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Cajanus Cajan (L.) Millsp Genet Resour Crop Evol (2019) 66:1175–1188 https://doi.org/10.1007/s10722-019-00774-w (0123456789().,-volV)(0123456789().,-volV) RESEARCH ARTICLE Cajanus cajan (L.) Millsp. origins and domestication: the South and Southeast Asian archaeobotanical evidence Dorian Q Fuller . Charlene Murphy . Eleanor Kingwell-Banham . Cristina Cobo Castillo . Satish Naik Received: 8 October 2018 / Accepted: 2 April 2019 / Published online: 23 May 2019 Ó The Author(s) 2019 Abstract Cajanus cajan (L.) Millsp. commonly Odisha). Early archaeological finds presented here known as pigeonpea, red gram or gungo pea is an have been recovered from both the Southern peninsula important grain legume crop, particularly in rain-fed and Odisha. Historical linguistic data suggests early agricultural regions in the semi-arid tropics, including differentiation into longer and shorter growing season Asia, Africa and the Caribbean. This paper provides a varieties, namely arhar and tuar types, in prehistory. baseline for the study of the domestication and early Pigeonpea had spread to Thailand more than history of C. cajan, through reviewing its modern wild 2000 years ago. Measurements of seeds from modern distribution, seed morphometrics of wild and domes- populations provide a baseline for studying domesti- ticated populations, historical linguistics and the cation from archaeological seeds. Available measure- archaeological record. The distribution of wild pop- ments taken on archaeological Cajanus spp. suggest ulations, including published records and additional that all archaeological collections thus far fall into a herbarium collections, suggest that the wild habitats of domesticated Length:Width ratio, while they may also pigeonpea were at the interface of the forest-edge pick up the very end of the trend towards evolution of areas and more open savanna plains in eastern larger size (the end of the domestication episode) Peninsular India (e.g. Telangana, Chattisgarh, between 3700 and 3200 years BP. This suggests a trend over time indicating selection under domestica- tion had begun before 3700 years ago and can be Electronic supplementary material The online version of this article (https://doi.org/10.1007/s10722-019-00774-w) inferred to have started 5000–4500 years ago. contains supplementary material, which is available to autho- rized users. Keywords Legume Á Morphometrics Á Paleoethnobotany Á Linguistics Á Neolithic Á D. Q. Fuller (&) Á C. Murphy Á E. Kingwell-Banham Á C. C. Castillo Cambodia Á India Á Thailand Institute of Archaeology, University College London, 31-34 Gordon Square, London WC1H 0PY, UK e-mail: [email protected] D. Q. Fuller Introduction School of Archaeology and Museology, North-West University, Xi’an, China Cajanus cajan (L.) Millsp. has, until fairly recently, received relatively little research attention despite its S. Naik Deccan College Post-Graduate and Research Institute, importance in India and other countries worldwide. Pune, Maharashtra, India 123 1176 Genet Resour Crop Evol (2019) 66:1175–1188 Colloquially known as the ‘orphan crop’ or ‘poor potential medicinal uses have also been explored (e.g. people’s meat’ due to its high protein content, Cajanus Allen and Allen 1981; Al-Saeedi and Hossain 2015; cajan (L.) Millspaugh (Syn.: Cajanus indicus Spreng.; Uchegbu and Ishiwu 2016). Cajanus flavus DC.; Cytisus cajan L.) from the family Botanically, it is an annual or erect short-lived Fabaceae, is more commonly known as pigeonpea. It perennial shrub, measuring 1–2 m in height, with a is an important grain legume, particularly in rain-fed variable habit. Modern day populations grow in a agricultural regions in the semi-arid tropics, as well as range of soil types and climates, throughout tropical an excellent, high-protein cover/forage for livestock and subtropical regions of the world from South Asia (Duke 1983; Pal et al. 2011; Randhawa 1958) which to Australia (Khoury et al. 2015; Kassa et al. 2012). It can be intercropped with sorghum and/or millets thrives with an annual rainfall of 600–1000 mm yet is (Shetty and Rao 1981). The genus Cajanus has 32 also drought tolerant and can be grown in areas with species (Mallikarjuna et al. 2012, 411) with 18 \ 300 mm rainfall (Kingwell-Banham and Fuller occurring in India (Mallikarjuna et al. 2011). Despite 2013). Hence, it is an important crop for small-scale some claims for an African origin (Watt 1889; farmers in semi-arid areas where rainfall is low or Purseglove 1976) it has been convincingly demon- variable. C. cajan has an extensive habitat range strated that the likely wild progenitor was Cajanus throughout India growing at altitudes to over 1800 m cajanifolius found today in eastern India (van der (Watt 1889). Despite adaptation to versatile environ- Maesen 1986), including the modern state of Odisha mental conditions, crop productivity has remained and adjacent states, an origin earlier suggested by stagnant for almost the last 5 decades at production Haines (1921-1925). This is reinforced by modern levels of roughly 750 kg/ha (Fig. S1a) (Bohra et al. genetic data (Kassa et al. 2012). Today the largest 2012). producer of pigeonpea is India (Pal et al. 2016; Cultivated types can be grouped into two varieties. Nwokolo 1996), but it is also found across large parts C. cajan (L.) Millsp., var. bicolor DC., Hindi arhar, a of Southeast Asia, Africa and the Caribbean where it is late maturing, large, bushy plant which normally takes commonly known as congo pea, or gungo pea. between 6 and 11 months to reach maturity, and a As a subsistence pulse crop C. cajan contains high short-season variety, C. cajan, var. flavus DC., Hindi levels of protein and amino acids such as methionine, tuvar, which can reach maturity more rapidly, within lysine and tryptophan and is an important source of only 3–4 months (Kingwell-Banham and Fuller dietary vitamins and minerals particularly B vitamins 2013). Whether or not these two varieties may be and is therefore especially important for people living phylogenetic subspecies, they are useful varietal on subsistence diets (Oshodi et al. 2009). It is grown in groups as they correspond to different cultivation large quantities in modern India (Fig. S1a), and shows regimes (season length) and different colloquial increasing areas of cultivation (Fig. S1b). Pigeonpea names (see below). Although the arhar types are seeds are found in a huge diversity of flavours (from regarded as more primitive and closer to the perennial bitter to sweet) and colours (from black to creamy ancestor (Smartt 1990), both varieties have a long white) (Upadhyaya et al. 2005). Pigeonpea is most history in excess of 2000 years, judging by historical commonly used to make ‘dhal’ (soaked dried, hulled, linguistic evidence (see Supplement section), suggest- and split seeds) (Shinde et al. 2017) and in parts of ing that this differentiation took place early in the Southeast Asia the seeds are used instead of soya bean evolution of this crop. C. cajan has one of the highest to make tempe or tofu (Shurtleff and Aoyagi 2013; yields per area in comparison with other South Asian Owens et al. 2015; van der Maesen and Somaatmadja pulses (Fig. S1). In contrast, archaeologically, the 1989) and noodles in Myanmar (APO 2003). Imma- recovery of any Cajanus sp. is quite low in comparison ture green pigeonpeas can also be harvested and with other pulses from South Asian archaeological cooked as a fresh vegetable, which is more common in sites (Fuller and Harvey 2006; Harvey et al. 2006; the Caribbean and Southeast Asia. The leaves from Fuller and Murphy 2018; Murphy and Fuller 2016; this plant are considered an excellent fodder for cattle Smartt 1990), suggesting that perhaps Cajanus use and the dry wood is considered a good fuel (Watt was more limited in the past and that it may have been 1889). Thus, largely all parts of the pigeonpea plant domesticated later than some other legume taxa in are utilized and integrated into daily use. A number of India. Cajanus spp. are likewise found in very few 123 Genet Resour Crop Evol (2019) 66:1175–1188 1177 Table 1 Cajanus accessions examined from Natural History Museum, London, UK Genus Species Wild/dom Coll. no. Country State Habitat Cajanus acutifolius Wild I. B. Staples 2461 Australia Queensland 540 m, disturbed sandy areas near gully/roadside Cajanus goensis Wild A.F.G. Kerr 10004 Thailand 200 m Cajanus cajan Dom. A. D. E. Elmer 10118 Philippines Negros Island Cajanus cajan Dom. C. A. Wenzel 1391 Philippines Leyte Cajanus cajan Dom.? C. W. Andrews 100 Christmas Island (near Indonesia) Cajanus cajan Dom. Cook’s voyage Indonesia Java Cajanus cajan Dom. Cuming 486 Philippines Cajanus cajan Dom. D. E. Palmer 15544 Philippines Luzon Cajanus cajan Dom. E. H. Wilson 9895 Taiwan Cultivated Cajanus cajan Feral? F. B. Forbes 126 China Guangdong Cajanus cajan Feral? FA McClure China Guangdong Feral Cajanus cajan Feral? Fauris 459&460 China Taiwan Cajanus cajan Feral? G. Forest 12141 China Yunnan Cajanus cajan Dom.? H. O. Forbes 1958 Malaysia Sumatra Cajanus cajan Feral? J. Lamont China Hong Kong Cajanus cajan Feral? J. R. I Wood Y/75/280 Yemen Wadi Dur By wadi side Cajanus cajan Dom. J. R. Maconochie 3111 Oman Cultivated Cajanus cajan Feral? K. S. Chow 78494 China Hainan Roadsides on hills Cajanus cajan Dom M. Ramos 2019 Philippines Luzon Cajanus cajan Dom Matuda-Eizi China Taiwan Cultivated Cajanus cajan Dom Mousset Indonesia Java Cultivated Cajanus cajan Dom.? O. Jaag 348 Indonesia Cerrer Lunda Islands, Flore Cajanus cajan Dom? O. Warburg 10611 China Taiwan Cajanus cajan Dom. R. J. Shuttleworth Egypt Cajanus cajan Feral? R.P. Marie China Yunnan Cajanus cajan Dom.? Robinson and Kloss 138 Malaysia Sumatra Cajanus cajan Feral? S. K. Lau 1065 China Hainan Village commons, sandy soil, dry, slope Cajanus cajan Feral? Theophilus Sampson China Guangdong ‘‘Native’’ Cajanus cajan Feral? To Kang Ping 10871 China Guangdong Cajanus cajan Feral? China Hong Kong ‘‘Feral’’ Cajans cajanifolius Wild H.
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