By JAY Mccoy Integrated Studies Project Submitted to PROF. TOM

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INTRODUCTION TO WARRIOR STUDIES; COURSE DEVELOPMENT

JAY McCOY

Integrated Studies Project

submitted to PROF. TOM GROULX in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of

Master of Arts – Integrated Studies

Athabasca, Alberta

January 15th, 2009

Course Outline

Course Title: Introduction to Warrior Studies

Course Code: Released:

Course Duration: 14 weeks Course Credits: 3

Lecture time: 3 hours/week Category: Humanities

PreRequisite(s): None

Subject Area: Cultural Studies, History, Global Studies, Philosophy

Department: Faculty of Arts

Chair: Academic Level: First Year

Course Developed By: Jay McCoy, B.A. B.Ed. Date: Fall, 2008

Course Last Revised By: N/A Date:

Course Description: An interdisciplinary study of the warrior caste and/or sub-culture within world cultures, introducing concepts of warriorship and honour through the examination of warrior codes, rituals, philosophies, spiritualities, stratagems, and tactics throughout history. This course will also examine warrior concepts as they apply to various facets of contemporary life. This will be accomplished through an examination of literature, historical texts and artistic presentations.

Course Outcomes: Upon successful completion of this course, the student will be able to: 1. Recall the definitions of warrior and honour. 2. List historical examples of true warrior-ship and false warrior-ship. 3. Express an understanding of the terms courage, justice and obligation. 4. Identify and evaluate examples of honour and dishonour in literature and contemporary media. 5. Identify and evaluate examples of honour and dishonour in politics, commerce, social issues and/or local or global issues. 6. Be able to argue your stance on the aforementioned identifications. 7. Compare and contrast various concepts of warrior-ship and honour between different cultures. 8. Compose as strategy for victory or betterment in any aspect of your life. 9. Confidently discuss various aspects of warriorship and honour. 10. Apply warrior qualities and insight to their own life through a greater understanding of the history.

As its title suggests this manual is designed to offer the teacher of the undergraduate level university course, Introduction to Warrior Studies full preparation and instruction on how the course may be taught. It can be used in its exact entirety as a fully comprehensive step-by-step manual or as a suggested basic outline. The teacher’s manual is designed, of course, to coincide with the students’ guide. All black print represents recommendations for discussions and for delivery of the course material. Blue print shows the exact written material within the students’ handbook.

The evaluative methods of the course involve two tests, an 1200-1500 word essay, and a group presentation. Both the essay and the presentation can be on any aspect of Warrior Studies. This is a wide range of opportunity. Examples of possible topics include: an examination of the life of Genghis Khan; the effectiveness and ineffectiveness of the strategies and tactics of Hannibal Barca; contrasting and comparing the warrior culture of the Iroquois and the Apache;

Beowulf as a guide to success in professional sports; Joan of Arc and Norma Rae

- the spirit of the woman warrior in the workplace; or a contrast and comparison of two characters from a source of pop culture demonstrating why one is to be considered a true warrior and the other is inaccurately depicted as such.

Teaching supplements (hand-outs, video disc, tests) are included in the appendix.

Introduction of the course and its themes; codes of honour.

Following roll call and determining how each student prefers to be addressed, the instructor should make an effort to understand the students. Rather than starting with the course outline, glossary of definitions and expectations of the course, the instructor should try to illicit discussion regarding the general topics of the course and take an opportunity to get know the students and allow them to express themselves.

What are you hoping to get out of this course? What inspired you to take it?

What does the term „warrior‟ mean? or What does it mean to be a warrior? Examples?

Give the definition as established for this course by the course designer (me):

Warrior:

One who: A) Understands honour, values honour, and possesses honour B) Recognizes that her/his abilities carry a responsibility and has the courage to act on that responsibility and C) Trains diligently in the arts and sciences of survival and defence. (This last aspect should be noted, as it separates warriors from non-warriors, who have warrior spirit. For example, Terry Fox was not a warrior, but it could be said that he possessed a warrior spirit.)

Note that the definition of warrior hinges on comprehension of the term ―honour‖. Ask for the students‘ definitions of honour; or, if that proves to be difficult, ask for aspects of honour.

Courage, honesty, loyalty, patriotism, chivalry (gentlemanly behaviour), altruism are some of the qualities likely to be mentioned. List them on the board and after you have compiled a list, address each attribute individually - advocating and arguing for each. For example; Should honesty be on this list? Aren‟t there times when being honest is shameful? Two examples: you significant other (romantic partner) spends hours cooking a special birthday meal for you -it‟s awful. what should you say?

More extreme: your mother runs into the house in a panic, shouting that there are men trying to kill her. She runs and hides in the closet. A moment later three men with guns show up and ask you if you have seen a woman fitting your mother‟s description anywhere in the area. Do you respond HONESTLY?

Following this discussion give the definition of honour established for this course, expressed by author Major Forrest E. Morgan:

Honour:

Honour is composed of three tenets; justice, obligation and courage. -Justice is simply, knowing the difference between right and wrong and doing what’s right. -Obligation is the requirement that you repay every kindness and assistance that you have accepted from others. -Courage is the willingness to act justly and fulfill your duties, despite fear of personal loss or harm. 1

Next discussion:

Is there anyone you would deem a warrior? How has that person influenced you? and

Why is a course such as this one beneficial or even necessary?

Following this discussion, offer the students Sun-Tzu`s explanation regarding the study of war:

The art of war is of vital importance to the state. It is a matter of life and death; a road to either safety or to ruin. Hence, under no circumstances can it be neglected. Sun Tzu, The Art of War 2

What did he mean? Does it apply in any way to this course?

iii 6

Table of Contents:

Unit 1: Codes of Honour

Unit 2: African and Middle Eastern Concepts of Warriorship

Unit 3: Asian Concepts of Warriorship

Unit 4: European Concepts of Warriorship

Unit 5: North and South American Concepts of Warriorship

Unit 6: Oceanic Concepts of Warriorship

Unit 7: Women Warriors

Unit 8: The Metaphysics

Unit 9: Warriorship in Contemporary Vocations

Unit 10: Warriorship in Contemporary Media and Pop Culture

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Unit 1:

Codes of Honour

Unit 1: Codes of Honour:

Explain to the students: A warrior class exists in almost every culture all over the world. It is rare to find such a caste without a governing code of honour imbedded in its lifestyle. Although some of the warrior castes within earth‘s history have developed amongst spiritual people in sacred places it should not be assumed that these codes are merely an extension of religious beliefs.

Have volunteers (or choose students to) read aloud this opening section on codes of honour:

Warrior codes of honour are a pragmatic development of warrior culture. Warriorship has been an integral part of history. The history of our world is filled with life revolving around struggle. The development of codes of conduct, which help define warriors, was a pragmatic evolution. As dangerous as the world is, a world void of the codes of honour would be far grimmer.

Regarding Sub Tzu‘s The Art of War, historical literature author, James Clavell, wrote:

I truly believe that if our military and political leaders in recent times had studied this work of genius, Vietnam could not have happened…the Bay of Pigs could not have occurred; the British empire could not have been dismembered; and in all probability, World War I and II would have been avoided—certainly they would not have been waged as they were waged, and the millions of youths obliterated unnecessarily and stupidly by monsters calling themselves generals would have lived out their lives.3

Clavell‘s words, as well as, my own, may seem an exaggeration, but consider that the misuse of power from those who possess ability without possessing a deep moral code is often as evident in world history as it is watching a bully on a playground. The largest crimes against humanity took place during World War II. Therein, was an obvious absence of virtue on the part of Nazis. No true warriors would see fit to the execution of one harmless civilian, let alone, the attempted extermination of a race of people beginning with their women, elderly and children. This is in contrast to a portion of German history, which finds its origins in Prussia, championed by the valiant warrior, Fredrick the Great. Some historians portray Fredrick as an amoral leader. Perhaps, a true historian with experience that humbles mine could explain that; but until then, it seems an unfit description of a ruler, who was a motivator of his people and an effective administrator, who has been given credit for extending the Academy of Science and for promoting elementary education. He, also, revamped the judicial system of his realm. Greater proof of Fredrick‘s benevolence is documented in

his letters written during his time in Potsdam. One letters tells of a woman who lost her husband during one of Fredrick‘s campaigns, and after Fredrick expresses his sorrow, he agrees to compensate her and her family by continuing to send the soldier‘s salary despite his demise. Another letter declares a veto to a double execution for two young men who have wronged their nation. 4These acts carry with them honour.

The Japanese military, despite implications that it had adopted its philosophies from the Samurai, also committed crimes that belied that noble heritage. Guilty of the torturing of defeated enemies, such as the p.o.w.s and guilty of rape of the women in occupied areas of Korea, these soldiers did not live years of their lives in pursuit of the way of the warrior, thus they did not follow the Samurai‘s code of bushido.

For Bushido, the three qualities of loyalty, right conduct and bravery are essential. We speak of the loyal warrior, the righteous warrior, and the valiant warrior, and it is he who is endowed with all three of these virtues who is the warrior of the highest class. Daidoji, Budo Soshishu (17th century) 5

Bushido, * their rigid code of ethics, taught them that benevolence and self control were virtuous elements of honor. Indeed, it was the samurai warrior‟s sense of restraint and honor that protected the commoners of feudal Japan. Major Forrest E. Morgan, USAF Living the Martial Way 6

Throughout this course we will be examining the warrior class as it existed, and in some ways still exists, as a caste or subculture within cultures from various regions around the world. As well as culturally, warriorship can be examined historically, sociologically, psychologically, philosophically, and practically. As an introductory course, we can only touch on each of these perspectives. An in depth look into any of these avenues of study will require enrolment into those courses in the Warrior Studies program that are specific to the area of interest. Of course, independent research is also recommended.

One such example of the limitations of an introductory course is the lack of depth in the historical evolution of the warrior philosophies. Case in point, when examining the codes of honour within a country or region, this course gives a general overview of those ideas; more accurately, concepts evolved (or were reduced) over centuries, adapting to the social climates of each era. In particular, what were codes of honour among the warrior class often became established chivalrous or gentlemanly behaviour among non-warrior citizens as they sought to acquire the noble attributes of the warriors they admired. Throughout the centuries; however, true honour stayed fundamentally the same.

Give each student a piece of paper and ask them to write down one thing that they hope to learn about in this course: a person, a people, an event, an idea. Examining their responses may encourage the instructor to incorporate one or more of their common interests into the curriculum.

The students should be made aware of that while it is easy to be swept up in the romantic ideas perpetuated by literature and cinema, those belonging to the class of warrior under any terms, may not have been ideal models of their positions. Consider that despite very codified terms regarding honour as those which existed in medieval Europe, for example, many knights were corrupt. Nevertheless, when examining concepts of warriorship, it is fair to begin with the ideal held in place by society.

Inform the students that on their own time, they are expected to read the remainder of unit one, Sharon French‘s essay: Why Do Warriors need a Code? and the Introduction to Living the Martial Way, by Major Forrest E. Morgan before the next lesson.

Hand out the course outline and agenda. Explain in detail the expectations of the course including the assignments and their due dates.

Why Do Warriors Need a Code?

by Dr. Shannon E. French

Part 1: Defining the Warrior‘s Code

Warrior cultures throughout history and from diverse regions around the globe have constructed codes of behaviour, based on that culture‘s image of the ideal warrior. These codes have not always been written down or literally codified into a set of explicit rules. A code can be hidden in the lines of epic poems or implied by the descriptions of mythic heroes. One way or another, it is carefully conveyed to each succeeding generation of warriors. These codes tend to be quite demanding. They are often closely linked to a culture‘s religious beliefs and can be connected to elaborate (and frequently death defying or excruciatingly painful) rituals and rites of passage.

In many cases this code of honor seems to hold the warrior to a higher ethical standard than that required for an ordinary citizen within the general population of the society the warrior serves. The code is not imposed from the outside. The warriors themselves police strict adherence to these standards; with violators being shamed, ostracized, or even killed by their peers. One historical example comes from the Roman legions, where if a man fell asleep while he was supposed to be on watch in time of war he could expect to be stoned to death by the members of his own cohort.

The code of the warrior not only defines how he should interact with his own warrior comrades, but also how he should treat other members of his society, his enemies, and the people he conquers. The code restrains the warrior. It sets boundaries on his behavior. It distinguishes honorable acts from shameful acts. The Homeric hero Achilles must seek vengeance for the death of his friend Patroclus, yet when his rage drives him to desecrate the corpse of his arch nemesis, Hector, he angers the gods. Under the codes of chivalry, a medieval knight has to offer mercy to any knight who yields to him in battle. In feudal Japan, samurai are not permitted to approach their opponents using stealth, but rather are required to declare themselves openly before engaging combat. Muslim warriors engaged in offensive jihad cannot employ certain weapons unless and until their enemies use them first.

But why do warriors need a code that ties their hands and limits their options? Why should a warrior culture want to restrict the actions of its members and require them to commit to lofty ideals? Might not such restraints cripple their effectiveness as warriors? What‘s wrong with, ―All‘s fair in love and war?‖ Isn‘t winning all that matters? Why should any warrior want to be burdened with concerns about honor and shame?

One reason for such warriors‘ codes may be to protect the warriors themselves from serious psychological damage. To say the least, the things that warriors are asked to do to guarantee their cultures‘ survivals are far from pleasant. There is truth in the inescapable slogan, ―War is hell.‖ Even those few who seem to feel no revulsion at

spilling another human being‘s guts on the ground, severing a limb, slicing off a head, or burning away a face are likely to be affected by the sight of their friends or kinsmen suffering the same fate. The combination of the warriors‘ own natural disgust at what they must witness in battle and the fact that what they must do to endure and conquer can seem so uncivilized, so against what they have been taught by their society, creates the conditions for even the most accomplished warriors to feel tremendous self-loathing.

In his powerful work, On Killing: The Psychological Cost of Learning to Kill in War and Society, Lt. Col. Dave Grossman illuminates the process by which those in war and those training for war attempt to achieve emotional distance from their enemies. The practice of dehumanizing the enemy through the use of abusive or euphemistic language is a common and effective tool for increasing aggression and breaking down inhibitions against killing. Grossman notes:

It is so much easier to kill someone if they look distinctly different than you. If your propaganda machine can convince your soldiers that their opponents are not really human but are “inferior forms of life,” then their natural resistance to killing their own species will be reduced. Often the enemy‟s humanity is denied by referring to him as a “gook,” “Kraut,” or “Nip.”(1)

Grossman has interviewed many U.S. veterans of the Vietnam War. Grossman found that some of the men he interviewed had never truly achieved emotional distance from their former foes, and seemed to be the better for it. These men expressed admiration for Vietnamese culture. Some had even married Vietnamese women. They appeared to be leading happy and productive post-war lives. In contrast, those who persisted in viewing the Vietnamese as ―less than animals‖ were unable to leave the war behind them.

Grossman writes about the dangers of dehumanizing the enemy in terms of potential damage to the war effort, long-term political fallout, and regional or global instability:

Because of [our] ability to accept other cultures, Americans probably committed fewer atrocities than most other nations would have under the circumstances associated with guerrilla warfare in Vietnam. Certainly fewer than was the track record of most colonial powers. Yet still we had our My Lai, and our efforts in that war were profoundly, perhaps fatally, undermined by that single incident. It can be easy to unleash this genie of racial and ethnic hatred in order to facilitate killing in time of war. It can be more difficult to keep the cork in the bottle and completely restrain it. Once it is out, and the war is over, the genie is not easily put back in the bottle. Such hatred lingers over the decades, even centuries, as can be seen today in Lebanon and what was once Yugoslavia.(2)

The insidious harm brought to the individual warriors who find themselves swept up by such devastating propaganda matters a great deal to those concerned with the warriors‘ own welfare. In a segment on the ―Clinical Importance of Honoring or Dishonoring the Enemy,‖ psychologist Jonathan Shay describes an intimate

connection between the psychological health of the veteran and the respect he feels for those he fought. He stresses how important it is to the warrior to have the conviction that he participated in an honorable endeavor:

Restoring honor to the enemy is an essential step in recovery from combat PTSD. While other things are obviously needed as well, the veteran‟s self-respect never fully recovers so long as he is unable to see the enemy as worthy. In the words of one of our patients, a war against subhuman vermin “has no honor.” This is true even in victory; in defeat, the dishonoring absence of human themis [shared values, a common sense of “what‟s right”] linking enemy to enemy makes life unendurable(3).

Jonathan Shay, psychologist and author of Achilles in Vietnam: Combat Trauma and the Undoing of Character, finds echoes of these sentiments in the words of J. Glenn Gray from Gray‘s modern classic on the experience of war, The Warriors: Reflections on Men in Battle(4). With the struggle of the Allies against the Japanese in the Pacific Theater of World War II as his backdrop, Gray brings home the agony of the warrior who has become incapable of honoring his enemies and thus is unable to find redemption himself:

The ugliness of a war against an enemy conceived to be subhuman can hardly be exaggerated. There is an unredeemed quality to battle experienced under these conditions, which blunts all senses and perceptions. Traditional appeals of war are corroded by the demands of a war of extermination, where conventional rules no longer apply. For all its inhumanity, war is a profoundly human institution(5).

By setting standards of behavior for themselves, accepting certain restraints, and even ―honoring their enemies,‖ warriors can create a lifeline that will allow them to pull themselves out of the hell of war and reintegrate themselves into their society, should they survive to see peace restored. A warrior‘s code may cover everything from the treatment of prisoners of war to oath keeping to table etiquette, but its primary purpose is to grant nobility to the warriors‘ profession. This allows warriors to retain both their self-respect and the respect of those they guard.

Part 2: Warriors and Society

This brings us back to my earlier line of reasoning. It is not enough to ask, ―Can our warriors still get the job done if they do not have a code?‖ We must also consider the related question: ―What will getting the job done do to our warriors if they do not have a code?‖ Accepting certain constraints as a moral duty, even when it is inconvenient or inefficient to do so, allows warriors to hold onto their humanity while experiencing the horror of war — and, when the war is over, to return home and reintegrate into the society they so ably defended. Fighters who cannot say, ―this far but no farther,‖ who have no lines they will not cross and no atrocities from which they will shrink, may be effective. They may complete their missions, but they will do so at the loss of their humanity.

Those who are concerned for the welfare of our warriors would never want to

see them sent off to face the chaotic hell of combat without something to ground them and keep them from crossing over into an inescapable heart of darkness. A mother and father may be willing to give their beloved son or daughter‘s life for their country or cause, but I doubt they would be as willing to sacrifice their child‘s soul. The code is a kind of moral and psychological armor that protects the warrior from becoming a monster in his or her own eyes.

Nor is it just ―see-the-whites-of-their-eyes‖ front-line ground and Special Forces troops who need this protection. Men and women who fight from a distance – who drop bombs from planes and shoot missiles from ships or submarines – are also at risk of losing their humanity. What threatens them is the very ease by which they can take lives. As technology separates individuals from the results of their actions, it cheats them of the chance to absorb and reckon with the enormity of what they have done. Killing fellow human beings, even for the noblest cause, should never feel like nothing more than a game played using the latest advances in virtual reality.

In his book Virtual War: Kosovo and Beyond, Michael Ignatieff airs his concerns about the morality of asymmetric conflicts in which one side is able to inflict large numbers of casualties from afar without putting its own forces at much risk (e.g. by relying primarily on long-range precision weapons and high-altitude air assaults). In such a mismatched fight, it may be easy for those fighting on the superior side to fail to appreciate the true costs of the war, since they are not forced to witness the death and destruction first-hand. Ignatieff warns modern warriors against the ―moral danger‖ they face if they allow themselves to become too detached from the reality of war:

Virtual reality is seductive. …We see war as a surgical scalpel and not a bloodstained sword. In so doing we mis-describe ourselves as we mis-describe the instruments of death. We need to stay away from such fables of self-righteous invulnerability. Only then can we get our hands dirty. Only then can we do what is right.(6)

I have argued that it can be damaging for warriors to view their enemies as sub-human by imagining them like beasts in a jungle. In the same way, modern warriors who dehumanize their enemies by equating them with blips on a computer screen may find the sense that they are part of an honorable undertaking far too fragile to sustain. Just as societies have an obligation to treat their warriors as ends in themselves, it is important for warriors to show a similar kind of respect for the inherent worth and dignity of their opponents. Even long-distance warriors can achieve this by acknowledging that some of the ―targets‖ they destroy are in fact human beings, not demons or vermin or empty statistics.

More parallels can be drawn between the way that societies should behave towards their warriors and how warriors should behave towards one another. Societies should honor their fallen defenders. Warriors should not desecrate the corpses of their enemies, but should, whenever possible, allow them to be buried by their own people and according to their own cultural traditions. Among his therapy patients, Jonathan Shay found several veterans suffering from ―the toxic residue left behind by

disrespectful treatment of enemy dead.(7)‖ And while societies must certainly show concern for the after-effects of war on their own troops, victorious warriors can also maintain the moral highground by helping to rebuild (or in some cases create) a solid infrastructure, a healthy economy, an educational system, and political stability for their former foes.

Part 3: Honor and Terrorists

These imperatives I have put forward apply to relations among warriors and nations defended by warriors. The moral requirements become much murkier when warriors must battle murderers.

The warriors of today will increasingly find themselves pitted against adversaries who fight without any rules or restraints. Because they see no other way to advance their objectives, these desperate men and women are likely to employ methods that are rightfully viewed as horrific and appalling by the rest of the civilized world, such as terror attacks on civilian populations. They will take ―fighting dirty‖ to unimaginable depths, and since they are already willing to die, they will not be deterred by any threat of punishment for continuing to disregard the laws of war.

As Ariel Merari, director of the Project on Terrorism at the Jaffee Center for Strategic Studies at Tel Aviv University points out in his essay, ―The Readiness To Kill and Die: Suicidal Terrorism in the Middle East,‖ old ideas about tit-for-tat and the applications of rational decision theory are worthless when dealing with those who are ready – if not anxious – to sacrifice their lives for The Cause. Merari quotes Lord Chalfont, an authority on counter-terrorism:

The whole time that I have been involved in terrorist operations, which now goes back to 30 years, my enemy has always been a man who is very worried about his own skin. You can no longer count on that, because the terrorist [today] is not just prepared to get killed, he wants to get killed. Therefore, the whole planning, tactical doctrine, [and] thinking [behind antiterrorism measures] is fundamentally undermined(8).

How should stronger sides in asymmetric conflicts respond when their weaker opponents resort to terrorist tactics? One perfectly understandable reaction would be for the stronger sides to want to ―take off the gloves,‖ too, especially when the terrorists seem to be banking on the fact that they will not. It seems natural to say, ―If they will not respect the rules of war and use some restraint, then neither will we.‖

Of course, one of the most serious ―cons‖ that the West must consider before ―taking the gloves off‖ is that it would be a violation of our own values to engage in a war with no rules. It is beyond infuriating that some of the people who claim to hate who we are and what we represent are yet able to benefit from our commitment to restraint. The more they push us and the more suffering we endure, the harder it is for us to fight with one hand tied behind our back rather than unleashing the full extent of our power to wipe them from the earth. But if we give up who we are in order to destroy our enemies, what sort of victory will we have secured for ourselves? Even the

noblest of ends can be tarnished if base means are used to achieve them.

It is truly disturbing to consider how easy it may be for a person to rationalize the terrible transition from warrior to murderer. An individual may be persuaded to become a murderer by a single charismatic personality, by a group or movement that answers some psychological need, or by the effects of a traumatic event (such as witnessing the death of a close friend or family member). I must stress that the line between a warrior and a murderer is profoundly important, but very thin. Once it has been crossed, the harm to the individual may be irrevocable.

It is easier to remain a warrior when fighting other warriors. When warriors fight murderers, they may be tempted to become the mirror image of the evil they hoped to destroy. Their only protection is their code of honor. The professional military ethics that restrain warriors – that keep them from targeting those who cannot fight back, from taking pleasure in killing, from striking harder than is necessary and that encourage them to offer mercy to their defeated enemies and even to help rebuild their countries and communities – are also their own protection against becoming what they abhor.

Everyone who cares about the welfare of warriors wants them not only to live through whatever fighting they must face, but also to have lives worth living after the fighting is done. The warriors‘ code is the shield that guards our warriors‘ humanity. Without it, they are no good to themselves or to those with whom and for whom they fight. Without it, they will find no way back from war.

About the author: Dr. Shannon E. French teaches in the Ethics Section at the U.S. Naval Academy. Her book, The Code of the Warrior: Exploring Warrior Values, Past and Present (2003, Rowman and Littlefield) features a foreword by Senator John McCain. In 2000 she was awarded USNA‟s campus-wide Apgar Award for Excellence in Teaching. This essay is reprinted on the website http://www.chivalrytoday.com/Essays/French/Warrior-Code-1.html by permission of the author.

Unit 1 -Endnotes:

1 Morgan, Forrest E. and USAF, Maj; Living the Martial Way: A Manual for the Way a Modern Warrior Should Think, Barricade Books Inc, Fort Lee, 1992.

2 Sun Tzu; The Art of War, Barnes & Noble Books, New York, 1994.

3 Ibid.

4 Snyder, Louis L., Fredrick the Great. Prentice-Hall, 1971.\

5 Daidoji, Budo Soshishu (17th century) .

6 Morgan, Forrest E. and USAF, Maj; Living the Martial Way: A Manual for the Way a Modern Warrior Should Think, Barricade Books Inc, Fort Lee, 1992.

Unit 2: African and Middle Eastern Concepts of Warriorship

Unit 2: African Concepts of Warriorship, Middle Eastern Concepts of Warriorship

Africa martial arts instructor and scholar of African culture, Kilindi Iyi, shared this African story with me:

A young warrior went to the appointed time and place to meet with an elder warrior from another village with whom he was to battle. As he neared the older man, the young warrior notice how similar in appearance and demeanour the old man was to the young man‟s father. It was too emotionally challenging and spiritually disabling for the young warrior to kill the other. He felt that it would be akin to killing his own father. He expressed this to the old warrior and offered him a deal, “I will offer you three shots from your weapon. If you fail to kill me with those three shots, you must surrender to me.” The old warrior agreed. The young man stood several yards away while the elder raised his rifle and fired at him. Three shots fired and all three seemed either not to find their target or were somehow ineffective. At this the elder warrior surrendered his weapon and accompanied the younger warrior back to his village as his prisoner.

Ask the students for their impressions of the tale. Is there anything to be learned from it?

Following this short discussion, ask if anyone in the class knows anything about Africa that might relate to this course. If relevant information arises, go with it. Allow for an in depth discussion if it seems achievable. However, one should recognize that it is highly possible that not much information will be shared as it has often been difficult to acquire information regarding African warrior classes. It would not hurt to make the students aware of this challenge.

Africa has not been referred to as the ―Dark Continent‖ due to the tall lush trees which inhibit the sun in its more tropical areas. Nor has this reference anything to do with the darker skin pigmentation of those descended from its countries in comparison to those from other parts of the world. The ―darkness‖ of Africa refers to its mysteries. Even after most of the known world had been charted, Africa remained mysterious. Many of its people were hesitant to divulge certain sacred aspects of their cultures. Even today, many tribal people outside the Westernized cities of various African nations live in a manner similar to their ancestors generations before them, despite being well aware of the sophistications of modern technology. As people still living by these tribal traditions, they do not treat their customs as a matter for historians. As such, they are not always eager to expose details regarding their rituals and philosophies to outsiders.

One aspect that would be helpful to keep in mind is that it is rare in most regions of the continent to find ideas about honour codified or listed. Concepts of honour are delivered to aspiring warriors at different stages of their development through stories such as the one above. Young warriors are expected to distil honour from the story in much the same way a child learns of morals through Aesop‘s fables.

Egypt

Africa is believed by many anthropologists to be the birthplace of humankind and the cradle of civilisation, making it a sound choice to begin our global examination. Within the continent, Egypt is as good place as any other nation to begin this unit. After all, Egyptian history and culture has not been as hidden as those of other regions of Africa. Also, it is a society whose civil, cultural and artistic development evolved much quicker than most others in the world. Furthermore, it is home to one of oldest records of a martial system.

The Beni Hasan Tombs in the Mahez region on the east bank of the Nile reveal facets of Egypt‘s Middle kingdom ( 2040-1785 BC ). Tomb 15 houses what may be most intriguing to warrior-scholars, such as yourself. The hieroglyphics depict the ancient Egyptian martial style of wrestling (with some striking) and stick fighting styles, known as Sebekkha and Tahtib respectively. Wrestling styles exist not only in cultures all over the African continent, but, indeed, all over the world. It would be irresponsible to state that the Egyptian systems are the sole origins of all forms of African wrestling.

No doubt techniques began to develop independent of one another in various regions. However, it is likely that the nomadic lifestyles and inter-cultural trade encouraged mixing and influencing of theses systems. And that the Egyptians‘ influence was strongest in the Northern regions where they were the stronghold of power.

Other martial styles in Africa include:

Evala (of the Kabye tribe of Togo): a wrestling style; Kokowa and Dambe (of the Hausa people most of whom reside in Nigeria): Kokowa is a wrestling style practiced in conjunction with their striking style, Dambe (also known as Hausa Boxing); Laamb (from Senegal): another wrestling style; Yoruba Wrestling (of the Yoruba people of Nigeria): resembles most other wrestling styles of African heritage, but includes training in swimming, hunting and equestrianism; Suri Stick Fighting (from Ethiopia); Testa (also from Ethiopia): this system endorses vicious techniques such as head-butting, eye- gouging, strikes to the windpipe and even biting; Nuba Stick Fighting (of the Nub tribe of Sudan): combines stick and fighting and wrestling; Nguni Stick Fighting: the Nguni people had been several tribes most of which eventually became conquered by Shaka Zulu. These tribes had an ineffective method of spear fighting; launching spears at each pother from some distance. King Shaka revolutionized warfare in Southern Africa when he developed new weapons and a renovated fighting method to accompany them. The practice of training in this method was made safe by replacing the shortened staff ( iklwa) with sticks. Hence, Nguni stick fighting was born.

For a more in depth look at these martial arts or systems, The Way of the Warrior; Martial Arts and Fighting Styles from Around the World by Chris Crudelli is recommended reading.

At this point the instructor may want to give a summary of the life of Shaka Zulu which includes his aspirations, his strategies and his tactics.

Shaka Zulu may sit a bit strangely in our discussions of warriors, as he often appeared to be more of a war-monger than warrior. Indeed, Shaka has been portrayed as bloodthirsty in many accounts. It is possible that these early accounts of his attitude and behaviour were concocted as a matter of White colonial propaganda . However, certainly Shaka was brutal in much of his dealings. He was hell-bent on unifying all the Nguni tribes under his rule. He managed to achieve this by renovating warfare through revamped weapons and new martial techniques.

Prior to Shaka‘s reign most battles were waged over open fields by throwing spears at the enemies‘ platoon. Shaka designed a shorter sturdier spear, the iklwa, to be held with the palm faced downward, so that it could be easily manoeuvred into high and low positions. He insisted that his soldiers fight barefoot so that they could better grip the ground, as their hide moccasins sometime slipped on the terrain. Shaka also redesigned the shield to cover most of the length of the body. Shaka taught his troops that when advancing on the enemy they should slide their shields over the opponents‘ shields immediately after contact. This way they could then pull their opponents‘ shields across their bodies, exposing their sides to attack.

Some other interesting facts involving African warriors that the instructor may want to share with the students:

Within some tribes (mostly in the West central and East central regions) there are secret societies, based on animal emulation, such as the Leopard People, Boar People, or the Porcupine warriors. They imitate their totem beast in lifestyle and fighting styles. Boar people, for example, are group oriented where as Leopard People separate and take to the trees - they live in isolation for a good portion of their lives. Porcupine warriors pride themselves on being prepared for defence from all directions. In the past, some of these groups were allegedly cannibals.

Within The Asanti tribe of Ghana, warriors where a special hat with a loose brim. Inside the brim gemstones are held. The various positions of the gemstones against the head assist the warrior in achieving his goals. For example, if the brim is forward, this holds the gemstones against the forehead stimulating the superior partial lobe. A warrior would hold them in this position to aid him in an intellectual or creative endeavour: poetry, song, intellectual debate, etc. If heading into a battle the warrior may wear his brim to the back of the skull; thereby stimulating the medulla oblongata which encourages aggression. The brim worn to the side is ideal for relaxing.

Most tribes practice their martial skills to music; dance is even incorporated into their patterns. In some groups, like the Asanti tribes, each warrior has his own personal rhythm or ―dgeli bak―.

Some tribes, such as the Massai, do not have an elite class of warriors. Rather warriorship is viewed as a stage in life. The Massai view each stage as seven years in duration. At fourteen, they undergo an initiation ritual which includes circumcision. The teenage boys are expected to handle this affair without so much as wincing. Any show of pain is considered weak and shames the boy and his family. After the ceremony he is consider to have entered the phase of a young warrior. At 21 he is a full warrior. At a later stage he will be considered a warrior instructor.

Circumcision at this late age is common to many tribes. Female circumcision also occurs, but many modern health and awareness groups are trying to abolish this torturous practice.

As part of the initiation of young warriors in Gambia ,the teenage boy is kidnapped by throwing a bag over his head and carrying him into the wilderness where he receives his secretive training.

* * *

As one example of a great African warrior, I offer an outline of the history of the brilliant strategist, General Hannibal Barca:

In 247 B.C. Hannibal, was born in Carthage. At that time, Carthage was ruled by its own people, the Carthaginians. They also ruled the Mediterranean Islands of Corsica, Sardinia and Sicily (then know as Syracuse). Italy was ruled by the Romans. Unfortunately for the Carthaginians, the Romans were expansionists. The First Punic war began when the Romans broke their treaty with Carthage and conquered Sicily. The commander of the Carthaginian army, Hamilacar Barac battled against the mightier Romans well, but eventually lost a decisive sea battle. The Carthaginians were forced to surrender Corsica and Sardinia along with Sicily. Furthermore, they were expected to pay large tribute .

The Carthaginians decided to relocate in Spain. Hamilcar spent nine years defeating the tribes in that region before forming the new city-state, New Carthage. Under his wing throughout his campaign was Hamilcar‘s son, Hannibal. Following his father‘s death, Hannibal continued to learn the skills of warfare from his brother-in-law, Hasdrubal. Hasdrubal was murdered in 221 B.C. and Hannibal, at the age of 26, was chosen to succeed him as chief commander of the army.

Included in the realm of New Carthage was the province on Saguntum. At one point, the many Greeks who resided in Saguntum attacked some of tribes there. The Romans sided with the Greeks on this matter and declared that they were the protectorates of Saguntum. Realizing that the Romans were planning to take control of Saguntum as they had elsewhere, Hannibal decided that the best defence was strong offence. Hannibal devised a daring plan of attack. Rather than attack the Romans by marching through relatively flat land, Hannibal surprised the Romans by taking his t troops of 50,000 around the long way through the Pyrenees, across the Rhone River and over the Swiss Alps into Italy from the other side. He managed this endeavour using elephants.

Hannibal‘s army first arrived in Turin, which was occupied by Gauls who had been conquered and oppressed by the Romans. They were quick to join Hannibal‘s cause. He added 14000 Gaul volunteers to his ranks and laid claim to much of Italy‘s country sides. Over the next 16years the Romans and Carthaginians waged battles in various areas of Italy wherein Hannibal despite being out numbered won most. Hannibal left a path of destruction as he overtook more and more of Italy. However, the battles over the aforementioned islands were won by the Romans and remained in their hands.

Eventually, the Romans made a more concentrated effort against Hannibal‘s army. Heavily outnumbered, cut off from supplies from Africa and no longer having the element of surprise, the Romans defeated the Carthaginian army. Hannibal sent word to Carthage to accept the terms of surrender.

The Romans remained wary of Carthage‘s recovery, believing the would eventually strive for independence again- more so they were afraid that the army would again be lead by the ingenious Hannibal. In 195 B.C. they demanded his arrest. Hannibal escaped from Carthage and remained a fugitive until 182 B.C. when soon to be arrested, Hannibal chose suicide by poison over capture by the Romans.

* * *

The Middle East

As we venture into the Middle East, the connection between warrior concepts and religion becomes evident. Here is the birthplace of the three major Western religions: Judaism, Christianity and Islam.

Discussion and debates regarding the actions of religious zealots claiming to be God‘s warriors can be dismissed until a later lesson. In this unit we can examine the religious scripture of each group for references to warriors and honour. Each religion has its doctrinal text. The Jews have their Torah; the Christians have their Bible; and the Muslims have their Koran. The Torah is the first half of the Christian Bible, the Old Testament. It pertains mostly to the Father; where as the New Testament portion of the Bible deals primarily with the Son, Jesus Christ. The Koran includes mostly the same cast of characters as the other books; the focus is different. Jesus appears in all three religions; however, the Jews and Muslims see Jesus as a profit, but not the divine incarnation of God Almighty. Within Islam, Jesus is said to be one of a series of profits and Mohammed is the final profit. They consider the Christian perspective of Jesus to be a contradiction to the monotheistic idea expressed in all three religions. Indeed, it is sometimes a difficult concept to grasp.

As a group, discuss some of the stories within these scriptures which denote warriorship in a positive way. Also, where in these texts is violence denounced as sinful, and how are these two ideas are differentiated. Some stories to consider: -David and Goliath -Samson -Gideon -Simon Peter defends Jesus against arrest -Jesus in the temple with a whip - Battle of al-Qādisiyyah - S‘ad: Mohammed Before Medina - Sabaha‘s First Blood - Battle of Badr - Battle of Uhud

We can, of course, go further back in time to examine the region prior to the development of these religions, back to a time even before the region became known as Persia. Mesopotamia was in existence 5000 years earlier. Within this intriguing civilization were famous city-states: Byzantine, Sumer and Babylonia. For an idea as to why this, now lost, civilization was so impressive, students are recommend to do some research. One helpful reference is the Wikipedia website: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mesopotamia. From this era comes one for he earliest warrior epics, the Sumerian saga of Gilgamesh. The Epic of Gilgamesh is still famous

among academic circles today.

One of the interesting points regarding this time period was that the city-states held one of the earliest system of laws. The conquering warrior, Hammurabi who ruled Babylonia developed his judicial code, and, although it still had barbaric elements, it was the first legal system to allow for legal equality, thus protecting such marginalized and often oppressed peoples such as widows and orphans. This relates to our discussions of honour in that laws in a democratic society are designed to reflect the ethical standards of that community. In a monarchy, the laws protect the interests of the ruler. Hammubi‘s code is an exception because of its altruistic design. Thus, not only does Hammurbi‘s system govern the behaviour of his citizens (mostly), it also sets a standard by which others can appreciate honour- he becomes a role model to which people can aspire. The History of Nations; Iraq (editor: David Schaefer), has this to say:

At the start of the history of Babylon stands the great figure of Hammurabi 1792-1750BC, a conqueror and law-giver through a reign of some forty-three years. He was depicted on seals and inscriptions as a youth fill of fire and skill, a great warrior who crushes all his enemies, who marches over mountains and never loses a battle. Under Hammurabi the tumultuous states famous Code. The diorite cylinder the engraved Code of Hammurabi, conveyed from Babylon to Elam around 1100 BC, was unearthed as Susa in 1902 (it is now in the Louvre [museum in Paris]).

There is full acknowledgement of the role of the gods but the Code is essentially a body of secular legislation. Enlightened laws accompany barbarous punishments, and the primitive lex talionis and trial by ordeal are set against complex judicial procedures that have a modern ting. In all there are 285 laws arrayed systematically under the headings of Personal Property, Real estate, Trade and Business, the Family, Injuries, and Labour. The Code, from which the Mosaic Code borrows or with which it shares a common source, is more enlightened than many judicial systems that were to follow in the centuries ahead.

Hammurabi retained the principle of the lex talionis („an eye for an eye‟) but he sought to reduce its impact. Misdemeanours that formerly attracted mutilation or even death were now punished by fines, an advance that has been interpreted as a great civilising influence. The Sumerians long before had discovered the advantages of paying a wronged person compensation instead of waiting for the aggrieved party to exact revenge, and Hammurabi developed this idea into a penal sanction. It has been suggested that this development encouraged the emergence of the entire fabric of law, with all the associated apparatus of lawyers, solicitors, juries and the complex fabric of jurisprudence in civilised societies.

The idea that justice should be tempered with mercy was a Babylonian innovation, a vital contribution to the morality of law. But the idea was expected to apply only in domestic situations: there was no thought that one‟s enemies should be treated with

compassion. This attitude accords well with how Middle Eastern rulers were in general expected to slaughter their opponents, even innocent non-combatants…. However, in urging a just approach to family morality Hammurabi laid the basis for a moral general social compassion, a position that is well represented (though often impotent) in the modern world. Here Hammurabi followed a much earlier Sumerian code, the earliest known legal canon, that attributed to Ur-Nammu who founded the Third Dynasty of Ur (2113-2096 BC), and who included the stipulation that „the orphan is not to be given over to the rich, nor the widow to the powerful, nor the man of one shekel over to him of one mina‟. it is clear that there were compassionate law- givers long before Hammurabi.

The Code bears importantly on aspects of marriage and women‟s rights (innovations here are sometimes contrasted with much repressive legislation in later Christendom). The 136th clause, for example, declares that if a man abandons his wife, leaving her without proper support, she is then free to remarry without being involved in the complexities of the courts. In the same spirit the 124th clause of the Code states: „if a woman hates her husband and refuses him his conjugal rights. Her case shall be examined in the district court. If she can prove she has kept herself chaste and has no fault while her husband has been unfaithful and so has demeaned her, she shall not be punished but may take her dowry and return to her father‟s house‟/ (though this still smacks of sexism it should be set against a grossly anti- feminist Christianity happy for almost two millennia to tolerate marital rape.)

Hammurabi concludes his code with the words: In my bosom I carried the people of the land of Sumer and Akkad…in my wisdom I restrained them, that the strong might not oppress the weak, and that they should give justice to the orphan and the widow… Let any oppressed man, who has a cause, come before my image as king of righteousness! … In the days that are yet to come, for all future time, may the king who is in the land observe the words of righteousness which I have written upon my monument! 1

When topics of ethics in government or true justice within judicial systems arise, those aspiring warriors among us can state proudly that the first leader to allow for mercy, compassion and equality among its people within his legal system, was, of course, a noble warrior-king.

The instructor should give the students a synopsis of the legend of Gilgamesh and then discuss what heroic qualities were present in the story. Have the concepts changed in modern times?

India

India which borders between the Middle East and Asia also has a rich martial history. Contrary to its current destitution, India was a nation of wealth, sophistication and culture during its Chola and Tamil dynasties (10th, 11th and 12th centuries). Understandably, it was during these periods, when a considerable amount of economic trade was going on, that combative sciences flourished. Of course, some systems of defence had developed prior to these dynasties and others would evolve after their conclusion; nevertheless, Kalarippayttu, the most popular and celebrated of Indian martial arts was developed during the Chola era. Those interested in this exotic art, can ask your instructor for a more thorough outline, or read the Kalarippayttu section of Chris Crudelli‘s The Way of the Warrior; Martial Arts and Fighting Styles from Around the World.

Similar to what is seen in Africa, some of India‘s martial arts involve music and dance. Gatka, an art of Punjabi origin developed by Sikh warriors, is one such art. It, like Kalarippayattu and others, also employs yoga-style postures in its training. In this way, almost all of these Indian arts connect martial ability to meditation and prana cultivation. India is second only to China as the nation with largest array of martial arts. As well as Kalarippayattu and Gatka, India boasts of Aki Kiti, Angamopora, Bandesh, But Marma Atti, Bothati, Cheena Adi, Inbuan Wrestling, Kuttu Varisai, Kushti, Lathi, Mukni Boxing, Mukna, Nata, Shaster Vidiya, Silambam,Thang-Ta, and Vajira Mushti.

Unit 2 - Endnotes: 1 Wikipedia - http://www.wikipedia.org/ . 28

Asian Concepts Unit 3: Asian Concepts of

Warriorship

Unit 3: Asian Concepts of Warriorship

Of all the regions of the world, Asia has one of the most obvious collections of warrior castes, separate from non-warrior citizens. Undeniably, it has the most obvious collection of martial arts. To peak the interest of the students and to increase their confidence in the subject matter have them list as many Asian martial arts as they can. Once they have expelled themselves, offer a list on the overhead projector (see appendix). For contrast the instructor can offer a list of non-Asian martial arts (also in the appendix). These lists do not offer every martial art every created, but are inclusive enough to demonstrate how the Asian systems outweigh those of the remainder of the world.

Make the students aware that it is difficult to discuss concepts of warriorship in Asian without including spirituality in the discussion. Have them read the following chapter in their student manuals; this should be done prior to the lesson as opposed to during class time:

* * *

It is probably easiest to begin discussion on warrior ideals with India and China, whose philosophies and codes and martial arts most strongly influenced other cultures. India was covered in the previous lesson, as it borders between the Middle east and Asia. No discussion on social constructs in China (or other countries primarily of Chinese culture) is possible without an examination of the three teachings. Confucianism, Taoism and Buddhism have been a major influence on all aspects of Chinese culture, including warriorship. As such, I believe discussion of the development of warrior concepts needs to be prefaced with some study of these fundamental aspects. It is impossible to discuss just one of the famous theologies without the other two, as the Chinese have not felt a need to delineate them as often happens in the West. Confucianism, Taoism, and Buddhism have some aspects woven into the practices of each other‗s philosophies.

Confucianism

Confucius was born in during the Warring States period and his teachings, after being recorded by his disciple, Mencius, held great influence over Chinese societies for centuries later. Although, Confucianism, of the three teachings, is the least popular conversational topic in the West, it has had the greatest influence on Chinese social structure. In fact, his system of structure has been incorporated into every Chinese government‘s system since it was adopted by a Han emperor as the official court system because of its ability to stabilize society. Confucianism carries less spirituality than Taoism and Buddhism; however, its hierarchal structure and model of role responsibility has remained the basis of ethical considerations, moral cultivation and

education even today.

Confucianism‘s perspective on the aspects defined as warrior traits is more obvious than those of its rival philosophies; particularly in terms of responsibility and obligation. Confucianism is all about responsibility and obligation, viewing each member of society as having a significant role and obliged to fulfill that role as effectively as possible. Confucius saw a system of dutiful relationships, beginning with the parent/child relationship and expanding to the rest of society from there. In Eastern Religions, Jennifer Oldstone-Moore describes it thusly, ―Each relationship has its specific roles and responsibilities: a parent owes a child education, care, and moral formation; a child owes a parent obedience, respect, and care in old age and after death. The parent/child relationship – thus, the virtue of filiality (xiao) is the basis for social structure. A husband and wife are to care for each other, with the husband protecting and providing, and the wife being obedient and maintaining the household. The elder brother has responsibility for younger siblings who owe him deference (birth order is very clearly delineated in East Asian kinship terms). The relationship between ruler and subject parallels that of parent and child, for the ruler is to provide care and guidance, and the subject is to be obedient as well as loyal. Friends are to be loyal— this is the only relationship that has the potential of being between people of equal rank, but even here, a hierarchy of age is often reflected.‖ 1 In Chinese countries still today, the significance of age as a measure of rank is noticeable in the language used. The Chinese refer to siblings as ―guh-guh, di-di, jie-jie‖ and ―mei-mei‖: big brother, little brother, big sister and little sister, respectively. Words, which translate simply as ―brother‖ and ―sister‖ without reference to birth order, exist, but are rarely used.

This view on virtue is very pragmatic; suggesting that the whole of society is strengthened by a single individual recognizing his obligation to that society and acting accordingly. This being at the core of his teaching it is most often expressed in the very first chapter of Confucius‘ analects.

―A man who respects his parents and his elders would hardly be inclined to defy his superiors. A man who is not inclined to defy his superiors will never foment a rebellion. A gentleman works at the root. Once the root is secured, the Way unfolds. To respect parents and elders is the root of humanity…

In intercourse with my friends, have I been faithful? Have I practiced what I was taught?

At home, a young man must respect his parents; abroad, he must respect his elders. He should talk little, but with good faith; love all people, but associate with the virtuous. Having done this, if he still has energy to spare, let him study literature…

A man who values virtue more than good looks, who devotes all his energy to serving his father and mother, who is willing to give his life for his sovereign, who in intercourse with friends is true to his word—even though some may call him uneducated, I still maintain he is an educated man…

A gentleman puts loyalty and faithfulness foremost; he does not befriend his moral inferiors. When he commits a fault, he is not afraid to amend his ways…

When the father is alive, watch the son‘s aspirations. When father is dead, watch the son‘s actions. If three years later, the son has not veered from the father‘s way, he may be called a dutiful son indeed…

If your promises conform to what is right, you will be able to keep your word. … The best support is provided by one‘s own kinsmen.‖ 2

Confucius furthers his explanation on obligation in 15:16 .

―A gentleman takes justice as his basis, enacts it in conformity with the ritual, expounds it with modesty, and through good faith, brings it to fruition. This is how a gentleman proceeds.‖ 3

Justice

Chapter Four of his analects clearly demonstrates the value Confucius places on justice. ―In the affairs of the world, a gentleman has no parti pris: he takes the side of justice… A gentleman seeks virtue; a small man seeks land. A gentleman seeks justice; a small man seeks favours… Do not worry if you are without a position; worry lest you do not deserve a position… The doctor of the Master is: Loyalty and reciprocity, and that‘s all…A gentleman considers what is just.‖ 4

The Master had more to say on justice in 15:18, ―A gentleman takes justice as his basis, enacts it in conformity with the ritual, expounds it with modesty, and through good faith, brings it to fruition. This is how a gentleman proceeds.‖ 5

Courage

―A good man is always brave; a brave man is not always good.‖ 6 These words leave no room for misinterpretation regarding courage as a compulsory ingredient of virtue. Additional commentary draws the connection between courage and justice: ―Not to act as justice commands, that is cowardice.‖ 7 Or as stated in the translation provided by Major Forrest E. Morgan, ―To do what is right and not to do it is to want of courage.‖ 8

―Nowadays, one may perhaps qualify less: he who does not lose his sense of justice at the sight of profit, who remains ready to give his life amidst all dangers, and who keeps his words through long tribulations may also considered an accomplished man.‖ 9

Martial Training

Nothing is said of martial prowess directly. Confucius only gives us implications that each individual must strive to do his finest at whichever his vocation and station in life. Thusly, martial training is part of a warrior‘s responsibility. It should be considered his craft. As such, highly valued and worthy of praise if such a warrior excels in his craft.

Taoism

The Tao Te Ching, which is attributed to Lao Tzu, is written and translated in poetic verse. This can lead to a lack of clarity particularly considering the author‘s intent was often to create ambiguity with his word choice. In this manner, the writings of the Tao more accurately reflect the paradox of the philosophy. This allows for a variety of interpretation and leaves us, as researchers, unclear. The Tao Te Ching speaks of honour, justice, courage, prowess and responsibility, but it offers no opinion on how to define these terms, nor what actions represent them.

Herein, I have included a few of the verses which directly or indirectly refer to the ethics being considered in this essay: Verses: 8, 9, 18, 31, 38, 68, 69, 81

Verse 8 Verse 9 The best way to live Grabbing and stuffing— is to be like water this is no end to it For water benefits all things and goes against none of them Sharpen a blade is too much It provides for all people and its edge will soon be lost and even cleanses those places Fill a house with gold and jade a man is loath to go and no one can protect it In this way it is just like Tao Puff yourself with honour and pride Live in accordance with the nature of things: and no one can save you from a fall Build your house on solid ground Keep your mind still Complete the task at hand Be selfless in your actions When giving, be kind This is the way of Heaven When speaking, be truthful This is the way to Heaven 34 When ruling, be just When working, be one-pointed When acting, remember—timing is everything

One who lives in accordance with nature does not go against the way of things He moves in harmony with the present moment always knowing the truth of just what to do 33

Verse 18 Verse 38 When the greatness of Tao is present To give without seeking reward action arises from one‟s own heart To help without thinking it is virtuous— When the greatness of Tao is absent therein lies great virtue action comes from the rules To keep account of your actions of “kindness” and “justice” To help with the hope of gaining merit— If you need rules to be kind and just, therein lies no virtue if you are virtuous, The highest virtue is to act without a sense of self this is a sure sign that virtue is absent The highest kindness is to give without condition Thus we see the great hypocrisy The highest justice is to see without preference Only when the family loses its harmony do we hear of “dutiful sons” When Tao is lost one must learn the rules of Only when the state is in chaos virtue do we hear of “loyal ministers” When virtue is lost, the rules of kindness When kindness is lost, the rules of justice When justice is lost, the rules of conduct Verse 31 And when the high-blown rules of conduct are Even the finest warrior is defeated not followed when he goes against natural law people are seized by the arm and it is forced By his own hand he is doomed on them and all creatures are likely to despise him The rules of conduct are just an outer show of devotion and One who knows Tao loyalty— quite confusing to the heart never turns from life‟s calling And when men rely on these rules for guidance— When at home he honors the side of rest Oh, what ignorance abounds! When at war he honors the side of action The great master follows his own nature Peace and tranquility are what he holds most and not the trapping of life… dear so he does not obtain weapons But when their use is unavoidable Verse 68 he employs them with fortitude and zeal The best warrior leads without haste Do not flaunt your excellence fights without anger Do not rejoice over victory overcomes without confrontation With the loss of others He puts himself below weep with sorrow and grief and brings out the highest in his men After winning a battle do not celebrate, This is the virtue of not confronting observe the rites of funeral of working with the abilities you have of complying with the laws of Heaven One who is bound to action, proud of victory, and delights in the misfortune of others This is the ancient path that leads to perfection will never gain a thing from this world below Heaven

Verse 69 Verse 81 The great warriors have a saying, Words born of the mind are not true “I dare not act as host True words are not born of the mind but would rather be a guest I dare not advance an inch Those who have virtue do not look for faults but would rather retreat a foot” Those who look for faults have no virtue

So advance but do not use your feet Those who come to know it Seize but do not use your arms do not rely on learning Cut but do not use your sword Those who rely on learning Fight but not use your own power do not come to know it The sage sees the world There is no greater misfortune than feeling as an expansion of his own self “I have an enemy” So what need has he to accumulate things? For when “I” and “enemy” exist together By giving to others there is no room left for my treasure he gains more and more By serving others Thus, when two opponents meet he receives everything the one without an enemy will surely Heaven gives, triumph and all things turn out for the best The sage lives, and all things go as Tao goes all things move as the wind blows 10

Chuang Tzu‘s parables are a little clearer. Chuang Tzu is considered to be Lao Tzu‘s most notable disciple (although the two never met). His writings offer his interpretations of the teachings in the form of parables. These short tales and anecdotes provide layman with more easily digested lessons on the Tao. They also provide the researcher with slightly more concrete text to analyze.

Obligation A sense of obligation can be found hidden slightly within the tale of ―Lao Tzu‘s Wake.‖ Chin Shih speaks coldly of his mentor, but in doing so, he is being faithful to Lao Tzu‘s ideology.

Justice ―The Inner Law, Good Fortune‖ and ―Flight from Benevolence‖ provide Taoism‘s unique outlook on justice. These stories do not suggest that justice is unimportant, only that it need not be sought as it naturally occurs.

―When justice and benevolence are in the air, a few people are really concerned with the good of others, but the majority are aware that this is a good thing, ripe for exploitation. They take advantage of the situation. For them, benevolence and justice are traps to catch birds. Thus benevolence and justice rapidly come to be associated with fraud and hypocrisy. Then everybody doubts. And that is when trouble 35

really begins‖ 11

Courage

―The True Man‖ and ―The Kingly Man‖ both discuss overcoming fear and thus illuminate the virtue of courage.

Martial Training

―The Need to Win‖ provides insight in how to develop prowess in martial training.

Responsibility

Little is said on responsibility in either text. This may have given way to the modern jibes that Lao Tzu and Chuang Tzu were the first and second hippies of the world.

Buddhism

Contrary to most philosophies and theologies, Buddhism does not have one book as the defining manual of its doctrine; no Bible, no Torah, no Koran, no Tao Te Ching, no Analects of Confucius. This, however, does not restrict Buddhism to ambiguity equal to that of Taoism. Through its oral tradition and its vast lexicon composed by the higher ranks of its followers, the Buddhist doctrine can be considered more tangible and exact. Not to say that this philosophy has absolute prescriptions of behaviour, such as commandments. Buddhism which likens our physical world to an illusion, concerns itself more with the intent behind actions rather than the actions themselves.

All books on Buddhism, as well as lectures of any considerable length, touch on the two fundamental concepts of Buddhism: The Four Noble Truths and The Eight- Fold Path.

The Four Noble Truths are expressed to help one gain a healthy, realistic perspective on life, as seen by Buddhists. These truths are duhkha (suffering exists), trishna (attachment is the cause of suffering), nirvana (liberation from the suffering), marga (the path of liberation/the method).

This essay is more concerned with the path of liberation as expressed in the Eight-Fold Path, as this path influenced the Chinese in terms of what behaviour is considered noble. The Eight-Fold Path is: Right View, Right Thought, Right Speech,

Right Action, Right Livelihood, Right Effort, Right Mindfulness, and Right Concentration. Buddhist writer, Gary Gach explains, ―The eight steps… can be grouped in three. Wisdom: view and thought. Conduct: speech, action and livelihood. Meditation: effort, mindfulness, concentration.‖12 Speech, action and livelihood are not cultivated without attention to the other steps of the path. However, our focus here is conduct. Conduct according to Buddhist beliefs is not governed by a set of rules. Rather, it is a product of what is in your heart. Love and compassion within result in speech and actions and a choice of vocations that sincerely express that love and compassion. This is quite easily said, but not necessarily substantial in affecting the behaviour of people, particularly men-at-arms. Thus, the wisdom must prelude the conduct. This wisdom includes, among other things, the understanding that attachment causes suffering; ergo, one must strive to give up attachment. Secondly, wisdom includes recognition of karma. Karma is spiritual baggage that stems from one‘s actions and intent. Compassion will lead to harmony in this life or the next. Cruelty carries with it negative karma that will be revisited on the individual.

This manner of thinking does not insist that one may never kill (although a true Buddhist monk would never kill). It does mean that if one should kill, that negativity will be revisited on him unless there was a pure intent and only a pure intent attached to it, such as saving the life of a child.

With this understanding established, we can examine the alleged warrior attributes from the Buddhist perspective in the following way.

Obligation

Following the Buddhist perspective that all things are connected, our obligation to each other is an obligation to ourselves and vice versa. All compassionate acts done for us will result in betterment for the practitioner of that act. Does this remove an obligation for us to repay that kindness? Why should we not repay, since in reciprocating the compassion we reward the other and ourselves?

Justice

Karma is cosmic justice, and as such we are a ware of its high significance to Buddhists. However, as karma is a given inevitability a person would not be required to seek justice. Viewed this way, a warrior‘s concern with justice appears to be inconsistent with Chinese culture. Viewed another way, we are always a part of the system of justice.

―The belief in reincarnation shows us that there is some kind of ultimate justice or goodness in the universe. It is that goodness that we are all trying to uncover and to free. Whenever we act positively, we move toward it; whenever we act negatively, we obscure and inhibit it. Whenever we can not express it in our lives and actions we feel miserable and frustrated… Develop this good heart that longs for other beings to find lasting happiness, and acts to secure that happiness. Nourish and practice kindness.‖ 13

Courage

Ideally, when one releases himself from attachment, he has overcome his only true fear, the fear of loss. In following the Eight-Fold Path, one reaches a stage that requires courage. To release oneself from attachment, particularly from the attachment to one‘s own sense of self, is not as easy as it might sound. Even the most devoted of monks are still in the process of awakening to this more and more. Only a completely enlightened being, a Buddha, is absolutely void of attachment. As one moves further along the path he has less to fear and therefore less need of courage. In the meantime, courage is valued in the Buddhist methodology.

Martial Prowess

I have found nothing in my research to suggest martial training is considered a noble endeavour within the Buddhist precepts.

Responsibility

Because of the understanding that we are all connected, in effect, we are all one, responsibility becomes the same as obligation. My duty is no longer to my father, my employer, the old woman who fed me once during my travels, or the child that gave me directions. My duty is to all and in treating every living thing with compassion, I fulfill my duty to my father, my employer, the old woman, the child, myself and everyone and everything that lives in the universe.

Soygul Rinophe, Buddhist monk and author of The Tibetan Book of Living and Dying, gives this summation in his subchapter on responsibility:

―I have been very moved by how the near-death experience reports confirm, in a very precise and startling way, the truth about karma. One of the common elements of the near-death experience that has occasioned a great deal of thought, is the ―panoramic life renew.‖ It happens that people who undergo this experience not only review in the most vivid detail the events of their past life, but also can witness the fullest possible implications of what they have done. They experience, in fact, the complete range of effects their actions had on others and all the feelings, however disturbing or shocking, they aroused in them.

Everything in my life went by for review—I was ashamed of a lot of the things I experienced because it seemed I had a different knowledge … Not only what I had done, but how I had affected other people … I found out that not even your thoughts are lost.

It was total reliving of every thought I had thought, every word I had ever

spoken, and every deed I had ever done; plus the effect of each thought, word, and deed on everyone and anyone who had every come within my environment of sphere of influence whether I knew them or not …; plus the effect of each thought, word, and deed on weather, plants, animals, soil, trees, water, and air.

These testimonies should be taken very seriously. They will help all of us to realize the full implications of our actions, words, and thoughts, and impel us to become increasingly responsible. I have noticed that many people feel menaced by the reality of karma because they are beginning to understand they have no escape from its natural law… Both the East and West have their characteristic ways of evading the responsibilities that come from understanding karma. In the East people use karma as an excuse not to give others a helping hand, saying that, whatever they suffer, it is ―their karma.‖ In the ―free-thinking‖ Western world, we do the opposite. Westerners who believe in karma can be exaggeratedly ―sensitive‖ and ―careful,‖ and say that actually to help others would be to interfere with something they have to ―work out for themselves.‖ What an evasion and betrayal of our humanity! Perhaps it is just as likely that it is out karma to find a way to help. I know several rich people: Their wealth could be their destruction, in encouraging sloth and selfishness; or they could seize the chance that money offers to really help others, and by doing so help themselves.

We must never forget that it is through our actions, words, and thoughts that we have a choice. And if we choose we can put an end to suffering and the cause of suffering and help our true potential, our Buddha nature, to awaken in us.‖ 14

* * *

The instructor should explain the history of martial arts in China:

Any discussion on the history of Kung Fu needs to begin by remembering that we are basing our knowledge on ancient artefacts - it‘s like piecing together a puzzle but we can‘t be sure of the whole picture. No one can claim to know the exact history of Kung Fu. What is presented here is based on the evidence I have been given and logical assumptions. There‘s always room for argument - some arguments are more logical than others.

The first recorded use of kung fu techniques dates back to 2697 BC. The army of the yellow emperor used Shuai-Chiao techniques to defeat the rival armies, including his greatest rival Chi Yeo, thereby conquering all the regions and unifying China for the first time. This would seem to indicate that the Shuai-Chiao (then called Jiao-ti) was the first martial art. But even if this historical conclusion is correct. It may have only been the first martial system.

It can be reduced to a question of semantics. What‘s the difference between an art and just a system? Art implies something artistic; something poetic. Does that mean a system is an art when there is an inclusion of forms? Or maybe just when one movement is open to interpretation as with dance or other arts: red is a colour that can be used to paint many different picture; the note G can be used for many different song; this one movement can be used for many different martial application. Maybe that‘s what makes a system an art.

Shuai-Chiao most likely had no forms at that time; and even when it gained forms they were limited on poetry - they were just repetitive patterns. So, by THAT definition, maybe it was not the first martial art.

Maybe Chang Chuan was the first - by some accounts it existed before Shaolin and then was adopted into the temples… but I have also heard otherwise.

In 495 BC the shaolin temple was built at the convergence of revered mountains. In 502 AD Bodiharma (or Tamo) arrived at the temple after his long journey from India. He found the monks at the temple to be in sorry shape; they could not even hold a meditative posture without falling asleep. So, he helped them by teaching them meditative movements to get into better physical condition. HE DID NOT TEACH THEM KUNG FU. The movements were probably akin to Indian yoga and apparently many were based on the movements of animals.

It is an accurate to call Bodiharma the inventor or the founder of Shaolin Kung Fu - it may be right to call him the father of Shaolin Kung Fu, because his teachings lead to its development. Monks were often the victims of attacks; at some point they began to realize these movements, based on animals, could be used to defend themselves. No doubt it helped that many of the men who joined the temple later in

life were retiring from other fields -most often military men looking to find a more peaceful end to their days: they probably aided in the recognition of usefulness and development of the systems.

Most Shaolin systems are based on the movements of animals. One of the earliest being the Five Animal System based on: tiger, crane, leopard, snake and dragon. Other systems were formed based on only one animal; but even these branched in separate systems. For example, within tiger there is at least Black Tiger, Servant‘s Tiger Claw, etc. Within crane there is Tibetan White Crane, Fukien White Crane and Black Crane.

I have even heard of a dog system and a duck system - but I doubt their authenticity. I read articles about a man teaching Bando Scorpion- a rare system which had been passed down to him - it turned out he was a fraud the system never existed.

Some animals had techniques based on their movements but possibly not entire systems such as bear and, I believe, white ape (or gibbon).

On rare occasions systems meshed losing one or both of the originals: I have heard that there was a leopard system, but that it merged with tiger in the 1700‘s. There was deer system but it has been lost in antiquity. Cobra and python were originally two separate systems, but later were merged into simply snake. Snake may have various subsystems.

The shaolin temple has been destroyed and rebuilt periodically. The first time being in 680 AD by Imperial troops the reigning emperor feared the monks were to powerful.

The Ming Dynasty: Legend has it that Tai Chi Chuan was developed by Zhang San Feng. The Wu Tang Mountain monastery had not yet been built. So in effect Tai Chi is also a shaolin form adopted by the Wu Dang School after Zhang San Feng and others left the shaolin order to start a monastery of only Taoist teachings.

In 1644 the Manchurians took over China: Mantis developed this same year, even though martial arts had been outlawed: There are different versions of the story, but they are only slight trivial differences. The basic skeleton is this: Wong Long was already a great swordsman and tiger stylist. He often tested his skill challenging people to combat. These were not death matches simply friendly sparring. He was always praised; but would receive many compliments like ―You‘re very good - almost as good as the shaolin monks.‖ Frustrated he went to the temple IN SHANGTUNG (not Hunan)to challenge them. It took a lot persuasion, but eventually he was allowed to spar with a low ranking student - who bested him. He went into seclusion for many months to train diligently. When he returned he was then able to beat everyone that faced him, but one - their best

fighter (some stories say it was the head abbot). He went into seclusion again. One day while meditating he was distracted by the shrill shriek of a cicada. He looked to see the cicada attacking a mantis. The mantis was smaller and skinnier, but it awaited the attack then moved its arms lightening fast, trapped and flipped the cicada… and then ate it. Wong Long was impressed, so he took the mantis away to his camp and tested it by prodding it with straw and began copying its techniques. After he felt proficient with these techniques he returned to the temple and defeated the senior monk.

The abbot implored Wong Long to develop a full system from these techniques. Legend has it that he developed the Bung Bo form and possibly Er Lo Bung Bo, as well .

At some point in his story Wong Long became a monk. Wherein the story that happens is a matter of conjecture. In some tellings, he was a monk before he even reached Shantung. In any case, he and the abbot became friends; he had permission to have other monks, experts in various styles, assist in developing mantis. This is why it is considered an advanced system. All systems have been influenced by others; but in mantis there is the deliberate influence of advanced techniques from experts.

Some are easy to spot: Tiger techniques probably brought in from Wong Long, himself; Goose or crane techniques; Long fist; Dragon; White Ape and many Shuai- Chiao techniques. The footwork added is that of the monkey -quick and sprightly. It is not from the monkey system as some ignorantly print in books. The monkey system did not develop until the mid 1800‘s , thus it would be impossible.

The Ching Dynasty: The temple was destroyed again in the mid- 1670‘s when the legendary villain, Pai Mei betrayed them to the emperor for their political belief: ―Destroy the Ching restore the Ming.‖ Ng Mui, and Jee Shin are allegedly two of the monks who escaped. They are significant names in Kung Fu history.

A monk who developed a system outside the temple was Ng Mui. She did not name the system after herself, however, but after first student: Wing Chun.

Wing Chun was a beautiful teen in small village who had been spotted by a Prince (nephew of the royal family). He wanted to marry her or take her as one of his concubines. She didn‘t want to marry him so her father being a good man bought her some time. He insisted that she was too young an that she need another year. The Prince agreed.

The father asked Ng Mui to teach her Kung Fu and Ng agreed. But one year isn‘t much time so she constructed an abbreviated system. It was close range because the over confident man would certainly move in close to grab a small woman. Also, one does not want to risk damaging the face of a future concubine.

After a year of training the Prince returned to collect his bride but the father said that Wing Chun would only go with him if he could defeat her in hand to hand combat. He accepting thinking he was at no real risk of losing, but she beat him and he agreed to the deal. And left her alone.

The temple was damaged again around the time of the boxer rebellion beginning in the late 1800 and continuing until 1900; when their failed ambush caused most of them to be killed -- I strongly suspect someone betrayed them and informed the foreigners of their plan. As retribution for their involvement the Shaolin temple in Honan was partly destroyed. The Fukien temple was completely destroyed.

The last time was during Mao‘s so-called cultural revolution… It should have been called the anti-cultural revolution… all symbols of culture and tradition were to be destroyed. The temple was not completely destroyed, but its land was taken away except for the acre on which it still sits.

During the 1900‘s the Southern Shaolin Temple was also destroyed. It was from here that five monks escaped.. Legend has it only five but there may have been more. There names were Hung Choy, Li , Mok and Lau.

Hung adapted his tiger style blending it with his wife‘s crane style to create Hung gar. Choy and Li had a common student who blended their teachings together. He named the system after them and Buddha; Choy Li Fut (Fut is Cantonese for Buddha). Mok and Lay also adapted their styles to create their own family styles.

The monkey style was invented around 1842 A.D. The martial artist, Kau See was conscripted, that is drafted into the army,. He refused to enter service, not because he was pacifist but because he did not trust the government to make moral decisions for him about whom to fight. When a military officer came for him he tried to arrest Kau See and they fought. Things got out of hand and Kau See unintentionally killed him. There was death penalty at that time (and there still is), but because Kau See turned himself in and admitted what had happened, he received prison time instead.

From the prison, Kau See could see monkeys living in the tress on the hill by the prison walls and he studied them everyday because he could see how skilful they were when they fought each other or fought off predators. He designed monkey systems based on what he mimicked from them. Some describe it as one system with different styles in it others describe it as a few styles that are generally taught together because there is only one or two forms in each: In any case they are Wooden Monkey, Stone Monkey, Tall Monkey, Frightened Monkey and Drunken Monkey. Drunken monkey was created after Kau saw a monkey drink from a bottle of wine dropped from a drunkard on his way home then ,when confronted by several other monkeys, he fended them off because his movements were both soft and hard, erratic and unpredictable.

Many believe that Eagle Claw was created by General Yue Fei who lived at a time of warfare between the Southern Song Dynasty and the Jurchen tribes of the Jin Dynasty. Yue credited his martial skills as the product of his training under a monk named Zhou Tong at a Shaolin temple. Zhou Tong taught Yue Fei a style of joint- locks called ―elephant‖ techniques. The General later expanded them to create the "108 Chin Na locks" Yue taught these techniques to his soldiers and they were victorious in battle. The elephant style in question is believed to be a mistranslation of xiang, which sounds like the Chinese word for elephant but probably refers to Xiang Xing Quan - "Imitation Boxing". Possibly referring to mimicking actions of a certain animal or celestial personage. In the late Ming Dynasty, Yue Fei's material is said to have made a re-appearance at the temple in Hunan. The techniques were in place but it had been given the name, Ying Quan (Eagle Fist), as the grasping techniques seemed to mimic the eagle more than any other animal. This style was later merged with the Fanziquan system. * * *

Following this rather lengthy explanation, the students should be given a short break (5 minutes) followed by a Kung Fu demonstration from a local school (roughly 15 minutes). This should provided some entertainment which will maintain student interest, as well as giving the students a firmer understanding and appreciation for the intricacies and martial applications of these arts. An astute student will notice that certain martial applications will have developed in some Kung Fu styles which differ from others and may be able to reason why these differences developed. This can lead to an opening discussion for the next lesson.

After the demonstration, class is dismissed. Before they depart, be sure that the students know they are to read the aforementioned chapter from their handbooks, as well as Chapter 6, The Foundations of Honor and Chapter 7 Honor In Action (American spellings) from the text, Living the Martial Way.

Unit 3: Asian Concepts of Warriorship Continued

Unit 3: Asian Concepts continued:

Discuss last week‘s presentation. Include a discussion regarding the differences in Kung Fu styles; in particular Northern vs. Southern styles; Hong Kong vs. Taiwan styles - differences which occur even within the different lineages of the same system. For example; the short spacing and hand open palm movements of Lo Gwan Yu‘s Seven Star Praying Mantis (adapted to living in Hong Kong) compared to the long spacing and grappling hand movements of Lin Ching San‘s Seven Star Praying Mantis (adapted to Taiwan).

Discuss the codes of honour below, after the students have read them aloud:

Regarding Honour in China

Given below is some indication of what was considered honourable behaviour among three warrior groups in China‘s history.

The Shaolin Monks: Kung Fu (Wu Yi); Kung Fu is a series of methods to strengthen the body and mind; to develop the fighting spirit; to increase mental and physical endurance and sensory awareness. At its highest level in can help one to better understand oneself, one’s neighbour and to lead a better, more productive and full life.

The principle of Kung Fu: Follow the ways to preserve rather than destroy; avoid rather than check; check rather than hurt; hurt rather than maim; and maim rather than kill - for all life is precious and none can be replaced.

The virtue: the mind of all creatures, the low and the high, is the master of its own body; but only when the mind is at one with the flow of nature may this system be exercised to its fullest. We may use this system to become unto a small forest.

Imperial Guards: As well as a being loyal to the royal family, the guardsmen were expected to follow the principles of Confucianism Additionally, they were expected to follow

the examples of classic literature which would include emulation of the three heroes of Romance of the Three Kingdoms. Within each dynasty since the epic was written, the story would have slight variations so that the lessons contained within best addressed the expectations of the empire. Nevertheless, the overall standard of responsibility, courage, justice and obligation remained the same. Loyalty to one‘s monarchy and to one‘s friends is prominent in the novel. In particular, General Gwan was used as a role model for aspiring warriors. He was canonized as deity and holds a role similar to that of the Archangel Michael in Judeo-Christian theology. Still today, statuettes of General Gwan can be found in military schools and bases, police colleges and stations; and Kung Fu schools in China and other Chinese countries.

Knights-Errant: Knight-Errant is a translation chosen because of the obvious similarities to European Knights-Errant (or Cavaliers), as both were a type of chivalrous hero. The Chinese Knight-Errant was referred to as „You Xia‟ which means “wandering force” or “Chuang-Tzu” which means superior man. These knights came into existence during the Han Dynasty and disappeared during the Qing Dynasty. The travelled the land operating in a fashion similar to Robin Hood… or The A-team, in that they were vigilantes righting wrongs to the commoners and nobility, accepting payment when it could be afforded. They are described in the poem, The Swordsman by Jia Dao:

For ten years I have been polishing this sword; Its frosty edge has never been put to the test. Now I am holding it and showing it to you, sir: Is there anyone suffering from injustice? 15

Again, as in Europe, there are legends and fables written of their adventures; mostly in what are known as Wu Xia novels.

Is anyone familiar with Wu Xia novels?

Explain: Some people like to claim that Chinese Kung Fu was the root of all Asian martial arts - while no doubt it had influence on many conflict existed everywhere and some arts probably developed independently.

Korean arts had some Chinese influence as they are geographical neighbours, but there are significant differences. Tung Soo Do, in fact, translates as ‗Way of the Chinese Hand‖. It developed into the more sport-oriented Tae Kwon Do, has a different method to its high kicks. Practitioners are encouraged to lean back and go on their toes for extra height. They are also more often acrobatic in their kicking. Kung Fu practitioners may find these techniques ill advised but one must recognize the origins. The Korean commoners needed to defend themselves against people on horseback. Removing them from them horses was very practical. It sounds impossible, but remember that horses in Korea at that time were not the giant stallions we see in Canada.

Korean Hapkido seems very closely related to Chin Na. Clearly this was learned from the close connection to China. Both are fine grappling (or joint manipulating) systems executed with circular fluid movements. Many Korean based schools offer both Tae Kwon Do and Hapkido which complement each other well in that they are opposite in nature. Tae Kwon Do (The way of Hands and Feet) is hard, linear and flashy, whereas, Hapkido is softer, circular and economic in its movements. By offering both a student becomes a more well-rounded practitioner with a greater arsenal at her/his disposal.

One country wherein there is no denial of the borrowing of Chinese Kung fu is Vietnam; whenever I have asked a practitioner about the roots of Vietnamese martial arts I have been told, ―it‘s Chinese Kung Fu - learned in Vietnam.‖

In contrast, the Japanese society of the past was very xenophobic and denied any foreign influence even when it was obvious - at one time the entire island was closed off to the world. The Japanese, in fact, did not develop karate or jujitsu. These were developed on Okinawa before it was occupied and subsequently taken by Japan. The Okinawan fisherman travelled frequently to China, by choice or by act of nature, and there they learned Kung Fu techniques. As their time was limited, they abbreviated these techniques into karate and jujitsu. Everyone ―knows‖ that karate means empty hand … but this is not so. Te means ‗hand‗; kara means ‗empty‗, but its is a homophone for ‗China‘ - originally kara-te meant ‗China hand‗. The writing has since been altered to deny any roots outside of Japan.

Regarding Jujitsu, there is some evidence of techniques being used around 25 BC; but it was not developed into a system until 13 centuries later.

Even Judo and Aikido are not entirely of Japanese origin. What is often left out of the histories of their founders is their trips to China. * Jigoro Kano, was a jujitsu master, who travelled to China for many months, witnessed Shuai-Chiao and then invented Judo.

* Morehei Ushiba, was also a Jujitsu master, who went to China for many months, witnessed Chin Na and then invented Aikido. Still, to say they are not Japanese arts would be comparable to stating that the Hawaiian Martial Arts, Lima-Lama and Luo, are not American. All of these arts which find their roots in China have evolved to become uniquely Japanese.

Only the weapons arts may be 100% Japanese: Kendo and Iado are based on the use of the Japanese sword and Naginato was a marital art women developed from brooms (now hooked sticks) to defend from bandits and rapists while there husbands were away.

Regarding Honour in Korea and Japan:

Both the warriors of Korea and Japan had codes of honour which resembled those of China, as all three nations were heavily influenced by the three teachings.

Be loyal to your king. Be obedient to your parents. Be honourable to your friends. Never retreat in battle. Make a just kill.

-6th century Hwarang Warriors‘ Code of Conduct 16

The Hwarang were a Korean caste of warriors. Korean Martial Historian, Choi Hong Hi informs us this caste founded its ethical underpinning on the teachings of Confucius. The only one of the five commandments of their code which does not sit well with this author is the remark, ―Never retreat in battle.‖ The extreme ‘Never‘ seems to lack some military savvy. However, it is possible this was a superfluous statement intended to strongly connote the insistence of courage.

The Bushi of Japan seem to have the most organized and clearly presented honour codes of any warrior caste in Asian and possibly the world.

Before explaining the term Bushi, ask if anyone else can do so. Bushi - The same symbols are used in Chinese and are pronounced Wu Shr. In both cases, bu (wu) refers to a relation to war or ‗martial‗; shi (shr) has no direct translation in English, but can be best summed as gentlemanly, scholarly, expert-sage. Thus, Bushi (Wu Shr) means warrior. Bushido means ‗way of the warrior‘.

What are some of the other ‗warrior‘ terms which come from Japan?

Explain: Samurai: a member of the elite class of warriors, born into this heritage within feudal Japan; Ronin: a masterless Samurai;

Ninja: an ―invisible‖ warrior-agent, practiced in the stealthy application of Japanese martial arts so as to be employable as a spy or assassin.

The Bushido (Way of the Warrior) has been written by many respected samurai (or descendents thereof) over the centuries often with very slight variations. Each is the same; however, in its adherence to respect, loyalty, benevolence, and courage. Most were general ideas much like those provided by China and Korea; Hojo Soun, a samurai of the Ashikaga shogunate (1336—1573) proclaimed a more exact doctrine to follow: 1. Believe in Buddha and the Shinto gods.

2. Get up early in the morning in order to set a good example for your servants and to carry. Out your own duties well. If you begin to be lax, you‟ll be fired.

3. Go to bed at a reasonable hour. Don‟t waste fuel for lighting while you hang out with other guys until late at night. Remember that robbers usually break in two hours before and after midnight, so you aren‟t around, you‟ll fall victim to them. It‟s not worth getting a bad name for irresponsible behavior. Get up a couple of hours before dawn, wash in cold water, and say your prayers. Get yourself ready, and then give your wife, children and servants their instructions for the day. Arrive at work early, before the sun rises, so that you can do all the work allotted to you. If you don‟t keep up, you won‟t be able to do everything you‟re responsible for.

4. Before washing your face and hands, go and check out the washroom, the gates, stables, and gardens. Get someone to clean up the places that need cleaning. Then go and wash your face and hands. Don‟t expectorate loudly, because this will disturb the people asleep in your house.

5. Saying prayers is for your own sake. Be honest, sincere, and law-abiding. Respect your superiors and treat your subordinates compassionately. Accept your lot, in accordance with Buddha and the Shinto gods: accept what you have and what you don‟t have -- this will give you divine protection, even if you don‟t pray. Remember if a dishonest person prays, he will not be given divine protection. Beware!

6. Don‟t try and compete with others in the quality of your clothes and weapons. As long as they look reasonable, you are fine. If you go into debt to but expensive things, people will deride you.

7. Fix your hair first thing, whether you go to work or stay at home. There is no way you can appear among people when you‟re all dishevelled -- and if your servants see that you don‟t care about your appearance, they‟ll begin to neglect theirs, too. It also looks ridiculous for you to rush to fix your hair if an unexpected guest arrives.

8. When you arrive at work, don‟t go straight to the boss‟s office. Wait in the

waiting area and see how the other workers behave. Go to the boss when he calls you, otherwise there may be an unpleasant surprise in store for you.

9. When the boss calls you, answer “Yes, sir!” promptly, even if you are at some distance from him. Hurry forward, and then, when you get close to him, crawl to him on your hands and knees. Then rush off to do what he has told you to do, and when you‟re done, come back and give him an accurate report. Don‟t try and show how clever you are. If necessary, consult with other people as to how to present your report to the boss. Don‟t take all the credit.

10. When you are with your boss, don‟t listen to gossips. Keep well away from them. You must also not talk about yourself or laugh loudly -- this will make your cronies and your boss ostracize you.

11. Rely on others -- don‟t try to do things alone. 12. Carry a book with you wherever you go, so that if you have a free moment, you can read and revise the characters surreptitiously. If you don‟t get into the habit of reviewing them, you‟ll forget them. Do the same for writing.

13. When there is a line of VIP‟s waiting to consult with your boss, do not walk past them arrogantly, but bow at the waist and hold your hands low. Samurai must behave with humility and deference.

14. Always tell the truth to everyone -- whether they are superior or subordinate to you. Even when you are joking, tell the truth, otherwise telling half-truths and lies will become a habit and you will be ostracized. If someone accuses you of lying, it is a disgrace that will never leave you.

15. If you don‟t know tanka composition, you are ignorant and ungifted. You must study it. Always watch what you say. One word can betray your thoughts.

16. During your free time, practice your equestrian skills. Get an expert to show you the basic stuff, and learn all the rest on your own.

17. Spend your time on studying an writing. Avoid go, chess, and musical instruments. It‟s not that there‟s anything wrong with these things -- they‟re just a waste of time. Remember that the type of person you are -- good or bad -- depends on your friends. Remember, too, that when you are traveling with two other people, one of them will be worth listening to. Choose him. The other one can serve as an example of what not to do.

18. When you‟re off work and go home, check out certain things, such as whether the walls of your house, behind the stables, are intact. Repair the holes in the fence made by dogs. If the thatch from the roof has been used for heating, replace it.

19. At sunset, lock the gate. Open it only if someone comes or goes. This will

prevent trouble.

20. Before going to sleep, check out all the fires in the kitchen and your wife‟s room, as well as ensuring that your house can‟t be harmed by a neighbour‟s fire. Do this every night, since wives tend to forget this, and leave their clothes and jewellery lying around. It is important for you to know what it‟s like to do things.

21. It is imperative for you to constantly practicing reading, writing, martial arts, archery, and equestrian skills. Literary skills belong to your left hand, martial skills to your to your right. 17

Many people believe with the end of the samurai, so too fell the Bushido code. However, there are those, particularly those engaged in the study of Japanese martial arts who strive to keep this warrior code alive. A brief explanation of modern bushidō can be found in James William‗s article, "Virtue of the sword‖:

The warrior protects and defends because he realizes the value of others. He knows that they are essential to society and, in his gift of service, recognizes and values theirs... take the extra moment in dark parking lots at night to make sure that a woman gets into her car safely before leaving yourself. Daily involvement in acts such as these are as much a part of training as time spent in the dojo, and indeed should be the reason for that time spent training... When faced with a woman or child in a situation in which they are vulnerable, there are two types of men: those who would offer succour and aid, and those who would prey upon them. 18

Morihei Ueshiba, founder of Aikido, expressed his epiphany following the horrors of World War II:

The Way of the Warrior has been misunderstood. It is not a means to kill and destroy others. Those who seek to compete and better one another are making a terrible mistake. To smash, injure, or destroy is the worst thing a human being can do. The real Way of a Warrior is to prevent such slaughter - it is the Art of Peace, the power of love. 19

Codes of the Samurai can be highlighted with stories such as The Forty-Seven Faithful Ronin. Have students read the story aloud from the text, Living the Martial Way. Ask for opinions of the story.

Again the students should be given a short break before witnessing a demonstration of (a) Japanese art(s).

Unit 3- Endnotes:

1 Coogan, Michael D.; Eastern Religions: Hinduism, Buddhism, Taoism, Confucianism, Shinto, (section author: Oldstone, Jennifer), Duncan Baird Publishers, London, 2005.

2 Confucius, The Analects of Confucius, Trans. Leys, Simon, (1997), New York, London, W.W. Norton & Company. p. 67,68.

3-9 Ibid

10 Lao Tzu, Tao Te Ching. Trans. Star, Jonathan, (2001) New York, Penguin.

11 Chuang Tzu, The Way of Chuang Tzu. trans.: Merton, Thomas, (1992) Boston & London, Shambhala. p. 219

12 Gach, Gary, The Complete Idiot‘s Guide to Understanding Buddhism, (2004) New York, Alpha. p. 97

13 Sogyal (Rinopoche), The Tibetan Book of Living and Dying. (2002) New York, HarperSanFrancisco,(HarperCollinsPublishers). P.99

14 Ibid p. 101,102

15 wikipedia

16 Choi, Hong Hi, Taekwondo, (1972). Cedar Knolls, N.J. Wehman Brothers Inc. p.17

17 Samuel Robert T.; The Samurai: The Philosophy of Victory, Barnes & Noble, New York, 2004.

18 http://www.bugei.com/virtue.html

19 Wikipedia

Unit 4: European Concepts of Warriorship

Many of this author‘s generation, and the generations preceding it, received a very Euro-centric education. History began in Greece, which, with its great philosophers and universal ideal of education, was a highly evolved society by comparison to the rest of Europe. Greece lead to Rome and eventually into the remainder of Europe as they caught up in civilization (a loosely used term). Although this is the wrong approach to world history, our discussion of European concepts of warriorship can follow this familiar path. Most specifically, the Greek city-state of Sparta had very solid terms of what it meant to be a warrior.

300, released by Warner Brothers in 2006, was a widely popular retelling of the Battle of Thermopylae. The film was based on the comic cook of the same name written by Frank Miller. Ask which students have seen the movie and get their response to it. Enquire: ―What portions of this version of the legend do think were true to life in Sparta?‖

Following their answers the instructor can point out these differences between fact and fiction:

Film: 300 stand against more than a million. Life: 300 Spartans plus a few hundred other Greeks, totalling roughly a thousand, stood against a quarter of a million Persians - still impressive.

Film: Elephants, rhinoceroses are included in the battle. Life: It is highly unlikely that they faced anything other common soldiers (some on horseback). But Xerxes really did have `mystical` royal guard called the Immortals.

Film: Spartans fought nearly naked. Life: Obviously body armour would have been considered a must.

Something left out of the movie - Bisexuality was the norm in Sparta. Most men were involved in homosexual activities prior to experiencing women. This is important to note because it rebukes any prejudicial thinking regarding homosexuals‘ inability to be tough warriors. `Hollywood, however, did not seem to be on board with that idea. Shortly before, the film, Alexander, was released which depicts the Warrior-King as a bisexual, as he was in true history.

Surprising truths in the film:

The Persians succeeded in taking the pass but sustained losses disproportionate to those of the Greeks. Nevertheless, in doing so, they conquered Boeotia and Attica, burning Athens in the process. However, the fierce resistance of the Spartan-led army had given the Allies valuable time to prepare the defence of the Peloponnesus, and later that year the Athenian-led navy was able to win a decisive naval battle that would do much to determine the outcome of the war. The Greek victory at the Battle of Salamis prevented a naval invasion of the Peloponnesus, and therefore prevented the completion of the Persian conquest. Demoralised, Xerxes retreated to Asia, leaving a force in Greece under Mardonius to complete the subjugation of the Greeks. The following year, however, a full-strength Allied army defeated the Persian force at the Battle of Plataea, ending the expansion of the Persian Empire into Europe.1

Life in Sparta began harshly and was not alleviated until old age. Newborns deemed weak or disfigured really were tossed over a cliff. Young boys really were taken from their families at the age of seven to be trained as warriors.

The women of Sparta were as tough and athletic as portrayed in the film. Although Sparta was a society that indulged in rampant slavery, Spartan women were surprisingly liberated and were encouraged to be involved in martial training, even wrestling with the boys. The rest of Greece was not nearly as liberal with women‘s rights. Athenians insisted that their women stay at home. Nevertheless, these same chauvinists were quick to admire the athletic shapes of the Spartan women. Aristophanes includes a comment about their firm shapeliness in his comedy, Lysistrata.

(An interesting note regarding the Lysistrata strategy: A present-day Lysistrata played out in the town of Pereira, Colombia, in September 2006 when a group of gangsters' wives and girlfriends declared a sex strike to force their partners to participate in a disarmament program.).

It is absolutely true that the main goal of the Spartan society was to be a perfect fighting machine.

An explanation of the Spartan lifestyle is clearly given in the BBC documentary, The Spartans. It is recommended that the class view a 3o minute portion of this film from 24 min. 30 sec. to 54 min. 20 sec. - Episode 1, Chapter 4: Society of Sheer Brutality to Chapter 6: Leonidas‟s Last Stand. It is included with this package.

The Remainder of Greece

Initiating a discussion on modern MMA competitions such as the Ultimate Fighting Championships and Pride fighting may surprise the students and catch their attention. Find out who the fans are; who are their favourites and why; and which techniques impress them. Also, ask if any one is familiar with their origins; when did these competitions start and who devised them? Finally, introduce the discussion about Greece as a matter of giving credit were credit is due.

Although the Spartans were the heralded as a magnificent warrior society, they did not have a monopoly on warrior elements. The other city-states of Greece had great respect for the virtues of the warrior. Much of their literature and esteemed dramas revolved around warriors and heroes. Common Greek myths, as well as, Homer‘s The Iliad and The Odyssey were epic tales of warriorship, praising such heroes as Pericles, Hercules, Theseus, Jason, and Achilles. The great warrior king, Alexander, who conquered most of the known world (second only to Genghis Khan) claimed to be a descendent of both Hercules and Achilles.

Indeed, even the name Westerners have chosen to denote the arts and sciences of combat stem from the Greek god, Aries - Martial Arts refer to his Roman name, Mars. The Greek Martial Art is Pankration. It was a part of the original Olympic Games. As an Olympic sport it was only ―watered-down‖ in that biting and eye- gouging were prohibited. Otherwise, it was system which incorporated all manners of technique. In fact, its name translates to ‗all-strengths (techniques)―. In this way the sport derivative resembles the MMA competitions so popular today. There are few techniques seen in these modern contests that were not present in Ancient Greece. Despite the popularity of this sport among the warrior elite of Ancient Greece, it held a more important status in Greek life. It was the training methodology of the Greek armies. The troops of Alexander the Great were all trained in Pankration, and this system evolved as they made contact with foreign warriors and adopted their techniques.

At this point, the instructor should give a brief summary of the life of Alexander the Great. Demonstrate Alexander‘s battle strategies which allowed him to defeat armies of greater numbers. Then, compare Alexander‘s ideology to our concept of honour. Next, do the same with the nobility (and-or lack thereof) portrayed in the heroes of Greek mythology.

Alexander the Great

Emperor, general, diplomat, warrior, dreamer - Alexander of Macedonia was all these. His legacy is told by the writings of the historians of his time; but also by the footprints of his conquests: the blond hair and blue eyes of the descendents of his soldiers in areas of the world were only dark features are indigenous and in the many cities named Alexandria found in Europe, West Asia and Africa.

For your research, several books can be found with details of this chronology of Alexander‘s life:

In 336 B.C. Philip is murdered and his son, Alexander ascends to the throne. Alexander immediately gains support from the Greek states.

335 Alexander campaigns in the Balkans. Memonon counterattacks in Asia. Fall of Thebes/

334 Alexander lands in Asia. Wins the Battle of Grancius River and captures Miletu. The siege of Halicarnassus begins.

333 Alexnder conquers Caria, Lycia, Pamphylia and Phrygia. Memnon dies. Later that year Alexander begins his campaign in West-Cilicia with the Battle of Issus.

332 Alexander begins the seige of Tyre early that year. In the spring he destroys th Persian fleet. By summer, Tyre is under his rule and he begins the seige of Gaza. He moves on to Jeruselum and eventually Egypt, as well.

331 Alexander is impressed with Egyptian society and founds Alexandria there. Alexander continues to conquer the neighbouring areas including all of Mesopotamia and Susa.

Over the next 7 years Alexander conquers virtually all of the Middle East holding and empire that stretches from Egypt through to the edge of India.

323 Alexander the Great dies. Only Genghis Khan has conquered more of the world.

In Nick McNalty‘s book, Alexander The Great, he offers this respectful epilogue:

As a leader of men Alexander of Macedon was able to take a force of thousands of men on a journey the end of which he had only dreamed of. These tough and experienced soldiers trusted their young king with their lives and their futures and, as far as it was possible, he never betrayed that trust.

Alexander had the skill to know when it was the right time to make himself available to the common soldier. He know when to go amongst the men after a battle, when to talk to the wounded, when to let them talk and boast of their exploits to him. He know, by instance, what they wanted from him. They wanted a man, they wanted a brave man, but they also needed someone who touched them and whom they could touch -- someone they could relate to. For when they grew old they could tell their children and their grandchildren… “I once touched the cloak of Alexander the Great” and they knew they would be honoured for it. Alexander know his men.

He understood that people do not need to be threatened after they had been defeated. It is better to coax defeated people into believing that what the conqueror offers will be better than what went before.

Alexander tried to keep the political systems of the defeated in place and even left in power the politicians who were there before he came. Like his father, he know how to make his enemies respect him.

Alexander could be totally ruthless. He had no problem with the wholesale killing of some garrisons, the sale of women into slavery, the sacking of some cities from time to time, if it was warranted by the mores of the time. If men betrayed his trust they could expect to die and not to die easily. In this he was a man of his times.

Was he a great general? Alexander was without a doubt helped by the military machine his father had created before his death, but his planning and forethought, his skilful reading of the temper of the enemy and of his own warriors made the decisions he made in the battlefield incomparable. He understood by instinct when to attack and when to feint, where to probe and when to fall back.

He had honed his army to react in an instant in the confusion and terror of battle and to turn events in a moment.

Was he brave? Alexander was unquestionably brave enough to lead from the front of a battle into the terrible carnage of hand-to-hand fighting. Leaders were expected to expose themselves to the danger that a common soldier might confront

but the fact that he was wounded four or five times, at least, attests to the fact that he did not shirk that test.

Did he have a large vision? Absolutely. Alexander hoped that by his conquests he could unite all the people he ruled as one nation. His hope was to break down the perception of the nations and tribes he conquered as separate and to rule them as a unified people without differences of race or state. He wanted them to see themselves as one nation united by a supreme king.

He may never have achieved that vision, but even as he made the journey towards home he was planning his next campaign into Arabia… If he had lived… Who knows how the world might have looked now?

He had a dangerous temper when he had drunk too much. He favoured friends perhaps more than was wise, he was single-minded, not to say arrogant, to the point where, from time to time, he did not consult those around him. He listened to those he trusted but in the end he went his own way. He could be cruel, arrogant and dismissive of women.

He towered over the events of his life and everything and everyone who was a part of it… the generals, the kings, the princes, the leaders, the people… were all in his shadow. 2

The Remainder of Europe;

―Mine honour is my life; both grow in one; Take honour from me, and my life is done.‖ -The Duke of Norfolk; Richard II, Shakespeare 3

In his book, Chivalry, Maurice Keen, sites example of literature which inspired the development of codes of honour among the knighthood. Early in Chivalry, Keen sites Geoffroi de Charny‘s Livre de Chevalerie, as a case in point,

―[Charny] offers us a model of the chivalrous man which we ought to be able to recognize from real life, without having to probe questions of internal motivation on which historical sources throw inadequate light. We shall not be disappointed in the historical quest for men of the right stamp, and we shall find that the artists who drew word portraits of them were clearly conscious of the existence of a conventional model of the preux chevalier to which the outlines of their picture should conform.‖ 4

Charny is perhaps the most suitable source for reference to the European knights‘ code of honour. Charny‘s summation of chivalry is not simply a witness‘ account of scholarly observation. Charny was member of this noble order; a knight of the order of the star. ―Charny is an important witness on all matters relating to chivalry, in particular, because he lived the life of knighthood in a manner thought ideal by his contemporaries. He played out this role in nearly two decades of Anglo- French warfare, dying appropriately in the swirl of battle at Poitiers (1356), one of the most famous fields of the Hundred Years War. He was the bearer of the sacred banner of the knights of France, the owner of the Shroud of Turin. His several books discuss chivalry not from the perspective of a clerical outsider, but out of the experience of a practicing knight of intense piety.‖ 5

Keen, Charny and others provide us with insight in to early European concepts of warrior-ship. Let us review some examples form this canon of literature, which proves the fore-mentioned traits are indeed imperative to the defining global concepts.

Obligation

Obligation or a willingness to fulfill one‘s duties refers to a repayment of kindness or charity received. This includes an obligation to friends who have stood by you and those who given the knights employment, such as a king or a lord. It will also refer to recognizing a duty to the church as a representative of God, to whom they owe their lives.

―From a very early stage we find the romantic authors habitually associating together certain qualities which they clearly regarded as the classic virtues of good knighthood: prouesse, loyaute, largesse (generosity), courtoisie, and franchise (the free and frank bearing is visible testimony to the combination of good birth with virtue).‖ 6

―The warrior class, whose martial function, according to medieval writers, was to defend the patria and the Church. Sometimes it is used to encapsulate a code of values apposite to this order or estate. Chivalry cannot be divorced from the martial world of the mounted warrior: it cannot be divorced from aristocracy, because knights commonly were men of high lineage: and from the middle of the twelfth century on it very frequently carries or religious overtones.‖7 ―… to wage war to assist in the defence of the honor and inheritance of their kinsmen, or like those who stay to serve in the wars to defend the honor and inheritance if their lord who maintains them, for the faith and loyalty which they owe to their lord cannot be better demonstrated than by serving him and assisting him loyally in such urgent need as that of war which is so grave as to put person, land and resources all as risk.‖ 8

Justice

Early it was mentioned that justice refers to choosing right rather than wrong. Texts discussing the ethics of knights make references to justice, such as this one from Keen, ―much of his duty comes under the general heading of maintaining law and justice…‖ 9 but there is little mention of how to determine the difference. Nevertheless, even if instruction in the application of justice is lacking, the value of justice is still realized through the various references to it.

Courage

Probably the easiest to define of the three tenets of honour, courage is often positioned matter-of-factly within paragraphs describing the knightly duties and/or lifestyle: One man in every thousand (ex mille electus) ‗the most loyal, most strong and of most noble courage‘, was chosen to be a knight (miles). This man was equipped with a horse, ‗the most noble of beasts‘, and the best armour that could be had: he was given a squire to serve him, and the common people were set under him to till the land and sustain him and his beasts. From this beginning, Lull says, chivalry has endured continually down to his own day, and it is the duty of every knight to train up his son from childhood with a view to discharging those functions for which chivalry was originally instituted. This should not just mean training in horsemanship and the martial arts: there is more to chivalry than that. Indeed, its ethics and science ought to be written in books, and there ought to be schools of instruction in chivalry just as there are schools in which clerks learn their doctrine.‖ 10

―… no one can travel so far without being many times in physical danger. We should for this reason honor such men-at-arms who at great expense, hardship, and grave peril undertake to travel to and see distant countries and strange things, although, to tell the truth, among all those who are intent on distant journeys, there are some who make a habit of it and who always want to go and see new and strange things and do not stay anywhere long and cannot find and take part in armed exploits as often as others who do not seek out such very distant journeys and who stay longer in one place and wait for the opportunity to perform great deeds of arms in war.‖ 11

―In this vacation one should therefore set one‘s heart and mind on winning honour, which endures for ever, rather than on winning profit and booty, which one can lose within one single hour. And yet one should praise and value those men-at- arms who are able make war on, inflict damage on, and win profit from their enemies, for they cannot do it without strenuous effort and great courage. But again I shall repeat: he who does best is most worthy.‖ 12

―And while the cowards have a great desire to live and a great fear of dying, it is quite the contrary for the men of worth who do not mind whether they live or die, provided that their life be good enough for them to die with honour.‖ 13

Martial Training/Prowess

Prowess in the arts and sciences of warfare is not some natural gift, nor is it acquired simply through proper upbringing with proper role models, as other virtues may be acquired. It requires a considerable amount of discipline and dedication. Thus, while its practical application to a warrior is obvious, it demonstrates other sound qualities that can be considered admirable and even noble. Within the old texts of chivalry proving one‘s martial skill seems to gain him considerable esteem.

―Gales went traveling, and was engaged in the wars of the French against the English: it was on the day that he unhorsed in single combat an English captain who had discomfited many Frenchmen that he was made a knight… The men whom Geoffrey de Charny describes as going from strength to strength in joust and war, loving loyally, and traveling to far countries in quest of martial experience.‖ 14

―William‘s achievements in these engagements steadily added to his rising reputation as a knight of mark, as the horses and prisoners which he took at them added his wealth. His prowess was so widely known that when in 1182 he fell out simultaneously with young Henry and his father (rumour had been circulating of an affair between William and Queen Margaret of France) both the Count of Flanders and the Duke of Burgundy offered him lands and a pension if he would enter their service.‖15 (Both of the fore-mentioned also speak of courage.)

―Hrabanus Maurus, back in the ninth century, tells of how young men in his day were placed in noble households and brought up there to endure physical rigours and to acquires the arts of horsemanship: we have seen how, later, William the Marshal and Arnold of Ardres were placed in such household, to be instructed in good manners and in the martial arts… The developments that we have been tracing, in arms and fighting techniques were as would be bound to foster a sense of identity among those who, by one or another could manage to fit themselves out as mounted warriors. Their skills and their training set them apart from other men. Ties of upbringing are always a potent social force, and these were easily forged where, as in this case, training and fosterage were so closely linked. Upbringing in a household helped also to develop a common sense of style in living among those who experienced it. No doubt there were plenty of men who – by watching their masters, by exercising their horses and by learning experience of service in an inferior rank – managed by their initiative to edge a way into the cavalier‘s world when opportunity offered.‖ 16

―… men-at-arms … worthy of praise in terms of the kind of pursuit of arms they are willing to undertake. … physically strong and skilful (agile) and who conduct themselves properly and pleasantly … courteous and well mannered toward others … no desire to engage in any evil undertaking, but are so eager to perform deeds of arms at jousts … all goes well for them they will usually win their contest or be in the

running for the prize. … for all deeds of arms merit praise for all those perform well in them. For I maintain that there are no small feats of arms, but only good and great ones, although some feats of arms of greater worth than others. Therefore, I say that he who does more is of greater worth.‖ 17

―… as they increase in years, so they increase in prowess and in skill in the art of arms for peace and for war. … through their great zeal and determination, learn the true way to practice the military arts until they, on every occasion, know how to strive toward the most honourable course of action.‖ 18

Responsibility

―First Hugh dressed Saladin‘s beard and hair, and then he brought him to a bath: this is a bath of courtesy and bounty, he said, and should recall to you the baptism of the child, for you must come of it as clean of sin as the infant from the front. Then he brought him to affair bed, to signify the repose of paradise, which is what every knight must strive to win by his ‗chivalry‘. Raising him, he dressed him first in a white robe, signifying the cleanness of the body; over that he threw a scarlet cloak, to remind him of the knight‘s duty to be ready to shed his blood at need in defence of God‘s church. Then he drew on brown stockings, to remind him of the earth in which he must lie in the end, and to prepare in life for death. After that he bound about Saladin‘s waist a belt of white, signifying virginity, and that he should hold back lust in his loins. Then came the gold spurs, to show that the knight must be as swift to follow God‘s commandments as the pricked charger. Last, he girded him with the sword, whose two sharp edges are to remind the new knight that justice and loyalty must go together, and that it is the knight‘s task to defend the poor from the strong oppressor. There should have followed one thing more, the collee, a light blow from the hand of him who had girded the new knight, but this Hugh, as Saladin‘s prisoner, would not give: he could not strike his ‗master‘. But he did give him four commandments to which a newly made knight must be bound for all his life following. He must not be consenting to any false judgment, or be a party in any way to treason; he must honour all women and damsels and be ready to aid them to the limit of his power; he must hear, when possible, a mass every day, and must fast every Friday in remembrance of Christ‘s passion.‖ 19

―Of the four commandments that Hugh gives him, the two first, that the knight must eschew false judgment and treason and must honour and aid womankind, recall two themes of romantic narrative. What we are hearing about, though, belongs to the world of reality, not that of illusion: we know countless men did go through ritual similar to that the poem describes in order to become knights, and its popularity attests that its interpretation of the symbolism of the rite must have been widely understood. It offers an excellent instruction to what men understood chivalry to mean.‖ 20 (Justice also seems to be a consideration in two fore-mentioned paragraphs.)

―He must also defend his temporal lord, and protect the weak, women, widows,

and orphans. He should exercise his body continually, by hunting wild beasts — the hart, the boar and the wolf – and by seeking jousts and tournaments.‖ 21 (This also speaks indirectly of courage.)

Of course, often reference is made to several of the martial virtues in one passage, such as the following examples:

―Loyalty and prowess, hardiness and courtoisie, are all qualities as firmly underlined by William‘s biographer as they are by later on chivalry: they are qualities instinctively associated with living, not just with knightly fiction.‖ 22

―This Tortulfus is described as one skilled in war, proof against all its rigours, fearful of nothing save the loss of his honour. ‗Thus‘, it is said, ‗he brought nobility upon himself and all his race.‘ The connection between ancestral deeds and the standing in dignity and honour of a lineage which is the special contribution of this kind of literature to chivalrous ideology could not be more clearly expressed.‖23

The instructor can choose literary sources which tell of the exploits of warriors who defined the fore mentioned characteristics. A personal favourite of mine is Alexandre Dumas‘ The Three Musketeers. As well as presenting the nobility of the champions of the story in the aforementioned terms, by examining the revisions to the story made for more recent films we can gage how society has changed its thoughts on ethical behaviour. For example; D‘Artagnon‘s deception which tricks Lady D‘Winter into sharing her bed with him has been removed in the modern tellings as it is no longer seen as a mere bit of mischief. Other literary topics can include the stories of King Arthur, Sir Gawain and The Green Knight, King Richard, Finn MacHuil, El Cid, etc.

It should be noted, warriorship in Europe did not necessarily disappear with the end of the Romantic periods. It may be an appropriate time to remind the students of the point made in unit 1 that some would argue that Fredric the Great of Prussia was a modern example of a true warrior.

Scandinavia

The mention of Vikings usually conjures images of enormous, barbaric plunderers pillaging every location through which they pass. There is some truth to this Hollywood vision. The Vikings were indeed fierce when they had made decisions to ransack a vessel, village or larger community. Mostly, however, the Vikings were farmers in the earlier stages of their history. Vikings did engage in trading, hunting and fishing, but they thought of themselves primarily as farmers. Despite their agricultural lifestyle, they were known by other nations as being great warriors and exceptional ship builders. An abundance of limber for the ships and iron for the tools to build such vessels aided their superior carpentry skills.

It was not until late in the 8th century that Vikings sought territorial expansion.

The Northern and Western British Isles became frequent targets of attack. Danish Vikings were just as likely to attack they eastern coast. Trading occurred in some locations but more of often it was raiding and extortion that supplied the Vikings with their needs. Some historians speculate that the bulk of Viking pillaging was done for food. Scandinavia, it is suspected, was suffering a food shortage. An average Viking needed three pounds of sustenance per day and, included with the amounts need to feed their horses on their missions, at least 11 tonnes of food per day would have been required to feed an army of one thousand.

In raiding they employed fear and chaos as part of their strategy. In and out quickly with much noise and fire kept the people of less fortified villages so concerned with keeping themselves and their families safe that they barely noticed the massive theft until the terror was gone. Even their famous ships were designed to allow for port entry and exit without the wasted time of turning the ships around.

Eventually, their raids and trading missions increased to include Spain and parts of Northern Africa. In raiding they employed fear and chaos as part of their strategy. Others moved into the region along the coast of France, south of the English Channel. Homes were established there and this lead to the founding of Normandy (Land of the Northern Men). In time the Normans became a people unto themselves and there region became recognized as a Duchy. The Duke, William, son of Rollo, the founder of Normandy, claimed he was appointed heir of the throne of England by King Edward (the Confessor) after Edward‘s death. His only opposition was Harold Godwinson, Earl of Wessex, whose army William devastated in the Battle of Hasting. Godwinson was killed in the one day battle. A Viking descendent took the throne as King William the Conqueror.

Other Viking tribes began to head West; first into Iceland, then Greenland and eventually into Canada. Unlike the Normans, who became more and more European with each generation, the westward travelers remained Vikings. They did not adopt Christianity nor the knightly ways as did their kinsmen. They were brave adventurers who handed down their understanding of honour through their stories rather than through commandments nor documented oaths of the knights.

The mythological literature relates the legends of heroes and kings, as well as supernatural creatures. These clan and kingdom founding figures possessed great importance as illustrations of proper action or national origins. The heroic literature may have fulfilled the same function as the national epic in other European literatures, or it may have been more nearly related to tribal identity. Many of the legendary figures probably existed, and generations of Scandinavian scholars have tried to extract history from myth in the sagas. Sometimes the same hero resurfaces in several forms depending on which part of the Germanic world the epics survived such as Völund and Sigurd, and probably Beowulf. Other notable heroes are Hagbard, Starkad, Ragnar Lodbrok, Sigurd Ring, Ivar Vidfamne and Harald Hildetand. Notable are also the shieldmaidens who were ordinary women who had chosen the path of the warrior. These

women function both as heroines and as obstacles to the heroic journey. 24

Among these legends were the mythological tales of the Warrior-God, Odin, and his son, Thor, the God of Thunder - the most important Gods in the Scandinavian pantheon.

Human heroes included berserker warriors from which the Vikings have acquired their stereotype. The Berserker was said to be one who fought with the warrior madness. In battle a berserker lost all sense of time and space and flew into a killing rage. His unpredictability made he lethal, not to a single opponent but to numerous foes at one time. The term is still used today to describe someone who flies onto a blinding violent rage.

There is evidence to suggest that berserkers were not just a mere folktale. Certain historians believe that some Vikings may have consumed psychoactive substances, such as certain herbs, mushrooms or toad skins (bufotenine is contained in the skin of rare toads, which has a hallucinogenic affect). Bog myrtle was sometimes used in the Scandinavian alcoholic beverages. It had psychedelic affects but had the additional side-effect of a hangover.

The substances could have lead to a savage hysteria that could have been perceived as spirit possession; especially that of animal spirits. The wolf and the bear were commonly associated with the berserker warriors.

Certain parallels to such warriors exist in other cultures. Within the Bible is mention of King David‘s bitter warriors who were said to fly into such rage. Old Irish tales, such as The Tain, speak of crazed warriors foaming at the mouth. A comparsion can also be made to Romanian legends of werewolves, as it was told that certain wolf- like warriors actually became wolves at night. Kveld-Ulf, whose name means ―evening wolf‖ was one such character in the sage of Egil. Connections can still be made today with comparison to our modern literature: a certain Canadian X-man is known to exhibit this same behaviour… but that is a discussion for a latter unit.

* Note of interest: the U.S. government has been accused of having soldiers in Vietnam ingest certain chemicals without their knowledge as an experiment which could lead procuring this violent rage and using it against their enemies.

* * *

The most famous human hero of ―Viking literature‖ is Beowulf. The oldest copy of this yarn is written in Old English; but it is set in Scandinavia with detail of its people. As such, many historians, but certainly not all, believe it to be a retelling of Scandinavian legend passed down through oral tradition. For a full comprehension of this epic poem, one should read one of the many fine translations; In the meantime this brief summary is offered:

The Danes are plagued by a monster, Grendal, who attacks their great hall, Heorot, frequently; maiming and killing many Danes over the course of a months. Their King Hroogar sends word that his people are in need of help. This word travels to Beowulf, hero of the Geats with whom Hroogar is familiar. When Beowulf arrives the king welcomes him as family. The king‘s aid is not so welcoming, rather he challenges Beowulf‘s ascertain of being a great warrior and hero, despite the presence of Beowulf‘s many followers - warriors themselves who obviously respect and admire him.

The aid tells of the story he had heard that Beowulf was unable to beat… in swimming contest, as though made him less capable of being a hero. Beowulf admits to the loss and tells the full account of his defeat which involves him detained by several sea monsters until he is able to defeat them all.

Beowulf and his men agree to stay in Heorot for the night and await the attack of Grendal. Upon the monster‘s horrifying arrival, Beowulf attacks without a weapon; but nevertheless, manages to sever one of Grendal‘s arms from his body. Shortly after the monster dies.

Informed next that the monster‘s mother will be enraged and undoubtedly attack the Danes for this offence. Beowulf set of for her cavernous, underwater lair. This battle lasts much longer and Beowulf must use his sword; but in the end he is again victorious.

As a heralded hero, Beowulf eventually picks up the mantle of king from the childless, Hroogar. Several years into his reign, the community is again attacked. This time by a fire-breathing dragon. In this battle, Beowulf is again successful in defeating his adversary, but Beowulf, too, is mortally wounded. In his breathes, Beowulf declares his closest friend, Wiglaf to be the new king of the Danes. Wiglaf buries his friend by the sea.

Compare Beowulf's first two battles with his last, what are the major differences?

What are the instances wherein advice is given on qualities and/or behaviour for kings?

What are the instances wherein advice is given on qualities and/or behaviour for heroes/warriors?

Give your impressions on boasting as it used in the story? How is it different from today‘s perspective?

Discuss how the presence of monsters in the story may tell us about the perspectives and attitudes toward life, death, and intense emotions such as fear, hatred and passion.

No description is given of the creature Grendal. What possible purpose could there be for this?

In what way are their conflicting concepts of ethics, honour and /or spirituality within the story?

European Martial Arts:

While it is no surprise to historians or scholars of European history, others may be surprised to hear that martial arts are very nearly as prevalent in European heritage as they are in Asian heritage. As well as Pankration, there are other ―all encompassing‖ systems of defence. By ―all encompassing‘ I refer to systems that include striking, kicking, grappling (both fine and grand grappling), weapons and occasionally even pressure points. These include (but are not necessarily limited to Buza, Savate(although it is primarily kicking), Sveborand, Systema and Zipota.

Styles which are primarily variations of wrestling are Scottish Back Hold,, Lancashire Wrestling, Catch Wrestling, Cornish Wrestling, Lutta Corsa, Lucha Canaria, Sambo, Glima, and Gouren. Although some of these styles vary in their starting positions, differences in their techniques are rare.

Most styles which involve weapons can be broken down into those which involve sticks: Quarterstaff, Bataireacht, Stav, Jogo Do Pau, Juego Del Palo and Baton Francais; and those which are different styles of sword fencing: Italian (La Scuola della Spada Italiana), German (Deutsche Fechtschule ); and the English style of Fencing which derives its name from ―defence―. Just as in wrestling the various styles of stick-fighting and the various styles of fencing differ only a little. For example; Italian fencing is much more circular as it was influenced by the influx of Moore‘s in Sicily who had circluar stick fighting techniques. Western archery and Jousting are, of course, other weapons-based European systems with a proud heritage.

It should be noted that the two Wrestling styles of the Olympics, Greco-Roman and Freestyle, developed in Europe, adopting the most scientifically, biomechanical sound techniques from the other wrestling styles. Similarly, Irish Boxing is what has developed into the Olympic and professional sports of Boxing.

A Hands-On Seminar:

Chapters of The Society for Creative Anachronism (S.C.A.) and/or similar groups can be found in most major cities around Canada. The can be contacted to do brief hands-on seminars for the class displaying the various types of European weaponry and teaching the proper use of each. In the Windsor area, I recommend contacting Laurie MacNevin (nee Gibson), M.A. whose graduate thesis involved a detailed study of ancient European fighting manuals. Also, Ms. MacNevin‘s husband, John MacNevin is a champion of medieval-style fencing and has expressed and willingness to include a workshop in his wife‗s seminar.

Unit 4 -Endnotes:

1 Wikipedia

2 McMarty, Nick; Alexander the Great: The Real-Life Story of the World‘s Greatest Warrior King, Gramercy Books, New York, 2004

3 Shakespeare, William, King Richard II from The Globe Illustrated Shakespeare, (1986) New York, Crown Publishers, Inc. p.450 (act I, scene I)

4 Keen, Maurice, Chivalry. (1984). New Haven, London, Yale University Press. P.18

5 Charny, Geoffroi de, The Book of Chivalry (Le Livre de Chevalrie). (1996) trans.: Kaeuper, Richard W., Kennedy, Elspeth, Philadelphia, Penn. p. vii

6 Keen, Maurice, Chivalry. (1984). New Haven, London, Yale University Press. p. 2

7 Ibid

8 Charny, Geoffroi de, The Book of Chivalry (Le Livre de Chevalrie). (1996) trans.: Kaeuper, Richard W., Kennedy, Elspeth, Philadelphia, Penn. p. 89

9 Keen, Maurice, Chivalry. (1984). New Haven, London, Yale University Press. p. 11

10 Ibid p. 9

11 Charny, Geoffroi de, The Book of Chivalry (Le Livre de Chevalrie). (1996) trans.: Kaeuper, Richard W., Kennedy, Elspeth, Philadelphia, Penn. p. 91

12 Ibid p. 99

13 Ibid p. 127

14 Keen, Maurice, Chivalry. (1984). New Haven, London, Yale University Press. p.19

15 Ibid p. 21

16 Ibid p. 26

17 Charny, Geoffroi de, The Book of Chivalry (Le Livre de Chevalrie). (1996) trans.: Kaeuper, Richard W., Kennedy, Elspeth, Philadelphia, Penn. p. 85, 87

18 Ibid p.101

19 Lull, Ramon, Ordene to Chevalier. Lines 106-303

20 Keen, Maurice, Chivalry. (1984). New Haven, London, Yale University Press. p. 8

21 Ibid p. 9

22 Ibid p. 21

23 Ibid p. 33

24 Wikipedia

Unit 5: North and South

American

Concepts of

Warriorship

Unit 5: North and South American Concepts of Warriorship

Today, Native North Americans often identify themselves as a united group of related heritage. In truth, under the heading of Native North Americans falls numerous nations or tribes. It should not be assumed that any examination of a cultural aspect of one nation is representative of all native peoples. Certainly there are shared characteristics between all the groups, in particular, each is noted for its spiritual connection to nature; however, a cultural examination of early native lifestyles is an enormous study carrying vast diversity. An introductory course, such as this, cannot begin to have a grand enough scope to properly address the warrior concepts of each nation. Hopefully, the student will be temporarily satisfied with the author‘s selections. In this unit, we begin our study with the Plains Indians since much of their warrior heritage has been recorded and, or, at least restored. The Plains Indians include several nations: Arapaho, Assiniboine, Blackfoot, Cheyenne, Comanche, Crow, Gros Ventre, Kiowa, Lakota, Lipan, Pawnee Plains Apache (or Kiowa Apache), Plains Cree, Sarsi, Sioux, Shoshone, and Tonkawa. This may appear to be highly inclusive, but consider the number of Native North American groups neglected in this introductory examination. Among them: Apache (non-plains), Huron, Inuit, Iroquois, Navajo, Maliseet, Mic-Mac, Mohawk, Ojibwa, Seminole, Shawnee, etc.

The course designer has chosen the Plains Native nations based on his own research. Should the instructor be more familiar with a different nation or tribe, she/he is welcome to replace portions of this lesson with information regarding that nation.

Boys ten or more years of age compelled to take long runs, to go without food and water for long periods of time, to roll in the snow, to dive icy water, and to stay awake and alert for hours on end. As they grew older they took their runs at noon, when the sun was boiling hot. Later still, they were given sacred sweat baths and made to purify themselves in preparation for war. They learned how to throw the lance, and to dodge arrows by spinning or dropping down, to take advantage of any cover, to shoot rapidly from a crouched position, to be able to ride with only their knees guiding the horse, and to swing the shield so as to give the least possible target to an enemy. Among the Sioux, the eyes of the young men were always fixed on the tribe‟s sacred water bag stick which would be carried by them when they were invited to go on their first raiding party. The aspiring warrior was trained never to show cowardice, and any such indication gave him a name others never let him forget. No coward ever became a warrior leader. So young men were placed in situations which would test their courage and alertness to the limit. Once in a “rare” while there was a failure, a boy who didn‟t have the stuff in him for was and hunting. For him there was no middle ground; he had to put on women‟s clothing and live his life as a woman. He was not, however, totally scorned, and now and then one of the failures would become the finest in his village. 1

The lifestyle and child rearing practices of the Plains Indians offers an interesting paradox. As the aforementioned excerpt expresses, children of the plains began their warrior training in their infancy. This may seem to imply a harshness in contrast to the childhood experienced by most descendents of other cultures. On the contrary, native children of this region were allowed to be children. By some perspectives, this may be in contrast to the mainstream western culture. Children were rarely disciplined. Instead, they were permitted to run about freely and many of their wants were indulged. How different from mainstream culture wherein children are often told ―stop running around,‖ and ―behave yourself,‖ as well as encouraged to grow up by parents who soon after remark despairingly, ―they grow up so fast.‖ Children were expected to learn proper behaviour. Lessons came in the form of fables at an early age and entertaining lectures shortly thereafter. Children were more often asked to behave rather than being told. They played games, naturally; and those games were actually rudimentary methods of training.

As early as four years old, children were given responsibility over their own possessions (with some guidance); this even included a bow and arrows for the boys. The father began to teach his son how to use the weapons, both as a matter of survival and as a matter of tribal pride. Devotion to one‘s heritage was one of the staples of their ethical code.

Parents encouraged the qualities of spirituality, pride, respect for elders, conformance to the tribal code of ethics and to the standard rules of etiquette. Every mother sang instructive lullabies which included lessons in morals and bravery. Tribal historians taught history, and other elders gave instructions in national loyalty. 2

Prior to the European arrival battles between various tribes were infrequent. The irresponsible annihilation of the buffalo by the settlers lead to shortages which increased the frequency of battles between tribes and settlers. Even before this period, the Plains Indians had organized rituals of warfare. Warriors adorned both themselves and their horses with war paint. As well as denote the symbols of one‘s tribes to be recognized in battle, there were spiritual beliefs attached to this practice. Certain symbols evoked spirits who would make a warrior less vulnerable and make his horse faster. The warriors were very connected to their horses and became exceptional riders. One tactic was to lower oneself down one side of the horse so that the horse appeared riderless. This allowed a rider to slip by or get close to an enemy. To get close enough to touch an enemy was considered a brave act worthy of merit; a ‗coup‘. Acts of bravery added up to many coups giving the warrior a greater status demonstrated by the feathers in a head dress.

As Native North Americans had an oral tradition prior to the invasion of 74

European settlers, we know little of how society evolved; rather what we know of the Plains Indians‘ society is based on the state of their society at about the time of the arrival of Europeans, and the dramatic ways their society changed as a result of this interloping.

Consider that we have discussed those attributes which Native North Americans of the early 1700‘s deemed admirable warrior qualities - heroes built reputations based on deeds which exemplified these attributes. Yet, unless you happen to be of Indian descent, it is unlikely that you can name native warrior-heroes that lived prior to the arrival of Europeans. Most famous Native Warriors became famous for their conflicts with the White man.

The instructor is encouraged to ask the students to list those Native warriors (not exclusive to the Plains Indian nations). Probable answers include Tecumseh, Geronimo, Cochise, Sitting Bull, Crazy Horse and Red Cloud. There are other famous Natives who may be mentioned, although they may not exactly fit our definition of a warrior: examples include Pocahontas, Black Elk and the Sundance Kid (part Native).

The instructor is further encouraged to share the history of two or more of the famed warriors first mentioned: Tecumseh, Geronimo, Cochise, Sitting Bull, Crazy Horse and/or Red Cloud. Chief Tecumseh of the Shawnee is an unusual case because, while he is known for battling with the U.S. troops, he did so in conjunction with other foreign forces; namely the British troops and the Canadian colonial farmers. If this course is being presented in the Southern Ontario region, particularly about the Windsor and Essex County area where Chief Tecumseh has heralded fame, a discussion of his history is imperative.

Oki Chi Taw

Unlike many other martial systems, the techniques of the Plains Indians did not exist as a systemized curriculum. In recent years, however, Chief Master Instructor George Lepine, has taken the martial system, Oki Chi Taw, of his ancestors, and structured it into a highly organized, digestible curriculum. The style is predominately that of the Cree, but most of the martial applications were common to all of the Plain Indian nations. Master Lepine teaches Oki Chi Taw at the Native Canadian Centre of Toronto. The name Oki Chi Taw stems from the Cree language for ―Worthy Young Men‖; that is, those deemed worthy to learn the way. If such men proved themselves in battle and acquired a number of horses, hides and other such material possessions, the elders of the tribe may have upgraded their status to Warrior, known in Cree as ‗Okichitawk‘. Interestingly, the name Okichitawk translates more directly as ‗one who is foolhardy‘ which denotes the ideal of reckless bravery so esteemed by the Cree. This martial art employees various weapons such as the knife, gun-bolt club and tomahawks. The description of one of the underlying principles of Oki Chi Taw, ―meet force with force‖ at first sounds contradictory to most martial arts. However; witnessing the martial applications first hand one recognizes the employment of circular force which destroys straight line attacks. In an interview with this author,

Master Lepine explained that Oki Chi Taw is a very aggressive, hard style whose applications require a high level of commitment from the students. [Oki Chi Taw] allows the martial artist to take their opponent down to the ground and finish out their adversary as quickly as possible and move on to the next attacker.‖ Herein commitment to the martial application and courage are necessary.―Due to this fact, unless a student embraces tolerance (humility- ‗Tapah-ti-mowin‖) the student will not recover well from their mistakes.‖ * The system also encourages students to make use of their surroundings and be prepared for an inconsistent environment as their ancestors would have been. These concepts are, of course, more difficult to relay in a limited space, but Master Lepine is optimistic that he may have outdoor training facilities, or at the very least, a much larger training hall in the near future. A current project of Master Lepine‘s is the publication of a book on the subject of Oki Chi Taw. Although he is has yet to complete the book, an examination of considerable scope, he was gracious enough to offer exerts from his initial draft to offer in this course. They contain, not only technical explanations of the style, but philosophical and spiritual underpinnings of the Plains Indians‘ warrior code. Rather than paraphrasing the information which Master Lepine offers so articulately, the course designer has opted to included these outtakes verbatim:

Historically, our warriors protected our communities and watched over us. They were truly respected by their respective tribes because they possessed physical, mental, and spiritual strength. One primary condition in being a warrior was that they had to be prepared to overpower the enemy and face death head-on. Native warriors have always been devoted to the survival of their people and their homeland. It was also understood that if required, a warrior would lay down their life for the preservation of their culture, for death to the native warrior was but another step in the advancement of life.

"Life is not separate from death. It only looks that way." - Blackfoot

Indigenous warriors do not fear death, but rather regard it as the ultimate sacrifice for their own and their people's continued survival. Indigenous families and communities have always honoured their warriors. Although some of events and ceremonies may vary from tribe to tribe, recognition of their accomplishments may have taken place through private family gatherings, or through public ceremonies.

The warrior seeks a path of wisdom and wisdom is the total sum of all of their personal experiences. In times of conflict, warriors had to learn how to survive, often using skills that were handed down through generations by their fathers, brothers, uncles, mothers, sisters, other family members as well as the warrior society. We thank you for your teachings and skills, for without it, we would be off our paths of success and enlightenment.

"We will be known forever by the tracks we leave." - Dakota

Historically, Aboriginal Warriors employed a very direct approach in the area of combat, thus achieving lethal results. Here are the four main objectives of Oki Chi Taw's. Keep in mind that they are also based on the 4 directions and what each

direction represents in an indigenous culture for a warrior.

East Represents - Balance, Confidence, Creativity South Represents - Strength, Focus, Success North Represents - Courage, Energy, Knowledge West Represents - Change, Choice, Proof

1. EAST: Locate, set up and develop a solid attack position 2. SOUTH: Challenge your opponent aggressively and bravely 3. NORTH: Control your opponent with surprise or overwhelming force 4. WEST: Takedown, finish out and move on to the next adversary

OKI CHI TAW The Seven Teachings

Oki Chi Taw has incorporated the 7 teachings honouring the traditional applications of our Grandfathers, which include Respect, Honesty, Love, Bravery, Truth, Humility and Wisdom. The purpose of the 7 Grandfather Teachings as well as embracing the structure and gift that comes with each ancestral teaching is an important one for Oki Chi Taw. As humans, we must maintain the emphasis of the importance of spirituality. By doing this, we allow the spirit to motivate us and keep us in balance of our body, mind and spirit. As we receive these traditional teachings on our journey, they will only help us discover our purpose as we learn from each one of these experiences and the challenge that may be before us.

By following and living these Seven Grandfather teachings of Respect, Honesty, Love, Bravery, Truth, Humility and Wisdom, only then will we be able to obtain the nourishment for strength, passion and the indomitable spirit of our ancestors.

Respect - / Meyo tota'wew to honour all of creation is to have respect. Showing regards for the value of persons or things through courteous consideration and appreciation. Honour our traditional roles and teachings. Honour our families, others, and ourselves. Don't hurt anything or anyone on the outside or the inside.

Honesty - / Kwuyusk wait siwin to walk through life with integrity is to know honesty. Being truthful and trustworthy. Tell the truth. Accept and act on truths through straightforward and appropriate communication.

Love - / Sake-hi-towin to know love is to know peace. Strong affection for another forming out of kinship or personal ties; attachments based upon devotion, admiration, tenderness, unselfish loyalty, benevolent concern. Feel and give absolute kindness for all things around you. To love yourself is to live at peace with the creator and in harmony with all creation.

Bravery - / Napeh Kasowin to face life with courage is to know bravery. The personal strength to face difficulties, obstacles and challenges. Have courage, make positive choices. Stand up for your convictions--show courage in communicating and decision-making.

Truth - / Tapwe'win to know of these things is to know the truth. Faithfully apply the teachings of our seven grandfathers and trust in the creator. Sincerity in action,

character, and utterance. Be faithful to fact and reality.

Humility - / Tapah-ti-mowin to accept yourself as a sacred part of creation is to know humility. Reflecting, expressing or offering in a spirit of deference or submission. Balance of equality with all of life. Recognize the human need for balance in life.

Wisdom - / Ayinese'win to cherish knowledge is to know wisdom: Sound judgment, ability to discern inner qualities and relationships. Use good sense and form a good attitude and course of action. Listen and use the wisdom of elders, tribal leadership and spiritual leaders.

Once the student warrior adorns these Seven Teachings, they will have acquired an abundance of knowledge and commitment to being warriors of peace. As a warrior of peace, you will not be afraid to step into darkness for you have come to know true success and personal victory.

Some quotes from various traditional and indigenous warriors of the Plains on how they saw themselves in times of conflict many years ago:

· Make my enemy strong; courageous and brave, for if I defeat him, I will not be ashamed.

· There is no death, only a change of worlds.

· When you are in doubt, be still, and wait; when doubt no longer exists for you, then go forward with courage.

· Sing your death song, and die like a hero going home.

· I have seen that in any great undertaking it is not enough for a man to depend simply upon himself.

· The ground on which we stand is sacred ground. It is the blood of our ancestors.

· It is easy to be brave from a distance. *

Oki Chi Taw has been recognized as an official martial art by the World Martial Arts Union. Master Lepine, who is now one of the Vice-presidents of the union, is often asked to demonstrate this art at their international exhibitions.

Should the instructor which delve more deeply into the spiritual applications of the Plains Indian Warriors or give more detail into their martial tactics, here are additional exerts provided by Master Lepine:

Spiritual Applications: General Explanations of Aboriginal Spirituality

In this section, we will provide the reader with a general understanding of Native Spirituality, Sacred Items and Medicines that still pose great significance throughout indigenous communities. Most indigenous belief systems rest upon many traditions that are thousands of years old. These traditions have developed gradually throughout time along side of a growing Aboriginal community.

Most of these teachings that are apart of this spirituality has been preserved for many generations. Despite the challenges Aboriginal spirituality has had, it has proven itself to be strong and vibrant and able to adapt to the new world while maintaining its essential beliefs and traditions.

We have included very general observations and descriptions pertaining to significant ceremonial and cultural items that are significant to Native Peoples. This information provides the reader with only a general explanation of what these traditional objects represent to Aboriginal People and the impact they have on their lives.

The FOUR Sacred Medicines; Tobacco - Sage - Cedar - Sweetgrass; The four sacred medicines are used in everyday life as well as in ceremony.

Tobacco

Traditional people say that tobacco is always first. It is used as an offering for everything and in every ceremony. Traditional tobacco was given to us so that we can communicate with the spirit world. It opens up the door to allow that communication to take place. When we make an offering of tobacco, we communicate our thoughts and feelings through the tobacco as we pray for ourselves, our family, relatives and others. Tobacco has a special relationship to other plants: it is said to be the main activator of all the plant spirits. When you use it, all things begin to happen. When you seek the help and advice of an Elder, Healer or Medicine Person, and give your offering of tobacco, they know that a request may be made, as tobacco is so sacred. We express our gratitude for the help the spirits give us through our offering of tobacco.

Sage

Sage is used to prepare people for ceremonies and teachings. Because it is more medicinal and stronger than sweetgrass, it tends to be used more often in ceremonies. Sage is used for releasing what is troubling the mind and for removing negative energy. It is also used for cleansing homes and sacred items.

Cedar

Like sage and sweetgrass, cedar is used to purify the home. It also has many restorative medicinal uses. Cedar baths are healing. When cedar is put in the fire with tobacco, it crackles. When it does this, it is calling the attention of the spirits to the offering that is being made. Cedar is used in fasting and sweat lodge ceremonies as a form of protection: cedar branches cover the floor of the sweat lodge and a circle of cedar surrounds the faster's lodge.

Sweetgrass

Sweetgrass is the sacred hair of Mother Earth. Its sweet aroma reminds people of the gentleness, love and kindness she has for the people. When sweetgrass is used in a healing circle it has a calming effect. Like sage and cedar, sweetgrass is used for smudging and purification.

Smudging Ceremony

The smudging ceremony is a purification ceremony. Any one of the four sacred medicines can be used. Sometimes all of the sacred medicines are used. The smudging ceremony can take place anytime, usually before a meeting or Grand Entry. Sometimes pipe carriers and elders recommend that this ceremony should be done if things get out of hand at the workplace or at home. The sacred medicine is lit, and some use matches instead of a lighter. Some actually use wood from a sacred fire. The smoke from the sacred medicine purifies the mind, body and spirit. Most people who smudge use a shell as a container, and usually eagle feathers are used to fan the medicines. If a person does not have eagle feathers, then other feathers are used, such as hawk feathers. The ashes that are left should not be thrown away, but scattered by the entrance at the door to symbolize that any negative thoughts, words and feelings should be left on the exterior and are not welcome inside.

Traditional and Sacred Items

Bundles

When Aboriginal people carry sacred items, they carry them with recognition that everything in Creation has spirit, including the animals and plants, the rocks, the water, the moon and the stars. Even one feather of a bird has spirit. When a feather is within the bundle and used for personal prayers and ceremony, they are calling on the spirit of that bird for help and guidance. Many Aboriginal people who follow their Traditional Teachings will have sacred items to help and guide them. A sacred bundle can consist of one or many sacred items. It can be the little tobacco pouch that someone wears around their neck or it can be the items that the spirits have given to a person to carry for the people. A personal bundle may have been built with items the

person has gathered and that they take care of them. This bundle is sacred to them. It contains items that help them in your personal development; it contains items that have given them a teaching and that they use in ceremonies.

Maybe the person's parents or grandparents or an Elder may have given them something to help them on their path. All the contents of the bundle relates directly to that person. A large personal bundle may include medicines, their drum, a bowl, a rock, their spiritual colours, a feather, a staff, a rattle, or their pipe. They may also carry a clan marker, something that represents the person's clan, such as a bear claw if for example they were a part of the Bear Clan. The bundles for the people are used for healing and ceremonies. It is said that these bundles contain things that the Nations need to survive. The Healers who carry the medicine bundles say they do not own these bundles. They say that our people's understanding is that we do not own anything, not even or physical body which is given back to the earth when we die. They carry these items as gifts for the people. The Healers who take care of these bundles have been chosen by the spirits to carry on the teachings, the work and the responsibilities that come with these bundles.

Pipe

A pipe can be a grandmother or a Grandfather. Usually when women carry it, it is referred to as a Grandmother; when men carry it, it is called a Grandfather. The pipe itself represents the woman and man, the bowl representing the woman and the stem represents the man. The pipe was given to Native people as a way of communicating with the Creator; a direct link is formed. When the pipe is smoked or touched, people are putting their thoughts and prayers into it.

Drum

The drum is the heartbeat of our people; it's the heartbeat of life. We live the first nine months of our lives within our mothers and we listen to the heartbeat; it sets the pattern of our existence. There are various types of drumsticks. Some people refer to the drumstick as being part of the Thunderbirds. Other teachings say that the drumstick is the arm of the Great Spirit who gives us a heartbeat.

Rattle

It is said that before the Creator made everyone, the universe was in darkness and the only sound was the sound that a shaker makes, the shaking of seeds in a gourd. The spirits are drawn in when many people use their shakers as they sing a song.

Eagle Feather

The eagle represents the one that is closest to the Creator because he can fly so high and that he speaks for the people. If you have done something remarkable for your people you may be presented with an eagle feather. Historically, if a warrior proved

himself in battle, facing an enemy, he received a feather. Eagle feathers are considered infinitely sacred to Aboriginal people who make use of the feathers for a variety of purposes including ceremonial healing and purification. Eagle Medicine represents a state of presence achieved through diligence, understanding, awareness, and completion of "test of initiation" such as the vision quest or other demanding life experiences. Elder status is associated with Eagle Medicine and the power of connectedness and truth; it is through the wisdom of experience that this Medicine is earned. The Eagle feather, which represents duality, tells the story of life. It tells of the many duality's that exist in life, such as light and dark, male and female, substance and shadow, summer and winter, peace and war, life and death. It reminds us of the teachings that opposites are extensions of themselves like two opposing hands of the same body. Native traditionalists look upon the Eagle feather as a sacred symbol of the balance necessary for the Circle of life to continue.

Traditionally, a person earns the Eagle feather through enormous acts of courage, understanding, or generosity. It is the highest honour to receive an eagle feather. Very often, it is through such acts that this recognition "oneness" to truth occurs, and it is here that universal learning takes place. You earn an eagle feather and you have to live by it.

Elders

A Traditional Elder is someone who follows the teachings of our ancestors. It is said the Traditional Elders walk and talk the good way of life. Traditional Elders teach and share the wisdom they have gained of the culture, history and the language. The sharing of their wisdom is healing. An Elder does not have to be a senior but could be someone younger who has many teachings and who has earned the respect of their community by contributing to its spiritual development. When a person goes to a Healer, Elder or Medicine Person, they are required to be her or himself, and to be respectful to them and to themselves. A tobacco gift is always given to the Elder as an offering. Tobacco is meant for that communication between the person, the Healer and the Creator. The tobacco can be in any form. For example, it can be one cigarette from a pack, a pack of cigarettes, it can be a pouch of tobacco or it can be loose tobacco wrapped in a small square of cloth (called a tobacco tie).

Other gifts can also be given to express a person's gratitude for the help they have received. This may be in the form of a basket or blanket or it could be money. There are certain protocols specific to each Healer, Elder of Medicine Person. Many Healers will have helpers that will convey these protocols to a person so that they know what to expect.

Martial Tactics and Application:

Historically, many warriors that proceeded into battle conducted what was commonly known as a "war cry", "battle cry", and/or "war whoop". This attacking yell is also taught during current times through various martial arts and is commonly now known as releasing internal Ki or Chi. This action also has a good application in basic physiology not only affecting the adversary psychologically.

Today as well in history, this action serves to not only demoralize the opponent, but it also serves to tighten the entire body and muscles (especially lower abdominal muscles) to harden oneself and to prevent injury in the event of unexpected counterattack.

It can be seen that the study of the Martial Arts is recommended for men, women and children. It may provide benefits in perceptual-motor organization, concentration, vision, body development, aerobic conditioning of the heart and lungs and provides training in body control which is valuable in the pursuit of any other sport or physical activity.

OKI CHI TAW Ground Tactics

Tehi ' Pêw / Pâhki ' Tin

In many other martial arts, the use of tumbling, rolling, break falling and jumps are utilized for defensive purposes. There are subtleties in the different types of rolls for example, but the principle is that when a person is being thrown forwards, they should be able to roll out of danger preventing themselves from sustaining an injury. Although Okichitaw does employ this similar concept for it's technique and safety, our tumbling and jumps are more directly used for attack purposes by catching the opponent "off-guard" using a very unorthodox engaging process. The following are simple descriptions of some of the ground techniques; however, one must not forget that the basics of learning these attacks require one to practice executing all types of rolls with a flexible body, a sharp mind, and an accurate judgment of the environment.

In Okichitaw training, one must continue to refine their own technique as well as the technique of their partner. However, always remember that at the same time one must maintain to be serious and strict as if facing an enemy. This concept is the basis for a relationship that moves to a higher level of technique and mutual commitment to the system of Okichitaw.

Okichitaw Miche che Kiske (Hand Fighting)

Okichitaw employs a variety of hand techniques although it should be clearly understood that most hand attacks in Okichitaw are a derivative of weapon applications. This is noted when these weapons are being yielded by a student.

Therefore as earlier noted, the hand positions and movements are very similar, if not identical to that of a student holding their weapons (tomahawk, gunstock war club, knife, etc.) in one or both hands.

In comparison to other martial arts, Okichitaw would be considered a "hard style" martial art being that it tends to direct energy outward and meet energy with energy. At times, Okichitaw also utilizes discreet and covert applications to meet it's objective of defeating an enemy. This will be further explained within this manual in the section "Guerrilla Tactics". Okichitaw tends to strike hard and more if necessary, and will deliver more force with each strike. Okichitaw students will often damage their adversary with their blocks by turning them into physical attacks. Due to the fact that Okichitaw delivers much power, it makes it very difficult to turn aside or defend from an aggressive attack.

It's important to understand that due to this aggressive direction of force, Okichitaw ends up requiring a higher commitment from the student. Due to this fact, unless the student embraces tolerance (Humility - "Tapah-ti-mowin") they will not recover well from their mistakes. The style of Okichitaw has a tendency to emphasize body mechanics, leverage, and applied force. In Okichitaw we tend to use weight, strength, positioning, and anatomy to our optimal advantage. *

If the Oki Chi Taw class is available then a brief seminar or demonstration is recommended. A video demonstration is, of course, a recommended substitute.

Central and South America

Prior to the completion of the Spanish conquest which developed into the modern images of Central and South America with which we are familiar, the region had a series of rise and falls of civilizations, the 6 major dynasties being the Olmec, the Teotihuacan, the Toltec, the Maya, the Inca and the Aztec. Little is know about the early civilizations. It is certainly impressive that archaeologists and historians have been able to deduce as much as they have from the few remains that exist. It has only been in recent decades that they have been able to put together a sketchy account of the Mayan civilization.

For their time periods, the Mayans, as well as the Incas and Aztecs, showed much sophistication in some facets of their empires, particularly in architecture. Yet in other ways the Mayans and later the Aztecs had tendencies which would be notably barbaric by today`s standards. Both groups were heavily involved in human sacrifices. It was once believed the Mayans had a relatively peaceful society. In recent decades evidence has been discovered which contradicts this belief. Mayan leader acquired material wealth and land through warfare; however, it seems that the acquisition of people for the sake of sacrifice was the most prominent reason for battle. The Mayans and the Aztecs, who came later, both believed human blood was need to nourish the their Gods or the Earth, herself. It is thought the excessive violence mat have played a role in the fall of the Mayan empire, along with problems of overpopulation, foreign invasion and drought. It is not conclusive. We do know that there were two classes of soldier. Nobles who lead and the drafted commoners who followed. The soldiers primarily used obsidian weapons: spears (both long-range throwing and short range thrusting), other bladed weapons and arrows.

The empire in between the Maya and the Aztec, did not participate in human sacrifice. The empire was situated south west of the other to dynasties; thus may have had little influence from the same forces. This is not say that the Incas were not bloodthirsty. Warfare was a common part of their existence, as well. Only their motivation was similar to that of governments today: acquisition. The Incas preferences for material for their weapons were bronze, copper and stone. Weapons included bronze or bone-tipped spears or lances, knobbed or spiked clubs, two-handed wooden swords with serrated edges, Wooden slings and bolas, and stones or copper headed battle-axes.

More closely resembling their Mayan predecessors were the Aztecs. The Aztecs had a philosophy that appears to have embraced death. This evoked bravery when faced with war. Much like the Navajo Braves of North America who proclaimed, `Today is a good day to die! The Aztec soldiers proceeded into battle singing:

Bells clamour The chieftain is resplendent He who makes the world is full of delight The shield flowers are opening their pedals Glory spreads Revolves about the Earth Here is the intoxication of death in the heart of the plain Here as war bursts upon the plain, The chieftain shines, spins, whirls, In the flowery death of war Oh princes! Oh, Aztec Chieftains! Fear not my heart: On the plain I covet death by the obsidian knife All that our hearts desire Is death in war! 3

Education by the chieftains and priests carried with it this idea that death in battle was glorious. ―All that our hearts desire is death in war,‖ certainly demonstrates the effectiveness of this early propaganda.

One way that the Aztecs differed from their predecessors is the potential for equality in society. Those born of nobility had the greatest chance of maintain their status; however, every one was given the same mandatory education and citizens who excelled in certain areas, especially warfare, had upward mobility within the ranks of society. Soldiers of exceptional talents could even be called upon to join the elite warrior castes: the Eagle Warriors or the Jaguar Warriors. Comparable to African warrior castes who emulated animals, these warriors costumed themselves as their namesakes. There is no evidence that they trained in the fighting styles nor lifestyles of these animals. When boys began their educations as teenagers and were taught history, civics, the arts, religion and martial arts (girls were taught healing arts in place of martial arts), the became aware of the high status and wealth held by the Knights of the Eagle and the Knights of Jaguar. Women aspired to become the wives or concubines of these men. These knights, however primitive in their reasoning, appear to the first evidence of any higher calling to warriorship present in that region of the world. Collections of poetry and records of that era have denoted the bravery of these knights; and, they were loyal to their country and their gods to whom the felt obliged, but the concept of human sacrifice is a notable flaw in their sense of justice.

Can we consider these knights true warriors by the definitions discussed in our earlier units?

The African Involvement

In the mid 1500‘s the slave trade began in Brazil. In an attempt to limit the success of revolts by the African slaves, the government outlawed martial training for all slaves. Making music and dancing, of course, was still perfectly legal. As such, they slave community began to evolve their dancing techniques to include erratic foot and hand movements and very acrobatic displays. In truth, they were hiding their martial training within their dance. One significant difference between these Brazilian invention and its African forerunners is that the higher kicking techniques in African arts were meant to develop coordination, leg strength, dynamic flexibility and other physical capabilities rather than for actual martial application (an idea they shared with the Northern Chinese martial artists). The practitioners of this Brazilian style, eventually dubbed Capoeira, on the other hand, believe these high flying techniques to be applicable in actual combat. Capoeira‘s history is mirrored by the history of Calinda: African slaves disguising their martial art in dance. Calinda developed for the same reason, but in the Caribbean Islands and in New Orleans.

It is not necessary to end the examinations of warrior concepts in the North and/or South America with the indigenous people. Should the instructor have time, he/she may supplement the given material on North America with research, examination, and discussion of historical figures from the old west (1800‘s). Regarding the central and southern countries, another figure worthy of examination is Ernesto ―Che‖ Guevara.

Unit 5 - Endnotes

1 Mails, Thomas E,; The Mystic Warriors of the Plains, Marlowe & Company, New York, 1972. P.156

2 Ibid p.154

* This information was provided by George Lepine in his book on Oki Chi Taw which has yet to be titled and published.

3 Coe, Michael D.; The Maya, Thames and Hudson Ltd., London, 1966.

Unit 6: Oceanic Concepts Of Warriorship

Unit 6: Oceanic Concepts of Warriorship

I strike, you strike! My weapon is strong in battle, Where does it come from? From ancient times! My club moves swiftly, it’s called Poroku! Its thong was tied in darkness, So my eyes would be like stars! Oh! It is day, ah! -Maori War Chant 1

The tattooed face of the Maori made them instantly recognizable to foreigners; and, within the Maori society, a warrior could be as readily recognized due to the design of his tattoos (or moko). Tattoos was adopted from the Polynesian culture, although their legends tell that the art of tattooing was gift from the underworld. The story tells of a young warrior, Mataora, who fell in love with the princess of the underworld, Niwareka. The two were married and shared a life together on Earth, until Mataora, grew unappreciative and mistreated Niwareka. At this point, she left him, returning to her father‘s realm. Mataora, ashamed and regretful, climbed down to the underworld and declared his guilt and his love for her. As well as winning back the heart of Niwareka, he was taught the art of tattoing, Ta Moko, by her father. He brought this art back with hium to the Maori people.

Maori tattoos first had to be approved by tribal elders. This took months of discussion of design and determination of worth. The design process would begin by taking into account the tribal history; Tribal and family lineage were demonstrated in the circular and swirling patterns designs; as well, symbols representing moments of honourable achievement ornamented a man‘s face.

Achievements of honour were correlated to an individual‘s ―mana―. A direct translation of mana is difficult but is has reference overall, to prestige, honour, authority and spiritual force. Lie karma, a person is born with it, but her/his actions cultivate or diminish mana. Heroic deeds add to a warrior‘s mana - in this way it is comparable to the Native North American concept of coup. The period of tattooing was a spiritual ritual full of festivities and acknowledgments towards their numerous gods. Spirituality could be complex in the era of Maori mythology. For warriors respect was paid to Tu, the god of warfare, who was one of the sons of one of Rangi, the sky-father and Papa, the earth-mother.

In Māori mythology, Tū or Tūmatauenga (Māori: 'Tū of the angry face') is one of the great gods, and the origin of war. All war-parties were dedicated to him, and he was treated with the greatest respect and awe. He is usually a son of the primordial parent, sky and earth (see Rangi and Papa). In a Te

Arawa version, Tūmatauenga advises his brothers to kill their parents Rangi and Papa in order to allow light and space into the world, but the kinder proposal of Tāne is accepted and instead the primordial pair are forced apart. Tūmatauenga thinks about the actions of Tāne in separating their parents, and makes snares to catch the birds, the children of Tāne, who can no longer fly free. He then makes nets, and traps the children of Tangaroa. He makes hoes to dig the ground, capturing his brothers Rongo and Haumia- tiketike, heaping them into baskets to be eaten. The only brother that Tūmatauenga cannot subdue completely is Tāwhirimātea, whose storms and hurricanes attack humankind to this day because of his indignation at the actions of his brothers (Grey 1971:7-10). Although Rangi and Papa were not human in form, Tūmatauenga and his brothers were. Humankind - the descendants of Tū - increased upon the earth, until the generation of Māui and his brothers (Grey 1956:8-11, Tregear 1891:540). Tūmatauenga's actions provide a pattern for human activities. Because Tūmatauenga defeated his brothers, people can now, if they perform the appropriate rituals, kill and eat birds (the children of Tāne), fish (the children of Tangaroa), cultivate and harvest food plants (the children of Rongo and Haumia-tiketike), and generally harness the resources of the natural world. Tūmatauenga is also the originator of warfare, and people make war now because Tūmatauenga provided the example. When rituals were performed over warriors before a battle, or when an infant was dedicated to a future role as a fighter, Tūmatauenga was invoked as the source of their duty. The body of the first warrior to fall in a battle was often offered up to Tūmatauenga. While Tūmatauenga is the origin of war, powerful local deities such as Kahukura, Maru or Uenuku were also called upon in time of war (Orbell 1998:185-186). 2

Although Tu was the war god whom was most held in esteem, there were numerous other gods of war. Most of the deities of the Maori religion were adopted from Polynesian pantheon. They are shared with the cultures of most of the islands of the Pacific Rim, including Hawaii. Tu‘s brother was Tane, god of agriculture and peace. The pair were held in the highest regard.

The ethics behind what determined the validity for a fight amongst individuals; a battle skirmish; or a full out war were equally complex- at least, from our modern perspective. Many of the cause of inter-tribal conflicts seem trivial by today‘s standards. But war was serious matter; peace was preferred, but war was expected and not significantly avoided.

A warrior is called ‗Toa‘. Some books declare that becoming a toa was the aspiration of every boy. Their childhood games were mimicry of later training methods. Ti Rakau was such a game designed to enhance their agility and acuity. To mentions warriorship as an aspiration is to imply that not every became a warrior. Other books, such as The Old-Time Maori by Makereti, however, state that every man

in Maori culture was to be warrior and raised to fight.

Women were also considered warriors, but in a different light; for men the battlefield was the land, for women it was their own bodies - the agony of childbirth was considered an inner-battle. Women were praised for facing this pain bravely and for their willingness to do so over again to fulfill the desire for family.

War dances were held before going into battle. This served two purposes: it satisfied the gods of war and it worked the warriors up into an enthusiastic frenzy. It was important the dance went smoothly. Trip ups were a bad omen and fluidity was a good omen. Should get so stirred up by the emotion of the ritual that they too chose to jump in the dancing (they were never forced or even asked) this was seen as great omen of victory. Omens were taken very seriously. Even a display of lightening on a far hill could result in the delay of an attack.

The martial art of the Maori is Mau Rakau. It employed various staffs, spears and staff-like weapons composed of wood , bone and stone. Old warriors taught apprentices the techniques which demanded agility as one was never to remain still when fighting. Visual awareness of the positioning and movement of an opponent‘s feet was emphasized. By watching for tension of the front toe an attack became predictable. Many of the techniques are the same as those expressed in the English art of the quarterstaff.

Death in combat was considered the noblest way to die.

As with the unit on North and South America, study can continue which involves non-indigenous people of Oceania. The rebel outlaw, Ned Kelly is famous in Australia. His struggle against a corrupt system inspired the nation‘s citizens. The instructor and students may find, he too is a worthwhile subject for study.

Unit 6- Endnotes:

1 Makereti; The Old-Time Maori, New Women‘s Press Ltd, Auckland, 1986

2 Wikipedia.

Note to the Instructor:

It is suggested that the first test be scheduled for week eight of the 14 week program. At this time, all the geographical regions that are to be discussed in this course have been examined. Thus, one test can contain elements of defining warriorship and honour, as well as, recognizing facets of warrior castes from various cultures. The last unit, Oceanic Concepts of Warriorship, was not as long as the previous units. This allows the instructor some class time for review. The next unit, Women Warriors, is also short; thereby allowing time for a test to be given during this week‘s lecture. An example test is provided. It may be used as is, or may be modified by the instructor.

The test should be based on those course objectives identified in the course outline. A test is offered in this package. It can be borrowed from or used in its entirety.

It would also be a good time to be certain the students are properly preparing for their presentations due weeks 11 and 12.

Unit 7: Women Warriors

Present this riddle to the class: A boy and his father are in a car accident and rushed to the hospital emergency room. Both father and son are unconscious when they arrive. The doctor enters the room wherein lies the boy, becomes very upset and announces, ―I cannot operate on this boy; he is my son.‖ How can this be?

Come, friends, let us to in our hearts conceive A martial spirit such as now inflames Our warriors fighting for their native walls; For not in strength are we inferior much to men; the same our eyes, our limbs the same; one common light we see, one air we breathe; nor different is the food we eat. What then denied to us hath heaven on man bestowed? Oh, let us hasten to this glorious war!

-Hippodamia 1 (calling the women of Troy to battle)

Initiate a discussion regarding women warriors. This may be done by asking for examples from history or the instructor may take the approach of looking at contemporary literature, cinema or television programs. For example, enquire about their opinions as to the whether or not they felt that the film G.I. Jane was realistic. ―Could a woman perform as shown in the film?‖ ―Was Demi Moore‘s character an example of a warrior or merely a soldier?‖ Another film to consider is Courage Under Fire, in which Meg Ryan‘s character may be the first women to receive the Congressional Medal of Honour. (It should be pointed out that the film is inaccurate, in that Dr. Mary Edwards Walker was awarded the medal in January of 1866 for her outstanding service in the civil war.)

There was some hesitation in developing this unit. To have a separate unit for women warriors might imply that women, themselves, are not inherently included in the earlier discussions; it implies that women are an obscure rarity in the halls of warriors. This is false. While undeniably a separate unit marginalizes women, it is naive to suggest that women are not already marginalized in the context of our discussions. While there has been no deliberate attempt to use gender-biased language within this text, certain language, still, carries masculine connotations within the psyche of most people. Think back to your first day of class, or earlier, to when you first noted this course in your school‘s program calendar - what was the image conjured in your mind when you read the word ‗warrior‗? Was that warrior pictured in your mind male or female? It is likely that for most of you the word ‗warrior‘ evokes a masculine image; as do such words as police officer, lumberjack, and construction worker.

It does us some good to question why this occurs. History and legend provide numerous examples of women who have heeded the call of warriorship. Despite this fact, often women involved in warrior missions or vocations sacrificed much of their femininity to do so. Consider the classic case of Mulan, who disguises herself as man in order to enlist in the military, and note that her case is not so rare. Like Robin Hood, Mulan is a legend that may or may not have a basis in truth. But there are recorded accounts of genuine cases wherein women have hidden their gender from their colleagues in arms. Others may not have disguised themselves; nevertheless, they are often described in terms of asexuality, taking on mannish personality traits.

Among the antiquated literature exist stories of women well-versed in the warrior arts; yet even here there is often a not-so-subtle indication that these women are to be subdued. Within The Nibelungenlied, the `hero`, Siegfried agrees in assist his brother-in-law in winning the hand of Brunhild, a woman warrior only willing to surrender herself to a man that can best her in battle. Many men died in their attempts to become the husband of this beauty. As the wanting man cannot defeat Brunhild, he is assisted, unbeknownst to Brunhild, by Siegfried who dons a helmet of invisibility. After the man defeats Brunhild and marries her, she refuses to give herself over to him sexually. Again, Siegfried dons his helmet. He sneaks into their bedroom and holds the woman down so that his brother-in-law may consummate their marriage. After being raped Brunhild sheds her warrior ways and becomes a happy subservient homemaker for her husband.

What does this account tell us, not only about the author, but about his audience amongst whom this story so popular? Has the abhorrence towards women warriors been universal? Does this account differ from the interpretations of the legends of the Amazons?

Ask the students about their knowledge of the Amazons of Greek mythology. Furthermore, ask them if they see any socio-cultural and/or psychological reasons why this myth would have developed; pointing out the Greeks were not the only people to have such legends. Finally, reveal to them, if it is was previously unknown, that there is much evidence to suggest that the legend of the Amazons may in fact be, at least partially, true. Play for the PBS documentary, Amazon Warrior Women from the Secrets of the Dead series which explains this statement (60 minutes). Hosted: Dr. Jeannine Davis-Kimball.

The blurb for the film describes it thusly:

The myth of the Amazons, a tribe of bloodthirsty blond women thundering across arid battlefields to the horror of their male foes, has lingered for centuries. Their exploits seized the imagination of the Greek scribes Homer, Hippocrates, and Herodotus. But proof of their existence had always been lacking. Now, a 2,500-year-old mystery may have been solved, cracked by an American scientist whose ten-year odyssey led her tens of thousands of miles in pursuit of the truth. After unearthing evidence of a culture of ancient

warrior women in the Russian steppes, Dr. Jeannine Davis-Kimball followed a trail of artifacts to a remote village in Western Mongolia, where her quest for a living link to a long-imagined tribe ended with a startling discovery. There, among the black-eyed Mongols, Davis-Kimball found a blond child, a 9-year-old girl named Meiramgul. Through DNA testing, Davis-Kimball finds that the DNA sequences of the warrior women and those from the girl of Mongolia are identical. 2

Provided here are some accounts of women who have heeded their calling to this noble caste:

Mulan

木蘭詩唧唧復唧唧，木蘭當戶織，不聞機杼聲，惟聞女嘆息。問女何所思，問女何所憶，女亦無所思，女亦無所憶。昨夜見軍帖，可汗大點兵。軍書十二卷，卷卷有爺名。阿爺無大兒，木蘭無長兄，願為市鞍馬，從此替爺徵。東市買駿馬，西市買鞍貉，南市買轡頭，北市買長鞭。旦辭爺娘去，暮至黃河邊。不聞爺娘喚女聲，但聞黃河流水鳴濺濺。但辭黃河去，暮宿黑山頭。不聞爺娘喚女聲，但聞燕山胡騎鳴啾啾。萬裡赴戎機，關山度若飛。朔氣傳金析，寒光照鐵衣。將軍百戰死，壯士十年歸。歸來見天子，天子坐明堂。策勛十二轉，賞賜百千強。可汗問所欲，木蘭不用尚書郎。願馳千里足，送兒還故鄉。爺娘聞女來，出郭相扶將。阿姊聞妹來，當戶理紅妝。小弟聞姊來，磨刀霍霍曏豬羊。開我東閣門，坐我西閣床。脫我戰時袍，著我舊時裳。當窗理雲鬢，對鏡貼花黃。出門看伙伴，伙伴皆驚惶。同行十二年，不知木蘭是女郎！雄兔腳撲朔，雌兔眼迷離。雙兔傍地走，安能辨我是雄雌。3

For those less familiar with traditional Chinese writing, this rough English translation of the poem may prove helpful:

The insects chirping happily outside, Mulan sat opposite the door weaving; No sound of the shuttle was heard, Only sighs of the girl. When asked what she was pondering over, When asked what she had called to mind, Nothing special the girl was pondering over, Nothing special had the girl called to mind. Last night she saw the military announcement, The Emperor was conscripting, There were twelve announcements of conscription, And Father's name was in every one of them.

Father had no grown son, Nor Mulan an older brother; She wanted to buy a saddle and horse, And from now on fought in place of her Father. In the eastern market she bought a fine steed, In the western market a saddle and a pad, In the southern market a bridle, In the northern market a long whip. At daybreak she bid farewell to her parents, At sunset she bivouacked by the Yellow River; What met her ears was no longer her parents' call, But the gurgles and splashes of the rushing waters. At daybreak she left the Yellow River, At sunset she arrived at the top of the Black Hill; What met hers ears was no longer her parents' call, But barbarians' horses neighing in the Yanshan Mountains. On the expedition of thousands of miles to the war, She dashed across mountains and passes as if in flight; In the chilly northern air night watches clanged, In the frosty moonlight armour and helmet glistened, Generals laid down their lives in a hundred battles, And valiant soldiers returned after ten years' service. When she returned to an audience with the Son of Heaven, The Son of Heaven sat in the Hall of Brightness. A promotion of many ranks was granted for her merits, With a reward than amounted to thousands of strings of cash. The Khan asked Mulan what she desired to do. 'I don't need any high official position, Please lend me a sturdy mount that is fleet of foot, And send me back to my hometown.' When her parents heard their daughter was coming, They walked out of the town, each helping the other; When the elder sister heard the younger sister was coming, She decked herself out in her best by the door; When her younger brother heard his sister was coming, He whetted a knife and aimed it at a pig and a sheep. Opened the door of my east chamber, And then sat down on the bed in my west chamber; Taking off the armour worn in wartime, Attired myself in apparel of former times; By the window I combed and coiffed my cloudy hair, Before the mirror I adorned my forehead with a yellow pattern. When Mulan came out to meet her battle companions, They were all astounded and thrown into bewilderment. Together they had been in the army for a dozen years or so, Yet none had known that Mulan was actually a girl. The male rabbit kicks its fluffy feet as it scampers, The eyes of female rabbit are blurred by fluffy tufts of hair, But when they run side by side in the field, You can hardly tell the doe from the buck! 4

The Ballad of Hua Mulan, wherein the young lady disguises herself as man so that she may take the place of her lame, elderly father in the emperor‘s army, was first seen in the Sui dynasty of the 6th century. Over the centuries other poems, songs and folklore regarding Mulan appeared. According to the original ballad, in contrast to the Disney version, Mulan spent twelve years in the military disguised as a man. Her deception was undiscovered until she voluntarily revealed her true self to her comrades when they came to visit her in her home town after her retirement from the service.

Several scholars suspect she may have been an actual person, although there is some argumentation as to whether or not ‗Hua Mulan‘ was her actual name. Her hometown, too, is a matter of conjecture. It is uncertain whether it was Hebai, Henan or Liang, but it is generally agreed upon that she was from the Central Plains region.

Allegedly, Mulan fought in over 100 battles bravely and was highly praised by the emperor. He offered her a position of high office but instead she chose to return to her family.

Joan of Arc

Jeanne d‘Arc was born a French peasant girl in the village of Domremy during the Hundred Years War between France and England. King Charles was an ineffective leader and France has been subjected to a number of military defeats. That would change after Charles was some how convinced to give audience to a mere teenage girl who claimed to be on a mission from God. She arrived on horseback, clad in armour with a boyish cropped haircut. She told of tale of being visited in a field by Micheal, the Warrior Angel, who ,despite her protests, insisted that she would lead armies and be the saviour of France. Likely, the king doubted her words and possibly her sanity; nevertheless, Jeanne d‘Arc has gained her armour and horse through donations of coins from her fellow peasants. She was accompanied through hostile battle ridden areas by soldiers believing in her. It is doubtful that Charles believed she could be an effective military leader, but he did believe that with the right propaganda she could be great for the morale of France. He sent her into war.

D‘Arc had no education, but spoke with great passion and eloquence which inspired troops. Whether she had significant input into the battle plans or was merely a symbol of bravery whose input was exaggerated is uncertain. We do know that she was involved in numerous successful military campaigns and did not do so from the sidelines, as she was wounded on three occasions.

In 1430, she was captured at the battle of Rouen. She was put on trial for heresy and witchcraft. The conviction which would finally lead to her execution was for refusing to stop wearing men‘s clothes. Though she was executed as a witch she died a hero. Even the English, try as they may, could not deny what was obvious - during her trial, judgement and punishment she acted bravely, patriotically, and at times, even witty. In 1456 the ruling was overturned by the church. In 1920 she was canonized.

Ng Mui

The instructor may have already provided you this story in your unit on Asian Concepts of Warriorship. Here is a recapitulation:

A shaolin monk expertly versed in White Crane Kung Fu wandering the countryside following the destruction of the Temple in the early 1700‘s encountered a farmer and his daughter with a difficult problem. One of the princes who had seen the farmer‘s daughter admired her beauty, and for that reason alone announced that he intended to marry her. The daughter, however; had no interest in marrying the prince. In a manner that must have been rare in that era, the farmer was sympathetic to his daughter‘s plight. Besides which the idea that she would leave him to live in the royal city disparaged him. In an effort to stall for time, he convinced the prince that his daughter was still too young for marriage and the prince agreed to return in a year to take the girl as his wife.

The monk‘s plan involved convincing the prince that in order to take the girl he should agree to fight her. She would only wed a man who could defeat her in hand to hand combat. The prince agreed as to do otherwise might appear cowardly; as well, it the idea that he could be defeated by this petite woman was laughable to him. The prince was unaware that during his yearlong absence the teenage girl had been trained by the monk in Kung Fu. At the onset of the training the monk knew that one year would not be enough teach the young lady enough of the traditional shaolin style of White Crane, so the monk designed a new system that was an abbreviation of other Shaolin techniques that could be learned efficiently within a year‘s time. With this short range, centre-line, easily learned system, the young lady was able to beat the prince. True to his word, the prince said, farewell and left the young lady to live her life without him.

The shaolin monk, Ng Mui did not the system after herself, despite being the founder. Instead, she humbly chose to name the system after the first student of this new art, Wing Chun.

Deborah Sampson

In 1781, Robert Shirtleff enlisted to fight in the War of Independence. And why not? Though only 5 feet 7 inches, Shirtleff was robust, athletic and accurate with a rifle. But there was one other factor, Robert Shirtleff was actually Deborah Sampson. She had taken the name of her late half-brother and bound her breasts tightly to disguise herself as a man.

For a year and half, Sampson fought in many battles. Much like Joan of Arc (one of her childhood heroes), Sampson was wounded three times. Each time she

attended to her own wound, thereby avoiding detection. It was a fever that eventually caused her to be discovered by a doctor. Rather than announce her secret, the doctor arranged for Sampson to deliver a letter to General George Washington. Apparently, her secret was inside. Washington offered no reprimand for a woman he deemed a war hero and did not make a spectacle of her. Rather he provided her with an honourable discharge.

In 1792, the General Court of Massachusetts gave her the back-pay she was due, declaring that she, ―did actually perform the duty of a soldier… and exhibited an extraordinary instance of female heroism, by discharging the duties of a faithful, gallant soldier, and at the same time preserving the virtue and chastity of her sex unsuspected and unblemished, and was discharged from the service with a fair and honourable character.‖5

There are many other exemplary stories of female warriors, both factual and mythical. Among my favourites are: The Trung Sisters (Vietnam), Nadezhda Durova (Russia), and Tamara (Georgia). Also, Andree de Jongh; Little Cyclone (Belgium) and Laura Secord (Canada) may be included for their bravery and warrior spirits despite not being true warriors.

Unit 7 - Endnotes:

1 Miles, Rosalind and Cross, Robin; Hell Hath Nu Fury: True Stories of Women at War From Antiquity to Iraq, Three Rivers Press, New York, 2008.

2 Amazon Warrior Women; (Secrets of The Dead series);Producers and Director: Carsten Obelander and Jens Afflerbach, PBS, 2004. (cover blurb)

3 Wikipedia - Chinese - 維基百科：令生活更便利。

4 Wikipedia.

5 Evans, Elizabeth; Weathering the storm; Women of the American Revolution; Scribner, New York, 1975.

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Unit 8: The Metaphysical

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Unit 8: The Metaphysical

In many cultures there are metaphysical properties attached to warrior training and prowess. The belief is that there is a an energy that exist within us and often connecting us to the rest of the natural world. Different cultures refer to this inner- energy by different names: A thorough discussion of this energy will involve the concept of yin/yang. Paradox seems to be a common undercurrent in many of the world‘s philosophies.

The common definition of Yin/Yang is two complete opposites balanced harmoniously in nature; such as light and dark, hard and soft, male and female, etc. While this is true it is only a very basic explanation. It has deeper connotations. What we see as opposites in balance, do not, in fact, exist as opposites at all. They are one in the same, appearing as opposing qualities.

Scientists have not yet solved all of the world's mysteries. However, it would be wrong not to acknowledge the vast number of answers they have brought to light. Most of us tend to think that gravity and electro-magnetism are rudimentary concepts to scientists, but there are still questions regarding these forces. Still, scientists know enough to create magic of their own. For example, using the power of electro- magnetism they can cause an object to levitate.

Suppose that there are energies within our bodies that scientist know less about than they do gravity and electro-magnetism. Now, suppose there are people in this world with such supreme control over these energies they can use them to oppose gravity or bend light.

There are two widely accepted theories regarding all existence: 1) The general theory of relativity, which affirms the concept of an expanding universe, where the curvature of space and time are affected by all events. 2) Quantum mechanics, which are properties regarding things smaller than a molecule. Unlike the general theory of relativity, this branch of reasoning seems to preclude gravity.

The great mission for today's scientist is to unify these two theories.

Scientific procedure involves breaking down things into their smallest components. For a long time, we believed the tiniest of these building blocks were electrons, protons and neutrons, which compose atoms. Since, then quarks have been discovered. Thus far, there appears to be a half a dozen different types of quarks.

Energies have been categorized into only four different forces: gravity, electro-magnetism, weak nuclear force and strong nuclear force. It has been speculated that these forces are in fact, just one force that appears different under different

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circumstances. Since, both external and intrinsic energies are a part of nature, this hypothesis can be extended to include them both.

Yin/yang as it relates to health, involves maintaining balance within our bodies, thereby allowing this bio-energy to flow smoothly through our systems, healing and protecting.

The inner-strength or bio-energy is the life force within all living things. It is referred to as ‗the zero point field‖ by risk-taking scientists. To the Chinese it is called Chi. It is known as Ki to the Japanese; Prana to the Indians; and Pneuma to the Greeks.

Our concern today is chi as it applies to living things, but we should understand that it applies to the air, circulation in our homes as well as in our bodies. There are several kinds of chi‘ the three main categories (which can be subdivided) are Heavenly chi, Earthly chi and Human chi.

Human chi travels through channels in our bodies called meridians. It brings balance to our bodies when it has proper, unblocked access to all the regions of our body, so that it may circulate freely. Proper circulation which maintains a balance of our yin organs (such as the lungs) and our Yang organs (such as the stomach) makes us function at our highest efficiencies. It is also believed by many that at a higher level of chi cultivation, we can control our bodies and its energies to a point wherein hyper- natural abilities can be performed.

Chi is not the only vital substance. According to the Chinese practitioners there is a trinity of treasures. Of course, blood and other vital fluids of the body are essential. But aside from those there are three less visible life energies. Chi, along with Jing and Shen, form a trinity of treasures for our well-being:

Jing: This genetic life force (or essence) is not cultivated. It is inherited from our parents. It determines the initial strength our constitutions and is responsible for growth in our bodies from conception to old age and all phases in between.

Shen: Chinese philosophies differentiate between different aspects of the spirit. Shen is that spirit responsible for mental awareness. It works within the mind to develop the personality.

Chi: Of all the vital substances, Chi is undoubtedly the most celebrated. Proper flow of this energy regains and sustains health, rejuvenates, it slows the aging process and it helps you find the fullest capabilities of your body. But this is only the beginning of the powers Chi is reputed to possess.

When chi, which remains internal, affects the outside of the body or the aura, which surrounds it most closely, we call this external kung. The body may become impervious to injury, to varying degrees depending on the proficiency of the cultivator. A practitioner may develop bag kung to protect his abdomen, iron broom

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kung to protect his shins, fore arm kung or head kung to protect their namesakes. Even groin kung can be developed.

At the highest level of external kung, the aura becomes a tangible force field protecting the entire body, even from blades. Can this protect from bullets? If you could travel back 100 years and ask the rebel warriors of the Boxer rebellion, they wouldn't be able to answer. They were already dead from bullet wounds inflicted 101 years ago. They learned the hard way, everything has a limit.

Chi cultivation can lead to abilities where strength and power are increased. Iron palm and Iron fist are examples of this. With them, a person can use the fore mentioned parts of the hand to smash solid rock. Note, I'm not referring to boards or bricks, but actual stone produced by the earth. Some cultivators can manipulate air or the energies therein, to create channels of wind. A humble example of this is snuffing a candle from as many as ten metres away.

To be immovable as a rhino, or light as a squirrel, able to run on treetops are techniques of chi development. Levitation and invisibility? Well, I let you decide for yourself.

Despite how unbelievable these feats are, no one educated in Chi cultivation claims they are magic. It is considered an advanced science. Consider the affects of adrenaline. When the medulla portion of the brain senses fear or other equally powerful emotions, it sends a signal to the adrenal glands, which are positioned above the kidneys. The glands release adrenaline into the system. Adrenaline allows us to perform outside our normal range of physical adeptness.

I believe through chi cultivation one can create a state of consciousness, which is not fear, but nevertheless informs the medulla to trigger, the adrenal glands. Thus, producing the same hyper-natural abilities to manifest. This has not been proven, it is merely one theory. Other attributes for which chi is reportedly responsible are not explainable through science. That is to say, not yet.

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Methods of chi development:

Sport, artistic endeavours: very low level Hard style linear martial arts may be a little higher, but on their own not really much different than sport These fore-mentioned connect body and mind.

Kung Fu is likely to be at least twice as beneficial. Tai Chi Chuan maybe a little more so. Kung Fu and Tai Chi connect body, mind and spirit

Chi cultivation practices such as chi kung or falun dafa may be twice as beneficial.

Meditation is very helpful (connects spirit and mind).

A combination of Kung Fu and or Tai Chi Chuan along with chi cultivation and meditation is supreme (particularly if these practices are supplemented with a proper lifestyle a knowledge of what herbs to use, proper feng shui, and healthy relationships.

Eastern medicine more often allows for the body to rediscover its natural healing abilities, which are void of nasty side-effects. The human body is miraculous in its ability to heal itself. Most people have lost confidence in the human body‘s ability to do so, but Chinese medicine can restore your faith in this fabulous mechanism. Western medicine should not be dismissed. It has made remarkable advancements, such as penicillin and cat scans. Too often, though, western medicine is a first choice rather than as a last choice.

At this point, it would be appropriate to have the students participate in a seminar regarding energy cultivation; Chi Kung, Falun Gong, Tai Chi Chuan, and Reflexology are some options to consider.

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The previous units required a cultural studies background which most undergraduate students are unlikely to have. As such, it has been the instructor’s responsibility to provide a considerable amount of information and guidance in the discussions. Units 8 and 9 deal with contemporary themes. Hopefully, much less coaxing from the instructor will be required to provoke thoughtful discussion from the students.

Students should be asked to read two chapters from Living the Martial Way: Chapter 3 -Train as Warriors Train and Chapter 4 -The Warrior’s Way of Strategy, before the next class.

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Unit 9:

Warriorship in Contemporary

Vocations

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Unit 9: Warriorship in Contemporary Vocations

The instructor should begin class with a discussion on the students‘ thoughts and feelings regarding the previous week‘s readings. Morgan makes compelling points on the need for training and the need for a solid education of strategies and tactics. Ask the students for ideas about which professions would most require putting these ideas into practice.

Military and Law Enforcement

Two of the professions which most obviously should concern themselves with study of warriorship are law enforcement and the military. One would expect people in occupations which wield such power and have such potential to find themselves in life or death situations would need to be educated in strategies and tactical applications. Indeed, the Royal Military College, the RCMP Training Academy and the Ontario Police College, which trains municipal, county and provincial police, all provide mandatory courses in both, the technical requirements of the job and tactical training. Oddly, of the three institutes, training in strategy is only included in the curriculum at the RMC. The RMC in its advanced courses teaches military strategies some which involve reading of classic texts of Sun-Tzu, Musashi, Thucydides and others. Of course, historical examinations of military strategies are also included. The program seems to be very thorough in this regard.

To what extant do you suspect recognition and employment of honour is included in the curriculum‘s of these institutes?

Nowhere in the curriculum offered by either of the police agencies can courses be found which discuss honour. There is some reference to honourable behaviour in the official mottos and mission statements of these organizations.

RCMP: The RCMP ensign reads simply ―Maintens la droit.‖ Their mission statement includes,

CORE VALUES OF THE RCMP - Recognizing the dedication of all employees, we will create and maintain an environment of individual safety, well-being and development. We are guided by:  integrity  honesty  professionalism  compassion  respect  accountability

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COMMITMENT TO OUR COMMUNITIES - The employees of the RCMP are committed to our communities through:  unbiased and respectful treatment of all people  accountability  mutual problem solving  cultural sensitivity  enhancement of public safety  partnerships and consultation  open and honest communication  effective and efficient use of resources  quality and time service 1

The Ontario Police College professes ―Integrity, Knowledge, Courage,‖ on its coat of arms. Within its mission statement is the collection of supporting values: PROFESSIONALISM We are committed to upholding high standards of professional integrity. ACCOUNTABILITY We are committed to responsibly managing the public resources entrusted to us and acknowledge full accountability for our stewardship. SERVICE We are committed to meeting the highest standards of program delivery. INNOVATION We encourage innovation, learning, research, and risk-management. EMPOWERMENT We value staff as our most important resource. We encourage the contributions of all in a climate of openness, trust, mutual respect, and shared decision- making. PARTNERSHIP We achieve our mission through strategic interaction with all our client groups. 2

However, neither of the law enforcement training academies offer training to validate these claims. The RMC, on the other hand offers some courses which seem to relate to honour; although the course descriptions do not mention honour directly:

WS582 The Profession of Arms This course will examine the military profession from a multidisciplinary perspective. Students will study relevant theory and research from the disciplines of philosophy, psychology, sociology, politics and history. A significant portion of the course will be devoted to the study of ethics in the military profession. Specific topics will include: ethical decision processes, the professional military ethic, just war theory, moral development, ethical failure, military culture and ethos.

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WS552 Leadership This course examines leadership and related concepts, primarily from a psychological perspective, but topics may be explored from a broader, social science approach where the literature permits such integration. The first part of the course will examine employee motivation and then focus on leadership topics such as problems in defining and measuring leadership, different theoretical approaches to leadership, transformational leadership, substitutes for leadership, gender and leadership, leadership training, command and control.

HIE332A/B War in Classical Age This course aims to provide students with an introduction to war and diplomacy, as they evolved in the era of Ancient Greece and both Republican and Imperial Rome. Beginning with the foundation of powerful city states in Greece, it studies the first elements of Greek diplomacy and warfare. It then looks at the evolution of the military systems of the Greeks, as well as the diplomacy behind it, in the rivalry between the principal city states, the rise of Philip and Alexander of Macedon, and the wars of the Alexandrian succession. It would then move to a study of the diplomacy and war making of Republican Rome, its army and navy and its expansion into Italy, and wider conquests, especially in the Punic Wars, and the diplomacy, military control, and other factors behind the 'Pax Romana.' The evolution of the Roman Army over these key centuries will receive particular attention.

Special Focus Courses These courses focus on a particular genre or are designed for a specific group of students. Examples of genre-focussed courses include: The Literature of War, Literature and Ethics, and Gender and Literature.3

If the instructor has informed the students of the fore mentioned information regarding the academies, she/he may want to have the students discuss their opinions on whether or not here is a need for revision in the curriculum. (Why or why not?) This discussion may extend to a military‘s standard boot camp training (Canada‘s or otherwise) and/or the U.S.A.‘s West Point Academy; the former of which offers no strategic nor honour training while the latter offers many courses regarding strategy, and exploring honour which the claim to encourage so strongly. If the instructor wishes to be better informed on how the honour system has come into place at West Point , she/he is encouraged to read Duty, Honour, Country: A History of West Point by Stephen E. Ambrose. West Point has always prided itself as an institution based in honour. This, however, is far from the truth. The origin and development of West Point is a series of disappointments in terms of duty and obligation. The book continues with descriptions of the falls this institution and its members, which are actually pathetic. Not until the end of the book, late into West Point history, does its curriculum achieve the goal, its facility members claim it has always they have always pursued.

The first principle the academy teaches the cadet is, take responsibility for your actions... The soldier... is highly motivated, ready to dedicate his life to his country...He is a well-dressed, well behaved gentleman. He enthusiastically performs the duties required of him and regards lethargy or indifference as a sign of weakness... his sense of honour compels him to strive for truthfulness, sincerity, and

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straightforwardness in all things. He abhors deceit, quibbling, or evasiveness. He respects the privileges and responsibilities of rank and takes pride in his profession. In short, he develops character." (p.330) and An honour concept was developed, one that went beyond the traditional prohibitions for "lying, cheating, stealing and tolerating those who do" to positive precepts: making good on promises, knowing what you stand for, standing up for what is right. Increased time and effort went into honour education..."(p.344) 5

The curriculum would imply that this not mere idle propaganda of the academy as its curriculum provides courses, such as Moral Awareness and Ethics in Military Professionalism, which instil honourable ideals.

Offer the students two or more police-related or military scenarios (real or imagined) which may illicit discussions regarding the right course of action. The shooting of the man and child in Stop-Loss, Samuel L. Jackson‘s character‘s action in Rules of Engagement; Casey Affleck‘s character‘s action in Gone, Baby, Gone, and the Rodney King incident. It may also be interesting to examine and discuss the case of the four policeman in New York who shot the unarmed man. This was obviously a dishonourable action. Was it based on fear or racism or both? In what should the officers have been dealt? What could be done to prevent this in the future?

Commercial Warrior

In recent years much has been said about the connection between battlefields and boardrooms. The writings of Sun-Tzu, Myamoto Musashi, and the unknown writer of Beowulf have been employed by business professors in numerous universities for decades. As a result many articles and books a have been written taking the words of these warrior-poets and applying them to business practices, quite often, in a trite and cheaply conceived manner. The inclusion of warriorship within business strategies, is indeed a wise choice- many companies and individuals have benefited financially from it. More importantly, by adhering the concepts of honour which most often are imbedded in the classic manuals of warfare, many have prospered in their careers, while still being able to sleep at night. However; to presume that one can simply pull a quote from The Art of War and build an amazing, profitable business strategies from it is comparable to believing you can fix your life from the reading of a fortune cookie.

The Art of War is probably the most famous strategy manual in history. A surface examination of the text may leaving confused as to how such a brief piece of work can be considered so profound. It does not offer step-by-step, ready-made instructions to deal with every conflict. Any text claiming to do so should not be respected. Sun Tzu offers a different paradigm from which to perceive your circumstances. Thus, its methodology can be significant, not only in terms of war, but within a civilian career. Predominant in the text are the acquisition of intelligence; the use of deception; and the acceptance of uncertainty.

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From The Rules of Victory; Strategies From the Art of War, are anecdotal references to people who have applied Sun-Tzu‘s principles to their career.

SHAPING THE GROUND “One skilled at moving the enemy Forms and the enemy must follow, Offers and the enemy must take.” [chapter 5]

Commentary: Do not fight the enemy head-on. Instead, shape their ground. This narrows the enemy‟s course of action, leading them where you want. They have no alternative. If you offer is made from the perspective of victory, they choose it as if it were their own idea. This is skill.

 From a woman who started a bakery-café-  After a number of years as a foodie, I finally decided to open my first business, a bakery- café in a hip town known to have many excellent cafes and espresso bars. I found an ideal space in the perfect neighborhood. During our construction phase, I noticed that there weren‟t many power outlets along the wall where the customer tables were to go, but I didn‟t assume that we‟d need any more and I didn‟t want to spend more money than I had to, so I didn‟t ask the electrician to put in additional outlets.

I was so happy when we became popular right from the start. Everyone liked the décor and the baked goods especially, which was great because I was the baker and that was the way we were trying to make our café different from all the others. As the place got busier, we noticed that customers with laptops were plugged-in, which was great, but these tables were always full, and often the tables were used by only one person working on a computer. It became a problem, one that all the other cafes had, too, I soon learned. I didn‟t know how to deal with it, and I didn‟t want to waste valuable staff time trying to keep track of how long people were on their computers or ask customers to respect a time limit as some other places did. It got to be a real battleground, creating friction between staff and our patrons, and ruining the ambience of the place. I had to find a solution, but one that didn‟t make things worse.

During this same time I was also struggling with what to do about part of the kitchen that had never really worked in the way I‟d planned. No one wanted to use it and I didn‟t know what to do with it. Then I realized I could convert this uncontested space into a solution for my problem with the laptops users. Even though it was an expense I hadn‟t budgeted for, I brought in the carpenters to remodel this area into a twenty-foot section of bar seating. Then I had the electricians install lots of extra electrical outlets along that boar, sort of like the Xanadu of electrical outlets. So now I had tons of plugs available to customers with laptops but they were all concentrated in one area, which was a bar where each laptop user would only take up one stool, not an entire table.

After the work was done, when customers asked if there was a place for them to plug in their laptops, we showed them to the back bar area, and they felt as if there was a special place created for them. They told all their laptop-using friends, and they were happy and we were happy. Every once in a while, the laptop users overflow to the tables, but it‟s nothing like the problem it used to be. The increased turnover in the main seating area made the remodel expense a good investment. And we did it all without having to say anything to our customers about “the problem” with the laptop users.

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TAKE THEM BY THE HAND

“And so one skilled at employing the military takes them by the hand as if leading a single person. They cannot hold back. “[chapter 11]

Commentary: Your command is so intimate, the troops hear you as if you were speaking singly to each of them. United in this kinship, they cannot but follow you.

 From a naval commander-  To lead large groups of people and to be able to count on them in a crisis, I learned over time to focus a lot of my effort on empowering the middle-level and junior people on the ship by paying attention to what they do, asking them about their work, and generally showing appreciation for their efforts. There is a risk that such attention might be seen as violating the chain of command, so I had to be very careful not to give orders or criticize what each person‟s boss nay have told him or her. If such intervention appears necessary, it has to be taken up within the chain of command.

It‟s acceptable to offer personal experience to junior people in such a situation to educate or advise, but again, there‟s a fine line there. I found if I practiced this “management by walking around” with a light touch, having influence in small ways, everyone felt empowered rather than diminished by my coming around. It is also important, I found, to pay a lot of attention to the environment and how that influences the way people perform: having a clean place to live, good food, being paid on time, all the aspects that make up a sailor‟s daily ways, more than just going around telling people what to do.

When I took command of my first ship, it was in dry dock for overhaul. As the overhaul neared completion, we know that there were going to be a lot of loose ends and potential glitches and machinery problems and that we‟d be tempted to try to extend our time in port so the shipyard could work out all the kinks. I could see that if we let the crew wait around while somebody else took care of the ship, it would change their perception of the ship and of the importance of time. I told the crew that as soon as we could get the basics checked out - steam up, engines and steering working, lights on - we would steam out of port and over the horizon. And that‟s what we did. The whole purpose was to let the crew know that the ship was ours to use and make work, and not the responsibility of the shipyard. Because I had cultivated the trust and respect of the crew, they were willing to give up the leisure time in port and make the remaining repairs at sea. 6

A good enquiry of the students could be, ―Why did the course author choose to include the naval commander‘s story in the business section of this unit rather than under the heading of military?

Of course, the Asian warrior-poets are not the only source of inspiration for successful entrepreneurs or executives. Many other military commanders and strategic operations can inspire strategic proficiency. The following are examples from an essay composed by Erik K. Clemens and Jason A. Santamaria, which offers a comparison between military campaigns and commercial initiatives which used the same strategies as the premise of their tactics. The essay, Manoeuvre Warfare: Can Modern Military Strategy Lead You To Victory? uses the term manoeuvre warfare as it was coined by a German military officer, Erwin Rommel in 1937. It is the embracement of uncertainty; rather than being disoriented by disorder, couple it with your fluidity to confuse your

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opponent. Rommel did not create this method but articulated well. In truth many great commanders before him executed plans with this concept in mind. Clemens and Santamaria mention opposition to this methodology in favour of attrition warfare, ―which is based on overpowering rather than confounding the enemy.‖7 Oddly, the proponents of attrition come from within the ranks of the U.S. military. Perhaps this is due to the obviousness of U.S. military might. If that nation had opposition with comparable or superior firepower those attrition warfare advocates may reconsider their stance. However; the advantages of confusing one‘s enemy are exemplified in countless military engagements throughout history. In fact, anyone who has seen a person successfully defend her/himself against a larger, stronger opponent recognizes the benefits of this mentality. Although attrition has had its success, as well; for example; during WW II, the American and British shifts of ―Flying Fortresses‖- B17 bombers which hammered Germany both day and night, were a major factor in the Allied victory. Any clinging to the purely direct approach to combat may explain the U.S. military‘s lack of success in ending the war in Iraq.

The tenants of this doctrine are as follows:

Maneuver warfare, a military strategy that has taken a prominent place in modern military thought, offers useful lessons to business executives, who face many of the same challenges as today’s military commanders. The concepts of manoeuvre warfare, while valuable individually, are most powerful when applied in an integrated fashion.

Targeting critical vulnerabilities Analyze and probe competitors with the aim of identifying and rapidly exploiting those weaknesses that will do the greatest damage to their competitive position. Boldness Take calculated risks that have the potential to achieve major, market-shifting results. Surprise Use stealth, ambiguity, and deception to degrade the quality of information available to competitors and impair their ability to deploy resources efficiently. Focus Concentrate resources at critical points and times to capitalize on key market opportunities. Decentralized decision making Give authority to those who are closest to the point of decision and who possess superior local information. Align these individual decisions by communicating “commander’s intent”– the desired final result – throughout the organization. Rapid tempo Identify opportunities, make decisions, and implement plans more quickly than competitors do in order to seize the initiative and force them into a constant state of reaction. Combined arms Look for ways to combine resources so that the returns generated by the whole are greater than those generated by the individual parts. 8

Note the comparisons between military savvy and business expertise within Clemens and Santamaria‘s essay. Your instructor will provide you with the article.

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Sport

Athletes are often referred to as warriors by the media. However; in their attempts to be more theatrical and inspire awe, people involved in the media toss this almost-sacred term around far too easily. Still, at its highest levels, certain aspects of being an athlete can be equated with aspects of being a warrior. Consider what both require:  intense physical training  specialized mental training  emotional stamina  successful strategic planning  practice of effective tactics

For these reasons, it is easy to draw comparisons between the two, but even when looking at combat sports, which are a direct derivative of warrior arts and sciences, one should not confuse the two. Strategic planning and tactical development are similarly regarded.

Mentioned earlier in our discussion of the military was manoeuvre warfare vs. attrition warfare. As an example of attrition was the relentless bombing of Germany day and night by allied forces. Similarly, Jack Dempsey, the famous heavyweight boxer did not dance with his opponents, and seldom used feints. Dempsey pounded his opponents into defeat. But Dempsey does not carry the mantle of ―The Greatest‖. Most often, that title is reserved for Mohammed Ali, who once defeated the immensely powerful ―Big George‖ Foreman with his manoeuvrability. Appear weak when you are strong - choose your battleground and make your opponent believe that is where he wants to be - use both orthodox and the unexpected methods.

Similar tactics are employed in all the combat sports; but a careful examination of any sport will reveal planning of this sort. Strategy is more obvious for a fan of any given sport; but even a layman can uncover these techniques if she/he is somewhat versed in strategic thinking.

Are their any games of football, baseball, hockey, soccer, etc. wherein you have seen great strategy at work? Be sure not confuse strategy with tactics or one great play.

The question remains, is honour a requirement in sport? Of course, this author believes honourably is the best to live. This does not necessarily mean it is a quality of great athletes. Or does it?

Rather than feed the students one‘s own impressions on honourable and dishonourable activities in sports, the instructor should illicit their stories. As well, questions should be raised as to how these actions reflect on the athletes and how that impact society.

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Should the instructor choose to offer the students some insight into the warrior mindset of some great athletes and coaches. Here are some of their inspiring words:

Obligation, commitment, and responsibility:

There are only two options regarding commitment. You're either IN or you‟re OUT. There is no such thing as life in-between. -Pat Riley

Each Warrior wants to leave the mark of his will, his signature, on important acts he touches. This is not the voice of ego but of the human spirit, rising up and declaring that it has something to contribute to the solution of the hardest problems, no matter how vexing! -Pat Riley

One man can be a crucial ingredient on a team, but one man cannot make a team. - Kareem Abdul- Jabbar

My responsibility is getting all my players playing for the name on the front of the jersey, not the one on the back. - Source Unknown

Sometimes a player's greatest challenge is coming to grips with his role on the team. - Scottie Pippen

Justice:

To describe some of these substances as performance-enhancing is pushing at the boundaries of credibility. How much coffee do you have to drink to shave a hundredth of a second off your 100 metres time? The drugs they legitimately hunt down should not be those that enhance performance but those that endanger health. That should be the only criterion because, in one small way or another, legal supplements, new training tricks and a scientifically rigorous diet all enhance performance. What, really, is the difference. - Kevin Mitchell

Sport is dead when citius, altius, fortius is replaced by fixius, drugius, corruptius. We have reached the logical end of sport…. We watch sport not for the victory, but for the struggle. In other words, those that seek victory at all costs are destroying sport. They are creating a spectacle in which we, the punters, have no interest. People are far less interested in track and field athletics than they once were because there has been too much drugging... Professionalism will be the death of sport; or it will, if we carry on believing in it. But at last, we are beginning to see the price of winning at all costs. - Simon Barnes

Placing first is not the same as winning. - Roger Ebert, "Chicago Sun Times"

Well, when I think of steroids I think of an image. You have the advantage over someone, which is a form of cheating. I guess it wouldn't be right unless it was legal for everybody. Reason it's not legal for everybody is because it can hurt people seriously. -Evander Holyfield

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Courage (and perseverance):

It's not the size of the dog in the fight, but the size of the fight in the dog. -Archie Griffen, two-time Heisman winner ( 5ft 9)

There's no substitute for guts. -Paul Bear Bryant

It's lack of faith that makes people afraid of meeting challenges, and I believed in myself. - Muhammad Ali

It's a little like wrestling a gorilla. You don't quit when you're tired you quit when the gorilla is tired. -Robert Strauss

The game isn't over till it's over. -Yogi Berra

You learn you can do your best even when its hard, even when you're tired and maybe hurting a little bit. It feels good to show some courage. -Joe Namath

Always remember Goliath was a 40 point favourite over David.-- Shug Jordan

Martial Training and Prowess:

Sweat plus sacrifice equals success. -Charlie Finley

The will to win is important, but the will to prepare is vital. -Joe Paterno

Power is not revealed by striking hard or often, but by striking true. -Honore de Balzac

If you don't do what‟s best for your body, you're the one who comes up on the short end. -Julius Erving

Luck is what happens when preparation meets opportunity. -Coach Darrel Royal

If you sacrifice early, you'll win late.-- Charles Haley

You can't make a great play unless you do it first in practice. - Chuck Noll

Success isn't something that just happens - success is learned, success is practiced and then it is shared. - Sparky Anderson

Winning isn‟t a sometime thing; it‟s an all the time thing.- Vince Lomabardi

Honour in general

Adversity cause some men to break; others to break records. -William A. Ward

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Besides pride, loyalty, discipline, heart, and mind, confidence is the key to all the locks. -Joe Paterno

When you're are playing for the national championship, it's not a matter of life or death. Its more important than that. -Duffy Daugherty

To succeed...You need to find something to hold on to, something to motivate you, something to inspire you. -Tony Dorsett

The difference between a successful person and others is not a lack of strength, not a lack of knowledge, but rather a lack of will. -Vincent T. Lombardi

The difference between failure and success is doing a thing nearly right and doing it exactly right. -Edward C. Simmons

The harder you work, the harder it is to surrender. -Vince Lombardi

Never let your head hang down. Never give up and sit down and grieve. Find another way. -Satchel Paige

It isn't hard to be good from time to time in sports. What is tough, is being good every day. -Willie Mays

The only way to maximize potential for performance is to be calm in the mind. -Brian Sipe

One man practicing sportsmanship is far better than fifty preaching it. -Knute Rockne

Losers quit when they're tired. Winners quit when they've won. -Author Unknown

Be strong in body, clean in mind, lofty in ideals. -James Naismith

Sports do not build character. They reveal it. -John Wooden

The price of success is hard work, dedication to the job at hand, and the determination that whether we win or lose, we have applied the best of ourselves to the task at hand. -Vince Lombardi

Lombardi‟s statement seems to contradict his earlier comment, “Winning isn‟t the most important thing -it‟s the only thing.” Lombardi received some criticism for this and other seemingly unsportsmanlike remarks. Certainly, it may have been a bit over the top for a discussion on sports. In the context of warriorship, however, it would be appropriate. In defence of one‟s life, the life of loved ones, one‟s community or country, indeed, winning is the only thing. As General Douglas MaCarthur said, “In war there is no substitute for victory.” In light of both of his comments, perhaps Lombardi feels the paradox with which warriors are familiar. A man in the heat of battle is not the same celebrating his victories.

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As an example of an athlete with a sense of honour, professional golfer, Wendy Ward is offered. In 2000, Ward was competing at the McDonald‘s LPGA Championship. She was neck and neck with Juli Inkster for first place during the last round of play. On the 13th hole, Ward landed her ball on the green roughly ten feet from the hole. A ten foot putt (generally no trouble for Ward) would make par. With putter in hand, Ward positioned herself above the ball and was prepared to putt. Looking down on the ball, she was suddenly witness to something surprising and terrible - the ball moved. In very rare cases the appears to be stationary but the for reasons unknown it moves. It could be a slight a factor a blade of grass finally giving out under the weight of the ball that makes it roll another half an inch; but it doesn‘t matter.

One of the obscure rules of golf is that if the ball moves after you‘ve addressed, regardless of having no contact with it, it counts as a stroke on your score. Ward saw that golf ball move half an inch. No one else saw it. If she had said nothing it would have been as though it never happened. Furthermore, it is an often disregarded rule in the amateur ranks of golf; some deem it unfair. A group of friends playing for fun on a Sunday afternoon would certainly ignore it. Nevertheless, it is still an official rule. Ward knew that. And despite the cost she stood back from the ball and announced to her rival and playing partner, Juli Inkster. Inkster said she had not seen it, but that did not stop Ward from notifying the official and adding a stroke to her own score.

Play resumed after that with Ward continuing to trail by one point to the finish. The final score: Juli Inkster and Stephania Croce, who had caught up, each with 281 and Wendy Ward in third place with 282. Ward lost the first place finish and $210,000. She has no regrets though, as she did not lose her integrity. Inkster said of Ward after the game, ―She is the real champion today.‖

One idea for the instructor to consider is a viewing of a sports-themed film wherein the athletes portrayed demonstrate warrior attributes. By showing half of a film on this week and the other half the following week, the two units, contemporary vocations (sports section) and pop culture, are connected. One choice is Best of the Best, a 1989 film depicting the training, competing and bonding of a team of combat sport athletes. Admittedly, the film is rather cliché in many aspects; however, its ending is far from cliché, in fact it is somewhat surprising, and demonstrates honour amongst the competitors on both teams.

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Unit 9 - Endnotes:

1 http://www.rcmp-grc.gc.ca/clet/mission_e.htm official RCMP Academy information website.

2. Ontario Police College resident Handbook, self-published, 2008.

3 http://www.rmc.ca/index-eng.asp official website for the Royal Military College of Canada.

4 Ambrose, Stephen E., Duty, Honour, Country: A History of West Point. Baltimore, London: The John Hopkins University Press, 1966, 1999. p. 330.

5 Ibid p. 344.

6 Gimian, James and Boyce, Barry; The Rules of Victory: How to Transform Chaos and Conflict: Strategies from The Art of War, Shambhala, Boston, 2008.

7 Erik K. Clemens, Eric K. and Santamaria, Jason A., Manoeuvre Warfare: Can Modern Military Strategy Lead You To Victory? in Harvard Business Review, April 2002.

8 Ibid.

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Unit 10: Warriorship in Contemporary Media and Pop Culture

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Unit 10: Warriorship Represented in Contemporary Media and Pop Culture

Passing the messages and philosophies of the warrior through entertainment is not a novel invention. Song, poetry, visual art and stories have been laden with such messages from our earliest recorded histories. Though this method is nothing new, we now have wondrous new vehicles to include in our array of delivery. This is not to say that the industrial revolution abolished old methods of passing on warrior legends. Regarding Music - The earlier rock-n‘-roll era gave us songs such as ―Along Came John‖ and ―The Man Who Shot Liberty Valance.‖ Regarding Art - Visual art now couples itself with literature and poetry in the form of comic books and graphic novels, which often depict warrior ideals. Regarding Poetry - There is modern poetry which accentuates the warrior philosophies, as it did with Beowulf, Achilles and the Monkey King. Case is point, from Sifu David Carradine‘s book we can read:

Reaching to heaven. Creative, strong, the leader. The Earth power: devoted, receptive, soothing, selfless. The arousing thunder. Always moving. Sudden and quick. Ambitious. As soft, as vital and as powerful as water: the artist Striving to give shape to the wood and the world with his hands. Humbly capable of anything. Unfathomable. A dangerous man. Standing perfectly still, strongly based like a mountain. the wind in his ears, the sun in his eyes, wisdom comes to him and stays. Gentle, penetrating, the entire sweet and terrible of Creation can be heard whispering and roaring in the wind, rustling in the leaves. All held in place and bursting forth from his fingers on the lute. Clinging to thoughts and words, giving light to the darkness, Shining like the sun, crackling with fire. The poet. The bard. Filled with the joy of life , pure pleasure, spreading himself across pain and sorrow like a lake of gladness, the clown reigns supreme. 1

Of course, today, we also have television and cinema.

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T.V.

In the early days of television, along side family shows such as Leave It To Beaver and Father Knows Best, westerns were quite popular. In the 1950‘s, ―Gunsmoke‖ and ―The Lone Ranger‖ were widely enjoyed. Filling their shoes in the 60‘s were ―Bonanza‖ and ―Rawhide―, among other shorter-lived serials. These programs, much like many of the early Western films connected to people to the romantic adventure of the old west (1980‘s) while denying much of its ugliness. The term cowboy, which once disrespectfully referred to men who drove with cattle, became synonymous with an adventurous western hero. The Lone Ranger had a huge following of young fans, whom likely absorbed morals from his exploits. An examination of The Lone Ranger, from his creation by western novelist Zane Grey through his radio series years and on to his television and film adventuress suggest that he may fit our billing as a western warrior.

The following decades gave us new heroes; and as cynicism in our society grew, perhaps deservedly, our heroes changed. Consider the heroes on television in the 1970‘s: The Fonz, Gabe Kotter, Andy Travis, J.J. Walker, Maude, and Buck Rogers; The 80‘s: the Duke Boys, Thomas Magnum, Sam Malone, Dr. Huxtable , MacGyver, Hannibal, B.A., Face, Murdock; and Alf; and the 90‘s; Hercules, Xena; Buffy, the 3 sisters of Charmed; Dawson, Felicity, Beavis and Butthead, Brandon, Steve, Brenda, Kelly, and Dillon.

How many of these could we justifiable call warriors? Certainly, arguments exist to defend Hercules and Xena; Buck and Buffy; maybe Magnum and MacGyver; at least one of the sisters of witchcraft; and perhaps even The Fonz makes your list. And it would seem wrong to leave out The A-team; after all, they were a crack commando unit sent to prison by a military court for a crime they didn't commit. These men promptly escaped from a maximum security stockade to the Los Angeles underground. Still wanted by the government, they survived as soldiers of fortune. If you have a problem, if no one else can help, and if you can find them, maybe you can hire... But I digress.

Since the 60‘s has the number of warrior-like characters been growing or declining from decade to decade? In the most recent decade, have television viewers embraced characters of a more warrior-like nature? Another question worth examining is how well recent characters and the fore mentioned characters of earlier television encapsulate warrior ideals.

There are a plethora of directions this discussion can lead. The recommendation to the instructor is allow the students to determine the direction of the discussion; whether they wish to discuss the relation of Klingon culture to Vikings and Samurai of Earth or perhaps whether or not the Fonz could have been appointed knighthood.

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Cinema

An entire course dedicated to the consideration of the depiction of warriors in the movies would not be enough for a fully comprehensive investigation. Historical and semi-historical films have brought to life such magnificent warriors as William Wallace, Genghis Khan, Leonidas, Wong Fei Hong, King Arthur, Mas Oyama, Alexander, Ho Yuan Jia and George Patton, just to skim the surface. Of course, many fictitious tales have been inspiring as well. They range in genre including war movies, action/adventure and martial arts, of course; but also western, drama, fantasy, romance, comedy, musical, suspense, even horror. The best of these movies are not limited to their genre, instead the genre is merely a vehicle to drive the theme and characters of the story. In this way, the nobility of certain characters and the integrity of their actions can be examples of warriorship to which we should aspire. Let us take an example from science -fiction.

The most famous hexilogy of all time, the Star Wars series is far and away the most successful sci-fi series of all time. Even Star Trek is distant second. This is a story told in epic proportions both in its plot line and its brilliant state of the art effects. Its exciting visual display; however is not what engrosses the audience. Star Wars plays to human condition; our need for a sense of purpose and our desire to represent something noble. Star Wars is a film about warriorship.

The order of the Jedi is a warrior-monk caste that could easily exist on earth, if not for all the warp speed travel. Certainly there is martial prowess being displayed in the films - almost entirely based in swordsmanship and the use of the staff (as in the case of Darth Maul). The Jedi philosophy is a synthesis of Taoism and Buddhism with a peppering of other spiritual paths which have been associated with warrior monks. Balance, harmony with nature and non-attachment are all expressed as ideals of the Jedi.

As well, the chivalric codes of knights of Europe and Asian are evident, though slightly reconfigured. The Jedi code of the old republic era, in place during the earliest chronological chapters, focused considerable on acquisition of a sense of enlightenment through peaceful mediations  There is no emotion, there is peace.  There is no ignorance, there is knowledge.  There is no passion, there is serenity.  There is no chaos, there is harmony.*  There is no death, there is the Force. *This fifth line was added by one of the official Star Wars role playing games.

In later books which pick up after the conclusion of the films, Luke Skywalker, now Grandmaster, adds tenets to the code. He believes the tents necessary to rebuild the order, as he is the only remaining master.

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 Jedi are the guardians of peace in the Galaxy.  Jedi use their powers to defend and protect, never to attack others.  Jedi respect all life, in any form.  Jedi serve others rather than rule over them, for the good of the Galaxy.  Jedi seek to improve themselves through knowledge and training. 3

The force, too, is not without an earthly origin. Its description as energy which surrounds and permeates and which is manipulated by masters of its secrets is akin to the notion of chi mentioned in an earlier chapter. Training in the force can be seen as Chi kung training. Cultivating its use for wicked purposes is the stuff of kung Fu novels. Read the Chinese legends of Pei Mei, the shaolin monk turned villain and you will find the origins of Darth Vadar.

This example was chosen because despite its enormous popularity its warrior theme may not be evident to those who are not die hard fans of Star Wars or scholars of warriorship. Hopefully, it is obvious to students who have progressed this far in the course.

Open the floor to discussion of other movies wherein a warrior theme exists, but may not be obvious. Also, what movies have successfully capture the spirit of warriorship and which have tried but failed?

Comic Books and Graphic Novels

Mystery Men; they were called before they wore costumes and had powers beyond those achievable by any human (hypnosis, knowledge of Native healing herbs and Olympian level athleticism being pretty standard). In the earliest form of comic books appeared Doc Savage, Zorro, Flash Gordon, and Tarzan - and, yes, The Lone Ranger rode again. Warriors? Indubiously. But what of their spandex wearing successors?

The term ―super-hero‖ is not concrete in its classification, but by its most popular definition which includes a costume and special abilities used to fight crime, Superman was the first of his kind. However, even in 1938, when Joe Shuster and Jerry Siegel first unveiled the man of steel, the concept of a super human hero was not new. Ancient history is inundated with such marvels. Superman and his colleagues, who soon followed, are archetypal figures appearing once again in our age of storytelling as they have done in the past.

Some are taken from mankind‘s library quite blatantly: Marvel Comic‘s Hercules and Thor are gods of Greek and Norse legends respectively; Wonder Woman is an Amazon; from Egyptian mythology we have Hawkman. Though he is not said to be Horus, he is the spitting image of the hawk-headed god; and his Nth metal which enables him to fly, comes from an Egyptian tomb. Namor and Aquaman are implied

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descendents from the god Neptune.

Many of the god and heroes of ancient mythologies have loaned their powers. Incredible strength was common to Guan Yu, Ajax, Atlas, Sampson and others. Speed is a gift from Mercury. Flight, as mentioned, Hawkman borrows from Horus, and less obviously, so do The Falcon and La Peregrine. Perhaps they could be said to be borrowing from Icarus; however, we know he flew to close to sun and his melted wings failed him. These heroes‘ wings are only for show; technology has given them their powers their flight. They differ from Angel (a.k.a. Archangel), whose wings are a part of him. His name leaves no guessing as to the source of the writer‘s inspiration. The Monkey King of Chinese folklore loans his agility to many heroes. Furthermore, he is one of many legends pertaining to humanoid, yet animalistic beings. Such a concept pitting man against is animal nature is universal. Consider the world wide tales of werewolves, yetis and sasquatch. Then, look to the comic pages to find Nightcrawler, the Changeling, the Beast and a hero named Sasquatch who resembles the old legends, but with an orange hue and professorial I.Q.

Like an upper ranking god, Superman possesses many of these traits and more. In fact, Superman‘s description can be closely equated with, not only with the gods of Greek, Egyptian and Norse mythology, but with beliefs in existence today. He carries hints of Christianity. He has, for example, x-ray vision . You may think,―surely, this was a new idea‘ but in fact, St. Xavier had x-ray vision with which he was able to see the bodies of dead soldiers at the bottom of a bog. Cal-El‘s connections to religion do not end there. Dare we compare him to the messiah? Like Jesus Christ, or Mithra before him, Cal-El was sent to earth by his father to save humanity, despite its faults; for as Jor -El states, ―For this reason above all, their capacity for good, I am sending them you, my only son.”

Ben Grimm, the brick of the Fantastic Four, also known as The Thing, could very well be derived from Jewish Kabbalah mysticism wherein the teachings inform rabbi how to create a golem from the earth. A mud-born, rock-like super strong creature that does the bidding of its creator. The Hulk fits a similar description, but he seems more likely adapted from more modern literature. Some compare the Hulk to Frankenstein‘s monster; but more so, he is like Jekyll and Hyde. He may also be somewhat like the Viking‘s berserkers. The angrier he gets the more powerful he becomes. Lobo, Wolverine and Punisher even more closely fit this description.

Clearly, the resemblance to fantastical beings of centuries past connotes an archetypal quality in today‘s superheroes. Still, this does not demand that they behave as warriors. Only highly informed fans could answer that question with 100% accuracy; nevertheless, it could be amusing to address the idea on a surface level.

Let‘s begin with the ―Big 3‖ of DC comics: Superman, Wonder Woman and Batman. Even Green Lantern, Green Arrow, Aquaman and Flash, who are not second- stringers, take a back seat to these three. In his early career Superman was said to fight for ―truth, justice and the American way‖, back when the words ―the American way‖

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carried more weight. One of purest characters of this genre, Clark Kent possesses those qualities that fit our description. Still, it terms of his training and his courage he cannot measure up to Batman, can he? Batman has no superpowers, yet has trained so gruellingly for so long that he is now a formidable force - a mere human able to wear the banner ―super-hero‖. Also, since he has no superpowers he is much more vulnerable to attack than the man of steel. Wonder Woman is bit of both, super- powered and intensely trained, and of the three, is probably the easiest to clearly label as a warrior. She has trained in the ancient warrior arts of the Amazon since she was a girl. She demonstrates strong moral conviction, loyalty, and a sense of justice. However, of the three, she is the only one ever to kill a foe- something Superman and Batman were quick to condemn.

Let‘s have a look at the other major player of the comic and graphic novel industry, Marvel Comics. They too have an original ―Big 3‖. The Hulk, Spiderman, and Captain America seemed to be their usual icons for many decades; although more recently Wolverine seems to have replaced Cap on centre stage. The Hulk, however noble, certainly could not be said to be a true warrior- he lacks the intellectual capacity. Spider-man with his trademark expression, ―with great power comes great responsibility‖ seems to fit comfortably in the role. Of course, Captain America was designed to be a soldier of the warrior class. How about Wolverine? He has trained as a warrior, but does he embrace the code?

Wolverine‘s immense popularity lead to other creations of anti-heroes within both companies and smaller players, as well: Punisher, Lobo, Cable, Magog, Spawn, etc. Similar in attitude, some former villains now walk the line between right and wrong, namely Electra and Catwoman - making them perfectly intriguing romantic interests for Daredevil and Batman, who are also more dark and brooding characters. This was not a recent development for the dark knight, but a return to his original formula. Batman‘s first two books portrayed him as a solemn vindicator. The comic code authority nipped that in the bud and the writers were forced, at least for awhile, to soften his rough edges. When more gothic artistry became fashionable in the 90‘s he returned to his grimmer self.

This phase of the industry almost ruined comics. Grotesquely muscular heroes with veins bulging from their flesh, carried grimaced faces as they handed out verdicts on the villains. In fact, it was difficult to tell villain from hero in many cases as the ‘anti-hero‘ was all the rage. Younger fans without any emotional attachment to the classic icons lapped up the amoral heroes who were at home in shadowy, gothic and down-right messy style of artwork. The once noble superhero - our caped and costumed warriors - were being threatened with extinction. One man decided to do something about it. In his book, Our Gods Wear Spandex, Christopher Knowles describes the mini-series revolution of Alex Ross.

Ross declared war on the Chromium Age. His 1996 epic mini-series Kingdom Come is nothing than an apocalyptic tract, awash in fiery Biblical wrath. The story presents a world in which the old-school superheroes (Superman, Batman, Flash, Wonder Woman, and others) are either in forced retirement or operating underground. In their place, a new generation of heroes

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arises -- violent maniacs who spend most of their time engaging in pointless battles with each other. Foremost among these is Magog, a none-too-subtle parody of Rob Liefeld‟s most successful creation, Cable. During one of their melees, this new breed of heroes causes a nuclear accident that irradiates the Midwestern farm belt and reduces it to a wasteland. Savvy readers recognized this as a metaphor for what the new breed of superhero comic was doing to the medium and the market.

Alarmed by this, Superman emerges from retirement and reassembles DC‟s Justice League. In an eye-grabbing series of battles, Superman and the League descend from the heavens like archangels and smash the new breed of super powered lunatics, finally placing them in an enormous gulag in the radioactive wasteland of Kansas. Superman‟s arch-foe. Lex Luthor, has other plans, however. Luthor assembles his own band of heroes (led by a mind-controlled Captain Marvel) to fight the League. The climax comes when Superman and the more powerful Captain engage in battle, while nuclear missiles meant to destroy all super-powered beings rain down from the heavens. At the very last moment, Captain Marvel tears himself free from the influence of the mind control and summons lightning from the heavens to destroy the missiles in mid-flight. He dies in the act. The story ends with peace on Earth and Wonder Woman pregnant with Superman‟s child. Kingdom Come marked the end of the Chromium Age, even though it would be several years before the comics market recovered from the damage it had wrought. The book is remarkable, however, for another reason. Kingdom Come -- perhaps more than any other comic book in history -- delineates what superheroes are to their most devoted fans. They are nothing less than gods. 4

Thus, our ink and pencilled warriors were victorious in real life as well as on the comic pages. Of these characters, who is most recognizable as warriors? Is it those characters whose origins involve a traditional study in the ancient warrior arts and codes of honour or simply those maintaining their ―boy scout‖ temperaments?

With the growing popularity of graphic novels among university students, there will no doubt be some die hard fans within the class. They will be better equipped to discuss the origins and histories of the superheroes and those characters which are a little more obscure. Nevertheless, many people will have a favourite(s) they may be willing to discuss. More potential points of discussion: According to their writers, Captain America, Batman and Karate Kid (of DC Comics not Daniel-san) have a great deal of training in martial styles, but none has a sole mentor (sensei or sifu). They studied a variety of systems. do they appear just as worthy of the title as characters with formal, traditional, ancient warrior training? Those being: Black Knight, Black Panther, Iron Fist, Shang Chi, Wonder Woman, etc. Where does Electra fit in? Does not Batman seem too morally ambiguous (possibly psychotic) to be considered a warrior? Has the nobility of the characters been fully restored, or has the modern writers‘ efforts to humanize these heroes tarnished them?

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Unit 10 – Endnotes

1 Carradine, David; Spirit of Shaolin: A Kung Fu Philosophy, Charles E. Tuttle Company Inc, Tokyo, 1991.

2 Superman; The Movie; director: Richard Donner, Warner Brothers, 1978.

3 http://www.starwars.com/databank/organization/thejediorder/ the official Star Wars jedi website.

4 Linsner, Joseph Michael; Our Gods Wear Spandex: The Secret History of Comic Book Heroes, Red Wheel/Weiser LLC, San Francisco, 2007.

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Conclusion

Your course guide ends here; but if you are truly an aspiring warrior-scholar your study of this noble way of life will continue. Choose one aspect, event, or role model and study it, her, or him in absolute detail. And then move on to another. Study the way. Train in the way. Absorb the way. Abide in the way. Never dismiss your calling.

It is recommended that the next two weeks of the course (presuming 3 hour lessons) be used for students‘ presentations. The final week can be used for the final exam. Should the professor feel otherwise, Military Strategy is a reasonable inclusion to the course curriculum. Masters of the Battlefield: The World‘s Greatest Military Commanders and Their Battles from Alexander The Great to Norman Schwarzkopf is one recommended source.

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Bibliography (and suggested readings/viewings)

In General

Bolelli, Daniele; On the Warrior‘s Path: Philosophy, Fighting, and Martial Arts Mythology, Blue Snake Books, Berkeley, 2003.

Chu, F. J.; The Martial Way and Its Virtues : Tao De Gung, YMAA Publication Center, Boston, 2003.

Crudelli, Chris; The Way of the Warrior: Martial Arts and Fighting Styles From Around the World, Dorling Kindersley Limited, New York, 2008.

Coggins, Jack; the Fighting Man: An Illustrated History of the World`s Great Fighting Forces Through the Ages, Doubleday & Company INC, Garden City, 1966.

Grossman, Dave; On Killing: The Psychological Cost of Learning to Kill in War and Society, Back Bay Books, New York, 1995.

Hobeart, Peter; Kishido: The Way of the Western Warrior, Hohm Press, Prescott, 1969.

Hughs-Hallett, Lucy, Heroes: Savious, Traitors, and Supermen, Penguin Group, Toronto, 2004.

Jones, Steve; The Intelligent Warrior: Command Personal Power with Martial Arts Strategies, Thorsons, London, 2004.

Lewis, Peter; The Martial Arts: Origins, Philosophy, Practice, Prion Books Ltd, London, 1996.

McTaggart, Lynne; The Field: The Quest for the Secret Force of the Universe, Harper Perennial, New York, 2002.

Mersey, Daniel; Legendary Warriors: Great Heroes in Myth and Reality, Brassey‘s, London, 2002.

Morgan, Forrest E. and USAF, Maj; Living the Martial Way: A Manual for the Way a Modern Warrior Should Think, Barricade Books Inc, Fort Lee, 1992. - (The other text for this course).

Reid, Howard and Croucher, Nichael; The Way of the Warrior: The Paradox of the Martial Arts, The Overlook Press, Woodstock, 1983.

Ronson, Jon; The Men Who Stare at Goats, Simon & Schuster Paperbacks, New York, 2004.

Shi, Ming and Siao, Weijia; Mind Over Matter: Higher Martial Arts, Frog Ltd, Berkeley, 1988.

Smith, Evans Lansing and Brown, Nathan Robert; The Complete Idiot‘s Guide to World Mythology, Alpha Books, New York, 2007.

Sun Tzu; The Art of War, Barnes & Noble Books, New York, 1994.

Thompson, Julian; Masters of the Battlefield: the World‘s Greatest Military Commanders and Their Battles, from Alexander the Great to Norman Schwarzkopf, Barnes & Noble, new York, 2007.

Wikipedia: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Main_Page : (This resource was used to help initiate investigations in numerous topics).

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African and Middle Eastern

Ali, Abdullah Yusuf; The Holy Quran, Goodword Books, New Delhi, 2003.

Bentsen, Cheryl; Maasai Days, Summit Books, New York, 1989.

Cheney, Patricia; The Land and People of Zimbabwe, J. B. Lippincott, new York, 1990

Dodds, Glen Lyndon; the Zulus and Matabele: Warrior Nation, Arms and Armours Press, London, 1998.

Edgerton, Robert B.; Mau Mau: An Agrican Crucible, The Free Press, New York, 1989.

Gilbert, Elizabeth L.; Broken Spears: A Maasai Journey, Atlantic Books, London, 2003.

ICNA; Islam Is…: Introduction of Islam and Its Principles, ICNA, Oakville.

McConville, Gordon; The Old Testament, Hodder Headline PLC, London, 1996.

Schaffer, David; The History of Nation: Iraq, Thomson Gale, San Diego, 2004.

Asian

Carradine, David; Spirit of Shaolin: A Kung Fu Philosophy, Charles E. Tuttle Company Inc, Tokyo, 1991.

Choi, Hong Hi, Taekwondo, (1972). Cedar Knolls, N.J. Wehman Brothers Inc.

Chow, David and Spangler, Richard; Kung Fu: History, Philosophy and Technique, Unique Publications, Burbank, 1982.

Chuang Tzu, The Way of Chuang Tzu. trans.: Merton, Thomas, (1992) Boston & London, Shambhala.

Confucius, The Analects of Confucius, Trans. Leys, Simon, (1997), New York, London, W.W. Norton & Company.

Coogan, Michael D.; Eastern Religions: Hinduism, Buddhism, Taoism, Confucianism, Shinto, Duncan Baird Publishers, London, 2005.

Danaos, Kosta; Nei Kung: The Secret Teachings of the Warrior Sages, Inner Traditions International, Rochester, 2002.

Danaos, Kosta; The Magus of Java Teachings of an Authentic Taoist Immortal, Inner Traditions International, Rochester, 2000.

De Mente, Boye Lafayette; Samurai Strategies: 42 Martial Secrets From Musashi`s Book of Five Rings, Tuttle Publishing, Tokyo, 2005.

Frantzis, Bruce; The Power of Internal Martial Arts and Chi: Combat and Energy Secrets of Ba Gua, Tai Chi and Hsing-I, Energy Arts Inc, Fairfax, 1998.

Gach, Gary, The Complete Idiot‘s Guide to Understanding Buddhism, (2004) New York, Alpha.

Hyams, Byjoe; Zen in the Martial Arts, Bantam Books, New York, 1979.

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Kennedy, Brian and Guo Elizabeth; Chinese Martial Arts Training Manuals: A Historical Survey, Blue Snake Books, Berkeley, 2005.

Keown, Damien; Buddhist Ethics: A Very Short Introduction, Oxford University Press, Oxford, 2005.

Lamb, Harold; Genghis Khan: The Emperor of All Men, Garden City Publishing Company Inc, Garden City, 1927.

Lao Tzu; Tao Te Ching: The Definitive Edition, Penguin Inc, New York, 2001.

Luo, Guan Zhong; Three Kingdoms: A History Novel, University of California Press, Berkeley, 1999.

Order of Shaolin Ch‘an; The Shaolin Grandmasters‘ Text: History, Philosophy, and Gung Fu of Shaolin Ch‘an, The Order of Shaolin Ch‘an, Beaverton, 2004.

Purcell, Victor; The Boxer Uprising: A Background Study, Cambridge University Press, London, 1963.

Rinpoche, Sogyal; The Tibetan Book of Living and Dying, Harper, San Francisco, New York, 2002.

Ross, Nancy Wilson; Three Ways of Asian Wisdom: Hinduism, Buddhism, and Zen and Their Significance for the West, Simon and Schuster, New York, 1966.

Samuel Robert T.; The Samurai: The Philosophy of Victory, Barnes & Noble, New York, 2004.

Shan, Lin; Dragon Tales: Beginning to Three Kingdoms, Asiapac Books PTE Ltd., Singapore, 2000.

Shane, C.J.; The History of Nations: China, Greenhaven Press, Farmington Hills, 2003.

Wong, Kiew Kit; The Art of Shaolin Kung Fu: The Secrets of Kung Fu for Self-Defense, Health, and Enlightenment , Tuttle Publishing, Boston, 2001.

Yang, Jwing-ming; Ancient Chinese Weapons: A Martial Artist‘s Guide, YMAA Publication Center, Boston, 1946.

Yang, Jwing-ming; The Root of Chinese Qigong: Secrets for Health, Longevity, and Enlightenment, YMAA Publication Center, Roslindale, 1989.

European

Brooks, Polly Schoyer; Beyond the Myth: the Story of Joan of Arc, J. B. Lippincott, New York, 1990.

Byock, Jesse; Viking Age Iceland, Penguin Books, London, 2001.

Dumas, Alexandre; The Three Musketeers, Random House Inc, New York, 1950.

Duncan, Anthony; Celtic Mysticism: Walking With the Gods: A Spiritual Guide, Anness Publishing Ltd, London, 2000.

Fitzhugh, William W. and Ward, Elisabeth I.; Vikings: The North Altantic Saga, Smithsonian Institution Press, Washington, 2000.

Goodman, Jennifer R.; Chivalry and Exploration 1298-1630, The Boydell Press, Woodbridge, 1998.

Gravett, Christopher and Nicolle, David; The Normans: Warrior Knights and Their castles, Osprey Publishing Ltd., Oxford, 2006. 133

Homer, The Odyssey; Trans. Negri, Paul; Dover Publication Inc, Toronto, 1999.

Hodges, Margaret; Joan of arc: the Lily Maid, Holiday House, New York, 1999.

Keen, Maurice; Chivalry, Yale University Press, New Haven, 1984.

Kaeuper, Richard W. and Kennedy, Elspeth; The Book of Chivalry of Geoffroi De Charny: Text, Context, and Translation, University of Pennsylvania Press, Philadelphia, 1996.

McDowall, Mark; Legends of Chivalry, Metro Books, New York, 2000.

McMarty, Nick; Alexander the Great: The Real-Life Story of the World‘s Greatest Warrior King, Gramercy Books, New York, 2004.

Powell, Barry B.; Blackwell Introductions to the Classical World: Homer, Blackwell Publishing, Oxford, 2004.

Rebsamen, Frederick; Beowulf, HarperCollins Publishers, New York, 1991.

Snyder, Louis L., Fredrick the Great. Prentice-Hall, 1971.

Spartans, The; Director: Melanie Archer, BBC , A Lion Television, 2003.

North and South America

Audlin, James David; Circle of Life: Traditional Teachings of Native American Elders, Clear Light Publishers, Santa Fe, 2006.

Boyd, Doug; Rolling Thunder, Dell Publishing, New York, 1974.

Coe, Michael D.; The Maya, Thames and Hudson Ltd., London, 1966.

Collier, James Lincoln; The Tecumseh You Never Knew, Children‘s Press, New York, 2004.

Crompton, Samuel Willard; Illustrated Atlas Native of American History, Saraband Inc, Rowayton, 1999.

Edmunds, R. David; The Shawnee Prophet, University of Nebraska Press, USA, 1983.

Foster, Lynn V.; Handbook ot Life in the Ancient Maya World, Oxford University Press, New York, 2002.

Frideres, James S.; Native Peoples in Canada: Contemporary Conflicts, Prentice-Hall, Scarborough, 1983.

Hollihan, Tony; Crazy Horse: Warrior Spirit of the Sioux, Folklore Publishing, Edmonton, 2003.

Hollihan, Tony; Great Chiefs Volume II, Folklore Publishing, Edmonton, 1964.

Karen, Ruth; Feathered Serpent: the Rise and fall of the Aztecs, Four winds Press, New York, 1979.

Lake, Medicine Grizzlybear; Native Healer; Intiation into an Ancient Art, Quest Books, Wheton, 1994.

Mails, Thomas E,; The Mystic Warriors of the Plains, Marlowe & Company, New York, 1972.

McIntyre, Loren; The Incredible Incas and Their Timeless Land, National Geographic Society, Washington, 1975.

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Oceania

Makereti; The Old-Time Maori, New Women‘s Press Ltd, Auckland, 1986

Nile, Richard and Clerk Christian; Cultural Atlas of Australia New Zealand & the South Pacific, Andromeda Oxford Ltd., England 1996.

Reed, A. W.; An Illustrated Encyclopedia of Maori Life, A.H. & A.W. Reed Ltd, Wellington, 1963.

Women Warriors

Amazon Warrior Women; (Secrets of The Dead series);Producers and Director: Carsten Obelander and Jens Afflerbach, PBS, 2004.

Evans, Elizabeth; Weathering the storm; Women of the American Revolution; Scribner, New York, 1975.

Miles, Rosalind and Cross, Robin; Hell Hath Nu Fury: True Stories of Women at War From Antiquity to Iraq, Three Rivers Press, New York, 2008.

Valasca, Merina; The Amazons: The Mysterious World of the Warrior Women, Astrolog Publishing House Ltd, Israel, 2005.

In Contemporary Vocations

Ambrose, Stephen E., Duty, Honour, Country: A History of West Point. Baltimore, London: The John Hopkins University Press, 1966, 1999.

Gimian, James and Boyce, Barry; The Rules of Victory: How to Transform Chaos and Conflict: Strategies from The Art of War, Shambhala, Boston, 2008.

Krause, Donald G.; The Way of the Leader: Applying the Principles of Sun Tzu and Confucius – Ancient Strategies for the Modern Business World, Perigee Book, New York, 1997.

Millman, Dan; Way of the Peaceful Warrior: A Book That Change Lives, H J Kramer Book, Tiburon, 1980.

Millman, Dan; Sacred Journey of the Peaceful Warrior, H J Kramer Book, Tiburon, 1991.

Bing, Stanley; Sun Tzu Was a Sissy: Conquer Your Enemies, Promote Your Friends, and Wage War, HarperCollins Publishers, New York, 2004.

Branon, Dave; Undefeated: Catching Inspiration and Hope Thrown by Athletes of Integrity, Bethany House, Minneapolis, 2006.

O‘Brien, Michael; Vince: A Personal Biography of Vince Lombardi, William Morrow and Company Inc, New York, 1987.

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In Contemporary Media and Pop Culture

Best of the Best; Director: Bob Radler, Columbia and Tristar, 1989.

Rosenberg, Robin S.; The Psychology of Superheroes, Benbella, Dallas, 2008.

Linsner, Joseph Michael; Our Gods Wear Spandex: The Secret History of Comic Book Heroes, Red Wheel/Weiser LLC, San Francisco, 2007.

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Appendix

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Introduction to Warrior Studies

Test #1 Name:______

1. Define ―warrior‖:______

______

______(3)

2. List the three tenets of honour: ______,

______, ______. (3)

3. List warriors (historical or literary) and name the country of the origin:

Warrior country ______- ______

______- ______

4. “The art of war is of vital importance to the state. It is a matter of life and death; a road to either safety or to ruin. Hence, under no circumstances can it be neglected.” Who said it? ______(2)

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5. Choose two cultures and explain one way in which their concepts of warriorship are the same and one way in which they differ: (4)

______

6. List 3 different countries or regions and name on martial art/system originating from each: (3)

Country/region art/system

______- ______

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7. Compare and contrast any two martial arts: (5)

______

8. Give one historical (true account) example of a true warrior and explain your answer: (5)

______

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Introduction to Warrior Studies

Test #2 Name:______1(a) Explain Courage: ______(2)

1(b) Explain Justice: ______(2)

1(c) Explain Obligation: ______(2)

1(d) Explain Responsibility: ______(2)

2. List and explain an example of honour in politics, commerce, social issues and/or local or global issues.

______

______(3)

3. List and explain two examples of dishonour in politics, commerce, social issues and/or local or global issues.

______

______(6)

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4. Describe a method of combat strategy and then explain how it might be used in a contemporary vocation:

______

______(4)

5. Take two fictional characters from any pop culture source and compare and contrast them to show why one should be considered a warrior and why one should not:

______

______(4)

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6. Compose a strategy for victory or betterment in any aspect of your life.

______

______(20)

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Maneuver Warfare: Can Modern Military Strategy Lead You to Victory? by Eric K. Clemons and Jason A. Santamaria

Business has gone through a dramatic transformation in recent years. So has warfare. Every executive knows firsthand the daunting challenges of the twenty-first-century business environment: rapid and disruptive change, fleeting opportunities, incomplete information, an overall sense of uncertainty and disorder. While military commanders have long faced such challenges on the battlefield, meeting them has become even more difficult in today‘s world of electronic weaponry, blurred battle lines, and amorphous enemies. Military strategy, like business strategy, has had to evolve in response to the changing environment. This has led to the growing focus on an approach to armed conflict called maneuver warfare. Recognized as a viable combat philosophy for the past 65 years, maneuver warfare has risen to prominence in the past decade because it is so well suited to today‘s combat environment. Although designed for the battlefield, the approach offers a novel and useful way to think about business strategy, allowing executives to capitalize on – rather than succumb to – the formidable challenges they now face.

Maneuver warfare represents – in the words of the United States Marine Corps doctrinal manual, Warfighting –―a state of mind bent on shattering the enemy morally and physically by paralyzing and confounding him, by avoiding his strength, by quickly and aggressively exploiting his vulnerabilities, and by striking him in a way that will hurt him most.‖ Its ultimate aim is not to destroy the adversary‘s forces but to render them unable to fight as an effective, coordinated whole. For example, instead of attacking enemy defense positions, maneuver warfare practitioners bypass those positions, capture the enemy‘s command-and-control center in the rear, and cut off supply lines. Moreover, maneuver warfare doesn‘t aim to avoid or resist the uncertainty and disorder that inevitably shape armed conflict; it embraces them as keys to vanquishing the foe. Despite the oft-cited analogy between warfare and business, military principles clearly can‘t be applied wholesale in a business environment. The marketplace is not, after all, a battlefield, if only because lives aren‘t at stake. That said, companies do compete aggressively – even viciously –for strategic advantage in a chaotic arena that is increasingly similar to the modern theater of war. Consequently, while the battle metaphor in some settings may seem facile or ill considered, we believe the concept of maneuver warfare is directly relevant to business strategy, precisely because it has been developed to address conditions that in many ways mirror those faced by modern executives. Furthermore, the approach –with its focus not on overpowering a rival but on outflanking him, targeting his weaknesses, and rendering him unable to analyze the situation – can help a company to achieve a decisive advantage with a minimal deployment of resources. This is of particular interest in today‘s business environment, when many companies are hesitant to over- commit their resources.

The Nature of War

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Warfare, in general, takes place on multiple levels. On the physical level, it is a test of firepower, weapons technology, troop strength, and logistics. At the psychological level, it involves intangibles such as morale, leadership, and courage. At the analytical level, it challenges the ability of commanders to assess complex battlefield situations, make effective decisions, and formulate tactically superior plans to carry out those decisions. If these dimensions seem familiar to most business executives, so too will the four human and environmental factors that, according to Warfighting, shape military conflict. Friction is the phenomenon that, in the words of the manual, ―makes the simple difficult and the difficult seemingly impossible.‖ The most obvious source of friction is the enemy, but it can also result from natural forces such as the terrain or the weather, internal forces such as a lack of planning or coordination, or even mere chance. Uncertainty is the atmosphere in which ―all actions in war take place‖ – the so-called fog of war. Uncertainty about environmental factors and about the opponent‘s intentions and capabilities clouds decision makers‘ judgment, prohibiting the optimal deployment of resources. Fluidity describes the battlefield situation in which each event ―merges with those that precede and follow it – shaped by the former and shaping the conditions of the latter – creating a continuous, fluctuating flow of activity replete with fleeting opportunities and unforeseen events.‖ Combatants must constantly adapt to these changing conditions and seek to actively shape emerging events. There are few breaks in the action or opportunities for decisions to be made sequentially. Combined, these three factors constitute the final key attribute of military conflict, the state toward which warfare naturally gravitates: disorder. ―In an environment of friction, uncertainty, and fluidity,‖ according to the Marines‘ manual, ―plans will go awry, instructions and information will be unclear and misinterpreted, communications will fail, and mistakes and unforeseen events will be commonplace.‖ Quite simply, disorder implies a competitive situation that deteriorates as time progresses. Functioning – or even surviving – in such an environment is a major challenge. But military commanders, as well as business executives, must be sure that their troops do more than survive: They must prevail. Because these four factors can rarely be controlled, successful commanders will opt for the only viable alternative – using them to their own advantage. That is the notion at the core of maneuver warfare: instead of being undermined by disorder, military commanders turn friction, uncertainty, and fluidity against the enemy to generate disorder in his ranks, ideally creating a situation in which the opposition simply can‘t cope. This idea isn‘t completely new. Elements of maneuver warfare theory first appeared in the writings of Sun Tzu and were practiced at the Battle of Leuctra in ancient Greece. More sophisticated applications of maneuver warfare principles generated successes for Napoléon and Confederate General Stonewall Jackson. But the 1937 publication of Infantry Attacks by well-known German military officer Erwin Rommel was the first broadly disseminated articulation of maneuver warfare‘s modern conceptual foundation – which was validated shortly thereafter by the success of German blitzkrieg tactics during World War II. Since then, maneuver warfare has resulted in decisive victories for the Israeli Defense Force in the

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Arab–Israeli Wars of 1967 and 1973 and for the Coalition Forces in Operation Desert Storm in 1991.

With the publication of Warfighting in 1989,the U.S. Marine Corps – once a devil-be- damned, charge-up-the-middle outfit formally adopted maneuver warfare as its doctrinal philosophy. Although the philosophy is tailor-made for the Marines – a small, light force with relatively few resources–maneuver warfare in recent years has also achieved a prominent place in U.S. military thought in general.

The Elements of Maneuver Warfare Maneuver warfare, as we have distilled it from Warfighting, has seven guiding concepts. Taken as a whole, they provide a useful framework for thinking about business strategy. For each concept – described in part using the actual language of Warfighting – we‘ll give examples of how it has been successfully executed in both military and business contexts.

Targeting Critical Vulnerabilities. A practitioner of maneuver warfare continually analyzes a rival with the aim of discovering those fundamental weaknesses that, ―if exploited, will do the most significant damage to the enemy‘s ability to resist.‖ Once the opponent‘s Achilles‘ heel is identified, resources must be marshalled rapidly and decisively to capitalize on the opportunity. Minimizing the lag time between the identification of the weakness and its exploitation maximizes the effectiveness of the resources deployed in this effort. At the Battle of Isonzo in World War I, then-Lieutenant Rommel, commanding a small detachment of three companies of light infantry, targeted a key mountain pass used as a main supply route by the Italian opposition. The capture of this pass,the Italians‘ critical vulnerability, caused the collapse of the northern part of their entire front, which consisted of thousands of well-positioned troops. To reach the pass, Rommel identified gaps in each of three defensive lines, bypassed enemy strong points, and attacked Italian defenders from the rear. In just 52 hours, his force captured 150 Italian officers,9, 000 soldiers, and 81 heavy guns while incurring casualties of only six dead and 30 wounded. Rommel applied such tactics again during World War II as a field marshal in North Africa, earning himself the nickname ―Desert Fox.‖

In a similar fashion, upstart MCI identified a critical vulnerability of AT&T‘s in the long-distance market in the early 1980s – the then-regulated incumbent‘s reliance on copper cable. MCI quickly exploited this reliance by deploying a wireless microwave technology that eliminated the expenses–labor in particular–associated with laying copper cable. It also laid higher-capacity fiber-optic lines. And it launched and won litigation that required AT&T to grant other carriers access to its circuits, thereby enabling MCI to pick off the incumbent‘s customers. These developments afforded MCI a fundamental advantage in the costs of building and operating telecommunications networks. MCI also attacked AT&T in less-defended geographical markets, where

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initial successes provided a growing revenue base that supported further expansion of MCI networks.

Boldness. One key to battlefield success is having the daring to seek breakthrough results rather than incremental ones. This requires shifting resources to endeavors with uncertain – sometimes highly uncertain – outcomes. Informed estimates of the resources needed to capture, maintain, and defend a position, and of the potential benefits of doing so, can often reduce the risk of such a move. But sometimes there are not enough data to make an estimate. Or the information that does exist may suggest a cautious approach. Maneuver warfare calls for a commander, on occasion, to take action despite data that are inconclusive or downright discouraging. While risk taking ―must be tempered with judgment lest it border on recklessness,‖ it is sometimes needed to achieve a major victory.

General Douglas MacArthur‘s amphibious assault at Inchon in 1950 during the Korean War is considered one of the boldest attacks in modern military history. Because of the challenges posed by tides, mudflats, the narrowness of the channel, and steep embankments on the shore, both sides considered Inchon to be the worst possible location for an amphibious landing. Consequently, the North Koreans devoted few resources to defending it. MacArthur was well rewarded for his risky assault there: His forces moved from Inchon to capture Seoul and isolate North Korean forces in the south of the country, dramatically altering the momentum of the war in favor of the United States.

In 1993,Lou Gerstner assumed the formidable challenge of turning around declining computer maker IBM. Four years later, he had succeeded – by boldly refocusing the massive company. His decision to do so was based not on compelling analytical data– indeed, he defied the general industry consensus – but on anecdotal evidence. When he took over IBM, technology players and pundits alike dismissed the mainframe as irrelevant in the disaggregated world of networked computing. When talking with customers, though, Gerstner kept hearing that large corporations still wanted a specialized outsider to formulate their technology strategies and build and operate their complex networked systems. Accordingly ,he halted existing reorganization plans and bet IBM‘s future viability on its mainframes and services businesses. Under Gerstner‘s watch, IBM invested heavily to overhaul and revive its line of mainframes, which he believed would still be necessary to tie networks together in much the same manner that servers did. And he leveraged IBM‘s customer relationships and well- recognized brand to expand the company‘s presence in higher-margin, value-added services. Although both decisions were widely perceived as ill advised, by late 1996,mainframe sales were booming, computer services had become IBM‘s biggest growth business, and Gerstner was heralded as Big Blue‘s savior.

Surprise. Striking a foe in an unexpected manner can disorient him and ensure that his response comes too late to be effective. To accomplish this, a commander must take steps to degrade the quality of information available to the enemy, thereby impairing

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his ability to prepare for the attack. Surprise can be achieved by using one of three approaches: stealth, ambiguity, or deception. Stealth is used to ―deny the enemy any knowledge of impending action.‖ It keeps rivals in a state of unawareness until sudden, unexpected action is taken. Denying critical information to the enemy minimizes or even eliminates the threat of retaliation.

The first blow of the 1967 Arab–Israeli War, in which the Israeli air force launched a devastating air attack against all of the Egyptian air force bases, was based on stealth. Careful planning of departure times and approaches ensured that the attacks occurred simultaneously; consequently, none of the bases was able to alert the others to the strike. The Egyptians were not aware of the attack until some 300 of their aircraft, almost their entire air force, had been destroyed on the ground.

In the mid-1990s, commercial airlines established Websites to provide general information to customers. As the functionality of these sites expanded, customers could reserve and purchase tickets directly from them. Once the number of on-line orders reached a critical mass, Delta Airlines, in a move quickly emulated by other airlines, surprised unsuspecting travel agents by slashing commissions, from 10% of the value of each ticket sold to a flat $50 (and later $35) per ticket. While the threat to agents of travelers buying directly from the airlines had been evident all along, the greater threat of declining commissions had not. Because travel agents weren‘t aware of the power shift that the Internet enabled, they were unprepared to launch effective countermeasures.

Ambiguity - ―to act in such a way that the enemy does not know what to expect, ‖represents an effort to confuse a rival and make him commit his resources to a number of potential combat scenarios. Doing this spreads those resources so thin that the enemy becomes vulnerable on any number of fronts. In Operation Desert Storm, the direction of the Coalition Forces‘ attack was so unclear to the Iraqis that their defenses became too widely dispersed to be effective. The Iraqis were forced to allocate combat resources to three potential lines of advance, all of which seemed, based on the Coalition Forces‘ activity, possible avenues of attack. Although Iraq maintained the fifth largest land army in the world at the time, preparing for every eventuality inevitably exposed a weakness, the lightly defended western end of the Iraqi line, around which the coalition ultimately attacked.

Microsoft relies on ambiguity when it announces plans for across-the-board upgrades to its software or operating systems. Challengers to Microsoft‘s dominance, whose software products must offer an array of features that at the least matches those offered by Microsoft, have no choice but to respond to every potential change. Microsoft‘s caginess about the ultimate configuration of its upgrade gives it a tremendous cost

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advantage over competitors: Because it never implements all of the announced changes, Microsoft incurs costs only for those features that it actually upgrades.

Deception - ―to convince the enemy that we are going to do something other than what we are really going to do, ‖is designed to cause a rival to deploy resources erroneously. Such a signal can take the form of a deliberate release of misinformation or the more subtle form of distorted information left ―on display,‖ with the anticipation that the opposition will observe it. Deception is the most difficult of the three means of surprise to implement, but it is also the most effective. During World War II, the Allies used deception to prevent the Germans from determining when and where the D-day invasion would occur. To reinforce the German High Command‘s belief that Pas de Calais, France, was the most likely location for an Allied amphibious landing, General George S. Patton was placed ―in charge‖ of a fictitious landing force consisting of dummy tanks, oil storage depots, air fields, landing craft–all visible to both air-based and human intelligence agents. The Allies also bombed the Calais region more severely than the Normandy area, used double agents to convey misinformation, and created false radio traffic to create the illusion of a large invasion force being marshalled in the south eastern corner of England. These measures were so effective that the Germans waited to respond until after the invasion at Normandy began, and even then, they only partially committed troops to the area.

Anecdotal evidence indicates that Merrill Lynch employed deceptive measures to deter competition from other securities firms when it introduced the cash management account in the late 1970s. The CMA was an all purpose brokerage account for securities that, by offering a money market fund, a checkbook, and a credit-debit card, infringed on activities traditionally reserved for commercial banks. And because it offered an interest rate of 12.5%, compared with the banks‘ 5.5%,it seized market share from the banks, which retaliated with numerous lawsuits alleging violation of the Glass-Steagall Act. Although Merrill Lynch never lost one of those suits, it drew media attention to the suits to deter rival brokerage houses from offering a similar product, essentially giving the company a five-year lead in the lucrative CMA market.

Focus. In order to seize key opportunities, a commander must often deploy resources in a concentrated manner. This ―generation of superior combat power at a particular time and place‖ enables a smaller force ―to achieve decisive local superiority,‖ providing an advantage when and where it matters most. In carrying out this aim, commanders are hindered by two factors. First, a scarcity of resources means that concentrating them in one area requires reducing them – and increasing the risk of vulnerability – elsewhere. Second, a variation in the fungibles of resources means that shifting them is more difficult in some cases than in others.

Despite being outnumbered by almost 1 million soldiers and by a ratio of 3:2 in artillery pieces and tanks in France in 1940,the German army smashed through the

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center of the French line, its weakest point, and brought the French army to its knees. The Germans achieved this overwhelming victory by focusing 510 bombers, 200 fighter aircraft, and 45 divisions against nine French divisions in the lightly defended Ardennes forest. Although successful, this focused attack was not without risk. The scarcity of the Germans‘ combat assets left their positions in the north thinly held and thus, vulnerable to counterattack.

In the late 1980s,Toyota focused $500 million and its engineering might on an emerging U.S. market segment of young, affluent ,but price-sensitive luxury-car buyers. These customers wanted the quality and performance of a European automobile but were not willing to pay a substantial premium. Toyota‘s flagship model for its new luxury car line, the Lexus LS 400, combined a sleek design, high performance, and the most advanced automation in manufacturing to date. To maximize efficiency in manufacturing and responsiveness to customer tastes and preferences, Toyota kept the less fungible manufacturing function in Japan and moved design specialists to California, the heart of the target market. U.S. luxury brands could not compete with the Lexus‘s exceptional quality, reliability, and performance; European automakers, such as Jaguar, Mercedes, and BMW, could not hope to match its $35,000 base price. In its first year, the Lexus quickly gained market share and established itself as a premier marque among luxury automobiles.

Decentralized Decision Making. Pushing significant decision-making authority down through the ranks allows a military force ―to best cope with the uncertainty, disorder, and fluidity of combat. ‖The decisions of subordinate leaders, however, must be consistent with and further the ―commander‘s intent‖– that is, the desired final objective. The aim is to give those closest to the action the latitude to take advantage of on-the-spot information unavailable to their superiors while carrying out their broad strategic aims. Giving frontline personnel the freedom to exercise initiative can increase the likelihood of both nonlinear accomplishments and ―reconnaissance pull.‖ The former refers to situations in which an extraordinary act by an individual disproportionately determines the course of large-scale competitive encounters. The latter refers to a situation in which an individual identifies an opportunity, pulls the organization toward it, and then leads the organization in its exploitation.

General Patton once said, ―Never tell people how to do things. Tell them what to do, and they will surprise you with their ingenuity.‖ During the Normandy Breakout of 1944, Patton led his Third Army with a series of half-page operations orders, pushing the German front from the Normandy beachhead east through France. Most commanders communicated tactical plans to such a large force through a lengthy and detailed document.

Shortly after assuming the role of CEO at Continental Airlines in 1994,Gor don

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Bethune symbolically burned the company‘s oppressive, inflexible, and unpopular customer service manual. He gave employees considerable latitude to make impromptu decisions regarding customer service. But to ensure that employees‘ actions were consistent with the organization‘s strategic objectives, Bethune repeatedly emphasized the need to improve in the airline industry‘s three most important metrics: customer satisfaction, lost baggage, and on-time arrivals. Employees often responded to this greater responsibility with nonlinear decisions. For example, a flight attendant on a full flight short of meals might decide to close the doors, making an on-time departure possible. By giving free drinks to business-class passengers in lieu of a meal, the attendant ensures that an entire planeload of people is happy, no one misses a connection–and no one stays in a hotel at the airline‘s expense. Collectively, such frontline decisions were the driving force behind Continental‘s widely heralded turnaround.

Rapid Tempo. Speed is clearly crucial to maneuver warfare, but the relevant measure is not absolute speed. Rather, success is based on relative speed – that is, identifying opportunities and making decisions more quickly than one‘s opponent, thereby forcing him into a constant state of reaction. Ideally, in a multi-period encounter, he will fall increasingly behind ―until eventually he is overcome by events.‖ Alternatively, in a multiple-arena encounter, the practitioner of maneuver warfare can move among the arenas so rapidly that the enemy is never sure where he is being engaged. To achieve this advantage, a commander need not actively undermine his rival‘s ability to maintain a certain pace of action; he may simply exploit fundamental differences between his rival‘s speed and his own.

In the Battle of Britain, use of coastal radar by the British meant that their senior aviation officers could assess threats and transfer combat-ready squadrons into crucial engagement areas to meet each incoming German bombing raid more quickly than the Germans could reconstitute and redistribute attack squadrons. Heavy losses of German aircraft and pilots, resulting from the fact that they were constantly facing fresh British pilots in well functioning planes, eventually forced the Germans to cease daylight bombing raids and conduct less effective night attacks.

Jenny Craig, the chain of weight-management centers, set a rapid tempo to deliver a decisive blow to rival Nutrisystem in the 1980s. In this market, where diet centers were deriving almost all of their profits from the sales of portion- and calorie- controlled food products, Nutrisystem achieved an initial advantage by introducing a series of product improvements: freeze-dried food ,boil-in pouches, and later, microwavable pouches. Because Nutrisystem was primarily a chain of franchises, each product improvement required the franchisees to invest in new food storage capacity and accompanying advertising campaigns. Further introductions required the approval once again of countless franchise owners. Jenny Craig, a tightly controlled hierarchy (most of the diet centers were owned by Craig and her immediate family), saw that it

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could leapfrog its rival by exploiting Nutrisystem‘s cumbersome decision-making process. Almost immediately after identifying an opportunity to sell a new line of frozen foods, Jenny Craig invested heavily in that product line and its requisite storage capacity. Nutrisystem, which struggled to gain consensus among its hundreds of independently owned franchisees to invest in yet another product improvement, could not respond to Jenny Craig‘s move, lost considerable market share, cancelled its IPO, and was eventually acquired.

Combined Arms. By creatively combining complementary weapons, the practitioner of maneuver warfare can create a situation in which ―to counteract one [attack], the enemy must become more vulnerable to another.‖ This makes the effectiveness of a commander‘s arsenal greater than if the weapons were deployed individually. As is the case with the concept of focus, however, the problems of scarcity and a lack of fungibles can limit the degree to which resources can be combined. On the front lines, combined arms implies the integration of weapons – allocating, coordinating, and targeting as evolving conditions and tactical objectives require.

In Operation Desert Storm, for instance, the U.S. Marine Corps relied heavily on simultaneous direct fire, artillery, and air attacks, synchronized by frontline observers and pilots, to create shock, terror, and chaos among more heavily equipped Iraqi forces. At a higher level, combined arms involves selecting and arranging various combat assets to provide the commander with a fighting force tailored to the mission at hand. For example, Napoléon invented the army corps to enable greater dispersion and speed among his forces. Consisting of infantry, artillery, and cavalry, the corps operated as a coordinated, self -sufficient entity that could move more rapidly with less logistical support requirements than conventional force configurations and deliver more combat power because of the complementary nature of its assets.

Duke Energy‘s asset-backed approach to the trading of electric power exemplifies the merits of combining complementary assets and capabilities – in Duke‘s case, the power-generation plants it owns, the hydrocarbon-based fuels they consume, and its energy-trading operations. Duke‘s physical assets provide its traders with insights into supply conditions and a competitive advantage over rivals. Those assets also confer on the traders a tactical advantage – opacity of intent – because competitors can never be certain whether Duke‘s traders are simply bidding up prices or purchasing power for the company‘s plants in order to meet demand. Conversely, Duke‘s traders are a useful source of market intelligence to those managing the company‘s physical assets. For example, its traders can identify opportunities for the company to sell certain fuels on the open market at a higher return than could be realized from burning those fuels in Duke‘s generation plants. And when traders identify arbitrage opportunities across regional power grids or across time, Duke can sell the output of its plants to areas where electric power prices are highest or sell guarantees of future output in derivatives markets.

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An Integrated Attack While each of the preceding elements of maneuver warfare represents a valuable concept on its own, the benefits of this combat philosophy are most fully realized when the elements work together. Capital One‘s emergence as a leading credit card issuer in the 1990s is an excellent example of the power that the full integration of maneuver warfare concepts can have. The credit card operation of Signet Bank until it was spun off in a public offering in 1994, Capital One has enjoyed explosive growth. From 1992 to 1996,its customer base grew fivefold, receivable card balances increased from $1.7 billion to $12.8 billion, and its bad-loan write offs were among the lowest in the industry. Since Capital One went public, its revenue has grown at a nearly 40% compounded annual rate,earnings have grown at more than a 20% rate,and return on equity has remained above 20%–a record of double-digit performance in these three areas unmatched by any company in the S&P 500. Capital One‘s success was based on targeted marketing and differential pricing campaigns, which were made possible by the systematic gathering of detailed customer information. Employing sophisticated data-mining techniques and simple screening mechanisms, the company identified the most profitable customers and determined which combination of price and characteristics would make a product desirable to each one of them. Capital One began by targeting critical vulnerabilities of commercial banks that offered credit cards: their obliviousness to the significant differences in profitability among customers and the potential of exploiting these differences. Absent this insight, banks offered uniform prices based on average costs. Having identified this opening, Capital One weighed the risks of its unproven concept–high start-up costs with a small customer base and the considerable lag time between market testing and payback (if any) – against the potential benefit of redefining the credit card market. Despite the rejection of its idea by 16 of America‘s largest banks, Capital One made the massive investments in information technology the new approach required. The boldness of the move was highlighted by the company‘s initial difficulties: From 1989 to 1991, for example, Capital One‘s losses from its credit card portfolio doubled. To carve out its place in the industry, the company relied heavily on stealth to surprise its competitors. For example, it used a difficult-to-detect direct mail campaign to poach customers from unwitting banks. And it hired consultants on a limited basis so that none ever saw enough of a product to reverse-engineer it. In addition, it avoided industries where regulation would have required it to reveal its pricing models. Capital One initially adopted a narrow focus on a small yet highly profitable segment of the market: cardholders who carried a high recurring balance, presented a relatively low risk of default, and displayed a willingness to pay high finance charges. Although the company has since broadened its customer profile–for example, it now issues secured cards to people not deemed creditworthy– it still uses sophisticated customer analyses to create the most enticing offers. Even in its early days as part of Signet Bank –when it was a nearly autonomous subsidiary – Capital One embraced decentralized decision making. It has continued to rely heavily on the judgment of talented problem solvers who, at the point of decision, interprettrial data and identify profitable market opportunities.

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It has also maintained a rapid tempo, refining its offerings so frequently that established players have found themselves in a constant state of reaction – often to one of Capital One‘s earlier moves. For example, when AT&T‘s Universal Card finally responded with a differential pricing technique of its own, Capital One had 300 such offerings to AT&T‘s 30. And when AT&T matched Capital One‘s 300, Capital One had more than 1,000. Finally, Capital One deployed in an unprecedented manner what were essentially combined arms: risk management and marketing. Aligning its data-mining, targeted marketing,and differential-pricing techniques helped the company maximize sales volume as well as minimize exposure to bad loans by selecting desirable customers and balancing risk with adjusted expected return. More interesting than the fact that Capital One applied all these elements is the way in which these concepts complemented and reinforced one another. For example, Capital One‘s use of surprise to stealthily pick off competitors‘ customers was reinforced by both the boldness and the focus of its initial attack. The audacity and long odds of the company‘s offensive meant that competitors dismissed the threat at first; the attack‘s narrowness and precision made it less immediately noticeable.Capital One‘s efforts to maintain a rapid tempo in order to keep competitors off balance were reinforced by the company‘s decentralized decision making. Because frontline managers could quickly refine or add product offerings without having to wait for approval from superiors once removed from the action,c ompetitors were constantly forced to play catch-up. But the full potential of decentralized decision making wouldn‘t have been realized if it was used just to maintain a blistering pace. The freedom of frontline managers to continually fine-tune their product offerings ensured that Capital One maintained its razor-sharp focus on attracting and retaining only the most profitable customers. In addition, these managers were encouraged to identify and attack the critical vulnerabilities of companies in new markets–such as automobile leasing and cell phone bandwidth reselling. In doing so, the individual frontline managers exercised reconnaissance pull, effectively moving the organization as a whole to a position of new strategic advantage.

Turning the Tables We wouldn‘t be honest if we didn‘t note that maneuver warfare has its detractors. Over the past 20 years, competing schools of thought within the U.S. military have debated its merits against those of attrition warfare, which is based on overpowering rather than confounding the enemy. Some well-respected military figures have voiced skepticism about maneuver warfare, saying that it represents little more than common sense and is backed by selective historical examples of victors defeating inept opponents. We would argue, however, that history has proven maneuver warfare extremely effective in varying and adverse conditions. Accordingly, it is a useful guide for strategic business thinking, particularly in the fast-paced, complex, fluid, and uncertain business environment of the twenty-first century. Companies that can effectively shape the conditions governing competitive encounters will flourish; those that cannot will fail. Perhaps more significant, companies that ―win‖ using outdated strategies–for example, through lengthy wars of attrition, such as protracted price wars – may find themselves so exhausted that their executives, their share holders, and their

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market valuations do not recover for some time.

Employing maneuver warfare concepts requires the same things of business executives as it does of military commanders: ―the temperament to cope with uncertainty… flexibility of mind to deal with fluid and disorderly situations…a certain independence of mind, a willingness to act with initiative and boldness, an exploitative mindset that takes full advantage of every opportunity, and the moral courage to accept responsibility for this type of behavior.‖ The importance of this last point cannot be overstated. Maneuver warfare is not a prescription for ―fighting dirty.‖ Rather, it is a prescription for ―fighting smart‖– one that recognizes the ethical implications of each action you take. In business, as in war, the line between these two should never be crossed. Integrity and self-discipline on the part of both the military and the business practitioner of maneuver warfare are paramount. Finally, given the fact that for every move there is a countermove, maneuver warfare practitioners must constantly be aware that rivals could be employing the very same concepts to shape the conditions of the competitive encounter in their favor. One need only recall how the Germans, the modern progenitors of maneuver warfare, were deceived about the location of the D-day invasion. Indeed, two decades after Merrill Lynch stole a march on rivals with the introduction – and deceptive downplaying– of the cash management account, eTrade and Charles Schwab employed the concept of rapid tempo to attack the brokerage giant. The upstarts used their relative speed advantage to enter the on-line trading market more quickly than Merrill Lynch, with its large brokerage force, was able to do. As a result, Merrill Lynch was put on the defensive and had to scramble to catch up. Thus, identifying one‘s own vulnerabilities from a maneuver warfare perspective is absolutely essential to a company‘s survival in the short term. Over the long term, the practitioner of maneuver warfare must ensure that his mastery of its principles evolves ahead of competitors‘ – or risk an unexpected and humiliating defeat.

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