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James Bay Cree Culture, Malnutrition, Infectious and Degenerative Diseases

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James Bay Cree Culture, Malnutrition, Infectious and Degenerative Diseases James Bay Cree Culture, Malnutrition, Infectious and Degenerative Diseases RICHARD J. PRESTON McMaster University One of my post-retirement projects is as co-investigator on a project where my role is to identify the cultural-behavioural (Hallowell 1955) factors associated with the incidence of disease, for four James Bay Cree communities, 1820-1970, including accounting for the different disease histories of each community. This is proving to be more difficult than I anticipated. Reports by White people and Cree oral tradition are the main sources of information. Both types of report have serious shortcomings. Cree oral tradition tells us eloquently of the personal meanings and behavioural consequences of hardship and, sometimes, disease, but we are not told the extent to which it afflicted the area. A severe shortage of food animals coincided with these diseases.There is remarkably small mention of disease, considering the extent of its documented ravages, and considering the much larger number of hardship stories from the same period of time. Perhaps stories are not so often made or repeated when there is no known way of coping with the hardship of diseases. White people's reports, whether resident or travelers, are based on what they see and hear at the post or en route between posts. These reports do not tell us what was happening back in the bush where Cree people were trying to get on with their lives. A further complication is that there is a scholarly inclination to give written reports greater force of argument than they deserve. What one man writes about what he sees or hears in one place may be true for only a small number of Cree people, a single season, or a small area. If a traveler's report were true for many Crees, continuing over many years, and characterizing an entire region, it would be a powerful statement indeed. But we can't count on it. It may report one hard season for one local group. For example, James Bell reports in 1903, I am told that the number of Indians in the Moose basin is rapidly dimin­ ishing. This is due in part to the large annual migration southward to the Canadian Pacific railway, and also to the terrible decimation of the tribe of late by tuberculosis and measles. The latter disease swept off quite flfth the ulation of ?nA; J°f P°P Moose Factory during the summer of 1902, and this summer during my short stay in the region the mortality JAMES BAY CREE CULTURE AND DISEASE 375 from tuberculosis was really tragic. In fact, the present condition of the Moose Indian is most deplorable....they are a miserable, squalid, poorly clad, and sickly people... (1903:178-179) Bell would have seen something of this for himself, and would have been further informed by whatever the HBC factor and others chose to tell him. I have not yet found other confirmation of 100 or more deaths at Moose Factory from measles in 1902, but it seems general to the whole James Bay District, so it may be true. This very large number of deaths was reported for 300 km up the East Coast of James Bay at Fort George and Great Whale River that year. But when Duncan Campbell Scott's treaty party came just two years later, they "commented favourably on the Moose Factory Indians" (Long 1978:6). Something is wrong; we have two different pictures of the peo­ ple and the place, at nearly the same time. The "annual" out-migration Bell reports is also less than accurate. In 1902,12 families were dismissed and sent south, but this was not an annual event. Arthur Ray tells us that, as a result of the Canadian Pacific Railway being opened, the Hudson's Bay Company was dramatically reducing its Moose Factory staff and shifting their headquarters to Winnipeg. In 1900, the staff had consisted of employees and their families, totaling 193 persons; with "hangers-on" it totaled 571 persons (1990:209). This is a very large number of people for the Company to sustain, partial through their support may have been. So to the HBC it was reasonable that many of these Crees and Scots were instructed to move south and find their living near the railway. But it was not an annual out-migration. Bell's report has considerable useful infor­ mation, and measles and tuberculosis had indeed killed many. But the overall picture may be too narrowly negative and over-generalized. Problems of this kind would be quite enough to deal with, but the project involves much more than compiling reports of sickness, since I want to try to establish the relevant cultural-behavioural factors, and espe­ cially to relate specific culture changes to health changes. For example, tuberculosis was a scourge of arctic and subarctic peoples (including the James Bay Cree) for an extended period during the late colonial fur-trade, and is a main concern in our study. We will have to establish how the infection moved into the region, and then go beyond the mobility of per­ sons that allows the transmission of contagious diseases. Active TB is sig­ nificantly attributable to the cultural impacts of displacement. Let me explain with an extended quote from Cohen's Health and the Rise of Civ­ ilization. 376 RICHARD J. PRESTON Illness may actually result from the reaction or overreaction of the human body as much as from the activities of the parasite - or more. The response of the body depends, in turn, on a number of factors, including nutritional state, the presence of other infections, and even the emotional state of the individual. Tuberculosis, in particular, may be a disease largely controlled in such a manner... In fact, illness almost always resulted from the reactivation of bacilli stored in the body long after the initial spread of the germ. The reactivation appears to be correlated with malnutrition, chemical stresses on body tissues, and the social displacement and psychological disorientation of potential victims. (1989:10-11) Herring and Hoppa report that TB "was both chronic and endemic at Moose Factory by the mid-to-late nineteenth century", concentrated in those aged 15-44, for whom it was noted as a cause of death more often than all other listed causes. (1997:121). Unfortunately, the Anglican Church burial records rarely indicate whether the correlated factors men­ tioned in the Cohen quote above were present. But we can find other reports from James Bay in the early 20th century that do include the fac­ tors that Cohen lists as generally contributory: malnutrition (starvation), extreme exertion in hunting, dislocation of families, and a radically new sense of insecurity on the land. The extent of TB in the region may well be a result of these non-pathogenic factors, and it is this sort of evidence that we are hoping to document. The remainder of this paper examines these factors: malnutrition/starvation, chemical stresses of the body, social displacement, and psychological disorientation. While there are a few medical reports, most of the relevant material will not be explicitly to do with disease. This behavioural data will, as we all know, not be flagged to attract notice, but requires reading the docu­ ments closely for helpful clues. This would include information on move­ ments into the Cree territory by non-natives (Borron 1890:85-89). The methodology is difficult, however, since mobility and hunger are histori­ cally common and so must be examined to see in which specific examples they are conducive to disease. Of course, health practices in the region began with traditional Cree skills and remedies (Speck 1915), including poultices, splints, and some potions. John Blackned, of Waskaganish, was 34 years my senior, born and raised inland up the Eastmain River, had a phenomenal memory and was my mentor for many years, starting in 1963. John told me of what must have been the world's first spray-on band-aid; the heated (until it bubbles) musk-oil from a beaver castor, spread over the wound, would cool into a film that might be peeled off JAMES BAY CREE CULTURE AND DISEASE 377 after a few days. He also spoke from personal experience of a remedy for respiratory sickness - a few drops of skunk musk in some tea (no, its just a little bitter) which brought him good results when he was a young man. Missionaries and traders added their medicine chests to the Cree pharma­ copoeia. The Company maintained a surgeon at Moose Factory, and the Federal Indian agents were initially also physicians. But contagious epi­ demic diseases such as TB, measles, whooping cough, and the like were far beyond any of their abilities, and a great many perished. STARVATION AND OTHER MALNUTRITION Starvation is a kind of gradual, cumulative bodily injury, causing weakness in resisting disease and physio-chemical stresses in sustaining the actions required by daily living. John Blackned explained to me that it was not the feeling of hunger that was troubling, but the weakness that hampered them when people had to try harder to snowshoe to other areas in search of food. It was hard, too, for a hunter to come home to a starving family with no food to provide them, and women might keep the children inside the tent in the evening, to make the man's approach less difficult. Stories recount finding the emaciated body of a hunter where he had fallen to his knees and was unable to get up and continue. It was an occa­ sional and local fact of life that there were too few animals to sustain the people, and hunting groups would move to other locales in hope of find­ ing more food.
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