The Formation and Use of Indirect Command, What Wheelock Calls E
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Conditional If-Clauses in Late Middle English Prose Texts
Kikusawa, Namiko (2011) Conditional if-clauses in Late Middle English prose texts. MPhil(R) thesis. http://theses.gla.ac.uk/2637/ Copyright and moral rights for this thesis are retained by the author A copy can be downloaded for personal non-commercial research or study, without prior permission or charge This thesis cannot be reproduced or quoted extensively from without first obtaining permission in writing from the Author The content must not be changed in any way or sold commercially in any format or medium without the formal permission of the Author When referring to this work, full bibliographic details including the author, title, awarding institution and date of the thesis must be given Glasgow Theses Service http://theses.gla.ac.uk/ [email protected] Conditional if-clauses in Late Middle English prose texts Namiko Kikusawa Submitted in fulfillment of the requirements for the Degree of Master of Philosophy Department of English Language Faculty of Arts University of Glasgow 2011 Abstract In this thesis, I am going to conduct a corpus-based analysis of if-clauses in fifteenth-century texts. The fifteenth century has generally been considered a crucial period for the evolution of this construction: a turning-point where the subjunctive starts to lose ground, being replaced by substitutional expressions such as the indicative and modal auxiliaries. The aim of this thesis is to provide a detailed description of if-clauses in the fifteenth century from both form-based and semantic viewpoints. In the form-based approach, by classifying examples into three categories, subjunctive, indicative and modals, two points will be examined: variation across genres and sociolects. -
The Term Declension, the Three Basic Qualities of Latin Nouns, That
Chapter 2: First Declension Chapter 2 covers the following: the term declension, the three basic qualities of Latin nouns, that is, case, number and gender, basic sentence structure, subject, verb, direct object and so on, the six cases of Latin nouns and the uses of those cases, the formation of the different cases in Latin, and the way adjectives agree with nouns. At the end of this lesson we’ll review the vocabulary you should memorize in this chapter. Declension. As with conjugation, the term declension has two meanings in Latin. It means, first, the process of joining a case ending onto a noun base. Second, it is a term used to refer to one of the five categories of nouns distinguished by the sound ending the noun base: /a/, /ŏ/ or /ŭ/, a consonant or /ĭ/, /ū/, /ē/. First, let’s look at the three basic characteristics of every Latin noun: case, number and gender. All Latin nouns and adjectives have these three grammatical qualities. First, case: how the noun functions in a sentence, that is, is it the subject, the direct object, the object of a preposition or any of many other uses? Second, number: singular or plural. And third, gender: masculine, feminine or neuter. Every noun in Latin will have one case, one number and one gender, and only one of each of these qualities. In other words, a noun in a sentence cannot be both singular and plural, or masculine and feminine. Whenever asked ─ and I will ask ─ you should be able to give the correct answer for all three qualities. -
1 How Verbs and Clauses Work (Updated 9/1/2020) Felicia Jean Steele in Our Introduction, I Wrote About the Nine Parts of Speech
How Verbs and Clauses Work (updated 9/1/2020) Felicia Jean Steele In our introduction, I wrote about the nine parts of speech. Most of them are probably familiar to you from elementary school or from Grammar Rock or Mad Libs: nouns, adjectives, verbs, adverbs, prepositions, and conjunctions. Part of the humor of Mad Libs comes from the fact that not all nouns, adjectives, verbs, adverbs, prepositions, and conjunctions work entirely the same way in all the same environments. In this reading, we will talk explicitly about verbs and about what happens when we put a noun and a verb together—the clause. When we complete a Mad Libs, we happily fill in the blanks with present and past tense verbs without blinking an eye. When the game asks us to provide a past tense verb, we generally fill it in with a simple -ed form of a verb, such as loved, walked, acted. If we're feeling saucy, we'll use one of the “irregular” verbs: swam, wrote, ran. In both cases, we use past tense forms to signify actions or states we have performed or experienced in a time prior to our present moment. In the simplest possible terms, English only changes the form of verbs to indicate a change from present to past time. As a result, linguists say that English has two grammatical tenses: present and past. Tense, or the time of an action or state, isn't the only quality that verbs reflect. Verbs also reflect their mood, voice, and aspect. In some languages, these properties are represented by adding an affix (prefix or suffix) to the actual word. -
Definition of a Sentence a Sentence Is a Group of Words Containing A
Definition of a Sentence A sentence is a group of words containing a subject and predicate. Sometimes, the subject is "understood," as in a command: "[You] go next door and get a cup of sugar." That probably means that the shortest possible complete sentence is something like "Go!" Experienced writers use a variety of sentences to make their writing interesting and lively. Too many simple sentences, for example, will sound choppy and immature while too many long sentences will be difficult to read and hard to understand. This page contains definitions of simple, compound, and complex sentences with many simple examples. The purpose of these examples is to help the ESL/EFL learner to identify sentence basics including identification of sentences in the short quizzes that follow. After that, it will be possible to analyze more complex sentences varieties. SIMPLE SENTENCE A simple sentence, also called an independent clause, contains a subject and a verb, and it expresses a complete thought. In the following simple sentences, subjects are in yellow, and verbs are in green. A. Some students like to study in the mornings. B. Juan and Arturo play football every afternoon. C. Alicia goes to the library and studies every day. The three examples above are all simple sentences. Note that sentence B contains a compound subject, and sentence C contains a compound verb. Simple sentences, therefore, contain a subject and verb and express a complete thought, but they can also contain a compound subjects or verbs. COMPOUND SENTENCE A compound sentence contains two independent clauses joined by a coordinator. -
The Formation of the Fifth Declension; Uses of the Ablative Case; and at the End of the Lesson We'll Review the Vocabulary Which You Should Memorize in This Chapter
Chapter 22: Fifth Declension. Chapter 22 covers the following: the formation of the fifth declension; uses of the ablative case; and at the end of the lesson we'll review the vocabulary which you should memorize in this chapter. There is one important rule to remember in this chapter: fifth declension represents e-stem nouns which are for the most part feminine in gender. Fifth Declension. Hooray, hooray! Latin only has five declensions, so this is the last declension we'll study. Once you've mastered fifth declension, you've learned everything you need to know about Latin nouns in this class. Fifth declension consists of nouns characterized by -ē. This declension is a unique concoction which the Romans brewed up at one point in their history and which did not survive long. As Latin after classical antiquity began evolving into the various Romance languages, this e-stem category of nouns was conflated into other declensions and disappeared as a separate grammatical category. Here are the endings for fifth-declension nouns. Let's recite them together: -es, -ei, -ei, -em, -e; -es, -erum, -ebus, -es, -ebus. Note the dominance of -e- (often -ē-) which is, without doubt, the most significant feature of this declension, though the -ē- produces no mandatory long marks, meaning no forms are distinguished by macrons in this declension. A close look at the endings shows why it was easy for the post-classical Romans to subsume fifth declension into third, for instance. Fifth and third look a lot like each other. In fact, the majority of fifth-declension endings look like a long ē-stem with third-declension endings appended on to it. -
Being a Subjunctive – Lingua Franca Blogs the Chronicle of Higher Education
3/30/2016 Being a Subjunctive – Lingua Franca Blogs The Chronicle of Higher Education Lingua Franca Language and writing in academe. March 29, 2016 by Georey Pullum Comments (7) Being a Subjunctive For grammar bullies “the subjunctive” is sacred ground. Reforms proposed for the British national curriculum in 2012 required teaching use of the subjunctive not later than sixth grade. People seem to think the subjunctive is a fragile flower on which civilization depends; without our intervention it will fade and die, and something beautiful, fragile, and important will be lost. As usual, virtually none of the things people believe about the subjunctive or its status in English are true. Most purists who witter on about it couldn’t actually Teaching them who Buddy pass a test on distinguishing subjunctive from nonsubjunctive clauses to save Holly was would be more their sorry asterisks. valuable than trying to make But then they don’t have to: Merely mentioning the subjunctive approvingly and them shun covertly inflected urging that it be taught is enough to establish one’s credentials as a better class of mandative clauses. person — one who knows about subjunctives. http://chronicle.com/blogs/linguafranca/2016/03/29/beingasubjunctive/ 1/12 3/30/2016 Being a Subjunctive – Lingua Franca Blogs The Chronicle of Higher Education This post is simply an attempt at surveying the facts (imperfectly; but see Rodney Huddleston’s beautiful treatment in The Cambridge Grammar of the English Language, henceforth CGEL, pages 993–1,000). It’s not about verbs. English has an odd fondness for homophony or homography in verb forms: Grammatically distinct forms of verbs often share spellings or pronunciations, so you get fewer distinct shapes than you might have expected in the inflection table; but it’s crystal clear there is no point in having a “subjunctive” box anywhere in that table. -
The English Subjunctive
Jemmin Chang 05/09/15 80-385 Linguistics of Germanic Languages Prof. Werner Come What May: The History and Future of the English Subjunctive Introduction Many native English speakers (myself included), when first studying a Romance language, are quite surprised and confused by the sheer diversity of inflectional endings that Romance verbs display. While the richer morphological distinctions between different gender and number combinations is not entirely unfathomable due to the somewhat similar distinctions in forms of “be”, particularly fascinating or frustrating – the choice of adjective highly variable depending on who you ask – is the additional inflection multiplying factor of grammatical mood. The subjunctive mood, which is of interest for this paper, tends to be particularly difficult for learners to grasp due to its seeming absence from English (as opposed to the imperative mood, which is used, albeit in morphologically less rich forms, similarly in English as to the Romance languages). In fact, in secondary school-type introductory courses, it is often claimed that English simply has no analog to e.g. the Spanish subjuntivo or Italian congiuntivo. While these claims are not true, they reflect the intuition many English speakers have that the subjunctive mood exists in only an impoverished form in present-day English. In this paper, I investigate the historical developments leading to this conception of the English subjunctive mood, examine the modern usage of explicitly marked subjunctive constructions, and make some cautious predictions regarding the future development of the English subjunctive, or lack thereof. I conclude that English has, since its earliest days, been losing the tendency towards and the observable artifacts of subjunctive expression and will likely continue to do so. -
New Latin Grammar
NEW LATIN GRAMMAR BY CHARLES E. BENNETT Goldwin Smith Professor of Latin in Cornell University Quicquid praecipies, esto brevis, ut cito dicta Percipiant animi dociles teneantque fideles: Omne supervacuum pleno de pectore manat. —HORACE, Ars Poetica. COPYRIGHT, 1895; 1908; 1918 BY CHARLES E. BENNETT PREFACE. The present work is a revision of that published in 1908. No radical alterations have been introduced, although a number of minor changes will be noted. I have added an Introduction on the origin and development of the Latin language, which it is hoped will prove interesting and instructive to the more ambitious pupil. At the end of the book will be found an Index to the Sources of the Illustrative Examples cited in the Syntax. C.E.B. ITHACA, NEW YORK, May 4, 1918 PREFACE TO THE SECOND EDITION. The present book is a revision of my Latin Grammar originally published in 1895. Wherever greater accuracy or precision of statement seemed possible, I have endeavored to secure this. The rules for syllable division have been changed and made to conform to the prevailing practice of the Romans themselves. In the Perfect Subjunctive Active, the endings -īs, -īmus, -ītis are now marked long. The theory of vowel length before the suffixes -gnus, -gna, -gnum, and also before j, has been discarded. In the Syntax I have recognized a special category of Ablative of Association, and have abandoned the original doctrine as to the force of tenses in the Prohibitive. Apart from the foregoing, only minor and unessential modifications have been introduced. In its main lines the work remains unchanged. -
(University College London) the Subjunctive Conundrum Plenary II, Thursday, 9:00 – 10:00, Room 1010
CORE Metadata, citation and similar papers at core.ac.uk Provided by University of Huddersfield Repository ABSTRACTS OF TALKS AND WORKSHOP PAPERS Bas Aarts (University College London) The subjunctive conundrum Plenary II, Thursday, 9:00 – 10:00, Room 1010 The view espoused in Palmer (1987: 46) that “the notion of a subjunctive mood is a simple transfer from Latin and has no place in English grammar” is generally accepted in most modern descriptive frameworks. But the consequences of accepting such a view have not been sufficiently appreciated in the literature. In this paper I will discuss a number of approaches to the English subjunctive, and I will argue that none of them deals adequately with the fallout of denying the existence of an inflectional subjunctive in English. I will propose that English subjunctive clauses can be described by making reference to the notion of Subsective Gradience (Aarts 2007), and that the grammar of English should recognise a ‘subjunctive clause type’, along with declaratives, interrogatives, imperatives and exclamatives. Palmer, Frank (1987) The English verb. London: Longman. Elsbieta Adamczyk (University of Poznan) On morphological restructuring in the early English nominal system: the fate of Old English consonantal inflection Wednesday, 12:00 – 12:30, Room 1016 The paper investigates the morphological shape of the early English nominal inflection, focusing on the developments which contributed to its later restructuring. A prominent feature of the early English inflection was an evident tendency, revealed by nouns considered minor (unproductive) to adopt the inflectional endings of the productive types. This marked inclination of some nouns can be particularly well seen in consonantal stems, such as r-stems (deriving from PIE *-es/-os stems). -
Latin-Grammar-And-Syntax.Pdf
Resource Book III GRAMMAR AND SYNTAX KMHS LATIN Chapter 1 THE NOMINATIVE CASE SECTION 1 Subject Nominative The nominative case is used for the subject of a sentence. In the passive voice, the subject receives the action of the The subject is the focus of the sentence. In most sentences, verb. the subject is the person or thing doing the action of the verb. The subject is often, but not always, the first word in the sentence. Example: Pila ā puellīs iaciētur. Examples: The ball will be thrown by the girls. Puellae pilam iaciunt. The girls throw the ball. Not every sentence in Latin will have a stated subject. Since the person and number of the subject can be determined from the ending on the verb, a personal pronoun is not al- Lupus in silvā cēlābat. ways necessary for the subject. The wolf was hiding in the woods. Examples: Raedārius raedam necessaryglegenter agit. Herī sub arbore legēbam. The coachman drives the carriage carelessly. Yesterday I was reading under the tree. 2 Crās ad Forum ambulābimus. Tom or ro w we will walk to the Forum. 3 SECTION 2 Predicate Nominative A predicate nominative is a word in a sentence that is linked to the subject. It can be a noun or an adjective. When it is an adjective, it is often referred to as a predicate adjective. These two words are always joined by a linking verb, most com- monly the verb “to be.” Examples: Puella est Cornelia. The girl is Cornelia. Cornelia est laeta. Cornelia is happy. Cicerō ōrātor praeclārissimus factus est. -
The History of the Present English Subjunctive a Corpus-Based Study of Mood and Modality
THE HISTORY OF THE PRESENT ENGLISH SUBJUNCTIVE A CORPUS-BASED STUDY OF MOOD AND MODALITY LILO MOESSNER e sinne e n th k ag rdo yng l þt þu pa e eal ord dw e L ar th d, ho no ure s d þo e o a u b ðþæt god s n o us o b eft utt arære er be seene be þone ylcan dom me hæb cu ðu þæt se cyngc bit ðe The history of the present English subjunctive The history of the present English subjunctive A corpus-based study of mood and modality Lilo Moessner Edinburgh University Press is one of the leading university presses in the UK. We publish academic books and journals in our selected subject areas across the humanities and social sciences, combining cutting- edge scholarship with high editorial and production values to produce academic works of lasting importance. For more information visit our website: edinburghuniversitypress.com © Lilo Moessner, 2020 Edinburgh University Press Ltd The Tun – Holyrood Road, 12(2f) Jackson’s Entry, Edinburgh EH8 8PJ Typeset in Sabon by Servis Filmsetting Ltd, Stockport, Cheshire, and printed and bound in Great Britain by CPI Group (UK) Ltd, Croydon CR0 4YY A CIP record for this book is available from the British Library ISBN 978 1 4744 3799 8 (hardback) ISBN 978 1 4744 3801 8 (webready PDF) ISBN 978 1 4744 3802 5 (epub) The right of Lilo Moessner to be identified as the author of this work has been asserted in accordance with the Copyright, Designs and Patents Act 1988, and the Copyright and Related Rights Regulations 2003 (SI No. -
A Historical Outline of the Subjunctive Mood in English
A Historical Outline of the Subjunctive Mood in English With Special Reference to the Mandative Subjunctive Aristeidis Skevis Department of Literature, Area Studies and European Languages UNIVERSITY OF OSLO May 2014 1 © Aristeidis Skevis 2014 A Historical Outline of the Subjunctive Mood in English with Special Reference to the Mandative Subjunctive Aristeidis Skevis http://www.duo.uio.no/ Trykk: Reprosentralen, Universitetet i Oslo 2 Acknowledgements I would like to express my thanks and deep gratitude to my supervisor, Gjertrud Flermoen Stenbrenden, for her support and useful advice. Her comments and encouragement have been really invaluable. 3 Table of Contents 1 Introduction ...................................................................................................................... 9 1.1 Material and Method ................................................................................................... 9 1.2 Historical perspectives ............................................................................................... 10 1.3 Approaches to the subjunctive ................................................................................... 10 1.4 A few words on the subjunctive ................................................................................ 15 1.5 Alternatives to the subjunctive .................................................................................. 16 1.5.1 Periphrastic alternatives ..................................................................................... 16 1.5.2 The indicative