Gender at Work in the Caribbean: Synthesis Report for Five Countries

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ii THE SYNTHESIS REPORT: A SUMMATION OF THE FINDINGS OF A FIVE-COUNTRY STUDY AND REVIEW Foreword

Despite the progress towards achieving gender equality in the world of work, considerable constraints remain. As a result, and as the Organization approaches its centenary in 2019, the Director-General launched the Women at Work Centenary Initiative. The initiative aims to better understand and address why progress on delivering on decent work for women has been so slow and what needs to be done towards securing a better future for women at work.

In March 2016, the ILO published the Women at Work – 2016 Trends Report, which presented in- depth analysis of the gender gaps in the world of work and explored the key policy drivers for gender transformative change. Taking this publication as a reference guide, the ILO Decent Work Team and Office for the Caribbean commissioned country studies to establish an up-to-date and comprehensive picture of five ILO member States: Antigua and Barbuda, Dominica, Guyana, Jamaica and Saint Lucia.

This research is timely since at this juncture we do not have a comprehensive overview of the situation of women at work in the Caribbean. The findings of the report would provide information relevant for the implementation in the Caribbean of the “Montevideo Strategy for Implementation of the Regional Gender Agenda within the Sustainable Development Framework by 2030”, adopted in October 2016. It will also contribute to SDG 5 on Gender Equality, SDG 8 on Decent Work and Economic Growth, and SDG 10 on Inequalities, as well as the UN Women initiative on 50 50 by 2030.

The goal is to widen our knowledgebase on gender dimensions in the world of work in the Caribbean and how they are currently addressed. It is our hope that this will help direct policy makers as they mainstream gender in decent work policies. The studies use existing data to address important questions such as: What are the gender inequalities in the labour market? What is causing them? Do we have the data we need to understand the realities? Where are the inequalities mostly concentrated in terms of sectors and groups of workers? Are there legal protection and policy issues that are to be addressed? How well have countries done in mainstreaming gender equality dimensions across policies? What institutions, measures, policies and laws exist which promote women’s labour force participation, including in non-traditional types of work, as well as in trade unions, political and social organizations and how well are they being used? What are the good practices that can be identified and possibly replicated?

This initial study is expected to then further inform and guide additional research into the situation of women and men at work and the obstacles to equality and economic empowerment.

I would like to acknowledge, with deep appreciation, the guidance provided by Dagmar Walter, Deputy Director, and Shingo Miyake, Specialist, Labour Law and International Labour Standards, ILO DWT and Office for the Caribbean, in supervising the project and preparing this publication. I would like to express special thanks to Caroline Allen who conducted the research and prepared the draft text, with the invaluable assistance of representatives of the Gender Ministries who provided the information relating to their respective countries. Finally, I am also grateful of all Specialists of ILO Decent Work Team and Office for the Caribbean who have provided comments and inputs to the draft text.

Claudia Coenjaerts Director ILO Decent Work Team and Office for the Caribbean

iii iv THE SYNTHESIS REPORT: A SUMMATION OF THE FINDINGS OF A FIVE-COUNTRY STUDY AND REVIEW Contents

Foreword iii Contents v Acknowledgements vii List of figures viii List of tables ix List of abbreviations x Introduction 1 Part One. Overview of key research on gender at work in the Caribbean 3 1.1 Key research findings 4 1.2 Main barriers to gender equaltiy 8 1.2.1 Causes of sex segregation at work 8 1.2.2 Gender gaps in entrepreneurship 9 1.2.3 Gender gaps in representation in decision-making and leadership positions 9 1.2.4 Gender wage gaps 9 1.2.5 Trends and challenges in providing an intergrated framework of 10 work-family policies Part Two. Country characteristics 11 Part Three. Profile and trends of gender at work in the five countries under review 15 3.1 Labour force participation and employment 15 3.2 Division of labour, employment sectors and occupational segregation 20 3.3 Gender pay gaps 23 Part Four. Institutional analysis 27 4.1 National entities responsible for gender 27 4.2 Other government entities 30 4.3 Initiatives and tools for gender mainstreaming 33 4.3.1 Gender mainstreaming in Antigua and Barbuda 33 4.3.2 Gender mainstreaming in Dominica 34 4.3.3 Gender mainstreaming in Guyana 34 4.3.4 Gender mainstreaming in Jamaica 37 4.3.5 Gender mainstreaming in Saint Lucia 38

v Part Five. Legal and policy analysis 39 5.1 Equality of opportunity 40 5.2 Maternity and paternity policies 42 5.3 Work-family responsibilities, including child care services 44 5.4 Social protection 46 5.5 Tackling the issue of sexual harassment 47 5.6 Policies and initiatives to stimulate entrepreneurship 48 5.6.1 Antigua and Barbuda 48 5.6.2 Dominica 48 5.6.3 Guyana 48 5.6.4 Jamaica 48 5.6.5 Saint Lucia 49 Part Six. Discussion of the findings and the way forward for future research 51 6.1 A summary of the key findings 51 6.1.1 Education is changing the landscape — slightly 52 6.1.2 Entrepreneurship has opened doors — a little 52 6.1.3 Deficits in gender mainstreaming and gender equity must be overcome 53 6.2 Areas of inquiry for the future 55 References 57

vi THE SYNTHESIS REPORT: A SUMMATION OF THE FINDINGS OF A FIVE-COUNTRY STUDY AND REVIEW Acknowledgements

Ms Caroline Allen, PhD, undertook the research and authored the reports, which are aimed at providing a comprehensive overview of the Gender at Work situation in the Caribbean. Drawing from her regional level work, she focused on five country studies – Antigua and Barbuda, Dominica, Guyana, Jamaica and Saint Lucia. The findings and insights will allow for informed discussions with constituents and partners to take the subject forward in the countries concerned and beyond.

Ms Audrey Christophe, Research Assistant, provided support for the reports on Dominica and Guyana; Ms Chantal Toby for the reports on Antigua and Barbuda, Jamaica and Saint Lucia; and Ms Rawwida Baksh, PhD, provided information on the development of the Gender Policy for the report on Dominica. Mr Edwin St. Catherine, Director of Statistics, provided access to data analyzed in the report on Saint Lucia.

We thank UN Women and other collaborators who shared literature, data and recommended additional sources of information.

Staff of the ILO Decent Work Team and Office for the Caribbean (DWT/O-POS) contributed in various ways to this report. Managing the initiative from start to finish were Ms Dagmar Walter, Deputy Director, and Mr Shingo Miyake, Labour Law and International Labour Standards Specialist. Mr Diego Rei, Employment and Labour Market Specialist, provided extensive contributions with respect to statistical data. Other colleagues of the DWT/O-POS provided further technical inputs and administrative support.

vii List of figures

Figure 1. Share of wages / Earnings in Saint Lucia by sex and level of education (2016) 24

viii THE SYNTHESIS REPORT: A SUMMATION OF THE FINDINGS OF A FIVE-COUNTRY STUDY AND REVIEW List of tables

Table 1. Characteristics of the countries in review 12

Table 2. Labour market indicators by sex 16

Table 3. Labour force participation rates by sex, around 2000 and 2016 17

Table 4. Unemployment rates by sex in 2000 and 2016 17

Table 5. Estimated earned income by sex and wage equality for similar work 23

Table 6: National entities responsible for gender 28

Table 7. Ratification of selected International Conventions pertaining to 40 gender and work

Table 8. Labour legislation addressing sex discrimination 41

Table 9. Maternity legislation 42

ix List of abbreviations

ABDB Antigua and Barbuda Development Bank AWOJA Association of Women’s Organizations of Jamaica BGA Bureau of Gender Affairs (Dominica) BPfA Beijing Platform for Action CARICOM Caribbean Community and Common Market CBOs Community–Based Organizations CDB Caribbean Development Bank CEACR Committee of Experts on the Application of Conventions and Recommendations CEDAW Committee on the Elimination of All Forms of Discrimination Against Women CIM / OAS The Inter-American Commission of Women, Organization of American States DEXIA Dominica Export Import Agency DBGA Dominica Bureau of Gender Affairs DOGA Directorate of Gender Affairs (Antigua and Barbuda) DWT/O-POS Decent Work Team and Office for the Caribbean ECLAC Economic Commission for Latin America and the Caribbean EDP Entrepreneurship Development Programme (Dominica) GBTI Guyana Bank for Trade and Industry Limited GFPs Gender Focal Points (Dominica) GMM Gender Mainstreaming Manual (Jamaica) GMS Gender Management System (Dominica) GMST Gender Management System Team (Dominica) IGDS Institute of Gender and Development Studies IDRC International Development Research Centre ILO International Labour Organization MESECVI Follow-up Mechanism to the Belém do Pará Convention MIDA Micro Investment Development Agency (Jamaica) NAPP National Apprenticeship and Placement Programme (Saint Lucia) NDFD National Development Foundation of Dominica NGAC National Gender Advisory Committee (Dominica) NGOs Non–Governmental Organizations

x THE SYNTHESIS REPORT: A SUMMATION OF THE FINDINGS OF A FIVE-COUNTRY STUDY AND REVIEW NICE National Initiative to Create Employment (Saint Lucia) NPAP National Policy and Action Plan for Gender Equity and Equality (Dominica) NPGE National Policy for Gender Equality (Jamaica) NTC National Tripartite Committee OECS Organisation of Eastern Caribbean States PANCAP Pan Caribbean Partnership against HIV/AIDS PIOJ Planning Institute of Jamaica SBB Small Business Bureau (Guyana)) SBDC Small Business Development Centre (Saint Lucia) SBDF Small Business Development Fund (Guyana) SBF Small Business Facility (Dominica) SMILES Single Mothers Life Enhancement Skills (Saint Lucia) STEM Science, Technology, Engineering and Mathematics TVET Technical and Vocational Education and Training UNAIDS Joint United Nations Programme on HIV/AIDS UNDP United Nations Development Programme UNEP United Nations Environment Programme UNESCO United Nations Educational Social and Cultural Organization UNICEF United Nations Children’s Fund UNOHCHR United Nations Office of the High Commissioner for Human Rights UN Women United Nations Entity on Gender and the Empowerment of Women UWI University of the West Indies VAT Value Added Tax WGEC Women and Gender Equality Commission (Guyana)

xi xii THE SYNTHESIS REPORT: A SUMMATION OF THE FINDINGS OF A FIVE-COUNTRY STUDY AND REVIEW Introduction

To mark the commitment of ILO constituents to gender equality, and as the Organization approaches its centenary anniversary in 2019, the Director-General launched the Women at Work Centenary Initiative to take stock of the status and conditions of women in the world of work. The Initiative seeks to identify innovative action that could give new impetus to the ILO’s work on full gender equality and non-discrimination. It aims to engage ILO constituents, civil society and all women and men in concerted action to achieve these goals. Further, the Initiative aims to better understand and address why progress on delivering on decent work for women has been so slow on the global scale. The Initiative, therefore, is key to delivering on the transformative agenda called for in Transforming our World: The 2030 Agenda for Sustainable Development, adopted by the Heads of State at the United Nations in 2015.

To assist Caribbean countries in achieving gender equity in the world of work, the current ILO project collates information on gender and work from, initially, five ILO member States in the Caribbean. These countries are: Antigua and Barbuda, Dominica, Guyana, Jamaica and Saint Lucia. Individual country reports have been completed for each country. These should be read in conjunction with the current synthesis report, which concentrates on overall findings with summarized information from each of the five countries.

The reports from this work may be used to advise national strategies and inform the Caribbean implementation of The Montevideo Strategy for Implementation of the Regional Gender Agenda within the Sustainable Development Framework by 2030, adopted in October 2016.

The information in this report is based primarily on secondary sources of information, accessible via publications and the internet. 1 A wide variety of statistical, policy, national and multilateral agency reports, laws and academic studies were identified and reviewed. Some country stakeholders were consulted and provided information via email and their contribution is appreciated.

The aim of this report (and the country studies) is to provide a basis on which to engage with constituents and stakeholders to further refine and enrich the analysis and fill information gaps, as well as foster explicit gender equality actions in the world of work over the years to come.

The report begins with an overview of general features of gender at work in the Caribbean, based on a review of research literature (Part 1). This is followed by background information on the five countries examined, the focus of Part 2. Part 3 provides a synthesis of findings for the five countries on differences by sex in various quantitative indicators of equity in the world of work, including labour force participation, employment-to-population ratio, unemployment rate, as well as occupation and gender wage gaps. Part 4 looks at institutional responses to gender equality, while Part 5 examines the legal and policy landscape.

1 All web links listed in this Report were accessed on various occasions during the period January 2016 to December 2017.

1 INTRODUCTION 2 THE SYNTHESIS REPORT: A SUMMATION OF THE FINDINGS OF A FIVE-COUNTRY STUDY AND REVIEW PART ONE

Overview of key research on gender at work in the Caribbean: Findings of Caribbean Research

Caribbean scholarship on issues of gender and work stretches back over more than fifty years. Anthropological and historical studies from the 1950s looked at family forms and work patterns and identified features of the gender division of labour in the Caribbean. 2 From the 1970s, there were “women’s studies”, stimulated particularly by the UN Decade for Women (1975-1985). The Women in the Caribbean action research project in the 1980s brought together civil society and academics to study women’s roles in production and reproduction, with analysis of particular sectors and policy recommendations for the monitoring of development outcomes for women. 3 Since that time, a variety of scholars have studied gender and work, with increasing interest in the influence of masculinities and femininities on the working environment.

2 Clarke, E. (1966). My mother who fathered me: a study of the family in three selected communities in Jamaica. London, George Allen and Unwin. Smith, M. G. (1962). West Indian family structure. Seattle, University of Washington Press. Smith, R. T. (1959). “Family structure and plantation systems in the New World”. Plantations systems of the New World. Social Science Monographs 7: 148-60. 3 Massiah, J. (1986). “Women in the Caribbean Project: an overview (1979–1982)”. Social and Economic Studies 35 (1&2): 1-29.

3 OVERVIEW OF KEY RESEARCH ON GENDER AT WORK IN THE CARIBBEAN: FINDINGS OF CARIBBEAN RESEARCH Since the current ILO project focusses on the present, a useful starting point for this review is the recent Country Gender Assessments conducted by the Caribbean Development Bank (CDB) in eleven Caribbean countries, during the period 2013–2015. The reports from these assessments were to assist with gender mainstreaming in each country and in the work of the CDB itself. The reports examined a wide range of issues, including gender and work.

The following points combine cross-cutting findings of the CDB gender assessments 4 with previous Caribbean research relating to gender and work.

1.1 Key research findings

1. Employment and social protection mechanisms have been affected negatively by the Global Economic Crisis that started in 2008. Some recovery is apparent, as evident in trends in unemployment and some other indicators shown below, but in general it has been weak. Most Caribbean countries are Small Island Developing States (SIDS). Their high dependence on imports for basic needs, and dependence on a narrow range of products for export, makes them highly vulnerable to economic shocks, such as that of the 2008 crisis. They are also vulnerable to natural disasters and climate change. 5 Government recovery plans have involved austerity measures such as the removal of subsidies on food, introduction of value added tax (VAT), import duties and reduction in social security. All of these affect women more negatively than men, given their generally lower incomes, higher levels of unemployment and greater level of responsibility for family welfare. Over the longer term, there has been a shift in the sectoral distribution of the economy, with the share of the services sector growing and those of agriculture and manufacturing falling. This has tended to favour the employment of women. 6

2. Social norms support a division of labour whereby women are responsible for household tasks concerned with social reproduction. 7 Caribbean governments have not devoted resources to time-use studies that could measure the burden of these tasks. 8 In addition, regional governments have not developed legislation to support a more even distribution of caring and domestic chores between the sexes. Social norms also explain why the vast majority of employees in caring professions, such as nursing, are women.

3. Compared with other regions of the world, a high proportion of households are headed by women. These tend to be poorer than households headed by both parents and have greater numbers of dependents. Responsibility to support the household creates particularly tough struggles to balance income-earning and caring tasks. 9 Participation in the formal labour

4 Rawwida Baksh and Associates (2016). Country Gender Assessment Synthesis Report. Wildey, Barbados, Caribbean Development Bank. 5 ILO. (2014). “Decent Work in Caribbean Small Island Developing States”. UN Conference on Small Island Developing States, Apia, Samoa, 1-4 September. Available online at http://www.ilo.org/wcmsp5/groups/public/@americas/@ro-lima/@sro-port_of_spain/documents/ publication/wcms_300460.pdf 6 Rawwida Baksh and Associates, ibid. Chaitoo, R., C. F. Allen, et al. (2016). “Situational analysis of gender issues affecting the services sector in Saint Lucia”. Available online at http://slcsi.org.lc/download/service_policy_documents/Gender-Analysis-Services-Sector-St-Lucia.pdf. 7 Hart, K. (1996). Women and the sexual division of labour in the Caribbean. Kingston, Canoe Press. 8 Stuart, S. (2014). Situation of unpaid work and gender in the Caribbean: the measurement of unpaid work through time-use studies. Port of Spain, Trinidad and Tobago, UN ECLAC Subregional Headquarters for the Caribbean. 9 Clarke, ibid. Massiah, ibid. Safa, H. (1995). The Myth of the male breadwinner in the Caribbean: women and industrialisation in the Caribbean. Boulder, Westview Press.

4 THE SYNTHESIS REPORT: A SUMMATION OF THE FINDINGS OF A FIVE-COUNTRY STUDY AND REVIEW force is especially difficult for single heads of households and generally is not facilitated by government policy. 10 Some micro-finance and training schemes exist, but they are poorly aligned with market demand. 11

4. To manage the difficulties in holding on to their jobs while remaining responsible for care and domestic tasks, many women reach out to grandparents, other relatives and friends to provide child care. “Child-shifting” is a phenomenon whereby children are looked after by other people, generally when the mother cannot do so and she still retains her income-earning ability. It has been important in Caribbean history, particularly among families where women have migrated in search of better economic prospects. 12 It is important to note that children are usually shifted to other women who themselves are thus constrained in their employment prospects. Women with higher incomes more often manage the challenges by employing babysitters / nannies (usually women), domestic helpers (usually women) and drivers (usually men). 13

5. “The still-contested position of women in the labour market means that women have had to prove their commitment to the workplace, by ensuring that their family responsibilities do not intrude inordinately on their work situation. Families continue to be seen as part of the private ‘feminine’ sphere, which is not the concern of employers or the State”. (Reddock, 2008: xi). The State has played a minor role in providing child care and elderly care. Policy in the child care area has been oriented to the education of the child (Early Childhood Care and Education), and elderly care to the health of older people who do not have sufficient family support. Care options are not regarded as an avenue whereby parents can improve their capacity to retain employment and support their families. There is a shortage of government day care facilities for children and other dependents. Opening hours of existing facilities and schools do not cover the hours required by full-time working parents, and few schools make provisions for “aftercare” beyond providing someone to oversee the children until they leave the premises. Very few employers provide child care facilities, but some allow their employees to bring children to the workplace after school hours on a discretionary basis.

6. Paternal responsibility for child care is supported very little by legislation. In most countries, if relationships break up, there is little or no support for maintenance payments for single fathers or paternal custody or visitation rights for the child, especially if the child resulted from a visiting or casual union. Legislation has generally not been developed for paternity leave, though some employers grant it for a few days. 14 Lack of legislation to protect employment if workers need to take leave to care for sick relatives, and lack of policies to support part-time and flexible employment, constrain the ability of both sexes to carry out family care tasks adequately while retaining employment and performing well at work. In practice, given gender norms, these legislative and policy gaps tend to reinforce a gender division of labour, with men more likely to be employed and women more likely to be engaged mostly in unpaid care and household chores.

10 Rawwida Baksh and Associates, ibid. 11 Chaitoo, Allen et al, ibid. 12 Senior, O. (1991). Working miracles: Women’s lives in the English-speaking Caribbean. Oxford, James Currey Publishers. 13 Reddock, R. and Y. Bobb-Smith (2008). Reconciling work and family: Issues and policies in Trinidad and Tobago. Geneva, ILO Conditions of Work and Employment Programme. 14 Rawwida Baksh and Associates, ibid.

5 OVERVIEW OF KEY RESEARCH ON GENDER AT WORK IN THE CARIBBEAN: FINDINGS OF CARIBBEAN RESEARCH 7. Girls and women generally outperform boys and men in education, in terms of examination grades and attendance. 15 This superior performance is generally not reflected in the world of work, where, on examination of indicators such as overall labour force participation, unemployment, seniority and ownership of business (apart from micro-enterprise), their position is lower than that of men. 16

8. Longitudinal research examining male–female ratios of labour force participation and unemployment suggests systematic discrimination against women. An econometric study conducted in Barbados, Jamaica and Trinidad and Tobago found that during periods of economic growth, the rate of unemployment of women declined at a significantly slower rate than that of men. Further, it was found that as the share of women in the labour force expanded, the rate of unemployment women relative to that of men grew. 17 Both of these findings suggest that men have preferential access to jobs.

9. In the agricultural sector, women are less likely to own land, they are the minority of employees and tend to be concentrated in agro-processing. Food security is low, especially with increasing urbanisation. 18 19

10. Women make up the majority of tourism employees but tend to be found in the lower-waged occupations. Working hours often are outside the normal 8 a.m. to 4 p.m. range, presenting challenges for child care and for fulfilling the domestic responsibilities expected. Tourism plans and policies generally have not included gender analysis. 20

11. Migration and travel are features of Caribbean work patterns. Cross-border trade, domestic labour and sex work outside the country of origin are sources of livelihood for many poorer Caribbean women. Most of this work is informal and therefore unregistered and many migrants are undocumented. There are language barriers for some, such as Spanish-speaking sex workers operating in English-speaking Caribbean countries. These factors render migrants vulnerable to exploitation and poor working conditions and limit their access to services, such as legal assistance and health care. 21 22

15 Figueroa, M. (2007). Under-achieving Caribbean boys. Marginalisation or gender privileging? London, Commonwealth Secretariat. Bailey, B. (2014). “Boys, masculinity and education”. Caribbean review of gender studies 8: 283-8. 16 Rawwida Baksh and Associates, ibid. Chaitoo, Allen et al, ibid. 17 Seguino, S. (2003). “Why are women in the Caribbean so much more likely than men to be unemployed?” Social and economic studies 52(4): 83-120. 18 Rawwida Baksh and Associates, ibid. 19 French, J. (1997). “Gender Issues in Caribbean Agriculture: Methodology and process in the movement towards change”, in E. Leo-Rhynie, B. Bailey and C. Barrow (eds.), Gender: A Caribbean multidisciplinary perspective, Ian Randle Publishers, Kingston, pp. 311–23 20 Rawwida Baksh and Associates, ibid. 21 Kempadoo, K. (2004). Sexing the Caribbean: Gender, Race, and sexual labor New York: Routledge. Kempadoo, K. (2009). Prostitution, sex work and transactional sex in the English, Dutch and French-speaking Caribbean: a literature review of definitions, law and research. Georgetown, Guyana and Port of Spain, Trinidad and Tobago: Pan Caribbean Partnership against HIV/ AIDS (PANCAP) and Joint United Nations Programme on HIV/AIDS (UNAIDS). 22 International Organization for Migration. (2004). HIV/AIDS and mobile populations in the Caribbean: A baseline assessment. Geneva, Switzerland: International Organization for Migration.

6 THE SYNTHESIS REPORT: A SUMMATION OF THE FINDINGS OF A FIVE-COUNTRY STUDY AND REVIEW 12. National Insurance systems are more beneficial to men than women, given that employment rates are higher among men and they have fewer career breaks, thus accumulating more contributions. 23 There are a wide variety of schemes to assist the poor via non-contributory schemes, assistance with job-seeking, training and micro-enterprise loans. Often, these are not well coordinated, and it is difficult to navigate the systems. Given generally higher poverty among women and their greater responsibility for care of children and the elderly, the inefficiencies in poverty alleviation strategies affect them more. 24

13. A further important finding from Caribbean research concerns the treatment of women in the formal workplace. Based on a study of women industrial workers in Puerto Rico, the Dominican Republic and Cuba, Safa found that women tended to be in poorly paid jobs and were marginalized by political parties and labour unions, which persisted in regarding them as supplementary wage earners. 25 Reddock found similar attitudes and practices in examining labour and politics in Trinidad and Tobago, and attributes the definition of women as dependent non-workers or housewives to modern capitalism. 26 The individual countries covered by the current assessment are not included in these studies, but it is notable that data on women’s representation in government, discussed later in this report, demonstrates that women are far from achieving equality in political representation. The data also show that they are generally more poorly paid than men.

14. Women’s entrepreneurship accounts for a small percentage of employment and tends to be on a very small scale. A recent study of 14 Caribbean countries found that 13 per cent of employed women are self-employed, comprising 11 per cent with no employees and 2 per cent with one or more employees. Self-employed females with five or more employees account for only 1 per cent of self-employed females. Most female-owned businesses are consumer- oriented; retail, hotel and restaurants, and food and beverage manufacturing. These account for 66 per cent of businesses with female sole proprietors and 45 per cent of businesses with male sole proprietors. More female than male-owned businesses are located in low technology and less knowledge-intensive sectors, which are experiencing the lowest levels of growth. 27

15. Women find it more difficult than men to provide collateral for loans. There is evidence that they are turned down more often for loans, and thus rely on personal finances or partners, family and friends to provide funds. 28 However, like men, women too are hampered by an unfavourable business environment. The Caribbean’s Ease of Doing Business rank is lower than the median Global Rank (106 and 94 respectively). Many businesses, particularly those owned by women, are unregistered and informal. Notably, a lack of knowledge of procedures for incorporation, registration, taxation and social security, as well as a lack of accounting expertise, serve to prevent many from entering the formal economy even when they would like to enter.

23 Rawwida Baksh and Associates, ibid. 24 Caddle, M. (2010). Barbados Social Safety Net Assessment, Government of Barbados, United Nations Development Fund for Women and United Nations Children’s Fund, Bridgetown. 25 Safa, H. (1995) The myth of the male breadwinner in the Caribbean: Women and industrialisation in the Caribbean. Boulder: Westview Press. 26 Reddock, R. (1998) Women, labour and politics in Trinidad and Tobago: A history. London: Zed Books. 27 Lashley, J., Smith, K. (2015) Profiling Caribbean women entrepreneurs: Business environment, sectoral constraints and programming lessons. Washington DC: World Bank InfoDev. 28 Barriteau, E. (2002), “Women entrepreneurs and economic marginality: Rethinking Caribbean women’s economic relations”, in P. Mohammed (ed.), Gendered realities: Essays in Caribbean feminist thought, University of the West Indies Press, Mona, Jamaica, pp. 221–48.

7 OVERVIEW OF KEY RESEARCH ON GENDER AT WORK IN THE CARIBBEAN: FINDINGS OF CARIBBEAN RESEARCH These deficits in knowledge and expertise are especially likely to affect those of lower socioeconomic status and women, who may have less social contact than men with institutions and individuals who can provide this knowledge and expertise. The school system does not generally provide [comprehensive] education on these matters. 29 30

16. Many women continue to set up businesses informally because of such barriers and in order to balance caring responsibilities with income-earning possibilities. 31 32 With high dependency ratios in poor, female-headed households, such women are especially likely to be found in the informal sector as it is difficult to find formal employment that allows enough flexibility for sole careers to be able to cater to the full range of needs of their families. 33 34 In the informal sector, businesses owned by women often are in areas that are based on traditional female care roles, such as domestic work, sewing and food preparation. They also are involved in a variety of marketing and vending activities, including selling small items from roadside stalls and marketing of surplus produce from subsistence farming. They complement the work of males in agriculture and fisheries by marketing their produce and processing the raw foodstuff. 35 In many instances, income from any one type of occupation in the informal sector is insufficient to sustain the household. 36

To summarise, the literature points to the following barriers to gender equality in the world of work in the Caribbean.

1.2 Main barriers to gender equality

1.2.1 Causes of sex segregation at work The literature suggests, fundamentally, that the cause of sex segregation at work, as in other regions of the world, revolves around gender norms ascribing “social reproduction” to women and “production” to men. Thus, unpaid work in the household is done predominantly by women and there is little or no effort on the part of the State to encourage men to take up more of this work. Employed women are concentrated in jobs that incorporate a caring or nurturing element, such as nursing; care of children, the elderly and people with disabilities; teaching; and food preparation and sales.

Far more male than female employees are found in sectors suggesting an active and / or innovative role, such as construction, manufacturing and science. In the Caribbean, these roles continue to be reflected in the distribution of school subjects taken by girls and boys, despite some efforts to increase the involvement of girls in Science, Technology, Engineering and Mathematics (STEM) subjects. 37

29 Bernard, A. (2012), “Fostering freedom: A feminist analysis of micro-enterprise development in the Caribbean”, in Barriteau, E., Love and Power: Caribbean discourses on gender, University of the West Indies Press, Mona, Jamaica: pp. 286–322. 30 Allen, C. F. and J. Maughan (2016). Barbados country gender assessment. Wildey, Barbados, Caribbean Development Bank. 31 Lashley, J. (2012), “Economics, entrepreneurship and gender: Integrating ‘the others’ into enterprise development strategies”, in Barriteau, E., Love and Power: Caribbean discourses on gender, University of the West Indies Press, Mona, Jamaica pp. 258–85. 32 Esnard, T (2016) Mothering and entrepreneurship: Experiences of single women in Saint Lucia. Women, Gender and Families of Color. 4(1): 108-32. 33 Ellis, E. (2001), “Jobs, gender and small enterprises: Country paper on Barbados”, in C. Ferdinand (ed.), Jobs, gender and small enterprises in the Caribbean: Lessons from Barbados, Suriname and Trinidad and Tobago, International Labour Office, Geneva. 34 Lashley, J. (2012), ibid. 35 Grant, S. C. (2004), “Caribbean women in fishing economies”, in Proceedings of the Gulf and Caribbean Fisheries Institute, 55, pp. 69–75. 36 McConney, P., V. Nicholls and B. Simmons (2012), “Women in a fish market in Barbados”, Proceedings of the Gulf and Caribbean Fisheries Institute, 65, pp. 26–30; Bernard (2012), ibid. 37 Bailey, B. (2014), ibid.

8 THE SYNTHESIS REPORT: A SUMMATION OF THE FINDINGS OF A FIVE-COUNTRY STUDY AND REVIEW 6 The involvement of girls and women in sectors of the economy not traditionally regarded as appropriate for girls is hampered further by systematic problems, such as the lack of flexible working arrangements and accessible child care options to people working in these fields; as well as the high level of difficulty experienced by single mothers in participating in the formal labour force.

1.2.2 Gender gaps in entrepreneurship Businesses owned by women are mostly micro-enterprises with no employees. They follow sex segregated occupational patterns and are predominantly in sectors involving care and sales. Relative lack of STEM skills prevent innovative and cutting-edge enterprises. Difficulties faced by women in entrepreneurship include lack of collateral and other difficulties in accessing loans; lack of business networks; lack of knowledge of business procedures and regulations; and difficulty entering the formal sector because of caring responsibilities.

1.2.3 Gender gaps in representation in decision-making and leadership positions. Barriers to women’s representation in these positions include the view that men are more suited to leadership, consistent with the reproductive / productive dichotomy in social roles between women and men. As is the case with entrepreneurship, the barriers include lack of social networks; difficulties in accessing finance; lack of knowledge of ways in which political and hierarchical systems operate; and difficulties caused by the burden of caring responsibilities.

1.2.4 Gender wage gap Gender wage gaps correspond in part to sex segregation in employment, accompanied by the view that caring work associated with women should not be as financially rewarded as “productive” work. There is an assumption that women’s responsibilities for family welfare will make them less productive and committed to formal work and that the primary wage earner is (or should be) a man. Discriminatory practices and gender-related “glass ceilings” arise from these assumptions.

9 OVERVIEW OF KEY RESEARCH ON GENDER AT WORK IN THE CARIBBEAN: FINDINGS OF CARIBBEAN RESEARCH 7 1.2.5 Trends and challenges in providing an integrated framework of work-family policies Work-family policies and institutions concerned with work will be examined later in this report. A fundamental challenge suggested by the literature is that:

“Families continue to be seen as part of the private, ‘feminine’ sphere which is not the concern of employers or the State” (Reddock, 2008: xi).

This accounts for the lack of State provision in areas such as child care and flexible working arrangements which would allow both men and women to achieve more satisfactory work-life balance.

n n n

The following sections summarise findings from the five countries.

In Part Two entitled “Country characteristics” and Part Three entitled “Profile and trends of gender at work”, patterns of difference between men and women in labour indicators are analyzed.

Part Four entitled “Institutional analysis”, the main features of institutions relevant to gender and work are presented.

Part Five entitled “Legal and policy analysis”, the presents the main features of legal and policy responses and environments affecting gender and work.

The implications of these results are discussed comprehensively in Part Six entitled “Discussion”.

10 THE SYNTHESIS REPORT: A SUMMATION OF THE FINDINGS OF A FIVE-COUNTRY STUDY AND REVIEW 8 PART TWO

Country characteristics

Characteristics of the five countries in the study provide background to the presentation of labour statistics. Diversity in these characteristics may assist in explaining the differences in the findings between the countries, though specific studies would be needed to test associations.

Table 1, shows considerable variation between the countries in population size, with Jamaica, the largest country, being thirty-eight times bigger than that of the smallest country, Dominica.

Population size may influence and impact factors such as human resource capacity for statistical production and research. Indeed, this study found that the amount of publicly-available data appeared to be related to country size.

Income also varies widely, with a six-fold difference in income per capita between Guyana and Antigua and Barbuda. It can be expected that income levels will be a pre-condition for a country’s capacity for expenditure on gender-based and other programmes. However, in 2017, the relatively high-income countries – Antigua and Barbuda and Dominica – suffered devastating hurricanes that will most likely depress incomes and require reconstruction expenditures for years to come.

With the exception of Guyana, all the countries in this study are Small Island Developing States (SIDS), with severe weather events being among the leading sources of vulnerability. These events affect not only expenditures on development programmes, but have gender-specific impacts. There is a tendency

11 COUNTRY CHARACTERISTICS for the loss of employment and absorption into physical reconstruction to be concentrated among men. Meanwhile, for women, there is a reduced ability to meet family needs and an increased vulnerability to gender-based violence among displaced persons.

In all five countries, between a third and close to half of households are headed by women. As noted in Part One, female-headed households tend to have lower per capita incomes. Larger numbers of dependents restrict the abilities of female household heads to participate in the labour force.

Educational attendance and life expectancy, in contrast, are better among women than men. This is consistent with generally better educational attainment and health outcomes among women than men. However, these apparent advantages are not translated into superior labour force outcomes among women than men, as will be seen in later sections.

All countries are ranked in the “high” human development category — except Guyana, which is ranked “medium” according to the Human Development Index (HDI), in part because of Guyana’s relatively low income. 38 39 40 41 42 Guyana also differs in population composition. Populations are predominantly of African descent, except in Guyana, where people of Indian descent (known as East Indians) account for approximately 40 per cent of the population, and people of African descent approximately 30 per cent. 43 The ethnic mix in Guyana is associated with differing social norms and cultural practices, including gender roles and responsibilities.

Table 1. Characteristics of the countries in review

Country Population a GNI b Female- Females in Life (thousands) per capita headed educational expectancy (yrs) (US$) households institutions (%) (%) Female Male

Antigua and Barbuda 8544 20,90045 48.4%46 62.5%47 78.148 73.949 (tertiary)

Dominica 7150 10,10051 39.2%52 62.5%53 79.554 73.455 (tertiary)

38 United Nations Development Programme (2016) Human Development Index Fact Sheet for Antigua and Barbuda. 39 United Nations Development Programme (2016) Human Development Index Fact Sheet for Jamaica. New York, USA: United Nations. 40 United Nations Development Programme (2013) Human Development Index Fact Sheet for Dominica. New York, USA: United Nations. 41 United Nations Development Programme (2013) Human Development Index Fact Sheet for Saint Lucia. 42 United Nations Development Programme (2016) Human Development Index Factsheet for Guyana. Ibid. 43 Central Intelligence Agency (2017) World factbook for Guyana. Washington DC: Central Intelligence Agency. https://www.cia.gov/library/publications/the-world-factbook/geos/gy.html. 44 Government of Antigua and Barbuda. Population and Housing Census 2011. http://caribbean.cepal.org/content/2011-population-and-housing-census-antigua-and-barbuda 45 United Nations Development Programme (2016) Human Development Index Factsheet for Antigua and Barbuda. New York: UNDP. http://hdr.undp.org/sites/all/themes/hdr_theme/country-notes/es/ATG.pdf 46 Huggins, T (2014), Country gender assessment: Antigua and Barbuda. Wildey, Barbados: Caribbean Development Bank. 47 Huggins, T (2014), ibid. 48 Government of Antigua and Barbuda. Population and Housing Census 2011, ibid. 49 Government of Antigua and Barbuda. Population and Housing Census 2011, ibid. 50 Commonwealth of Dominica. Population and Housing Census 2011. http://www.dominica.gov.dm/cms/files/2011_census_report.pdf 51 United Nations Development Programme (2016) Human Development Index Factsheet for Dominica. New York: UNDP. http://hdr.undp.org/sites/all/themes/hdr_theme/country-notes/es/DMA.pdf 52 Baksh, R. (2014) Country Gender Assessment: Dominica. Wildey, Barbados: Caribbean Development Bank. 53 Baksh, R. (2014), ibid. 54 Commonwealth of Dominica. Population and Housing Census 2011, ibid. 55 Commonwealth of Dominica. Population and Housing Census 2011, ibid.

12 THE SYNTHESIS REPORT: A SUMMATION OF THE FINDINGS OF A FIVE-COUNTRY STUDY AND REVIEW 10 Table 1 Characteristics of the countries in review continued Country Population a GNI b Female- Females in Life (thousands) per capita headed educational expectancy (yrs) (US$) households institutions (%) (%) Female Male

Guyana 74756 3,41057 35.2%58 55%59 68.860 63.561 (secondary)

Jamaica 2,69762 8,35063 41%64 52.6%65 78.566 73.367 (female secondary)

Saint Lucia 16768 9,79069 43.6%70 66.4%71 80.272 74.773 (tertiary)

Notes: a The most recent census figures available for each country was used to compile Table 1. b GNI refers to Gross National Income.

The two largest countries, Guyana and Jamaica, have been included in World Economic Forum Global Gender Gap reports. Here, countries are ranked using official statistics to show their performance on gender equality with regard to economic participation, educational attainment, health and survival and political empowerment. A score of one means equality; lower scores indicate the extent or range of difference from equality.

According to this index, the latest scores for these two countries were 0.702 in Guyana and 0.724 in Jamaica. 74 75 Both countries scored very well in terms of gender equality in education and health, but indicators of political and economic equality showed gaps.

56 Bureau of Statistics (2016) Guyana Census 2012 Compendium 2: Population Composition. Georgetown, Guyana: Bureau of Statistics. http://www.statisticsguyana.gov.gy/census.html 57 United Nations Development Programme (2016) Human Development Index Fact Sheet for Guyana. New York: UNDP. http://hdr.undp.org/sites/all/themes/hdr_theme/country-notes/GUY.pdf 58 World Bank Databank. Female headed households (percentage of households with a female head). http://data.worldbank.org/indicator/SP.HOU.FEMA.ZS. 59 United Nations Children’s Fund (2016) State of the World’s Children 2015: Guyana Statistical Tables. Geneva: UNICEF. https://www.unicef.org/infobycountry/guyana_statistics.html#120 Accessed 19th May 2017. 60 United Nations Development Programme (2016) Human Development Index Factsheet for Guyana, ibid. 61 United Nations Development Programme (2016), Human Development Index Factsheet for Guyana, ibid. 62 Statistical Institute of Jamaica. Jamaica Population Census 2011. http://statinja.gov.jm/Census/PopCensus/TotalPopulationbyBroadAgeGroupsandParish.aspx. 63 United Nations Development Programme (2016) Human Development Index Fact Sheet for Jamaica. New York: UNDP. http://hdr.undp.org/en/countries/profiles/JAM 64 UNICEF (2005) Multiple Indicator Cluster Survey: Jamaica. http://statinja.gov.jm/Publication/Mics%20Report.pdf 65 UNESCO Education and Literacy Statistics: Jamaica. http://Uis.unesco.org/country/jm 66 https://www.unicef.org/infobycountry/jamaica_statistics.html#120. 67 https://www.unicef.org/infobycountry/jamaica_statistics.html#120. 68 Government of Saint Lucia. Population and Housing Census 2010. http://192.147.231.244:9090/stats/images/OtherPublications/StLuciaPreliminaryCensusReport2010.pdf 69 United Nations Development Programme (2016) Human Development Index Fact Sheet for Saint Lucia. New York: UNDP. 70 Ranjitsingh, A. (2014) Country gender assessment: Saint Lucia. Wildey, Barbados: Caribbean Development Bank. 71 Saint Lucia Central Statistical Office, Cited in Chaitoo et al, ibid. 72 Government of Saint Lucia. Population and Housing Census 2010. http://192.147.231.244:9090/stats/images/OtherPublications/StLuciaPreliminaryCensusReport2010.pdf 73 Government of Saint Lucia. Population and Housing Census 2010, ibid. 74 World Economic Forum (2016) Global Gender Gap Report 2015: Guyana Fact Sheet. http://reports.weforum.org/global-gender-gap-report-2015/economies/#economy=GUY. 75 World Economic Forum (2017) Global Gender Gap Fact Sheet for Jamaica. http://reports.weforum.org/global-gender-gap-report-2016/economies/#economy=JAM.

13 COUNTRY CHARACTERISTICS 11 Under the indicator of economic participation and opportunity, Guyana scored 0.57, while Jamaica obtained a score of 0.73. The economic participation and opportunity measure includes measures of labour force participation, equality in remuneration and seniority of position in employment. These topics are addressed later in this document.

Guyana scored 0.26 and Jamaica 0.18 under the political empowerment measure. In Guyana, the component measure of women in Parliament was relatively high, since the percentage of parliamentarians who are women improved in Guyana, from 19 per cent in 2000, to 31 per cent in 2009. 76 77 In Jamaica, women comprised only 13 per cent of parliamentarians in 2009. The overall political empowerment score for Jamaica was raised somewhat by having had a female Prime Minister, Portia Simpson-Miller, from March 2006 to September 2007 and again, from January 2012 to March 2016. 78

This analysis shows characteristics of countries that can pose challenges to gender equality in the world of work, including financial and human resource scarcity, high levels of female household headship and low representation of women in political leadership positions.

The Report now turns to Part Three, in which labour market statistics reveal the levels of gender (in)equality in the world of work in the five countries under review.

76 Economic Commission for Latin America and the Caribbean (2017) Economic and Social Panorama of the Community of Latin American and Caribbean States, 2016. Santiago, Chile: UN ECLAC. 77 CARICOM (undated) Caribbean Specific Millennium Development Goals Indicators for CARICOM Countries. Available at: http://www.caricomstats.org/CSMDG.html 78 https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Portia_Simpson-Miller

14 THE SYNTHESIS REPORT: A SUMMATION OF THE FINDINGS OF A FIVE-COUNTRY STUDY AND REVIEW 12 PART THREE

Profile and trends of gender at work in the five countries under review

3.1 Labour force participation and employment

In all five countries, more men than women participate in the labour force and are employed, as illustrated in Table 2. The gaps between the sexes are largest in Guyana, where the percentage of men employed is double that of the percentage of women. These gaps are smallest in Antigua and Barbuda and are of a roughly similar size in the other countries. In four of the countries reviewed, gaps in labour force participation are smaller than the global average. Globally, a gap of 26 percentage points separates women and men in labour force participation (76 per cent of men and 50 per cent of women are in the global labour force). 79

Antigua and Barbuda also is the only country where more males than females are unemployed. The gender gap is highest in Jamaica, where the rate of female unemployment is roughly double that of men.

The figures suggest that gender-related barriers may exist at several levels — though their severity differs by country. Firstly, women may face challenges in entering the labour market. Results of the

79 Gallup, Inc. and the International Labour Organization (2017) Towards a better future for women and work: Voices of women and men, New York and Geneva: Gallup and ILO.

15 PROFILE AND TRENDS OF GENDER AT WORK IN THE FIVE COUNTRIES UNDER REVIEW 13 literature review above suggest that societal expectations regarding the responsibilities of women for caring tasks and domestic labour play a major role, especially when combined with single parenthood. There also may be characteristics of the labour market that discourage women from participating, such as lack of flexibility in working arrangements and supportive legislation, as well as a lack of care facilities for children and other dependents during working hours. Such characteristics will be explored below.

Women may face a second level of barriers once they enter the workforce. In three of the countries reviewed (namely Dominica, Jamaica and Guyana), the proportional differences by sex in the unemployment rates and (where available) employment-to-population ratio are larger than the proportional differences by sex in the labour force participation rates. This may be interpreted as showing that – for people who choose to seek work by entering the labour force in these countries – it is more difficult for women than men to obtain work. The figures suggest that sex discrimination may be taking place. In addition, there may be other institutional and legislative barriers as well, which will be explored below. Such a scenario is the case for all countries, except Antigua and Barbuda and Saint Lucia; these countries appear to have characteristics more supportive of female employment once women enter the labour market.

Table 2. Labour market indicators by sex: labour force participation rates, employment-to-population ratios and unemployment rates

Country Life force participation Employment-to-population Unemployment rate ratio Male% Female% M/F ratio Male% Female% M/F ratio Male% Female% M/F ratio

Antigua and Barbuda 74.1 67.5 1.1080 65.3 60.5 1.0881 11.0 9.4 1.1782

Dominica 70.6 59.5 1.1983 n.a. n.a. n.a. 15 19.5 0.7784

Guyana 77.2 41.8 1.8585 70 35.1 1.9986 9.3 15.9 0.5887

Jamaica 71.6 59.5 1.2088 65.9 50.5 1.3089 8.0 15.2 0.5390

Saint Lucia 77.7 62.6 1.2491 64.6 46.4 1.3992 19.0 21.43 0.8993

80 Antigua and Barbuda Statistics Division (2014) 2011 Population and Housing Census: Book of Statistical Tables 1. St John’s, Antigua: Government of Antigua and Barbuda. 81 Antigua and Barbuda Statistics Division (2014), ibid. 82 Antigua and Barbuda Statistics Division (2014), ibid. 83 Commonwealth of Dominica Central Statistical Office (2016) Dominica Gender Equality Indicators Report, 2015. Roseau, Dominica: Central Statistical Office, Ministry of Finance. Data quoted are from the 2013 Labour Force Survey 84 Commonwealth of Dominica Central Statistical Office (2016), ibid. 85 International Labour Organization (2015) Labour force participation rate - ILO modeled estimates, July 2015. Available at: http://www.ilo.org/ilostat/faces/oracle/webcenter/portalapp/pagehierarchy/Page3.jspx?MBI_ID=15 86 International Labour Organization (2016) Employment-to-population ratio - ILO modeled estimates, Nov. 2016. Available at: http://www.ilo.org/ilostat/faces/oracle/webcenter/portalapp/pagehierarchy/Page3.jspx?MBI_ID=7 87 International Labour Organization (2016) Unemployment rate - ILO modeled estimates, Nov. 2016. Available at: http://www.ilo.org/ilostat/faces/oracle/webcenter/portalapp/pagehierarchy/Page3.jspx?MBI_ID=2 88 Statistical Institute of Jamaica. (2017). Main Labour Force Indicators. http://statinja.gov.jm/LabourForce/NewLFS.aspx. 89 Statistical Institute of Jamaica. (2017), ibid. 90 Statistical Institute of Jamaica. (2017), ibid. 91 Saint Lucia Central Statistical Office (2017). ADePT ILO Labour Market Indicators for Saint Lucia. Figures for the first quarter of 2017 (January to March). 92 International Labour Organization (2016) Employment-to-population ratio, ibid. 93 Saint Lucia Central Statistical Office (2017). ADePT ILO Labour Market Indicators for Saint Lucia. Figures for the first quarter of 2017 (January to March).

16 THE SYNTHESIS REPORT: A SUMMATION OF THE FINDINGS OF A FIVE-COUNTRY STUDY AND REVIEW Longitudinal data (shown in the country reports) demonstrate a reduction in the difference between male and female labour force participation rates over time. Male labour force participation has generally decreased, while female labour force participation has increased, as shown in Table 3. In Guyana, data over a longer period show a dramatic shift. In 1970 in Guyana, four times as many men than women participated in the labour force (80.4 per cent and 19.0 per cent of men and women participated in the labour force respectively). 94

Table 3. Labour force participation rates by sex, around 2000 and 2016 (Antigua and Barbuda, Guyana, Jamaica and Saint Lucia)

Country Antigua and Barbuda95 Guyana96 Jamaica97 Saint Lucia98 Year 2001 2011 2000 2016 2000 2016 2000 2016 Male 78.4 74.1 81.6 77.2 77.7 71.6 75.8 78.2

Female 65.9 67.5 38.9 41.8 58.9 59.5 61.3 67.4

Difference 12.5 6.6 42.7 35.4 18.8 12.1 14.5 10.8

Male / Female ratio 1.19 1.10 2.09 1.84 1.32 1.20 1.24 1.16

Longitudinal data on unemployment since the year 2000 is available for three of the countries. This shows reductions in gender gaps in unemployment, except in Guyana. (Table 4).

There was a turning point in the trend for all three countries around 2007, just before the 2008 global economic crisis. Until 2007, unemployment of women relative to men was increasing in Guyana and Saint Lucia, while falling in Jamaica. Since that time, there has been a reduction in the female / male ratio in unemployment in Saint Lucia and, to a lesser extent, Guyana. The gender gap has widened in Jamaica since 2007, but remains below the level in 2000 (Table 3). The data suggest that the ratio of female

Table 4. Unemployment rates by sex in 2000 and 2016 (Guyana, Jamaica and Saint Lucia)

Country Guyana Jamaica Saint Lucia Year 2000 2007 2016 2000 2007 2016 2000 2007 2016 Male 9.9 8.3 9.2 10.0 6.7 9.2 12.7 9.8 16.8

Female 15.0 14.4 15.7 22.6 12.5 18.2 20.9 18.8 23.1

Difference 5.1 6.1 6.5 12.6 5.8 9.0 8.2 9.0 6.3

Male / Female ratio 1.51 1.74 1.71 2.26 1.87 1.97 1.64 1.92 1.38

Source: International Labour Organization. (2016). Unemployment rate — ILO modeled estimates, Nov. 2016. Available online at http://www.ilo.org/ilostat/faces/oracle/webcenter/portalapp/pagehierarchy/Page3.jspx?MBI_ID=2

94 Data supplied by the Guyana Bureau of Statistics, from the 1970 Population and Housing Census. 95 Data for Antigua and Barbuda are from: United Nations Statistics Division (2017) World Statistics Pocketbook: Economic Indicators for Antigua and Barbuda. Available online at http://data.un.org/en/iso/ag.html , and Antigua and Barbuda Statistics Division (2014), ibid. 96 International Labour Organization (2015) Labour force participation rate, ibid. 97 International Labour Organization (2015) Labour force participation rate, ibid. 98 International Labour Organization (2015) Labour force participation rate, ibid.

17 PROFILE AND TRENDS OF GENDER AT WORK IN THE FIVE COUNTRIES UNDER REVIEW to male employment may be sensitive to economic cycles, as shown by Seguino (2003), 99 but that individual country factors may affect the association.

Figures also show much higher rates of unemployment among youth aged 15-24 than older adults. The gender gaps in labour force participation for youth are generally lower than those for older adults, suggesting a generational shift towards higher female participation. An issue of concern is especially the high rates of unemployment among male youth, who have not improved their position relative to older men, while younger women have done so. Younger men, especially those who are unemployed, are especially vulnerable to involvement in accidents and violence resulting from risk-taking activity. 100

Further insights are gained by looking at associations between labour force participation and unemployment by sex and other variables, such as age and education. Such disaggregated data are available for a few countries only.

In Dominica, male labour force participation rates exceed those of women at all ages, except in the 35–39 age group and among working elderly people aged over 85 years. The gender gap is narrow in the youth age group 15–19, though participation is low for both sexes in this age group. 101

In Guyana, youth labour force participation (ages 15–24) is substantially lower than adult labour force participation. However, gender is associated with larger gaps than those for age, so that male youth labour force participation is higher than female adult labour force participation. 102

In Jamaica, male labour force participation exceeds that of females in all age groups, with the smallest gender gap among youth aged 14–19 years. 103

In Saint Lucia, more men than women participate in the labour force at all ages. The disparity decreases with age until the age group 30–35 years, where the difference is only three per cent, then it widens. 104 Data from three countries show narrowest gender gaps around the thirties age range, which is also the age group with the largest numbers of employees.

Antigua and Barbuda is unusual in having higher rates of male than female unemployment in every age group from 25 years onwards. 105 106 This may be associated with having relatively gender-sensitive institutions, laws and policies, as will be discussed later in this document.

In Saint Lucia, unemployment is higher among women than men for adults 25 years and over only, suggesting a narrowing of the gender gap by young people. 107 In contrast, in Guyana, among both youth

99 Seguino, S. (2003). “Why are women in the Caribbean so much more likely than men to be unemployed?” Social and Economic Studies 52(4): 83-120. 100 Allen, CF and West, RD (2017) State of Caribbean Public Health Report 2014-2016. Port of Spain: Caribbean Public Health Agency. 101 Commonwealth of Dominica Central Statistical Office (2016) ibid. 102 International Labour Organization (2015) Labour force participation rate -- ILO modeled estimates, July 2015. http://www.ilo.org/ilostat/faces/oracle/webcenter/portalapp/pagehierarchy/Page3.jspx?MBI_ID=15 103 Statistical Institute of Jamaica. (2017). Labour Force Participation Rate by Age Group. http://statinja.gov.jm/LabourForce/NewLFS.aspx. 104 International Labour Organization (2015) Labour force participation rate -- ILO modeled estimates, July 2015. Available at: http://www.ilo.org/ilostat/faces/oracle/webcenter/portalapp/pagehierarchy/Page3.jspx?MBI_ID=15 105 Statistics Division (2014) 2011 Population and Housing Census: Book of Statistical Tables 1. St John’s, Antigua: Government of Antigua and Barbuda. 106 CARICOM Regional Statistics, Vital Statistics, Population and Selected Labour Force Indicators: Youth Unemployment 1998 – latest available year. http://www.caricomstats.org/Employment.html 107 Saint Lucia Central Statistical Office (2017). ADePT ILO Labour Market Indicators for Saint Lucia. Table 35.

18 THE SYNTHESIS REPORT: A SUMMATION OF THE FINDINGS OF A FIVE-COUNTRY STUDY AND REVIEW 16 and adults, rates of unemployment are far higher for women than men, with the gaps being much larger for youth than older adults. The rate of youth unemployment peaked around the time of the global economic crisis of 2008. Since then it went down to levels seen previously in the early 2000s. 108 In Jamaica, unemployment among women is higher than among men in all age groups. 109

In Jamaica and Saint Lucia, quarterly data show greater fluctuations in female than male unemployment, pointing to greater instability in female employment. No evidence of seasonal patterns was found. 110 111

Available data permit analysis of further variables in Saint Lucia only. The following findings from Saint Lucia are especially noteworthy: • Duration of unemployment is higher among women than men. 112 • There is an association between the level of education and the female–to–male ratio of unemployment. Progression from primary or lower secondary to upper secondary or post-secondary education is associated with a fall in this ratio. Progression from upper secondary or post-secondary to tertiary education further decreases female unemployment relative to male unemployment. Only at the tertiary education level does the unemployment rate of men exceed that of women. 113 This finding is important in pointing to the value of education to women in pursuing employment. It also highlights the vulnerability of women at the lower end of the educational spectrum to unemployment, suggesting that enabling strategies beyond education and training are necessary to reduce gender gaps in access to formal work.

108 International Labour Organization (2016) Key Indicators of the Labour Market: Unemployment rate - ILO modeled estimates, Nov. 2016. Available at: http://www.ilo.org/ilostat/faces/oracle/webcenter/portalapp/pagehierarchy/Page3.jspx?MBI_ID=2 109 Statistical Institute of Jamaica. (2017). Unemployment Rates by Sex and Age Group, http://statinja.gov.jm/LabourForce/NewLFS.aspx.. 110 Statistical Institute of Jamaica. (2017). Unemployment Rates by Sex and Age Group, ibid. 111 Saint Lucia Central Statistical Office (2017). ADePT ILO Labour Market Indicators for Saint Lucia. Table 35. 112 Saint Lucia Central Statistical Office (2017). ADePTILO Labour Market Indicators for Saint Lucia, Table 37. 113 Saint Lucia Central Statistical Office (2017). ADePTILO Labour Market Indicators for Saint Lucia. Table 38.

19 PROFILE AND TRENDS OF GENDER AT WORK IN THE FIVE COUNTRIES UNDER REVIEW 17 3.2 Division of labour, employment sectors and occupational segregation

In examining the division of labour between men and women, it is important to look not only at employment, but at the balance between “productive” and “reproductive” work.

According to traditions in many countries, men are supposed to work primarily in “productive” roles — mainly through employment; while women are supposed to be responsible for “reproductive” roles — caring for families and members of society less able to participate in “production”. Reproductive activities refer to domestic duties, as well as all those activities associated with the care, maintenance and social reproduction of the family. They include caring for children and other members of the family, cooking, cleaning, washing, ironing, etc., and participating in community and social activities. 114 115 Generally, reproductive work is unpaid or paid at a low rate, and the time taken to accomplish reproductive tasks reduces the amount of time available for employment.

This aspect of the sexual division of labour is frequently taken for granted and often is not the subject of study or policy-making. The United Nations Economic Commission for Latin America and the Caribbean (UN ECLAC) has promoted the conduct of time-use surveys to compare the allocation of time to employment, domestic chores, childcare and other matters between men and women. 116 117 118 A seminar to provide training in time-use surveys was carried out by UN ECLAC in 2014, and Antigua and Barbuda, Dominica, Jamaica and Saint Lucia were among the countries that participated in the seminar. However, the current review did not find evidence that any time-use survey has been carried out in these countries. 119

Nevertheless, in Dominica, the 2011 Population and Housing Census showed the average number of hours per week spent by men on unpaid domestic work was seven hours, while for women it was 16.1 hours — a more than two–fold difference. 120 A small-scale time-use survey was conducted in 2004 by an NGO in Guyana called Red Thread. 121 122

Essentially, in the absence of detailed time-use data, it is difficult to determine the exact reasons why women participate in the labour force at lower rates than men. Labour force data on the “economically inactive” population (namely, those outside the labour force) sometimes include information on the main reasons for non-participation in the labour force. In Saint Lucia, data for most people in this category

114 Cummins, D. and E. C. Harvey (1996), Women Food Producers in Barbados: National summary, Inter-American Institute for Cooperation on Agriculture and Inter-American Development Bank, San José, Costa Rica. 115 Andaiye (2011). Domestic care workers at the interface of migration and development in the Caribbean: Action to expand good practice. Planning Institute of Jamaica and Jamaica Ministry of Foreign Affairs and Foreign Trade. 116 United Nations Statistics Division (2016) Gender Statistics: Allocation of time and time-use. https://unstats.un.org/unsd/gender/timeuse/. 117 Stuart, S. (2014) Situation of unpaid work and gender in the Caribbean: The measurement of unpaid work through time-use studies, Port of Spain, Trinidad and Tobago: UN ECLAC Subregional Headquarters for the Caribbean. 118 Aguirre, R. and Ferrari, F. (2013) Surveys on time use and unpaid work in Latin America and the Caribbean Experience to date and challenges for the future. Santiago, Chile: UN ECLAC. 119 Economic Commission for Latin America and the Caribbean Subregional Headquarters for the Caribbean (2015) Report of the regional seminar on time-use surveys, 10 -11 December 2014, Kingstown, Saint Vincent and the Grenadines. Port of Spain, Trinidad and Tobago: UN ECLAC Subregional Headquarters for the Caribbean. 120 Commonwealth of Dominica Central Statistical Office (2016), ibid. 121 Kaieteur News (3 December 2004) Red Thread completes time use survey. Amerindian women’s work burden heaviest. Available online at http://www.landofsixpeoples.com/news404/nk412034.htm. 122 De Souza, K. (2013). “Red Thread has three priorities.” Stabroek News.

20 THE SYNTHESIS REPORT: A SUMMATION OF THE FINDINGS OF A FIVE-COUNTRY STUDY AND REVIEW were missing. In Antigua and Barbuda, there was a major shift between 1991 and 2011 towards “attended school” as the main activity of women outside the labour force, at the expense of “home duties”, reflecting increased involvement of women in educational activity. 123 124

Turning our attention to paid employment, in all five countries, services account for a greater proportion of employment than manufacturing or agriculture, and the proportion of employment in services is growing. Greater percentages of females as opposed to males are employed in the service–oriented businesses. In contrast, greater percentages of male rather than female employees work in manufacturing and agriculture, and by a large margin in both these major sectors. 125 126

The expansion in services would seem to favour the employment of women, and, indeed, the rate of unemployment among women has decreased relative to that of men. Within the services sector, women are the clear majority of clerks and other administrators, customer service representatives, cleaners and shop workers. They are also the majority of teachers, hotel and restaurant workers and health care workers. These jobs tend to conform to the traditional caring, child–rearing and customer service roles of women. Proportions of men and women in Government Service vary among countries. 127 128 129

The sectors in which men are the majority of employees also tend to reflect a focus on traditional technical and manual roles, such as: manufacturing; transport and communication; electricity, gas and water supply; construction; and agriculture, forestry and fishing. Examination of data on occupation appears to confirm this, since the vast majority of plant and machine operators and assemblers and craft-related workers are men. Construction, and transport and communication make large contributions to GDP and enable rapid expansion in employment of men, but are also highly vulnerable to economic depression, when jobs are shed rapidly.

Finance and real estate are important support services for a dynamic economy. In Antigua and Barbuda and Jamaica, there are more women than men in finance and business services, while slightly more men than women are involved in real estate and renting. In Saint Lucia, women comprise the majority of employees in both sectors. Figures available for Saint Lucia only show that slightly more men than women are employed in the arts, recreation and entertainment. This sector is increasingly important to global economic growth.

Generally, employment sectors are distributed along traditional gender lines, with some fluidity in gender roles in influential service sectors such as finance, real estate and entertainment. However, if we turn our attention to seniority, business ownership and management, a more nuanced picture emerges.

Evidence from Guyana, Jamaica and Saint Lucia shows that women are now the majority of highly-skilled employees in each country. The percentage of highly-skilled female employees has increased over

123 CARICOM Statistics (undated) Antigua and Barbuda Labour Force Statistics Report. Available online at http://www.caricomstats.org/Files/Publications/LABOUR%20FORCE/ANTIGUA%20AND%20BARBUDA.pdf 124 Statistics Division (2014) 2011 Population and Housing Census: Book of Statistical Tables 1. St John’s, Antigua: Government of Antigua and Barbuda. 125 International Labour Organization (2016) Employment by sector - ILO modeled estimates, Nov. 2016. Available online at http://www.ilo.org/ilostat/faces/oracle/webcenter/portalapp/pagehierarchy/Page3.jspx?MBI_ID=33 126 Commonwealth of Dominica Central Statistical Office (2016), ibid. 127 Huggins, T. (2014), ibid. 128 Statistical Institute of Jamaica (2017). Labour Force Survey 2017. 129 Chaitoo et al (2016), ibid.

21 PROFILE AND TRENDS OF GENDER AT WORK IN THE FIVE COUNTRIES UNDER REVIEW time, alongside a decrease in the percentage of medium-skilled female employees. 130 This is reflected in there being a majority of women among ranks of professionals and technical professionals. 131 132 Women now occupy many senior positions in the public service (such as Permanent Secretaries in government ministries), but still occupy the minority of seats in Parliament and in other politically powerful positions. 133 134 135

Increasingly, women are entering managerial positions as well as senior positions within organizations. Over half of managers in Jamaica and Saint Lucia are women. These are two of only three countries in the world where most managers are women (the other one is Colombia). However, in these countries, the larger the company, the less likelihood a woman manages it. 136 For instance, in Saint Lucia, most top managers and business owners are men. 137 138

Data available for Saint Lucia show that female managers are spread across a wide variety of sectors and are not restricted to sectors traditionally associated with female work. Women are now in the majority in several sectors in which most employees are men, such as transportation and storage; manufacturing, and agriculture, forestry and fishing. 139

However, women are the minority of employers and own account workers 140 141, and thus are less independent in their employment than men. They also are the minority of business owners, except, in some countries where women are the majority of owners of micro-businesses and face difficulty in expanding their businesses. 142 143

Data from Saint Lucia also show that there are more male than female employers in most sectors, however, in construction, wholesale and retail, and accommodation and food services (tourism), most employers are female. 144 The fact that there are more female than male construction employers is surprising, since most employees in this sector are male. It may represent a shift in the gender division of labour towards non-traditional areas among highly skilled women.

130 International Labour Organization (2016) Employment by occupation - ILO modeled estimates, Nov. 2016. Available online at http://www.ilo.org/ilostat/faces/oracle/webcenter/portalapp/pagehierarchy/Page3.jspx?MBI_ID=12 131 CARICOM (undated) Caribbean specific millennium development goals indicators for CARICOM Countries. Available online at http://www.caricomstats.org/CSMDG.html 132 Saint Lucia Central Statistical Office (2017). ADePT ILO Labour market indicators for Saint Lucia, Table 19. 133 CARICOM, ibid. 134 Judy Whitehead and Ryan Straughn, (2013) Private sector assessment of Dominica. Inter-American Development Bank. Available online at http://www.caribank.org/uploads/2014/11/2014-Dominica-PSAR.pdf 135 Caribbean Local Economic Development Project (CARILED) (2016) A review of gender related challenges affecting local Government and MSMEs in Dominica. 136 International Labour Organization (2015). Women in business and management: Gaining momentum. Geneva, ILO. 137 World Bank Databank. (2011). Enterprise survey for Saint Lucia. Available online at http://www.enterprisesurveys.org/data/exploreeconomies/2010/st-lucia#gender 138 Esnard, T. (2016). “Mothering and entrepreneurship: Experiences of single women in Saint Lucia.” Women, Gender and Families of Color 4(1): 108-32. 139 Saint Lucia Central Statistical Office (2017). ADePT ILO Labour market indicators for Saint Lucia. Table 24b 140 Commonwealth of Dominica Central Statistical Office (2016). Commonwealth of Dominica Central Statistical Office (2016) ibid. 141 Saint Lucia Central Statistical Office (2017). ADePT ILO Labour Market Indicators for Saint Lucia. Table 14b. 142 Government of Saint Lucia (2009) Private sector baseline study: The enterprise census report 1. Castries: Government of Saint Lucia with support from POHL Consulting and the European Union. 143 Lashley, J. (2015), ibid. 144 Saint Lucia Central Statistical Office (2017). ADePT ILO Labour Market Indicators for Saint Lucia. Table 21b

22 THE SYNTHESIS REPORT: A SUMMATION OF THE FINDINGS OF A FIVE-COUNTRY STUDY AND REVIEW 20 At the lowest end of the skills spectrum, the situation varies between countries, with some countries having more women and some having more men employed at the low-skill level. 145 Within the low-skill category, many women are employed as domestic workers, and women make up the vast majority of these workers. Studies in Antigua and Barbuda and Jamaica show that domestic workers experience considerable job insecurity. Generally, they are only paid for days worked and do not receive paid vacation, sick leave or maternity leave. A substantial number of minorities do not have work permits and are undocumented migrants, or are not covered by national insurance as their employers do not pay it. 146 147

3.3 Gender pay gaps

In examining differences in remuneration for work between men and women, it is helpful to examine both overall pay differences and differences for comparable work.

Guyana and Jamaica have been included in the World Economic Forum’s Global Gender Gap Reports that present data on both these types of differences. Both countries have large differences between the sexes in estimated earned income. In the case of Guyana, the difference between the sexes was substantially larger for earned income than for wage equality for similar work. This suggests that in Guyana, differences between the sexes in the type of work done are important determinants of income inequality.

Table 5. Estimated earned income by sex and wage equality for similar work (Guyana and Jamaica)

Country Estimated Earned Income Female Male Female / Male Wage equality for ratio similar work

Guyana 2015 4,092 9,590 0.42 0.63 Jamaica 2016 6,729 11,044 0.61 0.63

Sources: World Economic Forum (2015) Global Gender Gap Fact Sheet for Guyana. World Economic Forum (2016) Global Gender Gap Fact Sheet for Jamaica.

A survey from Dominica has shown that within professions and occupations, men earn more than women. This applies in occupations where most employees are men, such as craft and related trade, as well as in occupations with mostly female employees, such as sales staff. A limitation of the study was that it did not control for seniority within each occupation. Nevertheless, it shows that women generally earn less in Dominica, whether this is as a result of unequal pay for work of equal value, or as a result of having lower positions in the occupational hierarchy. 148

145 International Labour Organization (2016) Employment by occupation - ILO modeled estimates, Nov. 2016. Available at: http://www.ilo.org/ilostat/faces/oracle/webcenter/portalapp/pagehierarchy/Page3.jspx?MBI_ID=12 146 Samuel-Fields, M., Peters, L.N. (2012) Advancing decent work for domestic employees in Antigua and Barbuda. Bridgetown, Barbados: UN Women. 147 Dunn, L (2014). Report on a baseline study of household workers in Jamaica. For UN Women/Ministry of Labour and Social Security Project, Advancing Decent Work for Domestic Workers. 148 Commonwealth of Dominica Central Statistical Office (2016), ibid. Data are from a 2008 Occupational Wage Survey.

23 PROFILE AND TRENDS OF GENDER AT WORK IN THE FIVE COUNTRIES UNDER REVIEW 21 Studies in Saint Lucia have shown that men earn more, or receive more income than women, when compared by occupation, industry, status in employment and educational achievement. The studies confirm that the higher educational achievements by women are insufficient to cancel out gender- related disadvantages in the labour market. 149 150 151 The clustering of women in less monetarily valued service-oriented industries and occupations is an important explanatory factor for income and pay inequality between the sexes. 152

However, further exploration of data from Saint Lucia reveals that education level does, in fact, reduce gender gaps in pay. While the higher level of education of women has not resulted in higher pay for women than men in the population as a whole, it has helped women gain increasing shares of wages and salaries, with each step up the educational ladder. As a result, women with tertiary education in Saint Lucia earn more than men with tertiary education (Figure 1). This is an important finding, since it shows that the pursuit of education is an effective strategy for women in improving their earning power. It also serves to reduce the share of unemployment among women.

Figure 1. Other Figure 1. Share of

Wages / Earnings in Saint Tertiary (University) Lucia by sex and level of Post Secondary, Non-tertiary education (2016) (Diploma or Associate Degree)

Upper Secondary (Forms 4 & 5)

Lower / Junior Secondary (Forms 1-3) Senior Primary

Pre-primary (infant) or Primary

0 20 40 60 80 100 Men Women Source: Saint Lucia Central Statistical Office (2017). ADePT ILO Labour Market Indicators for Saint Lucia. Table 51.

It should be noted, however, that in most sectors and occupational categories, men earn more than women, despite the higher levels of education and skills of women. The highest paid employees in Saint Lucia are managers and professionals, and, in both categories, men earned more than women in 2016. Indeed, in all occupations — except clerical support workers and technicians and associate professionals — men earn more than women.

There are a few sectors where women earn more than men, including, in Saint Lucia: Construction, administrative and support service activities; education; and (with the largest difference in favour of women) human health and social work activities. In the case of construction, the difference may

149 Budlender, D (Undated) Gender and labour in St. Lucia: Evidence from household surveys. UN Women Brief. Hastings, Barbados: UN Women. 150 Xavier, J. (2015) Final report: Gender aware beneficiary analysis of Saint Lucia’s Public Assistance Programme. Barbados: UN Women. 151 Gimenez, L., St. Catherine, E., Karver, J and Odawara, R. (2015) The aftermath of the 2008 global financial crisis in the Eastern Caribbean: The impact on the St. Lucia Labour Market. Castries, Saint Lucia: Central Statistical Office in collaboration with the World Bank Group, UNDP and OECS. 152 Budlender, D (Undated) Gender and labour in St. Lucia: evidence from household surveys. UN Women Brief. Hastings, Barbados: UN Women.

24 THE SYNTHESIS REPORT: A SUMMATION OF THE FINDINGS OF A FIVE-COUNTRY STUDY AND REVIEW 22 be explained by seniority, since most construction employers are women, but the vast majority of construction employees are men. In education, and administrative and support service activities, most managers are women, but most employers are men. In human health and social work, most managers and employers are women. 153

While detailed data disaggregating pay by sector and occupation is only available for Saint Lucia, overall, the data suggest that equal pay for work of equal value may not be a reality.

153 Saint Lucia Central Statistical Office (2017). ADePT ILO Labour Market Indicators for Saint Lucia. Tables 21b and 24b.

25 PROFILE AND TRENDS OF GENDER AT WORK IN THE FIVE COUNTRIES UNDER REVIEW 23 26 THE SYNTHESIS REPORT: A SUMMATION OF THE FINDINGS OF A FIVE-COUNTRY STUDY AND REVIEW 24 PART FOUR

Institutional analysis

Each of the five countries has developed specific governmental mechanisms and institutions to address gender inequality. There are also civil society institutions which advocate and act to decrease gender inequality.

4.1 National entities responsible for gender

In the English-speaking Caribbean, most national entities responsible for gender were established during the UN Decade for Women (1976-85). Their remit has generally been to: • Provide administrative and technical assistance to non-governmental women’s, and occasionally men’s, organizations. • Provide a referral service for women in areas such as domestic violence and employment rights. • Initiate gender–based research and provide disaggregated data to inform policy and programme formulation. • Advise organs of government on gender aspects of policy, and “mainstream” gender into the work of Ministries.

27 INSTITUTIONAL ANALYSIS 25 Table 6 names the entities chiefly responsible for gender in the countries in the current assessment known is the gender machinery of each country. The work of these entities is complemented by other institutional mechanisms that have been set up to advance gender equality, to achieve gender mainstreaming. Gender mainstreaming institutions and actions are summarized in Section 4.3.

Table 6. National entities responsible for gender

Country Entity Responsible Ministry Responsible (2017)

Antigua and Barbuda Directorate of Gender Affairs Ministry of Social Transformation and Human Resource Development

Dominica Bureau of Gender Affairs Ministry of Social Services, Community Development and Gender Affairs

Guyana Gender Affairs Bureau Ministry of Social Protection

Jamaica Bureau of Gender Affairs Ministry of Culture, Gender, Entertainment and Sport

Saint Lucia Division of Gender Relations Ministry of Education, Innovation, Gender Relations and Sustainable Development

An issue identified in reports on national entities responsible for gender in Dominica, Guyana, Jamaica and Saint Lucia has been that of instability as a result of being moved multiple times in terms of the Ministry to which they report. This is said to be somewhat disruptive to the continuity of their work and thus their effectiveness. 154 155 156 157 158

Services provided directly to the public by these entities vary. For instance, in Saint Lucia, a shelter for survivors of domestic violence —the Women’s Support Centre — is administered by the Division of Gender Relations, which itself conducts crisis counselling. In Dominica, the Bureau of Gender Affairs also functions in similar manner to its Saint Lucian counterpart. 159

The entities in all five countries are involved to varying degrees in training and employment initiatives, mostly for women, in job skills and personal development and in areas such as self-esteem and assertiveness. Some such initiatives are led by other government entities, and examples are outlined in Section 4.2. An example of an initiative led by the entity responsible for gender is the establishment

154 Economic Commission for Latin America and the Caribbean (ECLAC) (2014) Guyana national review in the context of the twentieth anniversary of the Fourth World Conference on Women and the Adoption of the Beijing Declaration and Platform for Action. Available at: http://www.cepal.org/mujer/noticias/paginas/3/51823/Guyana_Review_Beijing_20.pdf 155 Allen, C.F. and Le Franc, E.R.M. (2014) Evaluation of national initiatives to produce comparative data on violence against women for the OECS States: Country report for Saint Lucia. Washington DC: Inter-American Commission of Women/ Organization of American States. 156 The Bureau of Women’s Affairs (Gender Affairs) Kingston, Jamaica and the Gender Advisory Committee (2010) National Policy for Gender Equality (NPGE) Jamaica. Jamaica: BWA & GAC. 157 Baksh, R. (2014) Dominica country gender assessment. Ibid. 158 Maziki, T. and Thakur, D.(2014) “The patriarchal state and the development of gender policy in Jamaica” in Politics, power and gender justice in the anglophone Caribbean: Women’s understandings of politics, experiences of political contestation and the possibilities for gender transformation. Ontario Canada: International Development Research Centre. 159 Allen, C.F. and Le Franc, E.R.M. (2014), ibid. Chaitoo et al (2016), ibid.

28 THE SYNTHESIS REPORT: A SUMMATION OF THE FINDINGS OF A FIVE-COUNTRY STUDY AND REVIEW 26 of a revolving loan fund at the National Development Foundation of Dominica (NDFD) to assist women’s agricultural small enterprise development. This was established in 2006 by the Dominica Bureau of Gender Affairs (DBGA). The support provided from the fund to women’s groups around the country enabled some of them to receive financial and skills-building support from other agencies, and to develop successful businesses producing agro-processed products such as cassava flour and bread, seasonings, and other products. 160

The Directorate of Gender Affairs (DOGA) in Antigua and Barbuda is made up of a relatively large team (nineteen staff members) as compared with other gender entities in the region.161 162 The national entities responsible for gender in most of the other countries have had only five 163 or six 164 165 166 members of staff for most of their existence. 167 The DOGA offers advisory services to NGOs and government agencies on gender and development issues, and assists in creating gender awareness policies and performance standards. 168 It runs employment-related initiatives, including a Work and Life Skills Programme for youth, 169 170 training courses such as crafts and weaving, literacy, information technology skills, cake making and clothing and construction, 171 as well as a partnership with the Antigua and Barbuda Development Bank and Canadian companies to involve women in the production of sea-island cotton and clothing made from it. 172 Such initiatives and relatively high staff capacity may contribute to the high levels of gender equality in indicators such as unemployment in Antigua and Barbuda relative to the other countries in this study.

The Gender Affairs Bureau in Guyana was established In 2015, and merged the Women’s Affairs Bureau (established 1981) and the Men’s Affairs Bureau (established 2011). 173 Among the achievements of these entities was the establishment of a National Resource and Documentation Centre for Gender and Development. 174 The Women’s Affairs Bureau also established a nationwide network of Regional Women’s Affairs Committees within the Regional Democratic Councils. 175

In Saint Lucia, in addition to instability resulting from changes in parent ministry, the Division of Gender Relations has been affected by fluctuations in staff numbers, leaving posts for technical officers vacant for extended periods. In 2013, two Gender Relations Officers were appointed, bringing the

160 Baksh, R. (2014), ibid. 161 Huggins, T. (2014) Ibid. 162 Directorate of Gender Affairs (2017) Staff and Team. Available online at https://genderaffairs.gov.ag/staff-and-team. 163 Sonja Harris (2000). Ibid. 164 http://socialservices.gov.dm/divisions/bureau-of-gender-affairs 165 Ministry of Community Development, Gender Affairs and Information (2006) National policy and action plan for gender equity and equality in the Commonwealth of Dominica. Roseau: Government of the Commonwealth of Dominica, 2006). http://socialservices.gov.dm/images/documents/gender_policy_2006.pdf. 166 Allen, C.F. and Le Franc, E.R.M. (2014), ibid. 167 Data on number of staff were not found for Jamaica. 168 Directorate of Gender Affairs (2017) About us. https://genderaffairs.gov.ag/about-us. 169 Bayne, L.N.O.H (2014) Antigua and Barbuda National Review of the Beijing Platform for Action + 20. Barbados: UN Women. 170 DOGA (2017) Work and Life Skills Programme now accepting applications. Available at: https://genderaffairs.gov.ag/news/14968642749039. 171 Skills Training. Available at: https://genderaffairs.gov.ag/services/14483781370549. 172 Antigua and Barbuda Development Bank (2013) Densepium Cotton Company. http://abdbank.com/site/index.php/2013-04-01-13-22-34/19-abdb/bank-projects/57-dcc. 173 Government of Guyana Department of Information (2016). Push for gender equity continues – Regional Women’s Affairs Committee concludes two days of discussions Available at: http://dpi.gov.gy/push-for-gender-equity-continues-regional-womens-affairs-committee-concludes-two-days-of-discussions/ 174 Sonja Harris (2000). Study of gender mainstreaming in the Caribbean. ECLAC Report No.: LC/CAR/G.607. http://www.cepal.org/en/publications/27456-study-gender-mainstreaming-caribbean 175 Economic Commission for Latin America and the Caribbean (ECLAC) (2014), ibid.

29 INSTITUTIONAL ANALYSIS staff complement to six, of which two are administrative or support staff. 176 The Division has oriented most of its work towards addressing gender-based violence, in part because of its limited capacity and its responsibility for administering a shelter for survivors of domestic violence. 177

4.2 Other government entities

In each country, ministries and other government bodies play important roles in defining the terrain for gender equality at work.

Ministries with responsibility for labour (or Labour Departments within Ministries), generally include employment training programmes. Other Ministries sometimes develop employment training and placement programmes. The current assessment found that the majority of people enrolled in most of these programmes are adolescent girls and women.

For instance in Saint Lucia, the Office of the Prime Minister established the National Initiative to Create Employment (NICE), which includes a National Apprenticeship and Placement Programme (NAPP). Two thirds of the participants in the NAPP are women. 178 The major exception to the predominance of females in these programmes is when the people eligible for a programme are school dropouts. In such cases, most people enrolled are boys or men, given the greater propensity to drop out of school among boys.

While this further demonstrates how girls and women view education as a means of social and economic advancement, it should also be noted that subject selection often reflects traditional gender roles. For instance, in Guyana, the National Training Project for Youth Empowerment provides a short- term Technical and Vocational Education and Training (TVET) programme (6–12 months) for out-of-

176 Allen, C.F. and Le Franc, E.R.M. (2014), ibid. 177 Chaitoo et al (2016), ibid. 178 Chaitoo et al (2016), ibid.

30 THE SYNTHESIS REPORT: A SUMMATION OF THE FINDINGS OF A FIVE-COUNTRY STUDY AND REVIEW 28 school youths across the country. The majority of trainees of the Project in 2013 were female, who mostly took courses in health services, home economics and IT/clerical skills. Courses oriented to manufacturing and skilled manual work were taken mostly by young men. 179

Some vocational and employent training and placement opportunities are oriented to the economic empowerment of women and adolescent girls in difficult circumstances, such as adolescent mothers and single parents. 180 In Jamaica, the Steps to Work programme targets people on the national conditonal cash transfer programme (many of whom are single mothers), and covers job readiness and training, business development and support, job matching, skills development and certification.181 The vocational courses offered tend to reinforce gender roles in the labour market.

To illustrate further, in Guyana, the Ministry of Social Protection is responsible for the Single Parents Training Programme, which offers certification in garment construction, cosmetology, catering and as drivers and/or salespersons — namely, in the mostly traditional female fields of work in the services sector. 182 In Saint Lucia, the National Skills Development Centre includes the Single Mothers Life Enhancement Skills (SMILES) project that provides courses in life skills and vocational skills, in generally traditional female fields such as hairdressing, administration and hospitality, while also teaching information technology skills. 183

Another major area for Ministries with responsibility for labour (or Labour Departments), is institutional support for legislation defending and promoting workers’ rights. Mechanisms to resolve disputes have been established in each country. These are mostly Labour Tribunals or Industrial Tribunals. 184

In Guyana, the Government, workers’ and employers’ organizations discussed a draft Industrial Tribunal Bill in 2001, 185 but recent reports show such a Tribunal has not been established. 186 187 However, Guyana has a Conciliation Unit and a Labour Inspection Unit that assist in addressing labour disputes and improving labour conditions. Victims of sexual discrimination or harassment also can raise the matter with a superior officer within the agency, or directly with the Chief Labour Officer in the Ministry of Labour, who will initiate an investigation by officers of the Ministry of Labour. If the complaint is found to be valid, the Chief Labour Officer acts as arbitrator (or negotiator) between the employer and the aggrieved employee. The aggrieved individual has the right to have a lawyer present at the arbitration, and if they cannot afford one, they can approach the Guyana Legal Aid for assistance. 188

179 Guyana Department of Labour, Ministry of Labour, Human Services & Social Security (2014) National Training Project for Youth Empowerment. 180 Chaitoo et al (2016), ibid. 181 ECLAC (2014), ibid. 182 Department of Labour, Ministry of Labour, Human Services & Social Security (2014) Single Parents Training Programme. 183 Chaitoo et al, 2016, ibid. 184 Saint Lucia Labour Act. Available at http://www.govt.lc/legislation/labour-code 185 Akeel, M.A. (2001) National Labour Law Profile: Guyana, Geneva: International Labour Organization. Available at: http://www.ilo.org/ifpdial/information-resources/national-labour-law-profiles/WCMS_158900/lang--en/index.htm 186 ‘“Major Reforms” in the Pipeline to Enhance Social Protection’, Kaieteur News, 26 August 2015. Available at http://www.kaieteurnewsonline.com/2015/08/26/major-reforms-in-the-pipeline-to-enhance-social-protection/. 187 Lewis, L. (2017) No Industrial Tribunal in Place. Guyana Chronicle, May 3, 2017. Available at: https://guyanachronicle.com/2017/05/03/no-industrial-tribunal-in-place 188 UN Committee on the Elimination of Discrimination Against Women (CEDAW) (2012), responses to the list of issues and questions with regard to the consideration of the combined 7th and 8th periodic report (CEDAW/C/GUY/7-8): Guyana. Available at https://digitallibrary.un.org/record/730170?ln=en

31 INSTITUTIONAL ANALYSIS 29 During the current assessment, ILO contacted country authorities to find out the sex composition of people lodging complaints with such institutions and the nature of these complaints. However, it was determined that such information is not readily available to the public, or that the data was not disaggregated by sex. (Labour legislation as it affects gender equality will be examined in Part 5 of this Report.)

Beyond Ministries and Departments responsible for Labour, there are other constitutional and statutory mechanisms for complaints and redress, which may be used by people with concerns about protection of rights relating to gender at work. In Guyana, for instance, these include the following entities: • The Police Complaints Authority • The Public Service Commission • The Judicial Service Commission • The Police Service Commission • The four rights commissions established under Article 212 of the revised Constitution (2003) – Women and Gender Equality Commission (appointed in 2009 with fifteen members). This is part of the national gender machinery, as outlined in Section 4.3. – The Rights of the Child Commission – The Ethnic Relations Commission – The Indigenous Peoples Commission • The Ombudsman • The Office of the Director of Public Prosecutions • The Judiciary 189

National Tripartite Committees, which bring together Government, trade unions and the private sector, also have important potential in developing initaiatives to ensure gender equality at work. 190 However, this assessment did not identify information on gender-related initiatives of such Committees.

A further area of action by the governments of the five countries is the establishment of business support and promotion agencies with a focus on supporting entrepreneurship among women.

In Guyana, the Small Business Bureau (SBB) and the Small Business Development Fund (SBDF) were set up by the Government. 191 The SBB has made three types of support available to women; training, grant assistance and facilitation of marketing opportunities. 192 Since 2010, the SBB has provided small business management training specifically to women, to allow them to design business proposals and to facilitate access to finance for small business owners who do not qualify for a bank loan, or assistance from a micro finance institution. With international partners, it has also facilitated the attendance of women entrepreneurs at local, regional and international marketing events. 193

189 Economic Commission for Latin America and the Caribbean (ECLAC) (2014), ibid. 190 Guyana National Tripartite Committee (NTC) – Information – AICESIS-ILO Joint Database, http://www.aicesis.org/database/organization/261/. 191 Economic Commission for Latin America and the Caribbean (ECLAC) (2014), ibid. 192 Economic Commission for Latin America and the Caribbean (ECLAC) (2014), Ibid. 193 Economic Commission for Latin America and the Caribbean (ECLAC) (2014), Ibid.

32 THE SYNTHESIS REPORT: A SUMMATION OF THE FINDINGS OF A FIVE-COUNTRY STUDY AND REVIEW 30 There has also been action to address gender issues in trade and development strategies. In Jamaica’s National Development Plan, Vision 2030, the Planning Institute of Jamaica (PIOJ) identified gender as one of 31 thematic areas that would inform the development of sectoral plans, which then would be integrated into one development plan. As a result, a gender taskforce was established, as gender affects the success of each thematic area. 194

Specific to trade, the plan identifies the importance of gender-aware trade agreements that recognize their potential impact on female-dominated sectors, such as services. 195 However, Dunn et al cautioned that current trade agreements are predicated on trade liberalization, which tends to entrench gender inequalities in the labour market and leave poorer households, many of which are headed by women, worse off. They note that links between the Bureau of Gender Affairs and Government agencies responsible for trade should be strengthened to help protect pay, labour conditions and access to available jobs. 196

4.3 Initiatives and tools for gender mainstreaming

The 1995 Beijing Platform for Action (BPfA) called on governments to mainstream gender. It recommended giving all Ministries the mandate to review policies and programmes from a gender perspective; locating the responsibility for the implementation of the mandate at the highest possible level; establishing and/or strengthening an inter-ministerial coordination structure to carry out this mandate; monitoring progress; and networking with the relevant Ministries. 197 Countries included in this assessment each have developed institutions and mechanisms for gender mainstreaming. There has also been collaboration with institutions outside government, such as non-governmental organizations and multilateral agencies, to achieve gender equality goals relating to the world of work.

4.3.1 Antigua and Barbuda There is no National Gender Policy in place or in draft form in Antigua and Barbuda. Gender mainstreaming is said to have been challenging in the absence of such a Policy to establish an overarching mandate, goals, strategies and indicators. There is said to be a lack of coordination among Government agencies and their development partners, which leads to inconsistent applications of gender aware interventions. 198

For example, the country’s National Energy Policy and the Public Sector Transformation Strategy lack any gender considerations. The presence of the DOGA representatives on policy development committees across ministries has not resulted in many concrete actions in support of gender equality, although gender is mentioned as a consideration in some strategies and policies. Most Ministries do not produce gender-disaggregated data; most such data are to be found in externally-funded studies that collect data for regional initiatives. 199 Programmes supporting women’s empowerment

194 National Gender Task Force (2009) Vision 2030 Jamaica national development plan gender sector plan. Jamaica: Government of Jamaica. 195 Planning Institute of Jamaica (2009). Vision 2030 integrated national development plan. Kingston: PIOJ. 196 Dunn, L.L., Hamilton, A., Byron, J. and Palmer, Q. (2009) Gender and women’s rights analysis of economic partnership agreements: the implementation of trade liberalisation Jamaica. Jamaica: Institute of Gender and Development Studies, University of the West Indies. 197 UN Women. The United Nations Fourth World Conference on Women, Beijing, China, 1995: Platform for Action. http://www.un.org/womenwatch/daw/beijing/platform/institu.htm. 198 Huggins, T. (2014), Ibid. 199 Huggins, T. (2014), Ibid.

33 INSTITUTIONAL ANALYSIS 31 are dispersed across ministries and departments and the national budget office has not established a mechanism to record gender-related spending. 200

4.3.2 Dominica In Dominica, the 2006 National Policy and Action Plan for Gender Equity and Equality (NPAP) is the central tool for gender mainstreaming. A process of revision of the Policy took place in 2013, and a draft revised plan was produced. The status of this revised Policy is unclear, according to the consultant who led its development. 201 The NPAP established the Gender Management System (GMS), comprising the Bureau of Gender Affairs (BGA), the National Gender Advisory Committee (NGAC), and Gender Focal Points (GFPs). A Gender Management System Team (GMST) was established to support the work of the machinery comprising senior staffs of key Government Ministries. 202

The NGAC was designed to include members of NGOs, CBOs and civil society and youth organizations, trade union representatives, and the private sector involved in issues related to gender and development. 203 In reality, the committee was only initiated in 2012, six years after the NPAP was approved. 204 In the process of reviewing and updating the NPAP in 2013, certain recommendations were made as to the functioning of the Committee, to allow it to be the oversight body for the Gender Management System and eliminating the need for a separate GMST. The current status of the Committee is unclear. 205

The GFPs in Dominica were conceived to be senior administrative and/or technical staff in all Ministries – such as Permanent Secretaries, Senior Technocrats and Administrators – to facilitate gender analysis and the development of gender-responsive policies, plans, programmes and projects across the public sector. 206 In the years following the adoption of the NPAP, the system of GFPs was not sustained and GFPs were ‘missing’ from a number of Ministries due to the repeated restructuring of Ministries, as well as other processes of attrition. 207 208

4.3.3 Guyana In Guyana, gender mainstreaming mechanisms and initiatives include: • The Women and Gender Equality Commission; • The Inter-Ministerial Committee; and • Collaboration with non-governmental organizations.

The Women and Gender Equality Commission (WGEC) was first appointed in 2009 and replaced The National Commission on the Status of Women established in Guyana in 1996. 209 It currently consists of eighteen members (one of whom is a man), chosen from the Private Sector, Regional Affairs

200 Bayne, L.N.O.H (2014), Ibid. 201 Rawwida Baksh, personal communication. 202 Judy Whitehead and Ryan Straughn, ibid. 203 Ministry of Community Development, Gender Affairs and Information (2006), ibid. Baksh, R (2014), Ibid. Ministry of Finance (2014), Ibid. 204 Baksh, R., (2014), ibid. 205 Baksh, R., Ibid. 206 Ministry of Community Development, Gender Affairs and Information (2006), Ibid. Baksh, R (2014), Ibid. 207 Baksh, R. (Ibid.) 208 Clarke, R. (2017) Review of ‘Negotiating gender. Policy and politics in the Caribbean: Feminist strategies, masculinist resistance and transformational possibilities’, Edited by G.H. Hosein and J. Parpart. Gender and Development, 25(2): pages 346-8. 209 Staff Writer, “National Commission on Women to be replaced by Constitutional Body”, Stabroek News, 18 September 2008. Available at https://www.stabroeknews.com/2008/archives/09/18/national-commission-on-women-to-be-replaced-by-constitutional-body/.

34 THE SYNTHESIS REPORT: A SUMMATION OF THE FINDINGS OF A FIVE-COUNTRY STUDY AND REVIEW 32 Committees, the Gender Affairs Bureau, the Labour Movement, and women’s non-governmental bodies. The Commission also has representatives from the other Human Rights Commissions. 210 This Commission is required to submit its report and any special report required (and does so, annually), to the Speaker of the National Assembly. 211

The Commission developed a five-year strategic plan in 2013, which provides guidance for the execution of its mandate. 212 Among the thematic priorities of the plan is Women and Economic Empowerment. 213 The Economic Empowerment recommendations of the WGEC include the following: • Review of labour laws; • Review action and legislation on equal pay for equal work or work of equal value; • Evaluate the economic status of women in Guyana and structural causes; • Advocate for the Ministry of Education to revise school curricula and text books to promote gender equity; • Review laws governing financial institutions to ensure they comply with gender equity objectives; • Promote training for women in micro-enterprises; • Implement workplace policies against sexual harassment; • Initiate public education on gender and entrepreneurship; and • Collaborate with the Ministry of Labour (now called the Ministry of Social Protection), Trade Unions and the Public Service Commission for the introduction of workplace care facilities and flexible schedules for working mothers. 214

The Guyana Inter-Ministerial Committee, when conceptualized, was to consist of senior personnel in the public service coming from the highest decision-making levels. However, this did not materialize. Instead, they were reported to be two levels lower than the Permanent Secretary and to not possess substantial gender expertise, making it necessary for the Bureau to provide them with gender sensitization training. 215 There is also an absence of gender focal points in Ministries, even though this was envisaged by Government policy. 216 217 218

In 2015, the WGEC and the University of Guyana launched the Gender Studies Unit. The Unit partners with the University of the West Indies and York University, Toronto. 219 A partner agency, the Guyana

210 The Women and Gender Equality Commission team. 211 Economic Commission for Latin America and the Caribbean (ECLAC) (2014), ibid. 212 UN Committee on the Elimination of Discrimination Against Women (CEDAW) (2012), “responses to the list of issues and questions with regard to the consideration of the combined 7th and 8th periodic report (CEDAW/C/GUY/7-8): Guyana”. Available at: https://digitallibrary.un.org/record/730170?ln=en 213 Guyana Women and Gender Equality Commission (2013) The women and gender equality commission: five year strategic plan 2013-2018 214 Women and Gender Equality Commission (2013) Five year strategic plan 2013-2018. Government of Guyana with support from UNDP. 215 Sonja Harris (2000). Ibid. 216 Sectoral Committee (2000) Annex 25: Gender issues. National Development Strategy (2001-2010): A policy framework eradicating poverty and unifying Guyana - A civil society document. Available online at http://www.ndsguyana.org/downloads/annex25.pdf. See also National Development Strategy Chapter 21: Women, Gender and Development. 217 Office of the High Commissioner for Human Rights. Follow-up letter on concluding observations of the Committee on the Elimination of Discrimination Against Women (CEDAW). 2016. 218 Women and Gender Equality Commission (2013), ibid. 219 Ministry of the Presidency (2015) UG’s Gender Studies Unit launched on day two of National Gender Policy Conference. Available online at https://motp.gov.gy/index.php/2015-07-20-18-49-38/2015-07-20-18-50-14/232-ug-s-gender-studies-unit-launched-on-day- two-of-national-gender-policy-conference

35 INSTITUTIONAL ANALYSIS 33 Women’s Leadership Institute (also within the Ministry of Social Protection), aims to empower women regarding personal and public leadership with structured training residential and non-residential programmes. 220 221 222

In Guyana the work of these State-initiated entities is complemented by the work of NGOs. The NGO, Red Thread, has been particularly important in advocating on behalf of poor and marginalized women, such as indigenous women. 223 It has conducted critical research – Guyana’s only women’s time use survey 224 – and has provided a drop–in centre where women workers can access information about their rights and receive training on labour legislation. 225

220 DevTech Systems, Inc. (2003), ibid. 221 UNDP (2010). “Assessment of Development Results: Guyana”, Evaluation of UNDP Contribution. 222 INews. “Increased focus on gender-based violence this year – Women’s Leadership Institute”, INews Guyana, 20 January 2016, Available online at http://www.inewsguyana.com/increased-focus-on-gender-based-violence-this-year-womens-leadership-institute/. 223 Trotz, A. (2007) Red Thread: The politics of hope in Guyana. Race and class, 49(2). Available online at http://journals.sagepub.com/doi/abs/10.1177/0306396807082859 224 Kaieteur News (3 December 2004) Red Thread completes time use survey. Amerindian women’s work burden heaviest. Available online at http://www.landofsixpeoples.com/news404/nk412034.htm 225 Karen De Souza, personal communication, and De Souza, K. (2013) Red Thread has three priorities, Stabroek News, August 7. Available online at https://www.stabroeknews.com/2013/opinion/letters/08/07/red-thread-has-three-priorities-including-protection-and- justice-for-women-in-violent-situations/

36 THE SYNTHESIS REPORT: A SUMMATION OF THE FINDINGS OF A FIVE-COUNTRY STUDY AND REVIEW 32 4.3.4 Jamaica In Jamaica, the 2011 National Policy on Gender Equality declares gender mainstreaming in the workplace as a key priority for achieving gender equality in Jamaica. The Minister of Culture, Gender, Entertainment and Sport publicly has expressed support for this approach. 226

Gender Focal Points (GFPs) have been appointed in Jamaica, and are responsible for providing data for regional and international reports as well as ensuring that gender considerations orient Government action. 227 The scope of their work is said to be limited since they do not have powers of implementation; in addition, some actors in Ministries believe that addressing gender issues require additional financial resources. 228 The success of GFPs is said to be contingent on the dynamics present in the specific ministry or agency in which they find themselves. 229

The Bureau of Gender Affairs has been proactive in supporting GFPs. It recently released a Gender Mainstreaming Manual (GMM) tailored to the Jamaican context to support public institutions in integrating gender issues in their work. 230 It provides technical tools that GFPs can employ. 231 The Bureau also issued a Gender Analysis Checklist to ensure that policy developers maintain a gender perspective. The Checklist includes gender sensitive questions to ask during each phase of the policy process. The research and consultation section for example, asks questions around whether any sex- disaggregated data exists, whether men and women are able to access resources equally or if there are any gender specific concerns that could have an impact on outcomes. 232 This Checklist helps to provide policy analysts, who may have little or no gender sensitivity training, with a straightforward set of parameters to guide their work.

The Jamaican Bureau has also sat on policy committees for several sectors to ensure a gender perspective in their policy-making process. One such Policy was the Occupational Safety and Health Bill produced by the Ministry of Labour and Social Security. 233

Jamaica has a long history of gender research and activism through the University of the West Indies (UWI) and its specialist Unit, the Institute of Gender and Development Studies (IGDS). Dr Leith Dunn, the Head of the Institute, has been particularly involved in research and action for the rights of domestic workers in Jamaica. 234 235 Links with the Bureau of Gender Affairs are strong. In 1991, the Bureau (known then as the Bureau of Women’s Affairs) formed the Jamaica Household Workers’ Union, which

226 Angus, G.L. (2016) Change of name for Bureau of Women’s Affairs. Available online at https://jis.gov.jm/wp-content/cache/all/change-name-bureau-womens-affairs/index.html . 227 ECLAC (2014) National review Jamaica in the context of the twentieth anniversary of the Fourth World Conference on Women and the adoption of the Beijing Declaration and Platform for Action. Chile: ECLAC. 228 Jamaica Bureau of Women’s Affairs. (2009). Overview of achievements and challenges in promoting gender equality and women’s empowerment. Available online at https://www.cepal.org/mujer/noticias/paginas/8/36338/Jamaica.pdf. 229 Maziki, T. and Thakur, D. (2014), ibid. 230 Reckford, E. (2017) Gender mainstreaming manual developed. Available online at https://jis.gov.jm/wp-content/cache/all/gender-mainstreaming-manual-developed/index.html . 231 ECLAC (2014). 232 Abrams, M. (2002) A manual for policy analysts. Jamaica: Cabinet Office Jamaica. Available online at https://cabinet.gov.jm/wp-content/uploads/2017/06/MANUAL-Policy-Analysts_Martin-Abrams.pdf . 233 The Bureau of Women’s Affairs, Jamaica and The Gender Advisory Committee (2010), ibid. 234 Current Research of the Institute for Gender and Development Studies. Available online at https://www.mona.uwi.edu/igds/research.php. 235 Dunn, L. (2014). Report on a baseline study of household workers in Jamaica. Advancing decent work for domestic workers. Kingston, Jamaica, UN Women.

37 INSTITUTIONAL ANALYSIS 33 became a trade union in 2012 and currently has around 3,000 members. 236 Other Jamaican non- governmental organizations that have advocated and run programmes on gender and work include the Association of Women’s Organisations of Jamaica (AWOJA), the Women’s Construction Collective, the Sistren Theatre Collective 237 and Women Business Owners’ of Jamaica Ltd. 238 The National Policy for Gender Equality (NPGE) was approved by the Government in 2011 following a consultation process initiated in 2004. 239 This Policy lists a number of goals relevant to gender and work, that will be analyzed in Part Five of this report.

4.3.5 Saint Lucia In Saint Lucia, the Division of Gender Relations has run gender training courses and meetings with representatives of line Ministries, but a system of GFPs has not been established. As of 2016, no systems were in place for gender budget analysis and gender monitoring and evaluation in Ministries.240 Following the publication of the Caribbean Development Bank’s (CDB) Gender Assessment of Saint Lucia in 2016, the CDB and the Division of Gender Relations have started a project to provide gender budgeting training and assistance to Government departments, as well as to support its incorporation into the implementation of national development plans. 241

236 Dunn, L. (2014), ibid. 237 United Nations Convention on the Elimination of Discrimination Against Women (1998) Consideration of reports submitted by States parties under article 18 of the Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Discrimination Against Women: Second, third and fourth periodic reports of States parties: Jamaica. New York: United Nations. 238 Bureau of Women’s Affairs (2009) Overview of achievements and challenges in promoting gender equality and women’s empowerment. Available online at http://www.cepal.org/mujer/noticias/paginas/8/36338/Jamaica.pdf. 239 The Bureau of Women’s Affairs (Gender Affairs) Kingston, Jamaica and The Gender Advisory Committee (2010) National Policy for Gender Equality (NPGE) Jamaica. Jamaica: BWA &GAC. 240 Ranjitsingh, A. (2016), ibid. 241 Chaitoo, R., Allen, C.F and Hustler, M. (2016) ibid: page 52.

38 THE SYNTHESIS REPORT: A SUMMATION OF THE FINDINGS OF A FIVE-COUNTRY STUDY AND REVIEW PART FIVE

Legal and policy analysis

All of the countries included in the current assessment have ratified the Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Discrimination Against Women (CEDAW), the Equal Remuneration Convention, and the Discrimination (Employment and Occupation) Convention. Two countries have ratified the Domestic Workers Convention, while none have ratified the Conventions on Workers with Family Responsibilities and Maternity Protection, as Table 7 shows.

This section analyses the main ways that governments and their partners have acted to develop and implement policies in respect of discrimination, equal remuneration and other factors affecting gender equality in the world of work. It will be seen that there are general laws and policies in place on gender equality, but in specific areas affecting the world of work — such as family responsibilities — policy efforts have been less strong.

39 LEGAL AND POLICY ANALYSIS Table 7. Ratification of selected International Conventions pertaining to gender and work

Select Conventions Antigua and Barbuda Dominica Guyana Jamaica Saint Lucia

Convention on the 1989. 1980. 1980. 1984. 1982. Elimination of All Forms Optional Optional Optional Optional of Discrimination Against Optional Protocol Protocol not Protocol not Protocol not Protocol not Women (CEDAW) 2006. ratified. ratified. ratified. ratified.

Equal Remuneration 2003 1983 1975 1975 1983 Convention (1951) (No. 100) 1983 Discrimination 1983 1983 19875 19875 (Employment and Occupation) Convention 1958 (No. 111)

Domestic Workers Not ratified Not ratified 2013 2016 Not ratified Convention 2011 (No. 189)

Workers with Family Not ratified Not ratified Not ratified Not ratified Not ratified Responsibilities Convention (No. 156)

Maternity Protection Not ratified Not ratified Not ratified Not ratified Not ratified Convention (No. 183)

Sources: United Nations Office of the High Commissioner for Human Rights. Status of Ratification of 18 Human Rights Treaties. (Available online at http://indicators.ohchr.org/.) International Labour Organization. NORMLEX International Labour Standards: Ratification by country. (Available online at http://www.ilo.org/dyn/normlex/en/f?p=1000:11001:::NO::: www.ilo.org/dyn/normlex/en/f?p=1000.11001:::NO::: )

5.1 Equality of opportunity

The Constitutions of each country under review make statements asserting the rights of all citizens, regardless of gender, to be treated equally before the law. 242 243 244 245 246 Guyana’s Constitution also asserts equality between the sexes in regards to access to training and equality of opportunity in employment, remuneration and promotion (Paragraph 149f(2)). 247 Labour legislation in all five countries includes provisions to prohibit sex discrimination. The major relevant pieces of legislation are listed below and analyzed in the individual country reports.

242 The Antigua and Barbuda Constitution Order 1981, section 14. Available online at http://www.ilo.org/dyn/natlex/docs/ELECTRONIC/41556/72407/F322301278/ATG41556.pdf 243 Constitution of the Cooperative Republic of Guyana, 1980 (with amendments). Available online at http://www.mola.gov.gy/information/ laws-of-guyana/410-chapter-101-the-constitution-of-the-co-operative-republic-of-guyana/file 244 The Constitution of the Commonwealth of Dominica, 1978, section 13. Available online at http://pdba.georgetown.edu/Constitutions/Dominica/constitution.pdf 245 The Charter of Fundamental Rights and Freedoms (Constitutional Amendment) Act, 2011 (Jamaica), section 13(3)(i). Available online at http://www.japarliament.gov.jm/attachments/341_The%20Charter%20of%20Fundamental%20Rights%20and%20 Freedoms%20%28Constitutional%20Amendment%29%20Act,%202011.pdf 246 Constitution of Saint Lucia, revised edition, 2006, Chapter 1, paragraph 1. Available online at http://www.govt.lc/media.govt.lc/www/resources/legislation/ConstitutionOfSaintLucia.pdf 247 Constitution of the Cooperative Republic of Guyana, 1980, ibid.

40 THE SYNTHESIS REPORT: A SUMMATION OF THE FINDINGS OF A FIVE-COUNTRY STUDY AND REVIEW 75 Table 8. Labour legislation addressing sex discrimination

Country Legislation

Antigua and Barbuda The Labour Code 248

Dominica Labour Standards Act 1977 (amended 1983, 1990, 1991); 249 and the Labour Contracts Act 1983 (amended in 1990) 250

Guyana The Equal Rights Act (1990); 251 and the Prevention of Discrimination Act 252

Jamaica Employment (Equal Pay for Men and Women) Act 253

Saint Lucia Labour Act (2006) 254

In Table 8, the Legislation referenced for Antigua and Barbuda and Guyana specifies that women must be paid equally for the same work but does not address the issue of work of equal value. 255 In Dominica and Jamaica, the Legislation covers the same or similar work in the same business under the same working conditions but stops short of addressing work of equal value in different businesses and under different working conditions. 256 257

ILO’s Committee of Experts on the Application of Conventions and Recommendations (CEACR), a Body of Independent Experts which monitors the implementation of ILO Conventions and Recommendations, 258 has drawn attention to the gap in addressing work of equal value. The Committee has requested that these Governments review their Legislation with a view to fully implementing the Equal Remuneration Convention, 1951 (No. 100). 259

In Saint Lucia, the Labour Act, under Section 270, declares that men and women must be paid equally for doing work of equal value. Section 281 of the Code stipulates that if it is necessary to ascertain whether work is of equal value, the Minister will take the advice of the Minimum and Equal Wages Commission into consideration and could undertake an inquiry into the categories of work in the same sector or between different sectors, in order to determine which work is work of equal value. 260

248 Antigua and Barbuda Labour Code, Cap 27. Available online at http://laws.gov.ag/acts/chapters/cap-27.pdf 249 Dominica Labour Standards Act. Available online at http://www.dominica.gov.dm/laws/chapters/chap89-05.pdf 250 Dominica Labour Contracts Act. Available online at http://www.dominica.gov.dm/laws/chapters/chap89-04.pdf 251 Guyana: Equal Rights Act. Available online at http://www.mola.gov.gy/information/laws-of-guyana/613-chapter-3801-equal-rights 252 Prevention of Discrimination Act (1997). Available online at http://www.mola.gov.gy/information/laws-of-guyana/873-chapter-9908-prevention-of-discrimination 253 Employment (Equal Pay for Men and Women) Act. Available online at http://moj.gov.jm/laws/employment-equal-pay-men-and-women-act 254 Saint Lucia Labour Act. Available online at http://www.govt.lc/legislation/labour-code 255 Antigua and Barbuda Labour Code (Cap. 27), paragraph E8. Available online at http://www.laws.gov.ag/acts/chapters/cap-27.pdf 256 World Bank (2016). National labour law profile. Women, business and the law 2016. Washington DC, World Bank. 257 United Nations Convention on the Elimination of Discrimination Against Women (2004). Consideration of reports submitted by States parties under article 18 of the Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Discrimination against Women. Fifth periodic report of States parties, Jamaica. New York: United Nations. 258 Further information on the CEACR is available at http://www.ilo.org/global/standards/applying-and-promoting-international-labour- standards/committee-of-experts-on-the-application-of-conventions-and-recommendations/lang--en/index.htm 259 CEACR. Observation published in 2014. Available online at http://www.ilo.org/dyn/normlex/en/f?p=1000:13101:0::NO:13101:P13101_COMMENT_ID:3143780 260 United Nations Convention on the Elimination of Discrimination Against Women (2005). Consideration of reports submitted by States parties under article 18 of the Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Discrimination Against Women: Combined initial, second, third, fourth, fifth and sixth periodic reports of States parties: Saint Lucia. New York: United Nations

41 LEGAL AND POLICY ANALYSIS 5.2 Maternity and paternity policies

None of the five countries have ratified the Maternity Protection Convention (No. 183). Nevertheless, they do provide some legal protection of employment for mothers who become pregnant and specify conditions for maternity leave, as illustrated in Table 9.

Table 9. Maternity legislation

Country Legislation Notes

Antigua and Barbuda Social Security Act Maternity Allowance is paid for a maximum of 13 weeks. It constitutes 60 per cent of the insured person’s average insurable weekly earnings and is payable to women who have worked for more than one year. Maternity Grant is a one-time payment, payable to a woman if she or her husband has paid 26 weekly contributions since entering the scheme and has paid 26 weekly contributions in the year immediately before the confinement. 261

Dominica Labour Standards Act Maternity leave is available for 12 weeks to women who have worked for one year with their employer. The employer must pay her a weekly wage that is not less than one half of her normal weekly wage, for a period of four weeks following the start of maternity leave. Women must be reinstated following the end of such leave in the same (or similar) job, at the same rate of pay.262

Labour Contracts Act A labour contract between an employer and a female employee must set out the maternity leave to which the employee is entitled and the pay that she is entitled to receive during the period of her maternity leave. 263

Social Security Act Maternity benefit is payable if the woman has been insured for 30 weeks. The daily rate of maternity benefit is 60 per cent of the average weekly insurable earnings of the insured person divided by six. A maternity grant of XC$200 may be paid to mothers who have paid or whose spouse has paid contributions for at least 26 weeks out of the past 52 weeks. 264

Guyana Termination of Prohibits dismissal on the basis of pregnancy. Employment and Severance Pay Act

261 Antigua and Barbuda Social Security Board (2017) Maternity benefits. Available online at: http://www.socialsecurity.gov.ag/benefits/maternity-benefits 262 Dominica Labour Standards Act. Available online at http://www.dominica.gov.dm/laws/chapters/chap89-05.pdf 263 Dominica Labour Standards Act. Available online at http://www.dominica.gov.dm/laws/chapters/chap89-05.pdf 264 Dominica Social Security, ‘Your guide to social security benefits’. Available online at http://www.dss.dm/downloads/.

42 THE SYNTHESIS REPORT: A SUMMATION OF THE FINDINGS OF A FIVE-COUNTRY STUDY AND REVIEW Table 8 Maternity and paternity policies continued Country Legislation Notes

Guyana Occupational Safety Adjustment to working conditions to protect the health of mother and Health Act and unborn child.

National Insurance Maternity leave is granted for thirteen weeks. Workers covered Act by National Insurance receive maternity benefits equivalent to 70 per cent of their average insurable income. The difference is paid by the employer if the latter signed a Collective Agreement that included it. 265

Jamaica Maternity Act Mothers are granted maternity leave after working for their employer for a continuous period of one year or more, before the date that their leave begins. Leave is granted for twelve weeks for each pregnancy unless the mother or child is ill, in which case, the worker is granted up to fourteen weeks of leave. Maternity pay is granted for eight of these weeks. The Act also ensures that women can resume their original job upon completion of their leave. 266

Saint Lucia Labour Act Women employed on a continuous basis for eighteen months or more are granted thirteen weeks of paid maternity leave. For women who have been in continuous employment for less than eighteen months, a period of six weeks unpaid leave is granted after the birth. Regardless of the duration of their employment, mothers are entitled by law to return to their jobs after their period of leave has ended. 267

In all five countries, there is little evidence of policies that allow breastfeeding at work, such as providing breastfeeding breaks, or places to feed a baby, or to express milk while at work.

Statutory provision for paternity leave has not been made in the five countries. There is evidence of government and trade union discussion and proposals for paternity leave in Antigua and Barbuda, Guyana and Saint Lucia. 268 269 In Saint Lucia, the National Workers’ Union has a special agreement with the Ministry of Public Service, which entitles public sector workers who are married (or in common law relationships) up to five days of paid paternity leave. Some fathers who are not in the public sector may be granted paternity leave but this specific to their employer. 270 employers or the State.”

265 World Bank (2016), ibid. 266 Jamaica Maternity Leave Act. Available online at http://moj.gov.jm/laws/maternity-leave-act 267 Saint Lucia Labour Code. Available online at http://www.govt.lc/legislation/labour-code 268 “A plea for more maternal benefits” in Antigua Observer, September 5, 2014. Available online at http://antiguaobserver.com/a-plea-for-more-maternal-benefits/ 269 Staff Reporter, ‘White Paper on paternity leave for Cabinet’ in Guyana Chronicle, 11 November 2015. Available online at https://guyanachronicle.com/2015/11/11/white-paper-on-paternity-leave-for-cabinet. 270 Chaitoo et al, ibid.

43 LEGAL AND POLICY ANALYSIS 5.3 Work-family responsibilities, including child care services

None of the five countries has yet ratified the Workers with Family Responsibilities Convention, 1981 (No. 156). This is an area where there is little policy, perhaps reflecting Reddock’s observation that: “Families continue to be seen as part of the private, ‘feminine’ sphere which is not the concern of employers or the State.” 271

Child care provision for infants and small children is generally framed as Early Childhood Care and Education. There is excess demand for places in government and private facilities, which usually only open during conventional working hours, making it difficult for people with jobs outside these hours to find the support they need (such as some tourism employees). 272

In Antigua and Barbuda, the State runs only ten per cent of early childhood centres, with the remainder provided by the private sector and churches, usually with a cost attached. 273 In Jamaica, the Early Childhood Commission regulates day care provision for children below the age of six, and approximately 2,800 registered day care centres, infant schools, nurseries and basic schools look after children for a maximum of six hours a day. 274 In Saint Lucia, one–fifth of the people in the services sector surveyed in 2016 stated that government after school or day care services were in close proximity to their place of work. There was no evidence of specialized child care facilities at places of work, though some employers allow people to bring their children to work, on a discretionary basis. 275

According to a World Bank Assessment which examined laws affecting women’s participation in business, none of the five countries in the current study provides a child allowance to parents. Childcare payments are not tax-deductible; there is no legal requirement for employers to provide leave for workers to care for sick relatives; and there are no laws providing for flexible and part-time work schedules. 276 The lack of low-cost, accessible childcare and difficulty in balancing caring and employment responsibilities, restrict women’s participation in the labour force and their performance at work. They also present barriers to the greater participation of men in social reproductive tasks, such as caring for children and the sick, as well as taking responsibility for domestic chores. 277 278

271 Reddock (2008), ibid, page xi. 272 Chaitoo et al, 2016, ibid. 273 Marques, J.S. (2011) Antigua and Barbuda social protection assessment. Washington DC: World Bank. 274 Early Childhood Commission: About us. Available online at http://ecc.gov.jm/about-us-2/. 275 Chaitoo, et al, ibid. 276 World Bank (2016), ibid. 277 Huggins, T. (2014), Ibid. 278 Marques, J.S. (2011), Ibid.

44 THE SYNTHESIS REPORT: A SUMMATION OF THE FINDINGS OF A FIVE-COUNTRY STUDY AND REVIEW Data from Saint Lucia show that men work, on average, longer hours in their formal jobs than women. However, most employees work the standard 40 to 48 hours a week (78.1 per cent of women and 73.4 per cent of men). Roughly equal percentages of men and women work fewer than 40 hours per week in formal jobs (16.7 per cent of women and 17.0 per cent of men). 279 This suggests that there are few part-time or reduced-hours working arrangements, which might help people with caring responsibilities to gain and keep jobs. Notably, in Saint Lucia, more men than women state that they are “under-employed” in terms of the number of formal working hours that they do. 280 This may indicate that men could have greater spare capacity to work longer hours in jobs, possibly because they are able to work shorter hours on domestic and caring tasks than women.

However, there are some innovations in terms of supportive services for working parents. The Single Parent Assistance Programme was introduced in 2010 by the Government of Guyana, with a rationale to promote harmonization of work and family responsibilities. The programme provides skills training, followed by small grants, to enable the start-up of business in areas of training. The second component provides day care assistance to single parents, in the form of day care and day care vouchers to subsidize the cost of childcare to those doing skills training. As of 2014, the programme had benefited 1,106 single parents. 281

279 Saint Lucia Central Statistical Office (2017). ADePT ILO Labour Market Indicators for Saint Lucia. Table 29. 280 Saint Lucia Central Statistical Office (2017). ADePT ILO Labour Market Indicators for Saint Lucia. Table 32. 281 UN Committee on the Elimination of Discrimination Against Women (CEDAW), ibid.

45 LEGAL AND POLICY ANALYSIS 5.4 Social protection

The informal, segmented and precarious participation of women in the workforce means that Social Security benefits may not be sufficiently secured over the course of their working lives, when compared with men. 282 Since most social protection benefits are dependent on national insurance contributions paid during employment, women are at an inherent disadvantage relative to men in terms of coverage. This is demonstrated by data from Guyana that show that there are far fewer women than men who are covered by pensions paid from National Insurance. 283

In the five countries, non-contributory benefits generally are available only in cases of poverty and are means tested.

In Antigua and Barbuda, examples of non-contributory benefits are: • The Old Age Assistance Pension. This benefit is for senior citizens who live on less than EC$5,000 annually and entitles them to receive EC$255 per month. In 2009, 55 per cent of the 43,635 recipients of the fund were women. 284 • The Senior Citizens Utilities Subsidy Programme, funded by the Government-owned PDV Caribe Antigua and Barbuda Ltd., that provides vouchers to senior citizens which go towards their utility bills. The DOGA also runs the “Over 80 Utility Programme” which pays for the water and electricity bills of elderly people aged over 80 who are unable to pay for their bills on their own. 285 Given the greater longevity of women (life expectancy 78.1), this scheme is of particular benefit to them. • The People’s Benefit Programme, funded by PDV Caribe. This targets people living in poverty and those with disabilities who must earn less than EC$800 monthly to qualify for assistance. They are given a debit card with EC$215 per month which they can use at two Government- owned marketing boards and one private supermarket for food and cooking gas. 286 This initiative has been especially important for women, who constituted 65 per cent of recipients in 2012. 287

Public Assistance or conditional cash transfer schemes are available to indigent people in the five countries to indigent people, sometimes with special criteria for single parents. They are means-tested, generally providing only very small income. 288 289 290 The small sums available from non-contributory benefits help sustain families but do little to assist women’s ability to participate in the labour force.

Non-contributory benefits are complemented by training and job placement schemes targeting people on low incomes, as outlined in Sections 4.1 and 4.2. The analyses of previous sections also highlight that further supportive legislative reforms and childcare provisions are needed to reduce poverty, especially among women and in single-headed households.

282 Huggins, T. (2014), Ibid.: page 25. 283 David, S., K. Fogenay, et al. (2017), ibid. 284 Marques, J.S. (2011), Ibid. 285 Marques, J.S. (2011), Ibid. 286 Marques, J.S. (2011), Ibid. 287 Goodwin, Y. (2012) Antigua and Barbuda report national follow-up to the regional strategy of the Brasilia Declaration of the Madrid International Plan of Action on Ageing (MIPAA). Antigua and Barbuda: Citizens Welfare Division. Available online at www.cepal.org/celade/noticias/paginas/9/46849/AntiguaBarbuda.pdf. 288 Dominica Public Assistance — Ministry of Social Services, Family and Gender Affairs http://socialservices.gov.dm/index.php/divisions/social-welfare-division/14-divisions/welfare/13-public-assistance. 289 Jamaica’s Programme of Advancement through Health and Education (PATH) conditional cash transfer programme. Available online at http://www.mlss.gov.jm/pub/index.php?artid=23. 290 Xavier, J. (2015) Final report gender aware beneficiary analysis of Saint Lucia’s Public Assistance Programme. Barbados: UN Women.

46 THE SYNTHESIS REPORT: A SUMMATION OF THE FINDINGS OF A FIVE-COUNTRY STUDY AND REVIEW 5.5 Tackling the issue of sexual harassment

The five countries are signatories to the Inter-American Convention on the Prevention, Punishment and Eradication of Violence Against Women (Convention of Belém do Pará). 291 The countries have developed legislation against domestic violence and sexual offences, with some technical support from UN Women and the Inter-American Commission of Women. An important influence on the development of this Legislation was the work of CARICOM with UN Women (then UNIFEM) to develop model legislation to address violence against women. 292

Legislative progress with respect to sexual harassment varies. In Antigua and Barbuda, there is no specific legislation concerning sexual harassment at work. 293 The DOGA has expressed its commitment to tackling the issue with the help of other civil society Organizations. 294 In Dominica, there is no sexual harassment legislation, nor are there civil remedies or criminal penalties covering employment, education or public places. 295 In Guyana, the Prevention of Discrimination Act 1997 has a clause that provides for the Chief Labour Officer (CLO) to adjudicate on matters of sexual harassment in the workplace. The penalty for such acts is a fine and damages from the employer.

In Jamaica, a Sexual Harassment Bill was tabled in 2015 but has not yet been passed. People who are sexually harassed at work in Jamaica can currently seek to prosecute the offender under the Sexual Offences Act if rape or sexual assault was committed. The Saint Lucia Labour Act prohibits, under Section 272, any form of sexual harassment against an employee by an employer, an employee or colleague. 296

291 Organization of American States / Inter-American Commision of Women. Convention of Belém Do Pará. Available online at https://www.oas.org/juridico/english/treaties/a-61.html 292 Le Franc, E.R.M. and Allen, C.F. (2014). Evaluation of national initiatives to produce comparative data on violence against women for the OECS States. Washington DC, Inter-American Commission of Women/ Organization of American States. 293 World Bank (2016), ibid. 294 Directorate of Gender Affairs (2017) The Antigua and Barbuda CEDAW report 2017 preliminary release. Available online at https://genderaffairs.gov.ag/docs/reports. 295 World Bank (2016), Ibid. 296 Elliott, L.V. and MacClure, E. (2015) IMPACT Justice report on the CARICOM Model Protection Against Sexual Harassment Bill and Recommendations for a New Model Bill. Available online at http://caribbeanimpact.org/website/wp-content/uploads/2018/02/IMPACT- Justice-Sexual-Harassment-Report-April-2015-2.pdf

47 LEGAL AND POLICY ANALYSIS 5.6 Policies and initiatives to stimulate entrepreneurship

Initiatives to stimulate entrepreneurship in the five countries have come from governments and a variety of non-State agencies. A few are oriented to strengthening business opportunities by women, acknowledging barriers such as poor access to finance because of lack of collateral and weak business networks.

5.6.1 Antigua and Barbuda The Small Business Act in Antigua and Barbuda provides for a Credit Guarantee Scheme. The Scheme allows business owners or potential business owners to access loans from a commercial financial institution of their choice. This loan is then backed by the Government via the Antigua and Barbuda Development Bank (ABDB) up to EC $100,000.00. 297

5.6.2 Dominica The National Development Foundation of Dominica (NDFD) has collaborated with the Bureau of Gender Affairs to set up a loan facility for women. 298 The NDFD also offers training and technical and managerial assistance to MSME business owners — Business plans, financial and business statements, cash flow projections, VAT calculation, income tax and social security payments — and receives funding from the European Union to support this training.

Other Government-led schemes include the Entrepreneurship Development Programme (EDP), and the Small Business Facility (SBF), both which provide training and loans. Available data suggests marginally more women than men access the EDP facilities and marginally more men than women access the SBF. 299

5.6.3 Guyana In Guyana, the Women of Worth Microfinance Programme was launched in 2010 to assist single female parents in establishing and expanding small businesses. It is the result of a Public–Private Partnership between the then Ministry of Labour, Human Services and Social Security (now called the Ministry of Social Protection) and the Guyana Bank for Trade and Industry Ltd (GBTI), a locally owned commercial bank. Part of the loan arrangement is that the beneficiary goes through training in such areas as basic entrepreneurial skills, networking, basic accounting, advertising and packaging. 300

5.6.4 Jamaica Jamaica has a Medium, Small and Micro-Enterprise (MSME) Policy (2013), which includes the goal of increasing access to credit. The Security Interest in Personal Property Act of 2014 also has assisted in improving access to credit by women, by allowing collections of personal property, such as household appliances, to be used as collateral to secure loans. 301

297 Financing your small business. 298 Baksh, R. (2014), Ibid. 299 Ministry of Finance (2014), Ibid. 300 UN Committee on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights (2012), ibid. 301 Caribbean Local Economic Development Project (CARILED) (2014) Country study 2014. A review of gender related challenges affecting Local Government and MSMES in Jamaica. Port of Spain: CARILED.

48 THE SYNTHESIS REPORT: A SUMMATION OF THE FINDINGS OF A FIVE-COUNTRY STUDY AND REVIEW Since 1991, Jamaica’s Micro Investment Development Agency (MIDA) has provided loans to self- employed people to grow their businesses and to the unemployed who would like to start their own businesses. Around two-thirds of MIDA loans go to women. 302

5.6.5 Saint Lucia Saint Lucia’s Small Business Development Centre (SBDC) aims to enable businesses to become competitive on an international level, by providing them with a variety of different services including business consultancy, finance, market research and training. 303 Available figures suggest that most of SBDC’s clients are men. 304

On the other hand, clients of the James Belgrave Micro–Enterprise Fund (BelFund) are mostly women. This is a programme managed by the Ministry of Equity, Social Justice, Empowerment, Youth Development, Sports and Local Government, which seeks to create employment and reduce poverty by working with micro entrepreneurs from lower socioeconomic backgrounds who would normally be unable to access financial assistance. It provides them with business training, credit and technical support with the aim of enabling beneficiaries to be self-employed. 305

302 Economic Commission for Latin America and the Caribbean (2014), ibid. 303 Small Business Development Centre: Available online at http://www.commerce.gov.lc/departments/view/1 304 Ranjitsingh, A. (2016), ibid. 305 Ranjitsingh

49 LEGAL AND POLICY ANALYSIS 50 THE SYNTHESIS REPORT: A SUMMATION OF THE FINDINGS OF A FIVE-COUNTRY STUDY AND REVIEW PART SIX

Discussion of the findings and the way forward for future research

6.1 A summary of the key findings

This assessment has identified systematic challenges in gender equality in the world of work in five Caribbean countries. Women are less likely than men to participate in the labour force and, if they do participate, they are less likely to be employed. Pay and incomes are lower among women than men. Occupational segregation by sex is significant, and tends to entrench lower pay among women. This is partly because women are more likely than men to be employed in jobs associated with caring and customer relations which, as a result of the under-valuing of care work resulting from gender norms, are paid relatively poorly. These cross-cutting findings hold true in spite of considerable variation among countries in the size of the differences by sex, and in characteristics of countries, such as size and demographic features. An exception is Antigua and Barbuda, where rates of unemployment are lower among women than men.

There is, however, important evidence of change in the five countries. Gender gaps in labour force participation and unemployment have decreased since the start of the twenty-first century. Women have increasingly entered highly skilled professions and are the majority of employees in the highly- skilled category. In many sectors, most managers are women. In Jamaica and Saint Lucia, most

51 DISCUSSION OF THE FINDINGS AND THE WAY FORWARD FOR FUTURE RESEARCH managers are women. In some sectors where the majority of employees are men, there are now more female than male managers. For instance, in Saint Lucia, women are now the majority of managers in transportation and storage, manufacturing, and agriculture, forestry and fishing. The visibility of women in management may have encouraged the perception that women are “taking over” from men in employment.

6.1.1 Education is changing the landscape — slightly Evidence available from Saint Lucia only shows that increases in level of education of women are associated with decreases in unemployment and increases in pay, relative to men. While at the level of the population as a whole there remain substantial gender gaps in unemployment and pay, the findings show that the pursuit of education has been an effective economic strategy for many women. This is an important finding, countering statements by some observers that the gains of women in education have not been rewarded in the workplace. 306 It implies that strategies to support the education and training of women and girls should continue in the interest of gender equality in the world of work. However, it also suggests that there are limitations to education in addressing gender equality at the population level.

In Saint Lucia, only tertiary (university) educated women have higher pay and lower unemployment than men. For women lower down the educational hierarchy, and especially those with the lowest level of education, additional strategies are necessary. Training programmes have often been directed at women on lower incomes and single parents, many of whom have achieved only low levels of education. These programmes may be helpful, but it should be acknowledged that some women at this level experience learning difficulties, and it is necessary to provide skills targeted to areas of market demand. Legislative and other supplementary measures to support the employment of women with lower levels of education are needed. Given that women with lower levels of education tend to be in families with high dependency ratios, measures to support the employment of people with substantial caring responsibilities are necessary.

6.1.2 Entrepreneurship has opened doors — a little Despite the educational gains, women are the minority of employers and owners of small and medium enterprises — there are very few large enterprises in these countries. Most female-owned businesses are micro-enterprises without employees, and self-employment counts for a small minority of employment of women (13 per cent), according to a recent study in fourteen Caribbean countries.

Women’s micro-enterprises are concentrated in sectors that are traditional for women, such as retail, marketing of agricultural produce, food preparation, craft for the tourist market, hairdressing and cosmetology. More female than male-owned businesses are located in low technology and less knowledge-intensive sectors, which are experiencing the lowest levels of growth. 307 Results on entrepreneurship suggest that to make a major difference to income-generation opportunities for women at population level, attention still needs to be focussed on jobs and employment.

306 Bailey, B. (2014). “Boys, masculinity and education” in Caribbean review of gender studies 8: 283-8. 307 Lashley, J. and K. Smith (2015). Profiling Caribbean women entrepreneurs: business environment, sectoral constraints and programming lessons. Washington DC, World Bank InfoDev.

52 THE SYNTHESIS REPORT: A SUMMATION OF THE FINDINGS OF A FIVE-COUNTRY STUDY AND REVIEW However, in a global context of technology growth and job lay-offs, entrepreneurship also must be supported. Basic business education should be mainstreamed in schools from the primary level, implementing curricula covering market research, accounting, business regulations, taxation and access to foreign markets. 308 This should be accompanied by initiatives to increase Science, Technology, Engineering and Mathematics (STEM) qualifications and work experience among girls and women. Schools and training institutions should embrace the opportunities provided by the internet and social media to stimulate new ideas, expand knowledge and provide access to markets for products.

6.1.3 Deficits in gender mainstreaming and gender equity must be overcome National entities have been set up to address gender inequality in each country. They have played a critical role in raising gender awareness, advising on gender mainstreaming and providing services, especially in the area of gender-based violence. Most have been involved in activities to promote women’s employment, through training and partnership with other agencies to provide work experience and access to job opportunities.

However, their work to mainstream gender has had limited success. In part, this is a function of resources, with most gender machineries having only a handful of staff. It is notable that Antigua and Barbuda, where the staff complement of the Department of Gender Affairs is around nineteen, has the highest levels of gender equality in labour market indicators examined in this study. In other countries, it has proven especially difficult to develop and maintain the network of relationships with other Ministries and entities to achieve gender mainstreaming goals. Other gender entities, such as Commissions, have been set up, but their voluntary and advisory nature may have prevented the implementation of concrete action arising from their recommendations. Implementation appears more likely when Government Ministers have expressed support for gender equality work, and where national entities for gender have played a practical and strategic role in strengthening capacity, such as Jamaica’s production and distribution of a gender mainstreaming manual.

The Constitutions of these countries prohibit sex discrimination, but most do not explicitly mention discrimination in the world of work. Labour legislation addresses sex discrimination at work to varying degrees. It contains provisions to assure equal pay, but lacks operational definitions of how to assure equal pay for work of equal value.

A major hindrance to equality in the world of work is adherence to norms maintaining a traditional division of labour whereby women are responsible for most caring tasks and chores. Caribbean governments have acted to establish rights to maternity leave and pay, facilitating mothers in retaining employment while caring for their children. No formal provisions have been made to establish paternity leave.

The achievement of work-life balance and the ability of women, especially, to participate and thrive at work is hindered by the following: • Lack of affordable childcare at times and places convenient to working parents in a variety of jobs; • Lack of legislation to allow people leave to care for sick relatives;

308 Chaitoo, R, C.F. Allen and M. Hustler (2016), ibid.

53 DISCUSSION OF THE FINDINGS AND THE WAY FORWARD FOR FUTURE RESEARCH • Lack of legislation to enable flexible work arrangements with regard to times and places of work; and • Lack of child allowance or tax deductions for child care payments.

Employers have provided little access to part-time work or reduced-hours contracts, and legislation to support such options has not been developed. These gaps also effectively prevent men from playing a greater role in carrying out caring tasks. Limitations in legislation in most countries to address sexual harassment at work also tend to restrict the career prospects of women. None of the countries have ratified the Conventions on Workers with Family Responsibilities and Maternity Protection, and only two countries have ratified the Domestic Workers Convention. Ratification of these Conventions would be important as a step in developing more effective approaches to reducing gender gaps in labour force participation and employment. This is especially important for women at the lower end of the educational spectrum, who tend to have the heaviest burdens of care.

Social protection provisions in each country provide important safety nets for people in difficult circumstances or following retirement. Contributory schemes tend to be less accessible to women than men, owing to women’s less frequent or sporadic participation in employment. Evidence from this project shows that there are fewer female than male beneficiaries of National Insurance benefits, though those women who are employed contribute at a higher rate to National Insurance than men. Non-contributory schemes are generally means-tested and provide only very small incomes.

Initiatives to develop employment skills and access to business opportunities for people with low incomes and low access to collateral, have been important in drawing people out of poverty. Women tend to be the majority of participants in these schemes, whether they were designed for women or not, illustrating the willingness of women to pursue available avenues to address the inequalities that they face in the world of work. The variety of non-contributory benefits and grants, skills development and entrepreneurship schemes should be consolidated and coordinated to provide a more efficient and effective service for the poor. Reductions in bureaucratic procedures and waiting times are especially important for women, given the time they require to fulfil their caring responsibilities. Levels of non-contributory benefits should be increased, especially for single parents, since poverty effectively traps many in day-to-day survival tasks and impedes their labour force participation and employment.

54 THE SYNTHESIS REPORT: A SUMMATION OF THE FINDINGS OF A FIVE-COUNTRY STUDY AND REVIEW 6.2 Areas of inquiry for the future

The chief limitation of the study is that it was restricted to desk review. This would have prevented the presentation of information on the status of implementation of some of the policy and legislative provisions identified. It also might have led to the review overlooking, or possibly missing, some important initiatives existing at the time of the current review.

There also is a lack of publicly–available data on gender and work, which varies by country. Areas of data publication that would be useful to strengthen future analysis and policy recommendations include the following: • Time-use surveys, identifying main activities of people outside the labour force, working time per week, part-time and seasonal work, child care arrangements; and • Disaggregated data enabling gender analysis of employment, remuneration and labour force participation by sector, occupation, seniority in employment, education and business ownership.

A second limitation of the current review is that the scope of the project did not include labour migration — a major and important topic in its own right.

Partly as a function of the size of the countries and their peripheral status in the global economy, Caribbean people have a long history of intra– and extra–Caribbean travel and migration, in pursuit of better livelihoods and work opportunities. The patterns of educational and work-related migration, and the circulation of people between Caribbean countries and other parts of the world are highly gendered. 309

A review of the gendered nature of Caribbean travel and migration in pursuit of work and livelihoods should be the subject of another study.

Notwithstanding these challenges, it is hoped that this Report and the Country Reports from this study can serve as important platforms for further action to reduce gender inequality in the world of work in the Caribbean.

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