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Home , Chaldea, Cradle of civilization

CHAPTER : 2 CradleofCivilization

ii the -Euphratesvalleyofpresent-dayIraqlaythe ancientSumeriancity- state of .Between1924and 1934,an archaeologicalteam led by Leonard IWoolleyconductedexcavationsthatuncoveredtheancientruins.AmongWoolley’s findingswasan incrediblediscovery.In thetombofQueenShub-Ad,theteamdiscov eredtheremainsofmorethan 60femaleskeletons,Clothingremnantsandjewellery indicatedthe likelihoodthat theyhad beenwomenof the court.Nearbywerethe remainsof soldierswiththeir spears,a harpistclutchinghis harp, and oxenstill harnessedto wagons.Thehandsof mostof the skeletonswereraisedtowardstheir mouths.Littleclaycupswerescatteredon the floorof the tomb.Whatcouldhave happenedhere? Thoseobservingthe sceiiespeculatedthat the servantsof the dead queen had followedthe bodyinto the tomb.There,theyhad takenpoisonso that their mistress wouldnot goon totheafterlifealone.

Figure 2-1 Urwasjust oneof the greatcity-statesof upon. Today,westill considerMesopotarniaas a Harp /10111 a part of ancientMesopotamia.LeonardWoolley’s “cradleofcivilization.” Suiiier/an /0)11/) discoverypointstosomeremarkablecharacteristics of the and its people.Duringthe periodof QueenShub-Ad’sreign,Urwasthe seatofa Inag THE LAND BETWEEN nificentcourt nod a highlysophisticatedsociety THE withso]diers,courtservants,musicians,andmany others.The discoveryalso revealsan important AncientMesopotamialayinwhatweknowtodayas aspect of Mesopotarnianculture—a profound ,northeastSyria,andpartofsoutheastTurkey. beliefin an afterlife,and a desireto take some It stretchedfrom the northwest earthlybelongingstotheworldafterdeath. through the valleyof the Tigrisand Foralmost3000years,city-statesandempires rivers.TheancientGreekswerethefirsttocallthe roseand fellin Mesopotainia.Amongtheempires regionMesopotarnia.TheGreekwordmesomeans were Sumer,,,and . middleandpotamos means —thusit was Althoughperiodsof disunityand war mark the “the land betweenthe rivers.”Mesopotamiawas historyofancientMesopotamia,thepeoplesofthe partofan areaknownastheFertileCrescentwhich regionmademanyimportantcontributionsthat stretchedin an arcfromthePersianGulfthrough othercivilizationsintheancientworldwouldbuild northeastSyriato the MediterraneanSeaandwas MESOPOTAMIA: CRADLE OF 31

SaI]dbankshinderedtravel:111(1countiniti cationalongtheriversasel Thesouthhad fewit aturalresou suchas mineralsor forests and,exceptfor clay,fewbuildingmaterials.Abundantlislt and waterfowllivedin the marshesand rivers,however,andthesiltdepositedbythe floodwaterswasextremelyfertile.Asthe peoplelearned to control the flooding, drain the land, and irrigatethe soil, the regionproducedexcellentyields. In the north,rainfallwasmorereli ableandhelpedproducesuperbfarmland. Becausethe banks and riverhedsof the TigrisandEuphratesare mostlyrockinthis area, rather than sand as theyare in the south,theriversrunfasterandrarelyflood. Figure2-2 Marshscenein southernIraq Forestscoveringthe foothillsand inoun— tains in tinsareateemedwithanimallife. thesiteofsomeoftheworld’sfirstperma mud.Thefloodswereunpredictableand Herdsof wildcattle,gazelles,antelopes, nentfarmingvillages. poseda serioushazardto the rivervalley and elephantsroamedthe plains, wild Throughoutits ancienthistory,Mes settlements.Sometimesfloodwatersand boarsrootedthroughthevalleys,andsheep opotamiawashometo differentpeoples andculturalgroups.Itlayatthecrossroads c 1g..’; of three continents:,, and ASIA4 Europe,Semitic,Asian,andIndo-European peoplesallmovedintotheregionatvarious periods.Themountainsto the northand / eastwerenot high enoughto isolatethe Ufl Moun 4, 0 . .hur areaorprotectit frominvadingorinigrat I PERSIA ingpeoples.Nomadslivinginthedesertsto . - thewestalsoattackedtherivervalleysettle PHOEW I loiiBab Kisir • 1 I tgi mentsperiodically. A1et/IcrraneanSea Syrian DaerI Lrch Atfirstglance,thelandandclimateof t’ALESTI Ur ES theregionhardlyseemidealforthedevel opmentofathrivingcivilization.Thesouth ARABIA wasprimarilya flatfloodplain.Summers wereveryhotanddry;droughtscouldkill FertileCrescent cropsandcausefamines.In spring,melt- 0 200km watersfromthe nearbyZagrosMountains I I couldcauseflooding,and suddendown- Figure2-3 poursin wintercouldturn the plainsto Mesopotamia.Theshadedarea is theFertile Crescent 32 MIDDLE-EASTERNCIVILIZATIONS

and goats grazedon [1wfoothillsof [1w ing region,such astin 1mmthe eastand Duringtimesofconflict,the kingofa niountains.Thepeopleof the north were goldaridSilverfromthewest. Sumeriancity—stateactedastheheadofthe alsoclosertotheresourcesofthesurround- army,raisingtroopsandtrainingthem.At first,thesearmieswei’equitesmall,con sistingofthelocalmenwhowerefiteflOLigh REFLECT AND ANALYZE towieldan axeor throwa spear.I.ater,the Surneriansaddedwheeledchariotspulledhy 1. Referringto Figure2.3.describethe locationof Mesopotamiaand donkeysto their forces.(‘l’heSumerians the featuresof itssurroundingarea. werethefIrstpeopletodevelopandusethe 2. In a chart, outlinethe positiveand negativefeatures of the environ— wheel.)11wchariotsheldtwomen,a driver mentin southern Mesopotamia.Wasthe environmentfavourable to anda soldierWho stoodbehind,equipped the developmentof a productiveand securecivilization?Beprepared witha javelintohurlat theenemy. to defendyourfinal position. In about 2800 lICE, Etana of managedto unitethecity—statesofSumer, 3. Wasthe environmentof the north morefavourableto the develop but his successwasshort-lived.Afterhis mentof a productivecivilizationthan the environmentofthe death,thecity-statesviedagainforcontrol, south?Explainyouranswer. leavingthe weakenedSumeriansripefor 4. Supposethe area of Mesopotamiashownon the map in Figure2.3 conquest.Theirwealth also made them wereto expand.In whichdirectiondo ‘ou think ii wouldgrow? attractive to outsiders.The Akkadians, Why?Drawa sketchmap to illustratesour answer. Semiticmountainfolkand desertnomads fromthenorth,succeededin overpowering the Surnerians.Sumer and Akkadwere HISTORICAL OVERVIEW TheSumeriansconsideredEridu,an an then unitedintothe singleempireknown cientreligioussitein Sumer,tobethefirst asthe kingdomofSumer,underSargonof Fourmain peoplesdominatedMesopota cityfoundedbytheirgods.By3500BCE,it Akkad(2340I3CE—2305BCE), niia in turn: the Suinerians,the had a populationof about4000.Overthe Sargonbecameknownas Sargonthe ians,theAssyrians,andtheChaldeans. neXtthousandyears,othercity-statesdevel Great.Hewasa governmentofficialin lUsh oped,and severalgrewto he much larger whenheleda revolttoestablishhimselfas

SUMER than . LJr,for example,reached a king.Asruler,he attackedthe Sumerian

TheSurnerianscamedownto thebanksof’ populationof24000by3000BCE. city-statesto the south, capturingall of the Euphratesand Tigrisriverssometime Forcenturies,the city-statesof Sumer them,includingthe strongest,[Jr.During around 3500BCEfrom the mountainsto maintainedtheirindependence.Onoccasion, his 35-yearreign, lie also invadedboth the northeast.Theirsmall farmingcorn differentcity-statesfoughtforcontrolover EgyptandEthiopia,extendinghisholdings inunitieseventuallygrewintothefirstgreat landor irrigationrights,butthesedisputes from Palestineto the Persian Gulf and citiesof the world.Duringthe first thou didnotdevelopintomajorwarsasweunder buildingthefirsttrueempirein . sandyearsof their history,the Surnerians standtheterm.Theyweremorelikeskir Afterthe deathof Sargon,Sumerfell livedin independentcity-states,ruledby mishesthatoftencontinuedonlyuntilone into declinewithonlya briefresurgence separatekings.Eachcity-state, which citysucceededin imposingitswilloverthe duringthe reignof Naramsin(2291BCE— includedthecityandsurronndingcountry other.Asa resultof’theseshiftsinpower,city- 2255BCE).Onlythecity-stateofErcontin side,had its owngovernment,laws,and statesiii Sumerroseandfell.Forexample,as uedto thrive,enjoyingonelastcenturyof military,andmanageditsownaffairsinde powerdeclinedin Kish,it rosein Erech. prosperity.Duringthe reignof lJr-Namrnu pendentlyfrom other city-statesnearby. Finally,itshiftedto(r,T andthentoLagash. (2112BCE—2094BCE), Sumerianculture - MESOPOTAMIA:CRADLEOFCIVILIZATION 33

Figure2-4 Figure2-5 Figure2-6 Thisbronzemaskmay bea portrait of Inlaidstatuetteofa ram and a plant TheheaddressofQueenShub-ad,from the KingSargon royaltombof Ur reacheditspeak.TheSumeriansdeveloped ture.TheEpicof ,whichtellsof peoplesof Mesopotamia.AlthoughUr the first knownform of writing,called a legendarySumeriankingwhoruledUruk finallyfellcaptivetotheElamitesfromthe , madesignificantadvancesin around 2600BCE,istheoldestknownpiece east in approximately2004 BCE, the scientificknowledge,createdavitalmythol ofliteraturein theworld.Allofthesedevel BabyloniansandtheAssyriansadoptedand ogy,andproducedthe firstwrittenlitera opmentshadamajorinfluenceonthelater spreadmanyaspectsofSumerianculture.

PERSPECTIVES ON THE PAST

Ihc Declinenf Sumet

Whydid the city-slatesof Sumerdecline Twoviewpoints Viewpoint 2 are givenbelow.Doesone seemmore likelyto youthan In an attempt to manage their environment, the the other?Whyor whynot?Is there a definitiveanswer Sumeriansconstructedhundreds of kilometresof canals to the questionof whythe city-statesdeclined? to irrigate their fields. Unfortunately, these canals carried not only fertile silt to the fields, hut also harm Viewpoint 1 ful salts that killed the plaits. Eventually, the fields Followingthe death of Sargon, wavesof invaders fought for became so salty that nothing at all could be grown. the best settled lands and the empire began to fall apart. Without an adequate food supply, the city-states of Eventhough Sargon’sgrandson restored the empire to Sumer went into decline. greatness for a short time, by about 2159 BCESumer had crumbled. It was unable to withstand the invasions. 36 MIDDLE-EASTERN

BABYL()NIA potania and tiresurroundinglands.With soldiers.charioteers,ca’alrv.and archers. ThedeclineofSurnerledtoa shiftinpower economicinfluence,the Assyriansguinetl Mercenaries,or hiredforeignsoldiers,were northward,firstto Babyloniaand then to political influenceas .I.ong under’the addedto local armies,and officerswere Assyria.TheBabylonianpenodbeganwhen control of BabyIon, the Assvrians had trainedin combatstrategies.‘FlieA.ssyrians

Semiticnomadsfrom the west,the Am- absorbed Babyloiiian culture, just as tlic hadalsolearnedthe secretof makingiron orites,establishedtheirkingdomat thecity Babylonians had absorbed Sumerian fromtheItittites,aridtheyusedthatkmrowl— of Babylon.Thecityreachedthe heightof culture.Through a longsuccessionofwars edgeto makearrowsaridlancesofsuperior its power(luringthe tune of the FirstDy and conquests,tileAssyrianscaine to dorm- quality, nasty (rulingfamily),whichlastedahont nateall of Mesopotarnia. ‘l’heAssyrian kirig ‘l’iglath—pileser Ill 300years.Themostsignificantrulerof’the ‘11wAssyrialiswereamongthe fiercest (745 IiCE—727BCE) began the periodof FirstDynastywasKingflainniurabi(1792 and most warlike people in the region, expansionby taking Damascusin Syria. BCE—1750BCE),who createdone of the known for committing wartime atrocities Afterhisdeath,a powerstruggleforsucces world’sfirstwrittencodesof law.ByCon againstunarmedciviliansand treatingcon— ion continueduntil Sargon11(722BCE.— queringall of Sumer,Akkadto the north, clueredarmieswithcruelty.Their enemies 705BCE)seizedthethrone.Sargon11made andlandstotileeastandwest,Hammurahi wereshownno mercy,asthe Assyriansoften IsraelanAssyrlainprovinceandbroughtthe isalsocreditedwithestablishingtheempire tortured and killed their captives.Between into his empire. His son Senni of Babylonia.‘I’heBabyloniansweregreat 1100 BCEand 600 BCE,Assyrian power acherib (705 BCE—681BCE)conquered traders; their ships reached the distant spreadthroughoutwesternAsia,as a num in , and then shoresof TndiaandAfrica,aridtheircara berofwarrioi’kingssetouton a terrorizing (6s1 act.—668BCE)conquered .But vans travelledfar into Persia and Asia path of conquest.Their effortsextended the greatestAssyrianempirebuilderofthem Minor,Thegoodsand ideasexchangedon AssyrianinfluencewesttotheMediterranean all was (668 BCE—626BCE). these expeditions enriched both tile Seaand Egypt,southinto Babylon,north tie succeededin ruling more of the known Babylonians’culture and the culturesof intoSyria,andeasttowardsPersia. worldthan anyotherrulerbeforehim. Even thosetheymet. Severalfactors contributed to this uiore important, lie managed to hold the WhenHammurahidied,he wassuc militarysuccess.Assyriankingsviewedpro empireintact throughouthis entire reign. ceededbya numberofweakkingswhohad fessionalarmiesas essentialto conquest, Ashurbanipal treated all conquered difficultyholding the empire together. and so theycreatedlarge,skilledarmies peoples, both civilian and military, with Waveafterwaveof Indo-Europeantribes that werewellorganizedintounitsof foot great cruelty.Heplundered his conquered invadedfromthenorthernmountains.The Hittitesinvadedfrom (Turkey) around 1595BCE.Approximately40 years later,the KassitesinvadedBahyloniafrom the east, and establishedcontroloverthe . In about 1300 BCE, they were displacedbytilepowerfulAssyrians.

ASSYRIA

‘L’heAssyrianstooktheir name fromtheir chiefcityofAshur,locatedon tilebanksof the TigrisRiverin northernMesopotamia. Ashurwasan importanttradingcentreon theeast-westcaravanroutesbetweenMeso Figure2-7 l’i Ashurban,balstabbing a lion MESOPOTAMIA: CRADLE OF CIVILIZATION 37

Figure2-8 flowthe royalpalace at iVinevehmay have looked territories continuously to addto the rich Yet,withall hismilitarismandplun interestin scienceand mathematics, nessofhis owncitiesalongthe Tigris.His der,Ashurbanipalshoweda keeninterestin Atthepeakofitspower,thesprawling splendidpalaceat Ninevehwasdecorated both scienceand mathematics.lie con Assyrianempirespilledoverthe boundsof with gold and ivoryfrom Egypt,silver structeda gardenand zoo at his palace, Mesopotamia,anda singlerulerhad great lootedfromSyria,lapislazuli(a deepblue stockedfromall partsof his empire,and difficultyholdingit together.Asa result, stone) from Persia, and the finest of established a library containing over the Assyriansbeganto experienceserious Phoeniciancedarwood. 22000claytabletsthat showedhis special attackson theirborders.Atthesametime, theirconqueredprovinceof Bahylonia,in southernMesopotamia,struggledto gain itsindependence. Shortly after the death of Ashur hanipal,the Babyloniansand the foreign Medesunited to overthrowAssyria.The capital, ,was captured and de stroyedin 612BCE. TheAssyriansthem selves,onceso powerful,werekilledor assimilated,andtheirempiredisappeared.

CHALDEA I’Jterthe collapseof theAssyrianempire, Babylononceagainbecamean important centreill Mesopotamia.Thecityhad been prominentin thetimeofHammurabiand Figure2-9 Theempireof KingAshurbanipal(circa 646 BC]) hadprosperedonceagainin the200years 38 MIDDLE-EASTERNCIVILIZATIONS

oners. lieohi stoppedhisColiqUesiot Iypt whenlieheardol Iiis father’sdeathandus own successiontothethrone. Manyhistori ans, howevet’.note that Nehuchadiiczzar foughtfewerhattlesthantheA.ssvi-iankings and slion!d he ic inemhered as a great builderratlicr tiian asa warrior. Likeinaii’ empiresof Mesopntamia.

the Chaldeanempire tellto invadei’s. H 549ma, the Clialdeanswerechalnged by a new alllance of the Medesand the Persian king Cyrus(550 BCE—529BCF Babylonwithstooda siegeforseveralyears, hut ultimatelythe Chaldeanswere no match for Cyrusof Persia.Accordingto legend,onenightliehad his army (hg a ditcharound Babylonto divert the Eu phrates Rivei’from its normal course. ‘I’he

invadersthenmarchedintothe city 01)the oldriverbed,and proceededto killlid shazzar,theChaldeauking,andhisl)altce guards.Thecityitselfwas spared, hut the Persiansbecamethenewru]ers of a grow inginternationalworld. Figure 2-10 AncientMesopotarnia:Sume7; Babylonia, Assyria, ha1dea REFLECT ANDANALYZE

1. Outlineat leasttwomajor achievementsofeachofthe follow!ii g before the collapseof Assyria,hut its glory peoplesin Mesopotamia:the Sumerians,Babylonians,Assyrians,and was greatest during the 70 yearsafterthe Chaldeans.Explainwhytheseachievementswereimportant. destructionofNinevch.Duringthisperiod, 2. a) Whatfactors contributedto the military strengthofthe Assvrians? it was ruled by the Chaldeans,a Semitic do peoplewhohadsettledin thefertileareaof h) Wh didthe Assyrianempirecollapse?Whichreason you southernBahyloruanear the PersianGulf considerthe most significant?Explain.

about 1000BCE. 3. a) SuggestwhyMesopotamiawasinvadedby so many different The king Nebuchadnezzar Chaldean groupsthrongh0th t its 11istorv. (-04in:F—562oca)transformedBabylon b) Howdoyou thinktheseinvasionsaffectedthe developmentof into one of the mostbeautifulcitiesof the Mesopotamiancivilization?Outlinebothpositiveand negativeeffects. world. Nebuchadnezzar,as noted in the ,wasa warriorking.lie conquered 4. Referto the boxon the nextpage.Writea shortfictionalaccount of Ji dali, capturedand destroyedJerusalem, a tradeis visitto the HangingGardens of Bahv!on. andtooknianyJewsbacktoBabylonaspris \Vhvar

one The economy the

of mous that famous and glazed by goddess Magnificent , grounds, love Nebuchadnezzar

plain. longing hewn ing other. dccl) hot workers reservoir flowers, terraces isitors from Beautifully served on scent

The

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palace

divans

with

of

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for

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Asia defensie

stones

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brick

to

of

for

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observed

moat of

a

vines, Bah

the

laid and the of

were at

marked king

them

to the seven her

and and

series Minor.

fertility.

fed The

decorated

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the

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of terrace

to

protect

h

deep housed lou

gates,

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concern.

gardens the sipping

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king by

the top

wonders

built

of

could

of

Media. and and

the

the

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layers

flowering

vaulted

wife, abundant Nebuchadnezzar

of

the

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ordered the Gardens

the

colours. around

finest

covered

gold halls the great entrance

the

the

his

reveal

drive Chaldeans?

Nebuchadnezzar

mountains lshtar

of

cit’,.

in

Ilanging Amyns treasures Ptlllll)S

Amyns,

of

of

guests gardens

finest structure. workers

the

from from

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arched

fabrics

rich

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supported ‘l’lw along the

the

trees of

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about

lshtar

with

city. (late, midst

to

was ancient

Babylon that

Egypt.

wines the

took

soil

granddaughter

building

construction

walls

Gardens.

the

because

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and

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reliefs constructed

and

the

was mountains troubled

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was raised On

one for

of

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cit. in

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of

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were While

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each the

ordered the decorated

considered

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Palestine, profusion

and,

homeland.

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side of

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palace

beauty

gardens.

so

great griffins showplace

reclining

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his terrace,

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the broad by the a

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silver

great deep

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Figure

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2-11 N of 2-12

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MESOPOTAMIA:

of

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of

Babylon Palace a—I’

CRADLE Hanging Temple

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OF

CIVILIZATION

)\V’

39 40 MIDDLE-EASTERN CIVILIZATIONS

GOVERNMENT providet’orthe defenceof the city-state.In totheNileUiver.their far—reachingauthor addition,he and his governmentotficials itywasalmosta necessit. ‘l’heyacted as

In the early historyof Suiner’scity-states, supervisedthe developinent and inaimite—first judge in the land. supervisorof all freecitizenselectedan assemblytorunthe nanceof the irrigalionworks,whichwere canalconstructioninAssyria.andprotector government.TheassemblyconsistedofIwo essentialto the economicsurvivalof the ot all larmersand shepherdswiliiin their houses: mi upperhouse, which contamed city-state. territory.In timesof waror conquest,they the wealthiestcitizens,and a lowerhouse, ‘IlieSumeriankingskepta tight rein werepresentforall militarycampaignsand winchcontained soldiers. ‘Ihese elected on their people.Whatthe Ingal said was tookpersonalchargeoftheoperation members chose the judges, will)were re law,antithecommonpeoplewereexpected TheSumeriansand Assyriansalsoap sponsible for enforcing the laws, and to complywith his wishes. Sonic kings proached governing their expandingem selectedthe militaryleadersneededin time developedcodesof lawto guarantee that pires soniewhat differently. When one ofwar. citizensmaintainedpeaceanti order.Ur Sumeriancity-statewasconqueredby an When wars between the city-states Namniuin Pr,forexample,estahhshedone other,it wasforcedto accepttheconqueror became more frequent and the threat of ofthemostimportantlegalcodesin Snnier. as rulec In mostcases,the kirigappointed foreign invasion became a concern, the The earliest kings in Surner were a governor,orensi, to lookafterthesmaller city-statesrecognizedthe need for strong elected,hut later,whenthepeoplebeganto townswhileliefocusedon the needsofthe leaders. The assemblythen created the consider the lugals as gods, the crown maincentre. additionalroleofking. passedfrom father to son. This develop- The Assyriansdeviseda similar sys Thekingsin the Sumeriancity-states meritmarkedthebeginningofdynastiesor tern,hut on a granderscalebecausethey werecalledlugals. Mostconsideredthem hereditarymonarchiesin Mesopotamia. hadtocontrola muchlargerterritory.They selves to he living representativesof a Likethe Sumerians,theAssyrianssaw dividedtheir empire into provincesand particulargod,sentbythat godas a stew the importanceof stronggovernment,hut appointed officials to govern each one. ard or servant.Thus,the systemof govern theytooka differentapproach.In Assyria, Thesegovernorswereresponsiblefor col mentin Mesopotamiawasa . religiousleadershad lesspolitical power lectingtaxes,raisingtroopsfor the army, Thelugal’smajorresponsibilitywasto than they had in Sumer.Assyriankings aridenl’orcingthe king’slaws. derivedtheirauthorityfromthe godAshur, TheAssyriansfacedfrequentrebellion and acted as his representative,but there from their subjectpeoples.Onewaythey wasa clearseparationbetweengovernment dealt with such rebellionwasby resettle (state)and religion.Temples,palaces,arid mnent:populationswereforcedfromtheir monumentsin Assyriawerebuiltfortheuse lands anti replacedby settlersfrom other oftheking,riotforthehonourofa particu partsof the empire.Thispolicykeptcon lar god. Yetthe Assyrianking was still qnei’ednationalities weak. and led to a boundby religiouscustoms.Forfivedays mixingofpeoples. eachmonth,for example,he wasrequired to fast and perform certainreligiouscere— ninnies. On the firstdayof each newyear, LAWANDJUSTICE lie had to go withnLitfood and wateruntil

thenewnioourosein theevening. Oneui the MesopotamIans’ most signili— The A.ssyriankings wereamong the cant contributionsto the advanceof civi most powerful leaders in all of Mes lization wasin the fieldof law.Boththe

Figure 2-1,3 opotamia.Sincetheyeventuallyruled an Sumeriansand the Babyloniansdeveloped LugalGudeaofLagash empirethat stretchedfromthePersianGulf law codes. Basically,the codes were an MESOPOTAMIA: CRADLE OF CIVILIZATION 41

Figure2—14 broken the bone of a commoner, he shall pay one mina TheStelaof of silver. If a noble has destroyedthe eyeof a noble’sslaveor the bone of a noble’sslave,he shall payone half Ilammurahi‘S broken lawcode was the slave’svalue. inscribed on an If a noble has committed robbery and has been caught, uprightstone, 01’ that noble shall be put to death. stela, that origi is not caught, the man who has been nallystood in If a robber make claim to the cityand the governor Babylon’stemple robbed should the crime was commit of ,the in whose territory and district good to him his lost property. chiefgod. In ted, and they shall make 1901,the French If a noble has accused another noble and brought a archaeologist charge of murder against him, but has not proved it, Jean-Vincent the accuser shall be put to death. Scheildiscov If a noble has come forward with false testimony ered the stela at concerning grain or money.he shall bear the penalty of the site of that case. ancientSusa.It is now locatedin If a man has givenhis boat to a boatman on hire, and the 1ouvrein if the boatman has been careless, has grounded the

— Paris. boat or destroyed it. the boatman shall givea boat to Atthe top of the stone, we see Kingilammurabi the owner in compeilsation. receivingthe symbolsof authority,a rot! and ring, from If a builder has built a house for someone and has not the god Marduk. Belowthis l)ortraYal,cuneiform writ made his work strong, with the result that the house he ing outlines the code. The followingare some of has built has collapsed and has killed the owner of the llammurabi’s 282 laws. house, that builder shall he put to death.

Do you consider Ilammurahi’slaws fair and just or If the collapse of the constructed house has caused the harsh and unjust? What are the main differences death of a son of the owner of the house, they shall put betweenthis code of laws and our own today? the son of that builder to death.

If a l)hysicianhas performed a major operation on a If a noble has stolen the young SOil of another noble, noble witha lancet and has caused the noble’s he shall be put to death. death, or he has opened up the eye-socketof a noble and If a noble destroys the eye of another noble. they shall has destroyedthe noble’seve,theyshall cut offhis hand. destroy his eye. If a son has struck his father, they shall cut off his If a noble has destroyed the eye of a commoner or hand 42 MIDDLE-EASTERN CIVILIZATIONS

atteiiipt to collect,organize, nid rccoi’dall IllillOl’ crime and a Inalor crnc and it theideathatthepummislmimmemitslionld tmttIme eNistilig lawsso that therewould he one establishedsoiiwiiliporrimntlegalp’immcipks. crimne.The basic principle behindthecode commoncodebr all citizensof tImeempire. It asserted that tile state is the authority was “an eye br u i eye and a tooti tom’a ‘theruler ol’lJr,IIr—Naniniudeveloped responsible for enforcingthe law,and it tooth.’’Forexaniple,it a houseinliabylonia an earlycodebasedon Sumeriantraditioim mmmlmrmued iliat social justice should be coIlapsedandkilledthe owneithebuilderof

It gave legal protection to pemsam1t501(1 guaranteedtm)LIIcitizemis.It also pm’omoted thehousewouldbeputto death. commoners as wellas to nobles, hut the laws wereapp led diffecliiiv to dibiereIII classes of people.Noblesfound guilty of REFLECTANDANALYZE committing a clinic were treated moi’e 1. Howdid government evolve in ancient Sumeria? harshlysince better behaviour was expected 2. Compam’e the pOWel’ol a Sumerian king with that of an Assvrian from them than from a commoner. Pen alties usually took the form (If fines or king. Discussthe advantagesand dmsadvantagesof each systern physical punislinient. 3. a) Whydoesa societyneed laws?Whatare the advantagesof a writ Mesopotarni’s most important legal ten codeof laws?Onwhat do webaseour laws? howevem;is codeestablished legacy, thelaw b) In groups,developand recorda codeof ten basic lawsbum’your by Hammurabi, king of Hahylonia. class. Decidefirst on the principlesthat will inform your lawsand differentlaws, Hammurahi’scodelisted282 the major issuesthe lawsshould deal with. Recordand presentyour organizedunderheadingssuch as trade, lawsin an appropriateand creativeformat. family,labour,real estate,and personal property.Thecodedistinguishedbetweena