colle’s fracture (healed) Bone: Right Ulna

Cultural Modification(s) Unknown Location: - Type: -

Burial Specifications Grave Type: Midden fill

Body Position: Individual A – Extended and supine Individual B – Extended and supine

Cranium Orientation: Individual A – South Individual B – South

Feet Position: -

Grave Good(s): Unknown

Position(s): Unknown

586 Operation 2031 Lot 203

Source: Lori Wright, 1989

Location: Operation 2031. Main Plaza. Beneath west profile of Subop 6.

Dating: Late Preclassic

Ceramic Dating: Onecimo

Inventory Cranial One cranium, fragmentary; two maxillae

Inventory Postcranial Humerii, tibiae, fibula, right hamate, left talus, right radius

MNI 2 Based on: Presence of two Maxillae, and two Right Tibia

Age at Death Middle Adulthood for fragmentary cranium Method: Unknown

Dental Attrition Unknown

Sex Female Based on: Fragmentary cranium

Stature Unknown Method: -

Pathology/Trauma Pathology: - Bone: -

Trauma: - Bone: -

587 Operation 2031 Lot 203 – cont.

Cultural Modification(s) Unknown Location: - Type: -

Burial Specifications Grave Type: Pit

Body Position: -

Cranium Orientation: Southeast

Feet Position: -

Grave Good(s): -

Position(s): -

588 Operation 2031 Lot 214

Incomplete Excavation Source: Lori Wright, 1989

Location: Operation 2031. Main Plaza. Adjacent to the east of Lot 223.

Dating: Late Preclassic

Ceramic Dating: Onecimo

Inventory Cranial Unknown

Inventory Postcranial Unknown

MNI 1 Based on: Unknown

Age at Death Old Adulthood Method: Dentition

Dental Attrition Antemortem Loss of Teeth (several)

Sex Female Based on: Unknown Stature Unknown Method: -

Pathology/Trauma No indications of disease Pathology: - Bone: -

Trauma: - Bone: -

589 Operation 2031 Lot 214 – cont.

Cultural Modification(s) Unknown Location: - Type: -

Burial Specifications Grave Type: Pit(?) (largely unexcavated, intruded by Lot 223)

Body Position: Seated, head facing down in lap, arms at sides, and right hand folded across chest.

Cranium Orientation: West

Feet Position: -

Grave Good(s): 1. Vessel – Large red bowl with gourd-like flutes

Position(s): 1. Over cranium

590 Operation 2031 Lot 215

Source: Lori Wright, 1989

Location: Operation 2031. Main Plaza. Adjacent to the west of Lot 223.

Dating: Late Preclassic

Ceramic Dating: Onecimo

Inventory Cranial Fragmentary cranium, right mandible, two cremated cranium fragments: one temporal, and one zygomatic.

Inventory Postcranial A femur/foot/tibia articulated set, six tibia/fibula/foot articulated sets, four radius/ulna/hand sets, five os coxae, left clavicle and radius. Right and left humerii. Some long bones and phalanges inclusive of the epiphyses.

MNI 6 Based on: Tibia/fibula/foot articulated sets

Age at Death Adolescent 15-21 years of age. Adolescent Adult Adult Adult Adult

Method: Adolescent 15-21 years of age – Right mandible Adult – Fragmentary cranium Two Adolescent – Unfused Epiphysis of Long Bones and Phalanges.

Dental Attrition Unknown

591 Operation 2031 Lot 215 – cont.

Sex Male (two) and Female (two) Based on: Metric dimensions of adult bones.

Stature Unknown Method: -

Pathology/Trauma Pathology: - Bone: -

Trauma: Cut marks along lines of muscle insertion. Bone: Adult left clavicle and radius. Adult left and right humerii.

Cultural Modification(s) Unknown Location: - Type: -

Burial Specifications Grave Type: Pit, circular shape, intruded by Lot 223

Body Position: Disarticulated long bones stacked in north-south direction

Cranium Orientation: -

Feet Position: -

Grave Good(s): 1. Beads, (two) small, greenstone

Position(s): 1. Unknown

592 Operation 2031 Lot 223

Incomplete Excavation Source: Lori Wright, 1989

Location: Operation 2031. Main Plaza. Directly beneath Lot 110. Parallel feature. Layer of brown fill separates Lot 110 and Lot 223. Dating: Late Preclassic

Ceramic Dating: Onecimo

Inventory Cranial (Individual J): Cranium. (Individual A): Cranium and mandible.

Disarticulated Remains: (Individual K): Cranium. Fragmentary Remains: occipital(s), parietal(s), frontal(s). Two mandilbes, two maxillae, one fragmentary cranium. Loose teeth.

Inventory Postcranial (Individual J): Cervical vertebrae, three Thorasic vertebrae, right clavicle, ribs(a few). (Individual A): Cervical vertebrae, right clavicle, and right humerus.

Disarticulated Remains: (Individual K): Two Cervical vertebrae. Fragmentary Remains: Humerii, tibiae, femora, four Fragmentary os coxae, hand and foot bones.

MNI 7 (five from disarticulated remains) Based on: Primary individual cranium and long bones present.

Age at Death (Individual J): Young Adulthood (Individual A): Middle Adulthood Disarticulated Remains: (Individual K) – Adult Fragmentary Remains: Young Adult, Middle Adult,

Method: (Individual J): Cranium (Individual A): Unknown Disarticulated Remains (respectively): Fragmentary cranium, Cranium fragments, Cranium fragments, os coxae 593 Operation 2031 Lot 223 – cont.

Dental Attrition Unknown

Sex (Individual J): Male (Individual A): Male Disarticulated Remains: (Individual K - Female) Fragmentary Remains: Male (two), Female (two).

Based on: (Individual J): Cranium (Individual A): Unknown Disarticulated Remains: (Individual K - Cranium) Fragmentary Remains: Cranial Morphology, Metric analysis of long bones.

Stature Unknown Method: -

Pathology/Trauma Pathology: - Bone: -

Trauma: (Individual J): Trephination. Lesion, perforation – healed. Circular incision with two attached perforations on one edge. Bone: Cranium, 2.5 cm. above right orbital margin of frontal bone.

Cultural Modification(s) Yes Location: (Individual J): Cranium Type: Tabular Oblique Cranium Shaping. Marked parietal bossing and frontal flattening.

Burial Specifications Grave Type: Pit, fill(?)

Body Position: (Individual J): Seated (Individual A): Seated

Cranium Orientation: (Individual J): West (Individual A): East

Feet Position: -

594 Operation 2031 Lot 223 – cont. Grave Good(s): 1. Vase with mammiform feet (four) – Protoclassic.

2. Dish, red – Protoclassic.

3. Dish, reddish brown with nubbin feet (three) – Protoclassic.

4. Dish, black flat bottomed – Protoclassic.

5. Vessel – Tecomate (one) buff

6. Bone tubes (2) polished

Position(s): 1.-4. West of disarticulated cranial remains.

5. South of disarticulated cranial fragments.

6. Within stack of long bones (one bone tube).

595 Table 31. Preclassic Colha Burial Divisions(Temporal)

Dated Burial Number Undated CH Operation 2012 Subop 3 Burial 1 (10 individuals) Operation 2012 Subop 14 Burial 102 Operation 2012 Subop 14 Burial 103 Operation 2012 Subop 14 Burial 104 Middle Preclassic Operation 2012 Subop 12 Strat 61 Operation 2012 Subop 12 Strat 67 Operation 2012 Subop 12 Strat 68 Operation 2012 Subop 12 Strat 72 (7 individuals) Operation 2012 Subop 12 Strat 73 Operation 2012 Subop 12 Strat 74 Burials A & B (2 individuals) Operation 2012 Subop 12 Strat 75 Operation 2012 Subop 12 Strat 76 (2 individuals) Operation 2012 Subop 12 Strat 77 Operation 2031 Subop 3 Strat 54 Operation 2031 Subop 3 Strat 57 Operation 2031 Subop 3 Strat 59 Operation 2031 Subop 3 Strat 63 Operation 2031 Lot 218 Operation 2031 Lot 219 Operation 2031 Lot 238 Middle-Late Preclassic Operation 2012 Subop 3 (2nd Zone) Burial 1 (2 individuals) Operation 2012 Subop 3 (2nd Zone) Burial 2

596 Table 31. Preclassic Colha Burial Divisions(Temporal)– cont.

Dated Burial Number Late Preclassic CH Operation 2012 Subop 3 Burial 2 (7 individuals) Operation 2012 Subop 5 (17 individuals) Operation 2031 Lot 87 Operation 2031 Lot 95 Operation 2031 Lot 107 (12 individuals) Operation 2031 Lot 110 (8 individuals) Operation 2031 Lot 116 Operation 2031 Lot 117 Operation 2031 Lot 118 (no. of individuals unknown) Operation 2031 Lot 122 Operation 2031 Lot 125 (3 individuals) Operation 2031 Lot 127 (2 individuals) Operation 2031 Lot 136 Operation 2031 Lot 137 (2 individuals) Operation 2031 Lot 142 Operation 2031 Lot 165 Operation 2031 Lot 184 (2 individuals) Operation 2031 Lot 203 (2 individuals) Operation 2031 Lot 214 Operation 2031 Lot 215 (6 individuals) Operation 2031 Lot 223 (7 individuals)

597 Table 32 Preclassic Colha Age* Distribution (*Indicates Age Category from Saul and Saul, 1991) Age at Death Burial Number Infant Middle Preclassic Burials Operation 2012 Subop 12 Strat 76 (1 individual) Juvenile Preclassic (unspecified) Burials CH Operation 2012 Subop 3 Burial 1 (2 individuals) Operation 2012 Subop 14 Burial 104 Middle Preclassic Burials Operation 2012 Subop 12 Strat 68 Operation 2031 Subop 3 Strat 57 Operation 2031 Subop 3 Strat 59 Late Preclassic Burials Operation 2012 Subop 5 (2 individuals - adolescent) Operation 2031 Lot 95 Operation 2031 Lot 107 (1 possible) Operation 2031 Lot 110 (1 individual) Operation 2031 Lot 125 (1 individual - adolescent) Operation 2031 Lot 127 (1 individual - adolescent) Operation 2031 Lot 142 Operation 2031 Lot 215 (2 individuals - adolescent) *Young Adult (20-34yrs) Preclassic (unspecified) Burials CH Operation 2012 Subop 3 Burial 1 (1 individual) Middle Preclassic Burials Operation 2012 Subop 12 Strat 73 Operation 2012 Subop 12 Strat 74 Burial A Operation 2012 Subop 12 Strat 74 Burial B Operation 2031 Lot 218 Operation 2031 Lot 238 Late Preclassic Burials Operation 2012 Subop 5 (4 individuals) Operation 2031 Lot 117 Operation 2031 Lot 223 (2 individuals)

598 Table 32 Preclassic Colha Age Distribution – cont.

Age at Death Burial Number *Middle Adult (35-54yrs) Preclassic (unspecified) Burials CH Operation 2012 Subop 3 Burial 1 (2 individuals) Middle Preclassic Burials Operation 2012 Subop 12 Strat 67 Operation 2012 Subop 12 Strat 76 (1 individual) Late Preclassic Burials Operation 2031 Lot 110 (3 individuals) Operation 2031 Lot 137 (2 individuals) Operation 2031 Lot 165 Operation 2031 Lot 184 (1 individual) Operation 2031 Lot 203 (1 individual) Operation 2031 Lot 223 (2 individuals) Adult Preclassic (unspecified) Burials CH Operation 2012 Subop 3 Burial 1 (3 individuals) Middle Preclassic Operation 2031 Subop 3 Strat 54 Middle-Late Preclassic Burials Operation 2012 Subop 3 (2nd Zone) Burial 1 (1 individual) Late Preclassic Burials CH Operation 2012 Subop 3 Burial 2 (7 individuals) Operation 2012 Subop 5 (2 individuals) Operation 2031 Lot 87 Operation 2031 Lot 107 (11 individuals) Operation 2031 Lot 110 (2 individuals) Operation 2031 Lot 122 Operation 2031 Lot 125 (1 individual) Operation 2031 Lot 136 Operation 2031 Lot 215 (4 individuals) Operation 2031 Lot 223 *Middle/Old Adult (45-55yrs) Middle Preclassic Burials Operation 2012 Subop 12 Strat 75 Operation 2012 Subop 12 Strat 77 Late Preclassic Burials Operation 2031 Lot 127 (1 individual)

599 Table 32 Preclassic Colha Age Distribution – cont.

Age at Death Burial Number *Old Adult (55+yrs) Preclassic (unspecified) Burials CH Operation 2012 Subop 3 Burial 1 (2 individuals) Operation 2012 Subop 14 Burial 102 Middle Preclassic Burials Operation 2031 Subop 3 Strat 63 Operation 2031 Lot 219 Late Preclassic Burials Operation 2012 Subop 5 (7 individuals) Operation 2031 Lot 110 (2 individuals) Operation 2031 Lot 125 (1 individual) Operation 2031 Lot 184 (1 individual) Operation 2031 Lot 214 Unknown Preclassic (unspecified) Burials Operation 2012 Subop 14 Burial 103 (1 individual) Middle PreclassicBurials Operation 2012 Subop 12 Strat 61 (1 individual) Operation 2012 Subop 12 Strat 72 (7 individuals) Middle – Late Preclassic Burials Operation 2012 Subop 3 (2nd Zone) Burial 1 (1 individual) Operation 2012 Subop 3 (2nd Zone) Burial 2 Late Preclassic Burials Operation 2012 Subop 5 (2 individuals) Operation 2031 Lot 116 (1 individual) Operation 2012 Lot 203 (1 individual) Operation 2031 Lot 223 (2 individuals)

600 Table 33 Preclassic Colha Sex Distribution

Sex Burial Number Male Preclassic (unspecified) Burials Operation 2012 Subop 14 Burial 102 Middle Preclassic Burials Operation 2012 Subop 12 Strat 73 Operation 2012 Subop 12 Strat 74 Burial A (1 individual) Operation 2012 Subop 12 Strat 77 (possible) Operation 2031 Subop 3 Strat 54 (probable) Operation 2031 Lot 218 Operation 2031 Lot 238 Late Preclassic Burials CH Operation 2012 Subop 3 Burial 2 (6 individuals) Operation 2012 Subop 5 (9 individuals) Operation 2031 Lot 107 (5 individuals) Operation 2031 Lot 110 (2 individuals) Operation 2031 Lot 117 Operation 2031 Lot 125 (1 individual) Operation 2031 Lot 127 (1 individual, 1 possible) Operation 2031 Lot 137 (2 individuals) Operation 2031 Lot 165 Operation 2031 Lot 184 (1 individual) Operation 2031 Lot 215 (2 individuals) Operation 2031 Lot 223 (4 individuals)

601 Table 33 Preclassic Colha Sex Distribution – cont.

Sex Burial Number Female Preclassic (unspecified) Burials CH Operation 2012 Subop 3 Burial 1 (1 individual) Middle Preclassic Burials Operation 2012 Subop 12 Strat 74 Burial B (1 possible) Operation 2012 Subop 12 Strat 76 (1 individual) Operation 2031 Subop 3 Strat 63 (probable) Operation 2031 Lot 219 (probable) Late Preclassic Burials CH Operation 2012 Subop 3 Burial 2 (1 possible) Operation 2012 Subop 5 (1 possible) Operation 2031 Lot 87 Operation 2031 Lot 107 (3 individuals) Operation 2031 Lot 110 (4 individuals) Operation 2031 Lot 122 Operation 2031 Lot 125 (1 individual) Operation 2031 Lot 184 (1 individual) Operation 2031 Lot 203 (1 individual) Operation 2031 Lot 214 Operation 2031 Lot 215 (2 individuals) Operation 2031 Lot 223 (3 individuals) Unknown Preclassic (unspecified) Burials CH Operation 2012 Subop 3 Burial 1 (9 individuals) Operation 2012 Subop 14 Burial 103 Operation 2012 Subop 14 Burial 104 Middle Preclassic Burials Operation 2012 Subop 12 Strat 61 Operation 2012 Subop 12 Strat 67 Operation 2012 Subop 12 Strat 68 Operation 2012 Subop 12 Strat 72 (7 individuals) Operation 2012 Subop 12 Strat 75 Operation 2012 Subop 12 Strat 76 (1 individual)

602 Table 33 Preclassic Colha Sex Distribution – cont.

Sex Burial Number Unknown – cont. Middle Preclassic Burials – cont. Operation 2031 Subop 3 Strat 57 Operation 2031 Subop 3 Strat 59 Middle – Late Preclassic Burials Operation 2012 Subop 3 (2nd Zone) Burial 1 (2 individuals) Operation 2012 Subop 3 (2nd Zone) Burial 2 Late Preclassic Burials Operation 2012 Subop 5 (7 individuals) Operation 2031 Lot 95 Operation 2031 Lot 107 (4 individuals) Operation 2031 Lot 110 (2 individuals) Operation 2031 Lot 116 Operation 2031 Lot 125 (1 individual) Operation 2031 Lot 136 Operation 2031 Lot 142 Operation 2031 Lot 203 (1 individual) Operation 2031 Lot 215 (2 individuals)

603 Table 34 Preclassic Colha Burial Positions

Position Burial Number Extended Position Middle Preclassic Burials Operation 2012 Subop 12 Strat 61 Operation 2012 Subop 12 Strat 67 Operation 2012 Subop 12 Strat 72 (5 individuals) Operation 2012 Subop 12 Strat 74 Burials A & B (1 individual) Operation 2012 Subop 12 Strat 77 Operation 2031 Subop 3 Strat 54 Operation 2031 Subop 3 Strat 63 Operation 2031 Lot 219 Operation 2031 Lot 238 Late Preclassic Burials Operation 2031 Lot 136 Operation 2031 Lot 184 (2 individuals) Flexed Position Middle Preclassic Burials Operation 2031 Subop 3 Strat 57 Operation 2031 Subop 3 Strat 59 Late Preclassic Burials Operation 2031 Lot 87 Operation 2031 Lot 95 Operation 2031 Lot 137 (2 individuals) Operation 2031 Lot 142 Seated Position Middle Preclassic Burials Operation 2031 Subop 3 Strat 57 Middle-Late Preclassic Burials Operation 2012 Subop 3 (2nd Zone) Burial 1 (1 individual) Late Preclassic Burials Operation 2031 Lot 87 Operation 2031 Lot 110 (1 individual) Operation 2031 Lot 117 Operation 2031 Lot 125 (1 individual) Operation 2031 Lot 127 (1 individual) Operation 2031 Lot 165 Operation 2031 Lot 214 Operation 2031 Lot 223 (2 individuals)

604 Table 34 Preclassic Colha Burial Positions – cont.

Position Burial Number Unknown (Extended, Flexed, Seated) Preclassic (unspecified) Burials CH Operation 2012 Subop 3 Burial 1 (10 individuals) Operation 2012 Subop 14 Burial 102 Operation 2012 Subop 14 Burial 103 Operation 2012 Subop 14 Burial 104 Middle Preclassic Burials Operation 2012 Subop 12 Strat 68 Operation 2012 Subop 12 Strat 72 (2 individuals) Operation 2012 Subop 12 Strat 73 Operation 2012 Subop 12 Strat 74 Burials A & B (1 individual) Operation 2012 Subop 12 Strat 75 Operation 2012 Subop 12 Strat 76 (2 individuals) Middle-Late Preclassic Burials Operation 2012 Subop 3 (2nd Zone) Burial 1 (1 individual) Operation 2012 Subop 3 (2nd Zone) Burial 2 Late Preclassic Burials Ch Operation 2012 Subop 3 Burial 2 (7 individuals) Operation 2012 Subop 5 (17 individuals) Operation 2012 Lot 107 (12 individuals) Operation 2031 Lot 110 (7 individuals) Operation 2031 Lot 116 Operation 2031 Lot 125 (2 individuals) Operation 2031 Lot 127 (1 individual) Operation 2031 Lot 203 (2 individuals) Operation 2031 Lot 215 (6 individuals) Operation 2031 Lot 223 (5 individuals) Supine Position Middle Preclassic Burials Operation 2012 Subop 12 Strat 61 Operation 2012 Subop 12 Strat 67 Operation 2012 Subop 12 Strat 72 (5 individuals) Operation 2012 Subop 12 Strat 74 Burials A & B (1 individual) 605 Table 34 Preclassic Colha Burial Positions – cont.

Position Burial Number Supine Position – cont. Middle Preclassic Burials – cont. Operation 2012 Subop 12 Strat 77 Operation 2031 Subop 3 Strat 54 Operation 2031 Subop 3 Strat 63 Operation 2031 Lot 218 Operation 2031 Lot 219 Operation 2031 Lot 238 Late Preclassic Burials Operation 2031 Lot 136 Operation 2031 Lot 184 (2 individuals)

606 Table 35. Preclassic Colha Burial Directional Orientation Positions

Body Part – Directional Orientation Burial Number Cranium East Middle Preclassic Operation 2012 Subop 12 Strat 61 Operation 2012 Subop 12 Strat 67 Middle-Late Preclassic Operation 2012 Subop 3 (2nd Zone) Burial 1 (1 individual – facing east) Late Preclassic Burials Operation 2031 Lot 110 (1 individual – facing east) Operation 2031 Lot 125 (1 individual) Operation 2031 Lot 127 (1 individual) Operation 2031 Lot 165 Operation 2031 Lot 223 (1 individual) Cranium Northeast Late Preclassic Burials Operation 2031 Lot 142 Cranium Northwest Middle Preclassic Burials Operation 2031 Lot 238 Cranium Southeast Late Preclassic Burials Operation 2031 Lot 87 Operation 2031 Lot 95 Operation 2031 Lot 110 (1 individual) Operation 2031 Lot 203 (1 individual – facing east) Cranium South Middle Preclassic Burials Operation 2012 Subop 12 Strat 74 Burials A & B (2 individuals) Operation 2012 Subop 12 Strat 76 (1 individual) Operation 2031 Subop 3 Strat 59 Late Preclassic Burials Operation 2031 Lot 136 Operation 2031 Lot 184 (2 individuals) Cranium Southwest Middle Preclassic Burials Operation 2031 Lot 219 Late Preclassic Burials Operation 2031 Lot 110 (2 individuals) Operation 2031 Lot 117

607 Table 35. Preclassic Colha Burial Directional Orientation Positions – cont.

Body Part – Directional Orientation Burial Number Cranium West – cont. Middle Preclassic Burials Operation 2012 Subop 12 Strat 75 Operation 2012 Subop 12 Strat 77 Operation 2031 Subop 3 Strat 54 Late Preclassic Burials Operation 2031 Lot 110 (1 individual) Operation 2031 Lot 214 Operation 2031 Lot 223 (1 individual) Unknown (Cranial Orientation) Preclassic (unspecified) Burials CH Operation 2012 Subop 3 Burial 1 (10 individuals) Operation 2012 Subop 14 Burial 102 Operation 2012 Subop 14 Burial 103 Operation 2012 Subop 14 Burial 104 Middle Preclassic Burials Operation 2012 Subop 12 Strat 68 Operation 2012 Subop 12 Strat 72 (7 individuals) Operation 2012 Subop 12 Strat 73 Operation 2012 Subop 12 Strat 76 Operation 2031 Subop 3 Strat 57 Operation 2031 Subop 3 Strat 63 Operation 2031 Lot 218 Middle-Late Preclassic Operation 2012 Subop 3 (2nd Zone) Burial 1 (1 individual) Operation 2012 Subop 3 (2nd Zone) Burial 2 Late Preclassic Burials Ch Operation 2012 Subop 3 Burial 2 (7 individuals) Operation 2012 Subop 5 (17 individuals) Operation 2012 Lot 107 (12 individuals) Operation 2031 Lot 110 (3 individuals) Operation 2031 Lot 116 Operation 2031 Lot 122 Operation 2031 Lot 125 (2 individuals) Operation 2031 Lot 127 (1 individual) Operation 2031 Lot 137 (2 individuals) Operation 2031 Lot 203 (1 individual) 608 Table 35. Preclassic Colha Burial Directional Orientation Positions – cont.

Body Part – Directional Orientation Burial Number Unknown (Cranial Orientation) – cont. Late Preclassic Burials - cont. Operation 2031 Lot 215 (6 individuals) Operation 2031 Lot 223 (5 individuals) Pedal East Middle Preclassic Burials Operation 2012 Subop 12 Strat 68 Pedal West Middle Preclassic Burials Operation 2031 Lot 218

609 Table 36. Preclassic Colha Pathology/Trauma

Pathology/Trauma Burial Number Anemia Preclassic (unspecified) Burials CH Operation 2012 Subop3 Burial 1 (unknown multiple individuals) Late Preclassic Burials CH Operation 2012 Subop 3 Burial 2 (unknown multiple individuals) Operation 2031 Lot 110 (1 individual) Antemortem Tooth Loss and/or Middle Preclassic Burials Alveolar Resorption Operation 2012 Subop 12 Strat77 Operation 2031 Subop 3 Strat 54 Operation 2031 Subop 3 Strat 63 Operation 2031 Lot 219 Late Preclassic Burials Operation 2012 Subop 5 (6 individuals) Operation 2031 Lot 110 Arthritic Degeneration Middle Preclassic Burials Operation 2031 Lot 219 Late Preclassic Burials CH Operation 2012 Subop 3 Burial 2 (unknown multiple individuals) Operation 2012 Subop 5 (2 individuals) Operation 2031 Lot 110 (2 individuals) Operation 2031 Lot 117 Calculus Middle Preclassic Burials Operation 2012 Subop 12 Strat 67 Operation 2012 Subop 12 Strat 73 Operation 2012 Subop 12 Strat 74 Burials A & B (2 individuals) Operation 2012 Subop 12 Strat 76 (1 individual) Caries Middle Preclassic Burials Operation 2012 Subop 12 Strat 67 Operation 2012 Subop 12 Strat 73 Operation 2012 Subop 12 Strat 74 Burials A & B (2 individuals) Middle Preclassic Burials – cont. Operation 2012 Subop 12 Strat 76 (1 individual) Operation 2012 Subop 12 Strat 77

610 Table 36. Preclassic Colha Pathology/Trauma – cont.

Pathology/Trauma Burial Number Caries – cont. Late Preclassic Burials CH Operation 2012 Subop 3 Burial 2 (unknown multiple individuals) Operation 2012 Subop 5 (1 individual) Cribra Orbitalia Preclassic (unspecified) Burials CH Operation 2012 Subop 3 Burial 1 (1 individual) Late Preclassic Burials Operation 2031 Lot 110 Fracture Middle Preclassic Burials Operation 2031 Lot 218 Late Preclassic Burials CH Operation 2012 Subop 3 Burial 2 (1 individual) Operation 2031 Lot 110 (2 individuals) Operation 2031 Lot 127 (1 individual) Operation 2031 Lot 184 (1 individual) Intentional /Sacrificial (?) Trauma Late Preclassic Burials Operation 2012 Subop 5 (13 individuals) Operation 2031 Lot 125 (1 individual) Operation 2031 Lot 215 (1 individual ?) Linear Enamel Hypoplasia Middle Preclassic Burials Operation 2012 Subop 12 Strat 67 Operation 2012 Subop 12 Strat 73 Operation 2012 Subop 12 Strat 74 Burials A & B (2 individuals) Operation 2012 Subop 12 Strat 76 (1 individual) Late Preclassic Burials CH Operation 2012 Subop 3 Burial 2 (unknown multiple individuals) Operation 2012 Subop 5 (1 individual) Lipping and Pitting of Vertebrae Middle Preclassic Burials Operation 2012 Subop 12 Strat 75 Operation 2012 Subop 12 Strat 77 Late Preclassic Burials Operation 2031 Lot 110 (1 individual)

611 Table 36. Preclassic Colha Pathology/Trauma – cont.

Pathology/Trauma Burial Number Osteo-trauma Preclassic (unspecified) Burials CH Operation 2012 Subop 3 Burial 1 (1 individual) Osteophytic Growths Late Preclassic Burials CH Operation 2012 Subop 3 Burial 2 (unknown multiple individuals) Operation 2031 Lot 110 (1 individual) Osteophytosis Late Preclassic Burials Operation 2031 Lot 110 (1 individual) Pacchonian Depressions Preclassic (unspecified) Burials Operation 2012 Subop 14 Burial 103 Periodontal Disease Middle Preclassic Burials Operation 2012 Subop 12 Strat 74 Burials A & B (1 individual) Operation 2031 Subop 3 Strat 54 Late Preclassic Burials CH Operation 2012 Subop 3 Burial 2 (unknown multiple individuals) Operation 2012 Subop 5 (1 individual) Operation 2031 Lot 110 (1 individual) Operation 2031 Lot 184 (1 individual) Periostitis Middle Preclassic Burials Operation 2012 Subop 12 Strat 76 (1 individual) Late Preclassic Burials CH Operation 2031 Subop 3 Burial 2 (1 individual) Operation 2031 Lot 110 (3 individuals) Operation 2031 Lot 125 (1 individual) Operation 2031 Lot 184 (2 individuals) Spongy Porotic Hyperostosis Preclassic (unspecified) Burials CH Operation 2012 Subop3 Burial 1 (1 individual) Operation 2012 Subop 14 Burial 103 Late Preclassic Burials Operation 2031 Lot 110 (3 individuals) Operation 2031 Lot 117 Operation 2031 Lot 127 (1 individual) Operation 2031 Lot 184 (1 individual)

612 Table 36. Preclassic Colha Pathology/Trauma – cont.

Pathology/Trauma Burial Number Systemic Infection Middle Preclassic Burials Operation 2012 Subop 12 Strat 74 Burials A & B (1 individual) Operation 2012 Subop12 Strat 76 (1 individual) Operation 2031 Lot 238 Late Preclassic Burials Operation 2031 Lot 110 Operation 2031 Lot 127 (1 individual) Operation 2031 Lot 165 Temporomandibular Joint Degeneration Late Preclassic Burials Operation 2031 Lot 110 (2 individuals) Treponemal Infection Preclassic (unspecified) Burials CH Operation 2012 Subop 3 Burial 1 (1 individual)

613 Table 37. Preclassic Colha Cultural Modifications and Trephination

Modification Burial Number Cranial Preclassic (unspecified) Burials CH Operation 2012 Subop 3 Burial 1 (unknown multiple individuals*) Late Preclassic Burials Operation 2031 Lot 110 (2 individuals) Operation 2031 Lot 125 (1 individual) Operation 2031 Lot 223 (1 individual) Dental Late Preclassic Burials CH Operation 2012 Subop 3 Burial 2 (1 individual – possible) Operation 2031 Lot 116 Trephination Late Preclassic Burials Operation 2031 Lot 223 (1 individual)

*All male cranial fragments were noted as having some type of flattening modification; however, no individual count was available. In Chart 42, one individual is indicated for CH Operation 2012 Subop 3 Burial 1 although it is possible there were multiple individuals with cranial modification.

614 Table 38. Preclassic Colha Cinnabar/Red Ochre/Unspecified Red Pigment

Cinnabar/Red Ochre/Unspecified Red Burial Number Pigment Late Preclassic Burials Red Ochre Operation 2012 Subop 12 Strat 73

Cinnabar or Red Ochre*(listed on charts as Operation 2031 Lot 110 (3 individuals) Unspecified Red Pigment)

615 Table 39. Preclassic Colha Evidence of Burning

Object Burial Number Late Preclassic Burials Cranial Fragments Operation 2012 Subop 5 (unknown*) Interred Individual (occipital bone) Operation 2031 Lot 122

*Multiple cranial fragments scattered throughout the fill. Although counted as one indivivual for the purposes of the tables and charts, please note that multiple individuals could be represented.

616 Table 40. Preclassic Colha Grave Goods

Artifact(s) Burial Number Bead Middle Preclassic Burials Operation 2012 Subop 12 Strat 74 Burials A & B Operation 2012 Subop 12 Strat 76 Operation 2031 Subop 3 Strat 54 Operation 2031 Subop 3 Strat 57 Operation 2031 Subop 3 Strat 63 Operation 2031 Lot 219 Late Preclassic Burials Operation 2031 Lot 110 Operation 2031 Lot 117 Bone Middle Preclassic Burials (H = Human, F = Faunal, (?) = Unknown) Operation 2012 Subop 12 Strat 73 (F) Operation 2012 Subop 12 Strat 76 (H) Operation 2012 Subop 12 Strat 77 (F) Operation 2031 Lot 218 (?) Middle-Late Preclassic Burials Operation 2012 Subop 3 (2nd Zone) Burial 2 (?) Late Preclassic Burials Operation 2012 Subop 5 Operation 2031 Lot 87 Operation 2031 Lot 110(?) Operation 2031 Lot 223(?) Ceramic Disc or Sherd Disc Late Preclassic Burials Operation 2031 Lot 87 Operation 2031 Lot 95 Faunal Totem(?) Middle Preclassic Burials Operation 2012 Subop 12 Strat 77 Late Preclassic Burials Operation 2031 Lot 87 Figurine Middle Preclassic Burials Operation 2012 Subop 12 Strat 76 Operation 2031 Subop 3 Strat 63 Late Preclassic Burials Operation 2031 Lot 223 Jade Middle Preclassic Burials Operation 2031 Subop 3 Strat 54

617 Table 40. Preclassic Colha Grave Goods – cont.

Lithic Late Preclassic Burials Operation 2012 Subop 5 Operation 2031 Lot 87 Operation 2031 Lot 116 Operation 2031 Lot 125 Operation 2031 Lot 127 Operation 2031 Lot 136 Operation 2031 Lot 165 Shell Middle Preclassic Burials Operation 2031 Subop 3 Strat 54 Operation 2031 Subop 3 Strat 57 Operation 2031 Subop 3 Strat 63 Late Preclassic Burials Operation 2031 Lot 110 Vessel/Pottery Middle Preclassic Burials (includes sherd material) Operation 2012 Subop 12 Strat 61 Operation 2012 Subop 12 Strat 67 Operation 2012 Subop 12 Strat 68 Operation 2012 Subop 12 Strat 73 Operation 2012 Subop 12 Strat 76 Operation 2031 Subop 3 Strat 54 Operation 2031 Subop 3 Strat 57 Operation 2031 Subop 3 Strat 63 Operation 2031 Lot 238 Middle-Late Preclassic Burials Operation 2012 Subop 3 (2nd Zone) Burial 1 Operation 2012 Subop 3 (2nd Zone) Burial 2 Late Preclassic Burials Operation 2012 Subop 5 Operation 2031 Lot 87 Operation 2031 Lot 95 Operation 2031 Lot 110 Operation 2031 Lot 117 Operation 2031 Lot 122 Operation 2031 Lot 125 Operation 2031 Lot 165 Operation 2031 Lot 223

618 Chart 22. Preclassic Colha Burial* Divisions (Temporal)

25 21

20 16

15 619

10 4

2 5

0 Preclassic Middle Preclassic Middle-Late Late Preclassic (unspecified) Preclassic

*43 Burials containing 117 Individuals Chart 22a. Preclassic Colha Burial Divisions (Temporal) Percentages of Total Burials*

Middle-Late Middle Preclassic Preclassic 37.21% 4.65% 620

Late Preclassic 48.84%

Preclassic (unspecified) 9.30% Preclassic (unspecified) Middle Preclassic Middle-Late Preclassic Late Preclassic

*43 Burials containing 117 Individuals Chart 22b. Preclassic Colha Aggregate of Burials and Individuals

80 77

60

40 621 24 16 21 13 20 4 2 3

0 Preclassic Middle Middle-Late Late (unspecified) Preclassic Preclassic Preclassic

Burials Individuals

43 Burials containing 117 Individuals Chart 23. Preclassic Colha Burial Age at Death Distribution

50

40 36

30

622 17 17 16 20 14 13

10 3 1

0 Infant Juvenile Young Adult M iddle Adult Adult M iddle/Old Old Adult (55+ Unkno wn (20-34 yrs) (35-54 yrs) Adult (45-55 yrs) yrs)

Total: 117 Individuals Chart 23a. Preclassic Colha Burial Age at Death Distribution by Phase

31

30

20 623 12 10 10 8 10 7 5 6 2 3 3 3 3 22 2 0 0 0 11 1 2 0 1 00 1 0 0 0 1

0 Middle Mid/Old Young Adult Old Adult Infant Juvenile Adult (35- Adult Adult (45- Unknown (20-45 yrs) (55+ yrs) 54 yrs) 55 yrs) Preclassic (unspecified) 03123031 Middle Preclassic 13521228 Middle-Late Preclassic 00001002 Late Preclassic 010710311126

Total: 117 Individuals Chart 23b. Preclassic Colha Burial Age at Death Distribution Percentages of Individuals

Young Adult (20-45 yrs) Middle Adult (35-54 yrs) Adult 11.11% 11.97% 30.77%

Juvenile 13.68% 624

Middle/Old Adult Infant (45-55 yrs) 0.85% 2.56%

Unknown Old Adult (55+ yrs) 14.53% 14.53%

Infant Juvenile Young Adult (20-45 yrs) Middle Adult (35-54 yrs) Adult Middle/Old Adult (45-55 yrs) Old Adult (55+ yrs) Unknown

Total: 117 Individuals Chart 24. Preclassic Colha Burial Sex Distribution by Phase

40 36

30 20 21

20 14 11

6 3 625 10 4 1 0 1 0

0 Male Female Unknown Preclassic (unspecified) 1111 Middle Preclassic 6414 Middle-Late Preclassic 003 Late Preclassic 36 20 21

Totals by Sex: 43 25 49

Total: 117 Individuals Chart 24a. Preclassic Colha Burial Sex Relative Distribution

Female 21.37%

100% Male 36.75% 80% 626 60% Sex Unknown 41.88% 40%

20%

Female 0% Male 117 Individuals Sex Unknown Chart 25. Preclassic Colha Burial Position Relative Distribution

Extended 13.68% Flexed 5.98% 627

Seated 9.40%

Unknown 70.94% Extended Flexed Seated Unknown

Total: 117 Individuals Chart 25a. Preclassic Colha Burial Position Distribution by Phase

60 60

40

13 13 20 9 8 628 5 3 2 2 0 0 0 0 0 11

0 Extended Flexed Seated Unknown Preclassic (unspecified) 00013 Middle Preclassic 13 2 1 8 Middle-Late Preclassic 0012 Late Preclassic 35960

Totals by Position: 16 7 11 83

Total: 117 Individuals Chart 25b. Preclassic Colha Burial Position Distribution by Phase

20

14

15

10 629 5 3

0 0 0000 0000 00 00

0 Supine Prone Left Side Right Side Preclassic (unspecified) 0000 Middle Preclassic 14 0 0 0 Middle-Late Preclassic 0000 Late Preclassic 3000

Total: 117 Individuals 100 Individuals – no information given. Chart 25c. Preclassic Colha Burial Position Relative Distribution

Left Side 0.00% Supine 15.38%

Prone 0.00% 630

Right Side 0.00%

Unknown 84.62%

Supine Prone Left Side Right Side Unknown

Total: 117 Individuals 100 Individuals – no information given. Chart 26. Preclassic Colha Burial Directional Orientation Cranium Positions by Phase

60 58

40 631 20 13 13

5 4 3 4 3 3 3 2 1 2 0 1 0000 000 1 0 1 00 0 0 000 0 0 0 0 0 East North Northeast Northwest South Southeast Southwest West Unknown Preclassic (unspecified) 0000000013 M iddle Preclassic 2001401313 M iddle-Late Preclassic 100000002 Late Preclassic 50 10343358

Totals by Direction: 8 0 1 1 7 4 4 6 86

Total: 117 Individuals Chart 27. Preclassic Colha Pathology/Trauma

02468101214161820

Anemia 3

Antemortem Tooth Loss/Alveolar Resorption 11

Arthritic Degeneration 7

Calculus 5

Caries 8

Cribra Orbitalia 2

Fracture 6

Intentional/Sacrificial (?) Trauma 15

Linear Enamel Hypoplasia 7 632 Lipping and Pitting of Vertebrae 3

Osteophytic Growths 2

Osteophytosis 1

Osteo-Trauma 1

Pacchonian Depressions 1

Periodontal Disease 6

Periostitis 8

Spongy Porotic Hyperostosis 8

Systemic Infection 6

Temporomandibular Joint Degeneration 2

Treponemal Infection 1

Total: 117 Individuals Chart 28. Preclassic Colha Burial Grave Good(s)* Distribution

25 20 18 20

15 9

633 8 10 7 4 3 5 2 2 1

0 e e ad n d (s) e tery d B Bone Ja Lithic Shell t Figuri l Totem (?) /Sherd Disc ssel/Po c e ave Goo mi V Gr a Fauna o N Cer

*25 of the 43 burials contained at least one type of grave good; 18 burials (41.86%) contained no grave goods. Chart 28a. Preclassic Colha Burial Grave Good(s)* Distribution

0% 20% 40% 60% 80% 100%

Bead 32.00%

Bone 36.00%

Ceramic/Sherd Disc 8.00%

Faunal Totem (?) 8.00% 634

Figurine 12.00%

Jade 4.00%

Lithic 28.00%

Shell 16.00%

Vessel/Pottery 80.00%

*25 of the 43 burials contained at least one type of grave good; 18 burials contained no grave goods. Chapter Fourteen

Colha Findings

Data Summary

The analysis of the Preclassic burials from Colha exhibits a number of trends.

These are shown in both the tables, which give specific interment information, and the charts, which give percentage and visual representation of trend distribution.

The temporal distribution (Table 31, Charts 22, 22a) of the 43 burials containing

117 individuals indexed in the Preclassic Colha interments is the first trend addressed.

This distribution shows the greatest number represented in the Late Preclassic with 21

inhumations (48.84%). The next largest group is the Middle Preclassic with 16

interments (37.21%). Following the Middle Preclassic are the Preclassic (unspecified),

and the Middle-Late Preclassic with four (9.30%) and two (4.65%) respectively.

An analysis of age at death provides information for the demographics (Table 31,

Charts 23, 23b) on the interred individuals. Considering the four subdivisions (the three

ceramic complexes and the unspecified Preclassic division) as a whole, the overwhelming

majority are adults (36, 30.77%). Following that figure it was noted that 17 (14.53%) are

old adults, 17 (13.68%) are juveniles, 14 (11.97%) are middle adults, 13 (11.11%) are

young adults, three (2.56%) are middle/old adults, and one (0.85%) is an infant. There

are 17 (14.53%) individuals for which the age is unknown.

635 The distribution of sex (Table 33, Charts 24, 24a) that was observed reflects a

male to female ratio for Preclassic Colha of almost seven to four. A significant number

of individuals were not sexed – 49 (41.88%).

Breakdown of the burial position distribution (Table 24. Charts 25, 25a, 25b,

25c) reveals that for 83 (70.94%) of the 117 individuals buried at Preclassic Colha, the

burial position of extended, flexed, or seated could not be determined, and for 100

(85.47%) the burial position of supine, prone, left or right side could not be determined

either.

Cranial orientation (Table 35, Chart 26) shows that the highest total for direction for the Middle Preclassic is to the south – four, and the highest total for the Late

Preclassic is to the east – five. With regard to pedal orientation, only two (1.71%) were

noted, one each to the east and west, both Middle Preclassic.

There are 21 types of pathology and trauma observed (Table 36, Chart 27) in the

117 individuals interred at Preclassic Colha. There are three cases (2.56%) of anemia, 11

cases (9.40%) of antemortem tooth loss and/or alveolar resorption, and seven cases

(5.98%) of arthritic degeneration; five instances (4.27%) of calculus and eight cases

(6.84%) of caries; two examples (1.71%) of cribra orbitalia; six (5.13%) of fractures; 15

cases (12.82%) of intentional/sacrificial trauma10; seven instances (5.98%) of linear

enamel hypoplasia; three cases (2.56%) of lipping and pitting of vertebrae; two examples

(1.71%) of osteophytic growths; one case (0.85%) each of osteophytosis, osteo-trauma,

pacchonian depressions, and treponemal infection; there are six instances (5.13%) each of

10 Based, in part, on 13 severely disarticulated individuals from Operation 2012 Subop5 (Wright 1989). 636 periodontal disease and systemic infection; there are eight cases (6.84%) of periostitis

and spongy porotic hyperostosis; and two examples (1.71%) of temporomandibular joint

degeneration.

There are at least seven individuals that exhibited cultural modifications at

Preclassic Colha (Table 37, Chart 42); there included a minimum of five with cranial modifications11, two with dental modifications, and one example of trephination. Two

(4.65%) of the 43 interments at Preclassic Colha contain cinnabar (Table 38, Chart 43).

Evidence of burning analysis (Table 39, Chart 44) at Preclassic Colha reveals

two interments that exhibited burning: Operation 2012 Subop 5 and Operation 2031 Lot

122. In the case of Operation 2031 Lot 122, the interred individual exhibited burning on

her occipital bone. Operation 2012 Subop 5, while counted as one occurrence, could

possibly represent multiple individuals as there were multiple burned cranial fragments

scattered throughout the burial fill.

The grave goods distribution of Preclassic Colha (Table 40, Charts 28, 28a)

shows that 25 burials (58.14%) included grave goods. For 18 interments (41.86%), no

offerings were observed or found. Of the 25 burials that contained grave goods, 20

(80.00%) had vessels or some type of pottery. Nine (36.00%) had bone artifacts, eight

(32.00%) contained a bead or beads, and seven (28.00%) included lithic material. Shell

and figurines were counted at four (16.00%) and three (12.00%) respectively while

ceramic/sherd discs and proposed faunal totems were each included in two (8.00%)

11 CH Operation 2012 Subop 3 Burial 1 stated that all male fragments were noted as having some type of flattening modification; however, no individual count was available. In Table 37 and Chart 42, only 1 individual is indicated although it is possible that there were multiple individuals with cranial modifications. 637 burials. Surprisingly, jade appeared in only one interment (4.00%); Operation 2031

Subop 3 Strat 54.

Burial type distribution reflects that of the 117 individuals, 64 individuals

(54.70%) were in pit inhumations, 12 subjects (10.26%) were in crypt12 interments, nine

individuals (7.69%) were counted in cist burials, seven subjects were found in (5.98%)

midden inhumations, four individuals (3.42%) were in simple interments (non-pit, no

outlines visible), and one (0.85%) was buried in a fill burial. There are 20 individuals

(17.09%) for which the grave type is unknown. If interment numbers are considered, 24

(55.81%) were pit, six (13.95%) were midden, four (9.30%) were simple, two (4.65%)

were cist, one (2.33%) was a crypt, and one (2.33%) was fill.

Data Interpretation

The temporal distribution reveals significant increase in the number of both

inhumations and individuals from the Middle to Late Preclassic. The burial count rose

from three to ten, and the individual count grew from three to 14. This data correlates

with the postulation that it was during the Late Preclassic that Colha became a production

center for lithic tools. The instance of only two burials from the Middle-Late Preclassic

may have occurred, as mentioned earlier in Chapter One, because 1) the lines drawn for

chronological seriation between the temporal divisions are not strict and, in some cases,

are extremely difficult to discern or 2) be due to preservation issues, common throughout

the Maya lowland area. Interestingly, when the number of individuals per interment is

12 Note that this breakdown considers the number of individuals, not interments. In this case, the 12 are all interred in one crypt. 638 compared by phase, the Middle Preclassic and Middle-Late Preclassic show an average of 1.5 individuals per grave and the Late Preclassic demonstrates an average of 3.67 individuals per grave. This indicates the changing mortuary practices of the Middle to

Late Preclassic by the use of a designated cemetery area, postulated to signify the change

of the main plaza from one of domestic usage to one of ceremonial and ritual significance

(Anthony and Black 1994). It is probable that the mixture, of numerous disarticulated

remains and corresponding new primary interments, was unintentional and did not

represent multiple burials, but instead were simply consecutive intrusive burials.

Although some of the burials could have been sacrificial or secondary, it was suggested

that they were not such due to the fact that much of the condition of the skeletal material

was disarticulated in a complex context without sufficient detail to discern the mortuary

circumstances. Wright (1989) noted that designations of either secondary or sacrificial

mortuary circumstances have substantial effects on the interpretations that follow and

was therefore cautious to assign those labels.

The age at death data breakdown by phase (Chart 23a) indicates that the Late

Preclassic adult category significantly correlates with the increase seen in the temporal breakdown (Chart 22b); it is plausible that this also corroborates the evident population increase from the Middle Preclassic to Late Preclassic contexts.

The male to female distribution ratio of seven to four seemingly correlates well

with the social organization of the Maya culture, as did the first impressions of the

Preclassic Chiapa de Corzo, Kaminaljuyu, and Tikal male to female ratios. These ratios

were postulated, in Chapters Five, Eight, and Eleven, to be indicative of the male- 639 dominated culture of the Maya that would direct a larger investment in male burials and,

if interment preservation is taken as a byproduct of inhumation investment, would yield a

greater number of preserved male burials. However, Colha, like Chiapa de Corzo, had a

significant number of individuals that were not sexed. Regardless of the fact that 17

(14.53%) of those were juveniles and unable to be sexed, the number not sexed is still

substantial enough that a realistic representation of the male to female ratio cannot be

drawn from this data other than on a very tentative basis. It must be noted here that the predominance of severely disarticulated remains at the site of Colha definitely affected the ability to determine sex for the specimens. Unlike the assessment of age where the determination of adult versus juvenile can be made on the basis of many different aspects of the skeleton (dentition to the clavicle), the absolute determination of sex (while it can be estimated on cranial morphology or robusticity) can only be provided by assessment of the pelvis. In addition, disarticulation greatly reduces the chance of preservation and assessment. As with the other sites of this study, it must be noted that this demographic

of the male to female ratio is not representative of the current or postulated past ratios.

Burial position analysis reveals a distinct disjunction between the Middle

Preclassic and the Late Preclassic. The majority of the earlier interments (Middle

Preclassic) were extended and supine, with little variation. The Late Preclassic demonstrates variability in burial modes i.e. flexed, seated, and extended examples.

Ostensibly the high number of individuals for which body position was undetermined reflects the high proportion of disarticulated individuals. Sadly, the cranial orientation

analysis is based on only 31 (of 117) individuals (26.50%); it should be noted that this 640 representation is hardly of value except fact that it demonstrates the vast number of disarticulated remains recovered from Preclassic Colha.

The pathology and trauma observations at Preclassic Colha are highly informative. While the percentage numbers of demonstrated diseases appear small, there were 103 instances of observed occurrences in the Middle and Late Preclassic combined.

A ratio of the number of individuals to the range of disease processes is approximately six to one. If the projected population size for the Late Preclassic Colha is estimated at

600 individuals in the one square kilometer of intensive activity, i.e. the lithic workshops

(Eaton 1982), this ratio would extrapolate to approximately 100 individuals having some type of ongoing disease process. Significant also, is the fact that some of the disease processes listed have their basis in nutritional deficiency, e.g. spongy porotic hyperostosis is linked to anemia, and linear enamel hypoplasia is linked to nutritional stress connected to weaning and the lack of sufficient protein intake. If the Middle Preclassic and Late

Preclassic are compared rather than viewed aggregately, then the ratio between them of evidence of disease processes is approximately two to one with 30 instances in the

Middle Preclassic and 66 in the Late Preclassic. This analysis would seem to indicate that the jump to a large scale lithic production site in the Late Preclassic (Hester et al.

1982) took a toll on the health of the inhabitants of Preclassic Colha.

The examination of cultural modifications reveals that approximately 5.98% of the burial sample exhibited some form of modification. While it is a seemingly small percentage, the presence of these modifications at a “production” site would appear to substantiate the claims of Romero (1970) and Smith (1972) that cranial shaping and 641 dental decoration are not markers of elite status but occur across the societal

stratification. An interesting note: the cranium of the one individual from Operation 2031

Lot 223 that exhibited the one example of trephination also showed cranial modification

(tabular oblique).

Analysis of the interments which contained cinnabar evidenced that the individual

interred in Operation 2012 Subop 12 Strat 73, a young adult male, had red staining on the

pelvis; three individuals from Operation 2031 Lot 110 (out of the eight in the interment)

exhibited red staining – one female old adult, one female middle adult, and one middle

adult of unknown sex. Interesting to note is that if the unknown middle adult is

postulated to be a male, the male to female ratio for the use/presence of cinnabar or red

ochre/pigment is one to one. An even more intriguing proposal is that if the unknown

middle adult is proposed to be a female, it would be a one to three male to female ratio, a clear contradiction to the preference ascribed to males due to the male-dominated social

organization. Another point of interest is that Strat 73, containing the male, was a pit

burial and Lot 110, containing the two females, was a cist interment (one of only two).

Evidence of burning at Colha is not remarkable given the ostensibly low

occurrence. However, what is noteworthy is Operation 2012 Subop 5; as noted above, it

is counted as one occurrence, but could possibly represent multiple individuals. It is possible to suggest that this burning was connected to ancestor worship (Tozzer 1941;

McAnany 1995).

As noted in Chapter Eight, Buttles (1992, 2002) stated in her thesis and

dissertation (both based on artifact assemblages from the site of Colha) that the 642 contextual analysis of artifacts is invaluable in discerning human behavior. This same

contextualization applies to grave good analysis.

The grave good distribution reveals that for over 40% of the interments no

offerings were observed or found. Regardless of the apparent lack of burial wealth, there

were some notable grave goods. The presence of ceramic/sherd discs is interesting due to

the postulated connotations of the discs relating to elite status; the two discs found at

Preclassic Colha (Operation 2031 Lot 87 and Operation 2031 Lot 95) were found in an

proposed elite residence with a child (Lot 95) and an adult female (Lot 87), located one

meter apart. The one burial that contained jade ( 2031 Subop 3 Strat 54) is even more

perplexing, given the prestige value accorded jade by the ancient Maya; this one burial

was located in a midden and contained a male with pronounced muscle interments of the

lower arm and hand. It is an interesting juxtaposition of elite versus non-elite factors. Is

it possible that this individual was an esteemed craftsman who was awarded the jade

piece for a job well-done? Notable at Preclassic Colha is the high percentage of

interments without grave offerings. This observation correlated with the preponderance

of pit interments (as noted below). The apparent lack of respect for previous

inhumations, i.e. the apparent random scattering of skeletal material to make room for

new burials, and the fact that the site is noted as a “workshop” (predominately non-elite

environment) are fascinating associations that appear to give significant data with regard

to the social stratification of the Preclassic cultural context at Colha.

The burial type distribution of the 64 individuals (54.70%) present in pit inhumations, and the 24 (55.81%) pit interment constructions both illustrate that the 643 primary mode of interment at Preclassic Colha was the pit burial. The absence of any type of elaborate burial is glaring. It should be noted that the two cist burials are counted one each to the Middle Preclassic and the Late Preclassic; the only crypt burial was dated to the Preclassic.

644 Chapter Fifteen

Composite Charts

The Preclassic Maya Sites of Chiapa de Corzo, Chiapas, Kaminaljuyú, Guatemala,

Tikal, Guatemala, and Colha, Belize

The composite charts contained in this chapter are a combination of intersite comparison and aggregate comparison. The intersite charts each show a comparison of the four sites to demonstrate trends with regard to the number of graves excavated, the number of individuals inhumed in those graves, age at death demographics, sex, cultural modifications noted, the presence of red ochre, the evidence of burning, and the number of burials containing grave goods. The aggregate charts show totals of the four sites to demonstrate temporal trends evident within the divisions of the Preclassic. All divisions noted at the four sites are included.

645 Chart 29. Preclassic Intersite Comparison: Burials Chiapa de Corzo, Kaminaljuyu, Tikal, and Colha

94

100

80 646 43 60

19 40 13

20

0 Chiapa de Corzo Kaminaljuyu Tikal Colha

169 Burials containing 252 Individuals Chart 30. Preclassic Intersite Comparison: Individuals Chiapa de Corzo, Kaminaljuyu, Tikal, and Colha

117

120 94

100

647 80

60 24 17 40

20

0 Chiapa de Corzo Kaminaljuyu Tikal Colha

252 Individuals contained in 169 Burials Chart 31. Preclassic Intersite Comparison: Burials and Individuals Chiapa de Corzo, Kaminaljuyu, Tikal, and Colha

117 125 94 94

100

75

43 648 50 19 24 17 13 25

0 Chiapa de Corzo Kaminaljuyu Tikal Colha Burials 94 19 13 43 Individuals 94 24 17 117

169 Burials containing 252 Individuals Chart 32. Preclassic Aggregate: Burials and Individuals by Temporal Divisions Chiapa de Corzo, Kaminaljuyu, Tikal, and Colha

Late Terminal Preclassic-Late 1 Classic 1

Late Preclassic-Terminal 3 Preclassic 1

Late Preclassic 136 199 649

3 Middle-Late Preclassic 2

33 Middle Preclassic 25

13 Preclassic (unspecified) 4

0 20 40 60 80 100 120 140 160 180 200

Burials Individuals

169 Burials containing 252 Individuals Chart 33. Preclassic Aggregate: Burial Percentages by Temporal Divisions Chiapa de Corzo, Kaminaljuyu, Tikal, and Colha

Late Preclassic 80.47%

Middle-Late Preclassic 1.19% 650

Middle Preclassic 14.79% Late Preclassic- Terminal Preclassic Preclassic Unspecified Late Terminal Preclassic- 0.59% 2.37% Late Classic 0.59%

Middle Preclassic Middle-Late Preclassic Late Preclassic Late Preclassic-Terminal Preclassic Late Terminal Preclassic-Late Classic Preclassic Unspecified 169 Burials containing 252 Individuals Chart 34. Preclassic Aggregate: Individual Percentages by Temporal Divisions Chiapa de Corzo, Kaminaljuyu, Tikal, and Colha

Late Preclassic 78.97%

Middle-Late Preclassic 1.19% Late Preclassic -

651 Terminal Preclassic 1.19%

Middle Preclassic 13.09% Preclassic (unspecified) Late Terminal Preclassic- 5.16% Late Classic 0.40%

Middle Preclassic Middle-Late Preclassic Late Preclassic Late Preclassic - Terminal Preclassic Late Terminal Preclassic-Late Classic Preclassic (unspecified)

169 Burials containing 252 Individuals Chart 35. Preclassic Intersite Comparison: Age at Death Chiapa de Corzo, Kaminaljuyu, Tikal, and Colha

80

58 60

36 40 26 15 16 17 17 20 13 14 12 652 3 6 5 4 2 1 3 0 1 1 000 000 001 0 1 0 0 Young Child/ Middle Middle/ Old Inf ant Adult/ Adult Old Adult Unknow n Juvenile* Adult Adult Youth Chiapa de Corz o 426605800 0 Kaminaljuyu 035015001 Tikal 211012010 Colha 1 161314363 1717

Totals by Age-at-Death: 7 46 25 14 121 3 18 18

*Child and Juvenile categories combined for the purposes of this chart. 169 Burials containing 252 Individuals Chart 36. Preclassic Aggregate: Age at Death Chiapa de Corzo, Kaminaljuyu, Tikal, and Colha

125 121

100

75 46 653 50 25 14 18 18 7 25 3

0 Infant Child/ Young Middle Adult Adult Middle/ Old Old Adult Unknown Juvenile* Adult/ Adult Youth

Totals: 7 46 25 14 121 3 18 18

*Child and Juvenile categories combined for the purposes of this chart. 169 Burials containing 252 Individuals Chart 37. Preclassic Aggregate: Age at Death Percentages Chiapa de Corzo, Kaminaljuyu, Tikal, and Colha

Middle Adult 5.56%

Young Adult/Youth 9.92% Adult 48.02%

Child/Juvenile* 18.26% 654 Infant 2.78%

Unknown 7.14% Old Adult 7.14% Middle/Old Adult 1.19%

Infant Child/Juvenile* Young Adult/Youth Middle Adult Adult Middle/Old Adult Old Adult Unknown

*Child and Juvenile categories combined for the purposes of this chart. 169 Burials containing 252 Individuals Chart 38. Preclassic Intersite Comparison: Male to Female Ratio Chiapa de Corzo, Kaminaljuyu, Tikal, and Colha

100 83

80

49 60 43 25

655 40

12 8 9 9 20 5 3 3 3

0 Chiapa de Corzo Kaminaljuyu Tikal Colha Male 89943 Female 33525 Unknown 83 12 3 49

Totals by Site: 94 24 17 117

169 Burials containing 252 Individuals Chart 39. Preclassic Aggregate: Male to Female Percentages Chiapa de Corzo, Kaminaljuyu, Tikal, and Colha

Male 27.38% Female 14.29% 656

Unknown 58.33% Male (69) Female (36) Unknown (147)

169 Burials containing 252 Individuals Chart 40. Preclassic Aggregate: Burial Position Distribution Chiapa de Corzo, Kaminaljuyu, Tikal, and Colha

Extended 45.63%

Flexed 7.94% 657 Unknown 39.68%

Seated 6.75%

Extended (115) Flexed (20) Seated (17) Unknown (100)

169 Burials containing 252 Individuals Chart 40a. Preclassic Aggregate: Burial Position Distribution Chiapa de Corzo, Kaminaljuyu, Tikal, and Colha

Supine 35.32%

Prone 3.97% 658

Left 3.57% No Information 52.38% Right 4.76%

Supine (89) Prone (10) Left (9) Right (12) No Information (132)

169 Burials containing 252 Individuals Chart 41. Preclassic Aggregate: Cranium Orientation Precentages*: Chiapa de Corzo, Kaminaljuyu, Tikal, and Colha

North 19.86% Northwest 1.37% Northeast 1.37%

West 28.08% East 17.81% 659

Southeast 3.43% Southwest 4.11% South 23.97% West (41) Northwest (2) North (29) Northeast (2) East (26) Southeast (5) South (35) Southwest (6) *Percentages include only known burials (63); 106 burials – no cranial direction information. 169 Burials containing 252 Individuals Chart 42. Preclassic Intersite Comparison: Cultural Modifications and Trephination Chiapa de Corzo, Kaminaljuyu, Tikal, and Colha

6 5

4 3

22 2

2 1

660 0 00 000

0 Cranial Modification Dental Modification Trephination Chiapa de Corzo 030 Kaminaljuyu 200 Tikal 200 Colha 521

Totals by Category: 9 5 1

169 Burials containing 252 Individuals Chart 43. Preclassic Intersite Comparison: Cinnabar/Red Ochre/Unspecified Red Pigment Chiapa de Corzo, Kaminaljuyu, Tikal, and Colha

10

8 7

6 4 4 2 2 1 661 2 00 0 0 0 0 0

0 Unspecified Red Cinnabar Red Ochre Pigment Chiapa de Corzo 007 Kaminaljuyu 012 Tikal 400 Colha 002

Totals by Category: 4 1 11

169 Burials containing 252 Individuals Chart 44. Preclassic Intersite Comparison: Evidence of Burning Chiapa de Corzo, Kaminaljuyu, Tikal, and Colha

5 4

4

3 2 2

662 2 1

1 0 00 0

0 Chiapa de Corzo Kaminaljuyu Tikal Colha Bone 2102 Clay Fragments 0400

Totals by Site: 2 5 0 2

169 Burials containing 252 Individuals Chart 45. Preclassic Intersite Comparison: Burials with Grave Goods Chiapa de Corzo, Kaminaljuyu, Tikal, and Colha

92.31% 88.30% 84.21% 100%

58.14% 80%

60% 663

40%

20%

0% Chiapa de Corzo Kaminaljuyu Tikal Colha

Chiapa de Corzo Kaminaljuyu Tikal Colha Total 83 of 94 16 of 19 12 of 13 25 of 43 136 of 169

31 Burials (18.34%) contained no grave goods. 169 Burials containing 252 Individuals Chapter Sixteen

Composite Data Summary and Interpretation:

The Preclassic Maya Sites of Chiapa de Corzo, Chiapas, Kaminaljuyu, Guatemala,

Tikal, Guatemala, and Colha, Belize

Data Summary

This study was based on a total of 169 burials containing 252 individuals (Charts

29, 30, 31). The breakdown showed that for the Preclassic site of Chiapa de Corzo there were a total of 94 burials containing 94 individuals; for the Preclassic site of Kaminaljuyu there were 19 burials including 24 individuals; for the Preclassic site of Tikal there were

13 burials counting 17 individuals; and for the Preclassic site of Colha there were 43 burials containing 117 burials.

The temporal aggregates of burials and individuals, (Charts 32, 33, 34) reveal

that the Late Preclassic, far and away, outnumbered all other temporal divisions13 used in

this study. The Late Preclassic aggregate totals reflected 136 burials (80.47%)

containing 199 individuals (78.97%). The Middle Preclassic followed those numbers

with the next highest totals of 25 burials (14.79%) and 33 individuals (13.09%).

The intersite comparison for age at death (Charts 35) shows the adult category at every site to be the most populous. The distribution is as follows: Chiapa de Corzo had the highest total with 58; Colha was next with 36; then Kaminaljuyu with 15; and finally

Tikal with 12. It is not surprising that the aggregate of age at death (Charts 36, 37)

13 It will be noted here, again, that the lines of demarcation between the divisions of the Preclassic (and indeed, in all other divisions in prehistory) are but arbitrary, conjectured on traits and marked changes, and overlapping categories that cannot be held to exact dates of change. 664 reveals that the Adult category as the largest with 121 (48.02%). That category is

followed by the Child/Juvenile14 category, 46 (18.26%). For the Child/Juvenile

distribution, Chiapa de Corzo had the largest quantity with 26; then Colha with 16; next

was Kaminaljuyu with three, and lastly Tikal with one.

At all the sites, more male burials were discovered and excavated than

female interments; at Chiapa de Corzo the male-female ratio is 2.67:1, at Kaminaljuyu

the ratio is 3:1, at Tikal the ratio is 1.8:1, and at Colha it is 1.72:1. The aggregate (Chart

39) also reflects the same distortion of the male-female ratio for four site total population.

The male to female percentages are 27.38% and 14.29% respectively, representative of a

nearly 2:1 ratio.

The aggregates of the burial position distribution for the 252 individuals (Charts

40, 40a) show a prevalence of the extended (45.63%) and supine (35.32%) positions.

Flexed and seated burials are nearly equal with 7.94% and 6.75% respectively, as are the

prone (3.97%), left (3.57%), and right (4.76%) positions.

For the cranial orientation aggregate (Chart 41), in order to present a more accurate representation, only the known burials (63, 37.28%) were used in the computation of these figures. This resulted in the extrapolation of the following data regarding cardinal directions and cranium placement. Cranial orientation to the west, noted in 41 (28.08%) inhumations, and to the south, recorded in 35 (23.97%) burials had the highest totals. These were followed by orientation to the north in 29 (19.86%) burials and to the east in 26 (17.81%) interments. For the intercardinal directions: orientation to

14 The Child and Juvenile categories were combined for the purposes of these charts. 665 the northwest and northeast were each noted in two (1.37%) inhumations; southwest and southeast were indicated in six (4.11%) and five (3.43%) correspondingly.

The intersite comparison of observed cultural modifications and trephination (the practice of cutting a hole in the skull of a living person) (Chart 42) reveals that there was a very low rate of occurrence during the Preclassic at all four sites. Chiapa de Corzo had three examples of dental modification, but no cranial modifications. The sites of

Kaminaljuyu and Tikal both had two individuals who exhibited modification, and the site of Colha had five instances of cranial modification, two occurrences of dental modifications, and one case of trephination.

The intersite comparison for the presence of cinnabar, red ochre, and/or unspecified red pigment (Chart 43) evidences that all four sites did show the use of such elements within inhumations. Chiapa de Corzo had five (5.32%) of 95 interments with unspecified red pigment, Kaminaljuyu had one burial with red ochre noted and two with an unspecified red pigment (3 of 19, 15.79%), Tikal had four (30.77%) of 13 interments

with cinnabar, and the site of Colha had four (9.30%) of 43 burials with unspecified red

pigment.

The evidence of burning intersite comparison (Chart 44), reveals that

Kaminaljuyu had the highest total with five instances of burning; Chiapa de Corzo and

Colha15 each had two inhumations in which an occurrence of burning was noted. Tikal

had no burials that exhibited evidence of burning.

15 Although two burials containing burned bone were noted at Colha, Operation 2012 Subop5 noted burned cranial fragments throughout the fill that could possibly represent multiple individuals. 666 The intersite comparison of burials with grave goods (Chart 45) reveals that the ratio of burials containing grave goods between each of the three sites of Chiapa de

Corzo, Kaminaljuyu, and Tikal with the site of Colha is approximately 1.5 to 116. The site distribution of burials showed that grave goods were present in the following number of interments by site: For Chiapa de Corzo 83 of the 94 burials; Kaminaljuyu 16 of the

19 interments, Tikal 12 of the 13 inhumations, and Colha 25 of the 43 burials.

For the intersite comparison, the ratio for pathology/trauma occurrence between

Colha and both Chiapa de Corzo and Kaminaljuyu is approximately 34:1. Between

Colha and Tikal the ratio is approximately 9:1. The distribution of pathology/trauma is as follows: three examples noted at Preclassic Chiapa de Corzo, three cases recorded at

Preclassic Kaminaljuyu, 11 incidences noted at Preclassic Tikal, and 103 instances documented at Preclassic Colha.

Data Interpretation

The distribution of burials and individuals shows that Chiapa de Corzo contained the highest total of burials (55.62%), and the second largest totals of individuals

(37.30%). Colha was second with 25.44% of the burials, but contained the highest total

(46.43%) of the individuals. The population demonstrated at Colha could be indicative of the demand for their stone tools; the significant difference in the number of individuals exhumed could perhaps reflect the workforce that must have been in place to produce what has been estimated at 4,500,000 lithic stone tools during the Late Preclassic (Shafer

16 The exact ratios for burials with burial furniture are as follows: For Chiapa de Corzo and Colha the ratio is 1.52:1; for Kaminaljuyú and Colha the ratio is 1.45:1; and for Tikal and Colha the ratio is 1.58:1. 667 1994). An apparent difference is the number of graves versus individuals at the site of

Colha - far fewer graves for more individuals. As noted in Chapter 14, in some cases

these graves had been re-entered and reused; in other cases multiple burials are a

possibility. Noteworthy here is that “mass burials” were also noted at Cuello, considered

a minor elite center (Robin 1989). This could be postulated to correlate with the status of

the sites and the interment investment both allowed and available to those centers, as

demonstrated in the archaeological record. Next in rank was the site of Kaminaljuyu

with 11.24% of the burials and 9.52% of the individuals. The site of Tikal had the least

amount of Preclassic burials and individuals, respectively 7.69% and 6.75%. Here it

should be noted that the designation of a “burial” is subjective to the excavator’s

expertise in observing burial features and delineation of said features. In the case of pit

interments, this can be a difficult task and therefore could directly impact those figures.

The aggregate temporal distribution of burials and individuals demonstrates a

significant increase in both the number of burials and the number of individuals. The

Middle Preclassic to Late Preclassic number of burials has an approximate ratio of 1:6,

and the individuals have a ratio of about 1:5. For the site of Chiapa de Corzo, the Late

Preclassic (as an aggregate) has indexed 90 (95.74%) of the 94 interments and

individuals. The site of Kaminaljuyu had 15 (78.95%) inhumations and 18 (75.00%) individuals recorded for Late Preclassic. For Tikal the Late Preclassic (as an aggregate)

had ten (76.92%) interments and 14 (82.35%) individuals documented. The site of Colha

had 21 (48.84%) inhumations and 77 (65.81%) individuals indexed to the Late Preclassic.

668 This growth seemingly supports the postulation of a significant population increase noted

from the Middle Preclassic to the Late Preclassic.

The aggregate of age at death evidenced that the largest categories were the Adult

(121, 48.02%) and the Child/Juvenile17 (46, 18.26%). For both the Adult and

Child/Juvenile distribution, Chiapa de Corzo had the largest quantity with 58 Adult and

26 Child/Juvenile indexed; following is Colha with 36 Adult and 16 Child/Juvenile

documented; next was Kaminaljuyu with 15 Adult and three Child/Juvenile referenced;

and lastly Tikal with 12 Adult and one Child/Juvenile mentioned. The higher aggregate

totals for the Adult and Child/Juvenile categories seem to accurately reflect: (1) the

normal life expectancy for the Ancient Maya of less than 50 years old (the high Adult

total), and (2) the risk of childhood for the Ancient Maya as a relatively high percentage

(the Child/Juvenile category).

The sex distribution figures, or male to female ratios, of Chiapa de Corzo 2.67:1;

Kaminaljuyu 3:1; Tikal 1.8:1; and Colha 1.72:1 all exhibit such a male bias that they are

all improbable and hardly representative of an actual Maya male-female demographic,

past or present. Three possibilities are offered as to the cause of such a skew. The first

(as stated previously in Chapters Five, Eight, 11, and 14) is that if preservation is a byproduct of interment investment, and if there is the likelihood of a greater inhumation investment in male burials in a patriarchal society such as the Ancient Maya, then the result could, quite possibly, be the archaeological discovery of more males, i.e. a sample distortion attributed to cultural practices. The second explanation offered for the biased

17 The Child and Juvenile categories were combined for the purposes of these charts. 669 male-female ratio is that, by design, a vast majority of the excavations at all four sites

revolved around the ceremonial centers, thus producing distorted samples. The following

is a discussion of the explanation based upon research design for each site.

At Chiapa de Corzo, there was a conscious focus on the southwest quadrant,

which was noted to be the ceremonial center of the site. The Kaminaljuyu Project

conducted by Pennsylvania State University was a “salvage” effort; it built on or drew

heavily from previous excavations by the Carnegie Institution of Washington which were

squarely focused on the search for tombs in the monumental architecture. Though one of the objectives of the project was the excavation of housemounds to resolve relative dating

of various ceramic phases, another, equally important, objective was to address the

temple mounds or civic structures that were in danger of destruction. At Tikal, the force

was a driving interest in Classic Maya ceremonialism (its origins and development) –

thus, a definite excavation directive at the ceremonial centers. At Colha, while the first

focus was the identification and excavation of the postulated chert workshops, one of the

later objectives (due to the discovery of a substantial Preclassic component) was to locate

and excavate burials, starting with the ceremonial center, in the hopes that their mortuary

contents would provide valuable information on Colha’s Preclassic origins and

development. Therefore, it is proffered that the research objectives listed above created a

distorted sample (male-female) due to the contemporary excavation design required to

fulfill those objectives. It should be noted that this second explanation could also be

attributed, equally, again to Maya cultural practices; if more interment investment was

670 bestowed on males (as postulated earlier), then it serves to reason that more males would

be found in the monumental architecture.

The last explanation for the unrepresentative male-female ratio is taken from Saul

and Saul (1997) where they reasoned that the male-female skew in the Cuello population

was suggestive “that either death selected males preferentially (by natural or cultural

means)” and, in terms of location of the burial, (the place) “was allowed to males more

than females” – in this case, the distorted ratio is due to the an Ancient Maya bias toward

males that is reflected through cultural practices.

For the site of Tikal, it is noteworthy to add one other component of the research design or goal set for the partnership between the government of Guatemala and The

University Museum of the University of Pennsylvania was the stipulation that for anything that was uncovered, the Tikal Project had the choice to “repair”, “consolidate”,

“stabilize” or return to “pre-excavational conditions”, thus setting it up for the tourism potential that was recognized. That aim focused excavations on what was of more interest to tourists, i.e. the monumental architecture – the more “allowed to males” architecture. In fact, Haviland noted a “wholly improbable sex [male-female] ratio”, and remarked that it was due to two biases: that 39% of the skeletal population was from a ceremonial context and that the excavations had favored structures rather than plazas or

surrounding areas – and postulated that these were “favored places for burial” in which

men were more often buried (Haviland 1972). The aggregate four-site male to female

ratio of 2:1 also reflects the same bias either by cultural or contemporary excavation

design. 671 The aggregates of burial position distribution figures, unfortunately, can only be

taken on a very tentative basis as a Preclassic trend. It is probable that they do not give

accurate representation due to: (1) for the positions of extended, flexed, and seated, 100

individuals (39.68%) had no information given, and (2) for the designations of supine, prone, left, and right, 132 individuals (52.38%) had no information given. It is also important to note that the extremely high numbers of the undesignated individuals are from the site of Colha; 83 (83%) of the 100 individuals not designated as extended, flexed, or seated; and 100 (75.76%) of the 132 individuals not designated as supine, prone, left, or right. This (again) represents the severely disarticulated remains found at the site of Preclassic Colha. Cranial orientation aggregate analysis reveals that the cardinal directions are, by far, the most dominant directions for cranial orientation.

The intersite comparison of cultural modifications and trephination demonstrates

a low rate of occurrence. This is interesting, in the case of the cranial modification, given

Landa’s description of it being a ubiquitous practice across the Maya world. Perhaps this

is due to the temporal realm of this study, i.e. the Preclassic, and the idea that cranial and

dental modifications were noted as having their beginnings in the Preclassic, but not

reaching their zenith until a later temporal designation (Romero 1970). Interesting to

note is the fact that the site of Colha, the minor center/workshop, which had the most

instances (5) of cranial modification and which was one of two sites with dental

modifications (two individuals), also contributed the only example of trephination noted

in this study. Although some works still connect the practices of cranial and dental

modification with social standing (McKillop 2004), it would appear that the data from 672 investigations at Preclassic Colha supports the hypotheses of Romero (1970), Welsh

(1988), and Robin (1989) that cranial and dental modifications are not social status

markers. This would be evidenced by Colha’s function as a minor center/workshop.

Tiesler (1999) has stated that while cranial shaping may have been “an important indicator of Maya social integration or differentiation”, it is “not necessarily linked to one’s position in society”. With regard to dental decoration, Tiesler (1999) argued that it was an indicator of family organization, but that it was not regulated by law or norm, instead preferences and variances were allowed.

Intersite comparison for the occurrence of cinnabar, red ochre, and/or unspecified

red pigment reveals that the sites of Chiapa de Corzo, Kaminaljuyu, and Tikal contained

a higher number of interments which noted its presence than did Colha. Given the ceremonial importance of those sites, it is not surprising to find a higher percentage of

burials with a grave good of such prestigious status. Cinnabar has been noted as being

prized for the decoration of fine pottery and “a substance deemed necessary for ritual”

(Weaver 1993). Ruz (1965) suggested that since the color red is associated with the east,

the use of red pigment in burials may have represented resurrection.

The evidence of burning intersite comparison showed that three of the sites,

Chiapa de Corzo, Kaminaljuyu, and Colha contained some form of burning. For

Kaminaljuyu, one burial included burned bone and four interments contained burned clay

fragments; Chiapa de Corzo and Colha each had two inhumations which included burned

bone. Evidence of burning has been linked to ancestor worship by Tozzer (1941), Welsh

(1988), and McAnany (1995). In the case of Chiapa de Corzo, one instance of burned 673 bone appeared to have been an accidental ignition from perhaps a smoldering mortuary

offering, and one appeared to be an incomplete cremation which could plausibly be

linked to some type of ancestor veneration. Both interments which exhibited burning at

Chiapa de Corzo were elaborate constructions. For the site of Colha the statement that

“two inhumations contained burned bone” is slightly misleading and perhaps Operation

2012 Subop 5 actually offers an example of ritual activity since it contained multiple fragments of burned crania (Wright 1989, Ballinger 1991). As noted earlier in Chapter

Eight, the burning evidenced at Kaminaljuyu is of particular interest for two reasons: 1)

the higher percentage (26.32%) of interments exhibiting burning, and 2) the locale

restriction for four of the five examples to Mound A-VI-6. The artifact assemblage for three of these burials contained manos and metates. Perhaps this assemblage, in conjunction with the evidence of burning, is indicative of ritual activities such as those related to ancestor worship/care postulated to have been performed by females in

Mesoamerican prehistory (McAnany 1995).

As noted previously (Chapters 8 and 14) Buttles (2002) argued that the

contextualization of artifact assemblages can yield information regarding past human

behavior and that suppositions regarding the social and cultural significance of an

assemblage can be offered. The following are observations, based on the grave good

assemblage, of the social and cultural significance of items compared intersite.

Intersite comparison of burials with grave goods is particularly revealing of the disjunction between the minor center/lithic workshop of Preclassic Colha and the other

sites in this study, Preclassic Chiapa de Corzo, Kaminaljuyu, and Tikal. There are 674 ostensible differences of both quantity and quality of grave goods noted in the distribution. As mentioned previously, the ratio of the grave good distribution between the sites listed above and Colha is approximately 1.5:1. This means that all three of these sites had almost one and one-half times as many burials with grave goods as the

“production” site of Colha. This is even more notable when selected grave good numbers are scrutinized. For example, stingray spines are found at all three sites except Colha.

Jade was found in one inhumation (4.00%) at Colha while it occurred at Chiapa de Corzo in eighteen burials (21.69%), at Kaminaljuyu in five inhumations (31.25%), and in six interments (50.00%) at Tikal.

The intersite analysis of pathology and trauma shows that there were three instances of pathology/trauma noted at Preclassic Chiapa de Corzo, three cases recorded at Preclassic Kaminaljuyu (one of intentional sacrificial trauma), 11 occurrences noted at

Preclassic Tikal (three of intentional sacrificial trauma), and 103 instances documented at

Preclassic Colha (15 of intentional sacrificial trauma). This data, in conjunction with the grave good comparison mentioned above, offers an amazing contrast of rate of occurrence compared to the incidence of pathology and/or trauma at Colha and the other three sites of study. This notable difference can be observed in at least two ways: (1) the lack of osteological expertise and direction/attention in early excavations at the sites may have contributed to the low incidences of reported pathology and trauma; or (2) as a glaring example of what could be correlated with the already noted apparent status differences between the lithic/production site of Colha and the monumental sites of

Chiapa de Corzo, Kaminaljuyu, and Tikal. 675 Postulations on Gender

I would like to preface this section by clarifying that the following arguments are

simply postulations; they are an attempt to view gender as performance. Although gender

in archaeology is not the focus of my dissertation, it was included among my original

questions; I wanted to know if gender, approached as performance, could be observed in

the osteological and archaeological records by considering the skeletal remains in context with their associated grave furnishings, funerary art, and burial location. However, the

data presented in this dissertation do not allow for a more thorough examination of

gender. This was disappointing, but also a reminder of how the lines of gender,

particularly in the Maya area, are blurred. Further examination would require extensive data from outside the Maya area for comparative purposes. Important studies to consider for a much more comprehensive review of gender in archaeology are: Rosemary Joyce, work encompassing all of Mesoamerica; Elizabeth Brumfiel, work presenting an evolutionary and political look at Aztec women; Joan Gero, work interpreting Peruvian society in terms of ceramics and textiles from the Early Intermediate Period; and Roberta

Gilchrist, work covering both a range of time periods and material culture.

In the analyses of both the sex assessment and the grave goods present, data was

noted in the hopes of viewing gender in the terms of Judith Butler’s theory of gender as performativity. It must be noted that while we rely on secondary evidence from the archaeological record and while it is impossible to ever truly know the gender identity of our subjects, it is still necessary to continue to engage theory of gender in archaeology because many of the models used require postulations of gender. These postulations 676 permeate the categories and generalizations that are made about groups and individuals in

past and present societies (Joyce 2000). Butler has argued for the separation of gender

from the “natural” body or biological sex, indeed from anything that allows gender to be used as “something one is” (Butler 1990, 1993). In Butler’s view, gender is performed – something people do and it is from those performances that their social setting is shaped

(Butler 1990, 1993). This can be ascribed to a way of dressing, as well as tools and materials used (props if you will). If it is a “performance”, then could the environment of the individual be a proposed stage? In death, can the grave type be construed as the stage, and the grave goods the “props”? To examine these questions, the data herein was scrutinized for female-sexed skeletons whose associated grave goods and inhumation are more like those of the male-sexed skeletons, i.e. of connotated higher status. In pursuing this interest, the mortuary offerings of tubular beads (bone or jade) versus manos and/or

metates in conjunction with high ceramic sherd counts surfaced as possible discerning

factors. They are noted at a total of ten inhumations across the four sites. Tubular bone

beads have been postulated to represent rulership and have been noted at Cuello (Robin

1989) and at Barton Ramie (Willey 1965). At the site of Chiapa de Corzo, the tubular

beads are noted in Burial 115 – unknown sex, in Burial 149 – a male, and in Burial 144 –

a female. However, it should be noted that for Burial 149 the tubular bone beads are

described as being “tubular shaped travertine ear spools”. At the site of Kaminaljuyu, the only burials containing the tubular beads were the famed Mound E-III-3 tombs that were both definitely male and definitely defined as rulers. At the site of Tikal, Burial 85 (a male) was noted as having a cylindrical jade bead. Burial 166 was noted as having a 677 “barrel-shaped” bead. Burial 166 had a female as the primary occupant and another female – younger – as a proposed sacrifice. It is postulated that perhaps semantics are at work and that perhaps these two beads (cylindrical and “barrel-shaped”) are in fact

“tubular”. The site of Colha had five burials at which tubular beads were counted among the grave goods: Operation 2012 Subop5 (males), Operation 2012 Subop 12 Burials 74A

& B (a disarticulated male and an articulated female), Operation 2012 Subop3 (Second

Zone) Burial 2 (unknown), Operation 2031 Lot 218 (male), and Operation 2031 Lot 223

(two males). Of interest here, is that the three burials that included females; Burial 144 from Chiapa de Corzo, Burial 166 at Tikal, and Operation 2012 Subop 12 Burials

74A&B. Burial 144 contained tubular “ear spools” which could be argued not to belong in the “sample” of burials containing tubular beads, leaving Burial 166 if we argue that the “barrel-shaped” bead was a tubular bead. Burial 166 is particularly intriguing in that

SHE was buried in an elaborate stone-lined tomb with a smaller, younger female, had a modified cranium, and had cinnabar included as a grave good – could she have been a female performing a “male” gendered role? Could she have been a lesbian? Though

Joyce (2000) argued that perhaps Butler’s “performances” of gender were “inherently fleeting”, it could be argued through Burial 166 that perhaps those “performances” were not fleeting, but instead adapted to a sociocultural role i.e., in her case, rulership?

Another case that is proposed to represent a gendered performance is from the

Mound A-VI-6 burial examples at Kaminaljuyu. The individuals found in the Mound

A-VI-6 Burials 2 and 3 were both postulated to be female, were found with the largest amounts of ceramic sherd remains that were inclusive of both fine and domestic wares, 678 and had manos and metates – items of traditional “female” activities. It is postulated that perhaps they were performing the female activities of attending to and “feeding ancestors” as noted by Landa (Tozzer 1941). It is hoped that further review and comparison with other studies will help advance the “excavating of gender” in the archaeological record.

679 Chapter Seventeen

Research Summation and Concluding Remarks

Research Summation

In the beginning, of this dissertation, the sites chosen for this study were based on

their geographic zone, their size, and, in the case of Colha, its function. The purpose of

this dissertation was to begin to answer William Coe’s call for a synthesis of Maya

skeletal material by providing a solid composite organization that would benefit research

with regard to the Maya area. It was not understood how, after all this time, that

something as fundamental as a synthesis (of skeletal material) could be missing; the goal

was to move Maya skeletal material out of the “extraneous realm of appendices” and

focus research squarely on the ancient individuals. However, it is now understood why previous compendiums of Maya skeletal synthesis were either (1) so concise that they appear detail-poor or (2) focused on one particular site. It should be noted that the construction of an electronic database by the author is now in progress; the goal of synthesis is still on the horizon and is still considered an asset that would aid research.

The database will allow the specific burial data to be easily accessible and useful toward a variety of research endeavors.

The research goal of this study was an undertaking of a systematic osteological

study of the Preclassic period of four major sites across the Maya area (Chiapa de Corzo,

Kaminaljuyu, Tikal, and Colha) using the analyses of the skeletal remains to contribute to the understanding of the cultural and biological dimensions of the ancient Maya. The 680 method, or approach, used was the compilation of descriptions of osteological collections

and related materials to construct a composite database of all currently reported burials

and/or documented human skeletal remains from the Preclassic period of these sites.

This database was then the basis for a comparative look at the empirical skeletal data and social issues, including the construction of gender roles. The comparisons on both micro and macro levels (intrasite and intersite), from the apparent trends and the noticeable variations in the data, allowed for hypotheses for models of hierarchy and status, access to resources, and practices regarding ancestors and mortuary treatment with regard to the

Preclassic Maya. Ultimately, it was hoped that this data compilation would provide accessible and pertinent information to future researchers.

The research direction of this dissertation, as the method was described in Chapter

Two, was squarely focused on the ancient individuals themselves: their temporal

placement in the archaeological record, their age at death, the sex distribution or male to

female ratio of their society, their positions of interment i.e, their burial position and

cranial/pedal orientation, the pathology and trauma that were evident in their skeletal

remains, their cultural modifications as manifested in their skeletons (cranial and dental),

their use of red pigment, the evidence of burning in mortuary treatment, and the grave goods interred with them.

It is noted here that researchers must be cautious with the interpretations derived

from the skeletal population of any past society. It must be remembered that no matter

how complete the sample is proposed to be, the burial composition has been shaped by

issues of preservation, the social conditions past peoples were subject to that influenced 681 their mortuary treatment, and the excavators’ research design. Therefore, it is entirely possible that a particular sample may not be a cross-section of the population, and it may

not be statistically representative of an entire population (Buikstra 1981, Gellar 2004).

This caution, similarly, is applicable to grave goods. Before positing her conclusions,

Buttles cautioned that “the absence of perishable materials, the cultural, social, and

economic implications as revealed through contextual patterning may not reflect the true

significance of any artifact or artifact class” and that this “absence of perishable materials

may also affect the social implications of burials” (Buttles 2002).

This research enabled the connection of specific health issues to actions in life,

and offered insights into the full range of an individual’s behaviors including habitual

activities, specific events, social status, and gender role(s). Discussed below are

highlights from each category examined.

Temporal Distribution

The analysis of temporal distribution allowed chronological context to be

glimpsed from the archaeological record, and from that the patterns of population

increase and changing mortuary practices discerned through the number of interments

and the elaboration of those burials. The discussion of these changes enabled hypotheses

of population increase in the Late Preclassic, e.g. Preclassic Colha; and offered evidence

of the shift in the Late Preclassic to clustered ceremonial centers with monumental

architecture at Preclassic Kaminaljuyu proposed by Cheek (1977) and Michels (1979).

The examination and comparison temporally of the interments also demonstrated the

increase in interment investment for the Late Preclassic, e.g. Chiapa de Corzo (Tombs 7 682 and 8), Kaminaljuyu (Mound E-III-3 Tombs I and II), Tikal ([tomb] Burials 85, 125,

166, and 167), and Colha (Operation 2031 Lot 107 [crypt]).

Age at Death

The assessment, per site and aggregately, of age at death revealed associations of

the ritual treatment of children, e.g. Kaminaljuyu (Chapter Eight), and the vulnerabilities

during childhood that affect survivorship, e.g. Chiapa de Corzo (Chapter Five). At

Kaminaljuyu, one child [5 years or < of age – Mound B-III-1/Feature 7 (Burial 1)] demonstrated the use of juveniles as dedicatory offerings in monumental structures; two children (age six-eight years – Mound E-III-3 Tomb II) represented the use of juveniles as burial offerings in entombments of personages of obvious power. These customs were noted by Landa (Tozzer 1941). The high number of child interments at Chiapa de Corzo

(26, 27.66%) can be postulated to correspond to the dangers of childhood which affect the rate of survivorship to adulthood. Age at death also provided data with regard to factors involved in the “selection” for formal mortuary treatment (burial), e.g. the adult population representing the largest group at each site (Chapter 15, Chart 35). These numbers showed the preference accorded adults in “selection” for formal burial preparation and interment. This practice also correlates with the cultural bias of adult

(specifically male adult) “selection” for “public” burial as suggested by Hammond

(1999). Another factor in the “selection” for burial appears to have been based on social rank. A juvenile would not have had the time to accumulate the wealth nor garner the prestige associated with social rank that would have earned “selection” for formal mortuary treatment. Exceptions to the above statements would possibly be juveniles with 683 familial wealth, or those destined for rulership that meet untimely deaths such as Burial

A-1/2 from the site of Altun Ha, Belize (Welsh 1988).

Sex Distribution

The study of the sex distribution (the male to female ratio) revealed a substantial

disparity. These figures represented such a male bias that they could hardly be construed

as representative of an actual Maya male-female demographic, past or present.

Therefore, this allowed examination of factors that influenced this type of sample such as

mortuary “selection” due to hierarchy and demonstrated through cultural practices, i.e.the interment investment, and the likelihood of a greater inhumation investment in male burials in a patriarchal society. The effects of research design focused on ceremonial aspects of the Ancient Maya, a focus on monumental architecture, and the excavation goals of a site were scrutinized for possible sample biases. In addition, consideration was given to Saul and Saul’s postulation “that either death selected males preferentially (by natural or cultural means)” and, in terms of location of the burial, (the place) “was allowed to males more than females” (Saul and Saul 1997). This hypothesis supported by the male-female disparity from excavations in locations more “allowed” to males, correlates with theory of gender hierarchy. The above postulations, cultural and/or contemporary excavation design were offered for the distortion of the male-female ratio for both the individual site samples and the four site aggregate sample.

Burial Positions and Cranial/Pedal Orientation

Examination of burial position reflected a predilection for the positions of

extended and supine. It also revealed the glaring amount of burials for which position 684 was not noted. This information pointed to the large amount of disarticulated individuals

present at Preclassic Colha. The data from Preclassic Chiapa de Corzo, Kaminaljuyu,

and Tikal also seemingly confirmed Welsh’s (1988) assertion that extended positions

were associated with crypts and tombs, e.g. Tomb 7 (Chiapa de Corzo), Mound E-III-3

Tombs I and II (Kaminaljuyu), and Tikal [tomb] Burials 125, 166, and 167.

Cranial/pedal orientation observations revealed a cranial predominance of the

cardinal directions. Although there were few pedal orientation observations, from the

interments that did provide information, a preference for the cardinal directions was

noted at Chiapa de Corzo and Colha, and three instances of “crossed” feet were

documented.

Pathology and Trauma

The analysis of pathology and trauma that were evident in the skeletal remains was particularly informative and allowed postulation with regard to societal hierarchy based on access to resources and status as reflected through nutritional health. The site of

Colha, postulated to be a “production” site that was manufacturing lithic tools for use at sites such as Tikal, a “ceremonial” center (Hester et al. 1979; Shafer 1994), exhibited a

markedly high rate of incidence when compared to the monumental sites of Chiapa de

Corzo, Kaminaljuyu, and Tikal. This ostensible difference is proposed to correlate with

the apparent status differences between a “production” site and a “ceremonial” center.

However, it will be cautioned here, as it was noted in Chapter 16, that the immense

difference in the rate of incidence could also be explained as a lack of osteological

expertise and the research direction/attention of the early excavations at the sites of 685 Chiapa de Corzo, Kaminaljuyu, and Tikal. It is possible that those explanations may

have contributed to the low incidences of reported pathology and trauma for those sites.

The temporal examination of the exhibited pathology and trauma also evidenced an increase in mutilated skeletal material during the Late Preclassic. For example, Tikal

Burial 85 was a Late Preclassic primary burial in which the occupant had the skull and femora removed. Ethnographic evidence provided by Landa (Tozzer 1941) allowed for the hypothesis of ancestor worship evidenced in the removal of the skull and femora.

Cultural Modifications

Observation of cultural modifications as manifested in their skeletons (cranial and dental) allowed for support of hypotheses by Romero (1970), Smith (1972), and

Welsh (1988) that the cultural modifications were not restricted to the “elites” but instead were evidenced across the population without regard to status. For example, Colha had five instances of cranial modification and two occurrences of dental modifications, the most for all sites considered in this study, and Colha is proposed to have been of lesser status – a “production” rather than “monumental” site.

Use of Red Pigment and Evidence of Burning

Examination of the use of red pigment in mortuary treatment allowed for

postulations in line with models of hierarchy and status with regard to site size and

function, and with regard to the differential mortuary treatment of males and females.

For example, the sites of Chiapa de Corzo, Kaminaljuyu, and Tikal evidenced a higher

number of burials which contained red pigment than Colha. This would reflect the higher

686 site status proposed due to their ceremonial importance. This would affect their access to

and usage of red pigment in mortuary treatments.

With regard to a differential in the use of red pigment within male and female

interments, all sites examined demonstrated an almost 2:1 ratio. This is postulated to

represent the elevated interment investment given male burials and the use of prestige

items such as cinnabar is proposed to have been (Weaver 1993). However, it is also

noted that the one anomaly was Tikal Burial 166, a female in a tomb which contained red

pigment, as discussed in Chapter 16.

The evidence of burning analysis allowed for hypotheses with regard to ancestor

practices. As noted in Chapter 8, Kaminaljuyu had the highest percentage (26.32%) of

interments exhibiting burning, and the burning was predominately localized to one

mound (Mound A-VI-6). The artifact assemblage for three of these burials contained

manos and metates. It was offered that perhaps this assemblage, in conjunction with the

evidence of burning, was indicative of ritual activities such as those related to ancestor

worship/care postulated to have been performed by females in Mesoamerican prehistory

(McAnany 1995).

Burial Furniture Analysis

Review of the grave goods interred with the Preclassic individuals interred at the

four subject sites permitted hypotheses with regard to the site hierarchy. The intersite comparison of burials with grave goods revealed a severe disjunction between the minor center/lithic workshop of Preclassic Colha and the other sites in this study, Preclassic

Chiapa de Corzo, Kaminaljuyu, and Tikal – ostensibly ceremonial centers. The 687 differences of both quantity and quality of grave goods were noted. The ratio of the

grave good distribution between the sites listed above and Colha is approximately 1.5:1.

Prestige items found at Colha such as stingray spines and jade were noted as absent and a single find respectively.

The Bioarchaeological Approach

As noted in Chapter One, Maya interments have not always been recognized for

the potential productivity that they offer toward the interpretation of past. It hoped that

this dissertation will follow in the footsteps of recent advances in bioarchaeology and

provide a useful, humanistic bioarchaeolgical approach to skeletal remains such as that

demonstrated at the sites of Cuello (Saul and Saul 1997); K’acob (McAnany 1995,

McAnany et al. 1998); and Programme for Belize (Gellar 2004). Jane Buikstra

confirmed, at the Society for American Archaeology meetings in 2003, that without a

doubt skeletal remains have incredible information potential even decades after

excavation. Her examination of the remains of Pacal, “Palenque’s most notable ruler”

(Weaver 1993), more than 50 years post discovery by Ruz Lhuillier demonstrated the

benefit of technological advances to the analyses of skeletal remains. She used a

conjunctive approach of combining the human remains, associated archaeological materials, epigraphy, and cultural context to present humanistic bioarchaeological data regarding Pacal’s life and death.

The composite skeletal analyses of the Preclassic Maya sites of Chiapa de Corzo,

Kaminaljuyu, Tikal, and Colha present some fascinating conclusions that give ample

points for contemplation in terms of site evaluation for study. As stated earlier, analyses 688 of ancient peoples and their interment practices can yield valuable information about their

behavior and lifeways as well as the social and demographic structure of their culture. In

the case of the Maya, evidence for the importance of mortuary rites and burials is

abundant through the architecture – the construction and/or use of temple structures and household shrines18 and the iconography of stelae and murals. Examination of these with

a humanistic approach in conjunction with skeletal remains can provide insight into Maya

society.

Concluding Remarks

In conclusion, this dissertation was a beginning attempt at synthesis and the data

set represented here offers many possibilities for future research. The individual site

analyses are given with enough detail to be of reference use. It is now more clearly

understood that it is not possible, even in a dissertation, to completely expand on

something of this magnitude, and the brevity of past authors is now wholly understood

(and applauded). The database under construction will perhaps be the published format

which will bring the “ease of reference” that was desired at the beginning of this

endeavor.

18 Household shrines refer to structures smaller in size than grand temples, but postulated to have been built for the purposes of “housing” the dead (Welsh 1988). 689 Appendices

APPENDIX A

Ricketson, O. G. (1925)

Order in text Alphabetically

Palenque Acanceh

Monte Alban Apaneca

Mital Baking Pot

Menche Chamelecon River Valley

Chichen Itza Chichen Itza

Rio Hondo Copan

Oaxaca (state of) Corozal

Tulum Labna

Rio Holmul Menche

Rio Mopan Mital

Labna Monte Alban

Puerto Progresso Oaxaca (state of)

Apaneca Oloa River Valley

Chamelecon River Valley Palenque

Oloa River Valley Puerto Progresso

San Pedro Sula Rio Holmul

Copan Rio Hondo

Xhambak Rio Mopan

690 APPENDIX A – CONT.

Ricketson, O. G. (1925)

Order in text Alphabetically

Kendall San Pedro Sula

Acanceh Kendall

Corozal Succotz (Socotz)

Succotz (Socotz) Tulum

Baking Pot Xhambak

691 APPENDIX B

Ruz, L. A. (1965)

Order in text Alphabetically Peten-British Honduras (Belize)

Uaxactun, Guatemala Actun Coyoc (Actún Coyok)

Tikal, Guatemala Baking Pot, British Honduras (Belize)

Holmul, Guatemala Bellote

Hormiguero, Campeche Benque Viejo, British Honduras (Belize)

San Jose, British Honduras (Belize) Cahal Cunil

Baking Pot, British Honduras (Belize) Chichen Itza

Benque Viejo, British Honduras (Belize) Chiptic Southern Cayo District, British Honduras Cieneguilla (Belize) Tzimin Kax Colonia Victorico Grijales Cahal Cunil Comalcalco Hatzcap Ceel Corozal District, British Honduras (Belize) Copan, Honduras Santa Rita Corozal Noh Mul Corozal Dzibilchaltun Rio Hondo (several sites in British Honduras and one in El Encanto Quintana Roo, Mexico, on river banks) Santa Elena El Zopo (cave) Pueblo Nuevo Honey Camp Floresta Progreso Guaytan Southern British Honduras (Belize) Hatzcap Ceel Lubaantun Wild Cane Bay Holmul, Guatemala Kendal Honey Camp Pomona

692 APPENDIX B – CONT.

Ruz, L. A. (1965)

Order in text Alphabetically Copan-Motagua Hormiguero, Campeche Copan, Honduras Motagua, Guatemala Hun Chabin San Agustin Acasaguastlan Husjal Guaytan Jaina Usumacinta-Grijalva Mountainous Sites Kabah Hun Chabin Husjal Kendal Lago Lacandon Labna Moxiuil San Felipe Lago Lacandon Zapaluta Loltun San Nicolas Santa Catarina Lubaantun Najos Mani San Domingo Metzazok (Metzabok) Mayapan Floresta Metzazok (Metzabok) Colonia Victorico Grijalas Chiptic Moxiuil Cieneguilla Najos Rosario Trabajo Tzahalob Noh Mul Intermediate Sites Oxkutzcab Palenque Yoxiha Palenque San Antonio Pomona Yaxchilan Coastal Sites Progreso Bellote Pueblo Nuevo El Zopo (cave) El Encanto Rio Hondo (several sites in British Honduras and one in Comalcalco Quintana Roo, Mexico, on river banks)

693 APPENDIX B – CONT.

Ruz, L. A. (1965)

Order in text Alphabetically

Northern Yucatan Jaina Rosario Trabajo Mayapan San Agustin Acasaguastlan Chichen Itza San Antonio Kabah San Domingo Dzibilchaltun San Felipe Xkichmook San Jose, British Honduras (Belize) Tulum San Nicolas Puuc Region Santa Catarina Actun Coyoc (Actún Coyok) Santa Elena Xhambak Loltun Santa Rita Oxkutzcab Tikal, Guatemala Mani Labna Tulum Xul Tzahalob Tzimin Kax Uaxactun, Guatemala Wild Cane Bay Xhambak Xkichmook Xul Yaxchilan Yoxiha Zapaluta

694 APPENDIX C

Ruz, L. A. (1968)

Order in text Alphabetically

Área Meridional (Southern) Acanceh

Altiplano de Guatemala y El Salvador Actún Coyok (Actun Coyoc)

Departamento de San Marcos Alameda Tajumulco Departamento de Quezaltenango Asunción Mita El Paraíso Departamento de Huehuetenango Baking Pot Quen Santo Zaculeu Barton Ramie Chalchitan Departamento de El Quiché Bellote Nebaj Xolchún Benque Viejo Xolpacol Chutixtiox Buena Vista Chichel Vicaveval Cahal Cunil Tzicuay Chipal Canchón La Iglesia Zacualpa Caracol Departamento de Sololá Chukumuk Chamá Departamento de Chimaltenango Chayabé Alameda Departamento de Guatemala Chiapa de Corzo Contreras Canchón Chichel Kaminaljuyú Departamento de Baja Verapaz Chichén Itzá Chuitinamit Departamento de Alta Verapaz Chinkultic Chamá Seacal Chipal

695 APPENDIX C – CONT.

Ruz, L. A. (1965)

Order in text Alphabetically

Departamento de Jutiapa Chiptic Asunción Mita República de El Salvador Chuitinamit Tazumal Chukumuk San Andrés (campana) Chumpá Costa del Pacífico de Guatemala Departamento de San Marcos Chutixtiox La Victoria Buena Vista Cieneguilla El Jobo Colonia Victorico Grijales Santa Clara El Sitio Comalcalco Departamento de Escuintla Contreras San José Finca Arizona Copan, Honduras Corozal Área Central Dzibilchaltún Costa del Atlántico El Cairo Estado de Tabasco Bellote El Encanto Comalcaco El Jobo El Encanto El Paríso Altiplano y depresion de Chiapas Estado de Chiapas El Sitio Santa Bárbara Finca Arizona San Agustín Chiapa de Corzo Floresta El Cairo Guaytán Moxviquil San Felipe Ecatepec Hatzcap Ceel San Nicolás Holmul Chiptic Tzajalob Honey Camp Hun Chabin Hormiguero San Francisco 696 APPENDIX C – CONT.

Ruz, L. A. (1965)

Order in text Alphabetically

Estado de Chiapas – cont. Hun Chabin Huxjal Huxjal Cieneguilla Chinkultic Jaina Cuenca de Río Usumacinta Kabah Chayabé Kaminaljuyú Floresta Rosario Trabajo Kendal Lago Lacandón La Iglesia Colonia Victorico Grajales Santo Domingo La Tuxpeña San Antonio La Victoria Toniná Santa Catarina Najos Labná Metzabok (Metzazok) Lago Lacandón Yoxihá Palenque Loltún Piedras Negras Lubaantun Yaxchilán Petén Mayapan República de Guatemala Metzabok (Metzazok) Uaxactún Mountain Cow Tikal Holmul Moxviquil Poptun Nebaj Honduras Británica (Belice) Baking Pot Nohmul Platón Oxkutzcab Barton Ramie Succotz (Socotz) Palenque Benque Viejo Piedras Negras San José Mountain Cow Platón Tzimin Kax Pomona Cahal Cunil 697 APPENDIX C – CONT.

Ruz, L. A. (1965)

Order in text Alphabetically

Poptun Honduras Británica (Belice) – cont. Hatzcap Ceel Progreso Caracol Pueblo Nuevo Quen Santo Montañas Mayas Lubaantun Rio Hondo (Honduras Británica/Belice) Wild Cane Bay Rio Hondo (Mexíco) Kendal Cuenca del Río Motagua Rosario Trabajo San Agustín República de Guatemala San Agustín Acasaguastlán San Agustín Acasaguastlán Guaytán San Andrés (campana) San Antonio (Chiapas) República de Honduras Copán San Antonio (Quintana Roo) Travesiá San Felipe Ecatepec Área Septentrional (Northern) San José, (Honduras Británica/Belice)

San José (Guatemala) La Montaña San Nicolás Estado de Campeche Hormiguero Santa Bárbara La Serranía (Puuc) Santa Catarina Najos Estado de Yucatán Santa Clara Uxmal Kabah Santa Elena Labná Santa Rita Oxkutzcab Loltún Santo Domingo Actún Coyok (Actun Coyoc) Seacal Xhambak Xul Succotz (Socotz) Xkichmuk

698 APPENDIX C – CONT.

Ruz, L. A. (1965)

Order in text Alphabetically

La Planicie Semiárida Tajumulco Estado de Yucatán Tazumal Dzibilchaltún Tikal Acanceh Mayapán Toniná Chichén Itzá Travesía La Costa Occidental (Western) Tulum Estado de Campeche Tzajalob Jaina Tzicuay La Tuxpeña Chumpá Tzimin Kax La Costa Oriental (Eastern) Uaxactún Honduras Británica (Belice) Uxmal Honey Camp Vicaveval Río Hondo Nolmul Wild Cane Bay Progreso Xhambak Pueblo Nuevo Corozal Xkichmuk Santa Rita Xolchún Santa Elena Xolpacol Territorio de Quintana Roo Xul Río Hondo Yaxchilán San Antonio Tulum Yoxihá Zacualpa Zaculeu Zopo

699 APPENDIX D

Rathje, W. L. (1970)

Order in text Alphabetically

Barton Ramie Altun Ha

Uaxactun Barton Ramie

Tikal Palenque

Palenque Tikal

Altun Ha Uaxactun

700 APPENDIX E

Welsh, W. B. M. (1970)

Order in text Alphabetically

Mountain Cow Altar de Sacrificios

Baking Pot Altun Ha

Barton Ramie Baking Pot

Benque Viejo Barton Ramie

San José Benque Viejo

Holmul Copan

Uaxactun Dzibilchaltun

Tikal Holmul

Altun Ha Mountain Cow

Dzibilchaltun Palenque

Altar de Sacrificios Piedras Negras

Seibal San José

Copan Seibal

Piedras Negras Tikal

Palenque Tonina

Tonina Uaxactun

701 APPENDIX F

Robin, C. (1989)

Order in text Alphabetically

Cuello Altar de Sacrificios

Altun Ha Altun Ha

Barton Ramie Barton Ramie

Tzimin Kax Cahal Cunil

Cahal Cunil Cuello

Tikal Dzibilchaltun

Uaxactun Holmul

Holmul Seibal

Altar de Sacrificios Tikal

Seibal Tzimin Kax

Dzibilchaltun Uaxactun

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724 Vita

Lauri McInnis Thompson was born in Austin, Texas on March 19, 1966, the daughter of

Lorraine Guerrero McInnis and Donel Barry McInnis. After graduating from Hyde Park

Baptist High School, Austin, Texas, in 1984, she entered the University of Texas at

Austin.

Following a ten-year hiatus, she returned to the University of Texas at Austin for the spring 1999 semester. She graduated with a Bachelor of Arts degree in Anthropology in May, 2001. She entered the Graduate School at the University of Texas at Austin in

August 2001. At the University of Texas Health Science Center, San Antonio she was enrolled in “Graduate Gross Anatomy” from May 2002 until August 2002. She received the degree of Master of Arts in Anthropology in December, 2002. She entered the

Doctoral Program at the University of Texas at Austin in April 2003.

Permanent address: P.O. Box 12395 Austin, Texas 78711 This dissertation was typed by the author.

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