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The archaeology of Mauritius

Krish Seetah

Antiquity / Volume 89 / Issue 346 / August 2015, pp 922 - 939 DOI: 10.15184/aqy.2015.75, Published online: 06 August 2015

Link to this article: http://journals.cambridge.org/abstract_S0003598X15000757

How to cite this article: Krish Seetah (2015). The archaeology of Mauritius. Antiquity, 89, pp 922-939 doi:10.15184/ aqy.2015.75

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Downloaded from http://journals.cambridge.org/AQY, IP address: 129.234.252.65 on 06 Aug 2015 The archaeology of Mauritius Krish Seetah∗

The archaeology of Atlantic slavery has been widely studied in recent years, but less attention has been paid to the post- slavery system of indenture that transported contract labourers from South Asia, China Port Louis and Africa to new lands. Colonial Mauritius has left abundant archaeological remains, not least the cemetery for slaves and freed slaves established at Le Morne in the nineteenth century. Analysis of aDNA has demonstrated that individuals buried at Le Morne were of Madagascan and East African (probably Mozambican) origin, testifying to the long- N 0km50 distance movement of slave labour.

Keywords: Indian Ocean, Mauritius, colonial period archaeology, slavery, archaeology of indenture

Introduction The contemporary view of Mauritius as an island idyll with high-end tourism belies a turbulent past. Successive imperial administrations controlled the island from the sixteenth century, with periods of Dutch (1598–1710), French (1721–1810) and British (1810– 1968) hegemony. This article focuses specifically on the work of the Mauritian Archaeology and Cultural Heritage (MACH) project (Seetah et al. 2011), and reports on archaeological explorations concerned with slavery and indenture. By approaching the ‘island as a site’, the MACH project aims to connect disjointed locations to form a cohesive network of nodes that testify to changing cultural and economic drivers, as evidenced in the material record. The main aim is to link local archaeology to international research agendas and identify key areas of the archaeology of the island that may have resonance within the wider discipline. Mauritius offers a unique regional case study, providing nuanced approaches to slavery, diaspora and colonisation that are particularly useful for comparison with Atlantic archaeology.

∗ Department of Anthropology, Stanford University, Stanford, CA 94305, USA (Email: [email protected])

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Figure 1. The island of Mauritius, showing the location of key sites discussed in the text. archaeological record. Archaeology has had to demonstrate that when researching a nation’s past, especially that of newly decolonised states, history is one part of the framework of the past, and not the complete record. The MACH project developed from an earlier initiative under the author’s direction in 2008, entitled ‘Environmental Imperialism: Colonial Archaeology in Mauritius’. The topic and title were heavily influenced by the insightful work of Crosby (2004). The first season of excavation focused on a site (800m2) in the north of the island at Mon Choisy (Figure 1). A near-pristine location was identified within a region undergoing extensive development. The site was formerly plantation land and offered a valuable opportunity to record the transition to sugar agriculture. Charcoal samples pinpointed the shift to agrarian soils to C Antiquity Publications Ltd, 2015

924 ie ein tteeoeofr nqeIda ca eeec on o tatcsts(e.g. sites Atlantic for point reference McGowan Ocean & Indian ( unique Hansen ( cemetery a Macaque offers The therefore and it Cemetery’. region; ‘Old Chenille wider Trou Morne settlements, Le the abandoned and two slaves; punishing for plateau; the htte eeeacptd h ncito eesseiclyt h lta,L Morne Le plateau, the them to tell specifically to coming refers were inscription soldiers The ( the Brabant needlessly; emancipated. died were slaves making they The soldiers that refuge. seeing upon their in deaths to their Site way to Heritage their themselves World Odendall threw slaves & UNESCO how (Bakker a recounting heritage history as intangible on inscribed solely was based Landscape 2008, Cultural Morne Le body The the and resistance through slavery Viewing Pozna the by (dated century nineteenth the of quarter first the 02ad21;tettlnme fkonsrcue snw4.W eiv htthe that believe We 45. (3600m estimate now initial is the incorporating beyond structures well known extend survey of could cemetery number field the total of of area the 2013; programme and concerted 2012 ( structures A 21 revealed graves. geophysics delineating evidently lnt efr iA cno e ein oivsiaepsil lv-ipra routes slave-dispersal possible investigate to regions key of of scan episodes ambitious LiDAR during an a as well perform as to profile, dendrochronology plan a and catalogues Anderson artefact (Atholl including charcoal island, These of Cavern. evidence Trois earlier the comm. as have as pers. does such such enclaves Garcia systems island Diego other although cave from Seychelles, results in echoed (i.e. habitation and technologies unsuccessful ancient for proved of investigations evidence presence the and identify tools) to was chipped strategy work survey reconnaissance broad of in The part regions. shown as sites conducted the the were to evidence These on identify approach settlement. to global non-European periods. undertaken time were early systematic, University or for National enclaves a Australian colonial the build specific undertaken, by on to funded focusing Surveys than start were rather surveys to island, radar) the geophysical which of Mauritius, archaeology on ground-penetrating on foundation and a time providing resistivity first the electrical For of (magnetometry, maritime indentured, archaeologies. indicative slave, for environmental were potential the and layer assess to upper reconnaissance coastal the and land-based in found those but soils, species. virgin imported (Allen 95.4% the as at rule from region 1940 British this recovered AD under into (68.2%), intensified expansion 1740/1800 production agricultural AD sugar for records (27.2%), historical 1680 corroborating AD probability), to v3.10 OxCal using tlat7 niiul eebre ntesco urnl ne netgto,adprobably and investigation, under currently estimate, sector the conservative in a buried At were sandbank. individuals the 70 on least clustered at burial of zones different incorporate h eMreHrtg rs udietfidfie‘tutrs fvrosdimensions, various of ‘structures’ five identified Fund Trust Heritage Morne Le The hspoiigiiilsao aaye rae uvy n20 n 00 incorporating 2010, and 2009 in surveys broader catalysed season initial promising This iue2 Figure .Ftr ln o h AHpoeticueetbihn aeiedt o the for data baseline establishing include project MACH the for plans Future ). ˆ ltFuna,asaliltaprnl sddrn h rnhclna period colonial French the during used apparently islet small a Fourneau, Ilot ,a nlsntayfrmroigsae.Sresi 09incorporated: 2009 in Surveys slaves. marooning for sanctuary final a as ), maroonage 1998 iue1 Figure Pearson ; flgtfo h plantation). the from (flight n locatl ocnc(ruaxCr)adlakeshore and Cerf) aux (Trou volcanic coastal, also and h rhelg fMauritius of archaeology The iue4 Figure tal et . 2011 n rvddtebssfrecvto n2010, in excavation for basis the provided and ) 925 ). iue3 Figure 1999 nsn oprnai the in comparanda no finds ) 2.Ple riswr not were grains Pollen 12). :  C 2008 niut ulctosLd 2015 Ltd, Publications Antiquity aicro Laboratory Radiocarbon n ´ .Ti ossso oral of consists This ). 2 ,adperhaps and ), Makak );

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Figure 2. Le Morne Brabant and key sites that have been surveyed or excavated. many more in the wider area. The initial season of excavation unearthed 11 entire skeletons, six sub-adults (Appleby et al. 2014) and five adults. All the skeletons were aligned south- west to north-east, effectively facing the Brabant (a basaltic monolith dominating the peninsula). The one exception was a neonate placed between its mother’s legs, aligned in the opposite orientation (burial 1, Figure 4). Later seasons of work revealed the complexity of this site. Numerous burials did not follow the south-west to north-east alignment and were recovered from deeper interments, some without any evident grave marker. In general, while osteological and isotopic analysis of the remains recovered in 2010 revealed an ‘adequate diet’ and relatively few indications of disease (although dental disease was prominent; see Appleby in Seetah 2010a), the remains from later seasons, ostensibly from an earlier phase of burial, indicated a much higher incidence of disease, particularly inflammatory conditions (Figure 5). C Antiquity Publications Ltd, 2015

926 rs uda rtcl h tncoii ftoeitre ntecmtr n t eidof period its Heritage and Morne cemetery ( the Le in 7 the interred burial by those from of recovered identified origin Coins were ethnic use. issues the critical: two as descent, Fund Trust African of Mauritians are for they Madagascan, or this African In European, below). not manner (see are a Afro-Malagasy in accurately, objects used more the been or, has sense it traditions, origin, African in of European is reminiscent culture material the Although interred. ucsflyetatdfo 1idvdas ftee iewr dnie sbigo East of being ( as Madagascan identified were were two nine and origin, these, Mozambican, of probably individuals; African, 11 lineage—was maternal from aDNA—the extracted mitochondrial remains, successfully (Seetah human Culture journalists on and and technique Arts the crews of of news use Minister to results The providing the inscription. thereby announced UNESCO emancipation, personally support or to slavery of evidence period tangible the the to (Thomas cemetery dates the earlier linking securely the of for explanation depleted an to due offering offset buried, were those results of the Higham diet that possible the is in It carbon anticipated. than earlier years 100 ( analysis radiocarbon Subsequent 1835–1850. iue3 eMre‘l eeey poorp:Ye Pitchen). Yves (photograph: Cemetery’ ‘Old Morne Le 3. Figure 2015a ie h mes oa infiac fteBaat hc sapriua oa point focal particular a is which Brabant, the of significance local immense the Given the of life-ways the about details nuanced reveal Cemetery’ ‘Old Morne Le the from Finds h oesgicn su fehiiywso ainliprac.Ti a h potential the had This importance. national of was ethnicity of issue significant more The ). es comm pers. .). h rhelg fMauritius of archaeology The iue4 Figure 927 ugse eido cieueaon AD around use active of period a suggested ) al 1 Table aedtsta eeapproximately were that dates gave )  C niut ulctosLd 2015 Ltd, Publications Antiquity al 2 Table 2015b Mauritian .Teeresults These ). .I h first the In ). (Seetah

Research Krish Seetah Figure 4. Plan of graves at Le Morne ‘Old Cemetery’; burials 1 & 7 highlighted.

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Research Krish Seetah dating analysis of a cemetery. It has also provided a focal point from which archaeological heritage and its interpretation can flourish in the wider region (Chowdhury 2006; Colwell- Chanthaphonh et al. 2014). Although the plateau has been designated as a World Heritage Site, the remaining land, i.e. the Brabant itself and a portion of the buffer zone, is under the ownership of one individual. At the time of writing, he remains reluctant to allow continued research, despite pressure from the Le Morne Heritage Trust Fund, and indeed from the Prime Minister and other members of the government. In itself, this speaks volumes about the potential that heritage has within this setting, relevant to the nation as a whole, and played out at the uppermost level of political life. At a regional level, given the antiquity and complexity of slavery in the Indian Ocean (Campbell & Alpers 2006) and the role played by Mauritius, Reunion,´ the Andaman and other islands, the Le Morne cemetery offers an important comparison for Atlantic African burial sites. The wealth of evidence regarding historic period African burial, with exceptions in South Africa (see for example Cox & Sealy 1997;Coxet al. 2001; Finnegan et al. 2011), has been studied overwhelmingly from North and Latin American contexts. Potential points of comparison lie in understanding: how slave communities procured and developed their own material culture (White 2011); how they used burial as a mechanism to maintain cultural connections to ancestral communities (Jamieson 1995;Kusimba2004); comparison between sites, for example, within the context of osteological assessment (Corruccini et al. 1982); the objects used as part of the burial process (Pearson et al. 2011: 99–141); and the positioning of burial grounds within a landscape context (Hansen & McGowan 1998; Pearson et al. 2011; see also sites listed in Jamieson 1995). In addition, there is potential for studying the early development of syncretism. In Mauritian tradition this is termed longanis, and copious evidence for this practice was noted at the cemetery (Seetah 2015a). It is ubiquitous around the island. Historical records suggest that the development of longanis stretched back into the colonial period (Allen 2016) and is linked closely with the continuation and development of African healing or harming rites. Longanis is an important Indian Ocean and—as there was a large influx of East Africans into Mauritius— potentially East African example of syncretism that contrasts with the West African form seen in the Atlantic, for example, in Haiti, at New Orleans (Fandrich 2007), in Brazil (Engler 2012) and in the West Indies (Bilby & Handler 2004). Thus, Le Morne offers a number of ways to add critical depth to our understanding of the African diaspora, slave life-ways and underlying details of cultural development during slavery and since abolition. In turn, this serves to connect the various phases of labour provision during the period of slavery, as well as global phenomena related to migration in the Indian Ocean.

A first view of the archaeology of indenture While Le Morne has potential for the study of slavery, another facet of Mauritian archaeology could have an impact on the development of global archaeological practice more generally: the archaeology of indenture. Considered by one historian as ‘a new system of slavery’ (Tinker 1974), others have emphasised the considerable and nuanced differences between slavery and indenture (Allen 1999: 57–58). In AD 1834, soon after the abolition of slavery, C Antiquity Publications Ltd, 2015

930 motn ie h eil lnaini aac,sre saptnilsatn on within point starting One potential a Europeans). as Hauser indentured & serves (Armstrong of Jamaica, context Atlantic in movements an plantation or Seville labour the significant site, convict globally important from this on this distinct focuses that (as that surprising exists diaspora no is currently knowledge, excavation author’s it of the To impact, programme archaeologists. geographic million dedicated by wide unexplored labour two virtually the over the remained Given has of fill Caribbean. episode displacement to and Pacific the workers the catalysed find (Carter in Melanesia system to and this Africa particular, Asia, of in from people success India, evident and The Asia void. South to turned Britain oe lgswt h ln fteApaaiGa rs udt eeo pcfi cultural specific very develop were labourers site’ to The community. Fund as Trust diaspora indentured ‘island Ghat the Aapravasi the of aspects the Importantly, illustrate of that case. routes plans test the relevant with aligns highly model and contained geographically a cause and demography detailing inception, its cemetery to Marchand death. back Bois of date individuals, that interred records 500 population 2011, burial island’s estimated extensive an the Since has to of workers. addition snapshot In unique indentured time. a that for unearthed at have dedicated Marchand to ( Bois sections Marchand at response with excavations Bois physical is cemetery there functioning The Finally, Vagrant labourers. and represent themselves. the for not of prison workers construction does a the plantation it in Depot, witnessed although the is labourers, workers) of (absconding (elite?) absenteeism/vagrancy of habitation conditions actual living ( probably the the workers) and into contract plantation insight the an a and on owners situated dedicated plantation a barracks of of of addition dwelling set the ( with the a but immigrants Trianon, block of centre. hospital point with administrative complete landing again quarantine physical proper, a island the the Island, Ghat, ( Flat Aapravasi cemetery to on and ideologies Work complement hospital between outcomes. with nexus the archaeological complete between understand base and connectivity to imperial) attempting of effect, or patterns in (Western describing landscape: framework the in interpretative data points and an These research, reconnaissance. into historical on-site sites woven by non-destructive, of are underpinned with range is data a spatial that study desk-based strategy to integrates survey implemented a and describes developed It was concurrently. approach more specific are Site. This places Heritage relevant. few World subject. implemented, UNESCO this initially of an was interrogation indenture archaeological as an of Ghat commencing system for Aapravasi the appropriate where of site inscription the the As few with are 2006 there (Calaon however, system in slavery, indentured the of to archaeology closely tied the are in that case 2011 sites of from the even form is signatures, the As material labourers in the religion. that features illustrating their clearly Architectural landscape, kept labourers. the throughout and evident are slaves structures sacred between differences social on hs ie fetvl naslt h nietaetr fteidnue isoawithin diaspora indentured the of trajectory entire the encapsulate effectively sites These particularly proving is site’ a as ‘island the viewing paradigm, indentured the Within recognition international gained diaspora indentured the in Mauritius by played role The ). sirdars etbihdlbueswosre sitreire ewe the between intermediaries as served who labourers (established h rhelg fMauritius of archaeology The 2004 931 iue7 Figure .I sec,idnue rhelg reflects archaeology indentured essence, In ). tal. et iue9 Figure 2003 ,i hrfr iwda nessential an as viewed therefore is ), (Calaon ) oteIda ca n islands and Ocean Indian the to )  C niut ulctosLd 2015 Ltd, Publications Antiquity iue 6 Figures tal et . & 2012 10 iue8 Figure ,provides ), ,aformal a ), )on

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Figure 6. Bois Marchand Cemetery (photograph: Yves Pitchen). much tied, contractually and physically, to individual plantations, and we can still recognise aspects of the administrative process: for example, dependence on quarantine and expansion of burial grounds to deal with disease, and the reaction to absenteeism. Archaeology also offers the potential to assess the colonial mind-set as it related to specific issues, such as how the process of accepting labour onto the island changed from one imperial administration to the next (Calaon 2011). To this we can add high-resolution details of life-ways that connect directly to the labourers themselves in terms of health, diet (Figure 11) and social practice. Focusing on one particular issue: what other drivers, besides abolition, influenced the transition to indentured labour? Investigating this question could reveal motivations that archaeology is well equipped to address. Alongside the abolition of slavery, the removal of preferential tariffs for West Indian sugar intensified sugar production in Mauritius, thereby requiring more labour. Although these were undoubtedly the main catalysts for the labour migrations of this period, a number of factors complicate the simplicity of this reasoning. The illegal slave trade was rife and continued up to 1827 (Allen 2010). Coupled with the apprenticeship system, mandating six years’ service by emancipated slaves, these two factors should have provided a buffer for the plantation owners during the period directly after emancipation. Nevertheless, history records the appeals of the landowners for additional labour (Allen 2010). There is at least one factor that may have had implications that are at present poorly understood and to which Le Morne may serve as a signpost. The earlier phases of interment at Le Morne, speculatively assigned to the period directly after emancipation, show extensive incidence of disease and possible malnutrition. Bois Marchand cemetery covered some 400 acres when established in 1867 (Pike 1873: 401). Although later in date, it was created to accommodate the massive death toll resulting from epidemics of malaria and cholera. In 1867, 41 000 people, 10% of the entire population, died from these conditions (Pike 1873: 110). The administrative response was to expand quarantine C Antiquity Publications Ltd, 2015

932 rtdsoee ySrRnl ossm 0yasltr h oeo ies,wiefeaturing was while disease, that (Pearson of provision as role labour malaria The on later. of research years spread Atlantic 30 the some in Ross strongly for Ronald responsible Sir were by not discovered mosquitoes could first desalination British that The possible known infrastructure. centre: cemetery then and bottom have Island) Flat kitchen; of purpose right: the bottom (highlighting block; hospital the of cemetery. details from tomb top: left: bottom Island; paraphernalia; Flat 7. Figure artu a ie htcudpoieacmltl oe iwo rhelg nthe in archaeology of view ‘modern ways novel many in completely and post-colonial, a and colonial provide distinctly is could archaeology The that region. sites archaeology world has of Mauritius microcosm a as islands small Conclusions: agl ntde ihna ninOencnet etil ntrso rhelg (see archaeology of terms in certainly context, Ocean Indian Arnold an within unstudied largely o artu pcfial) n ol rv ihyrlvn oorudrtnigo labour of understanding our to basin. relevant this highly in prove diasporas could and specifically), Mauritius for 1991 o ealdhsoia vriwo h ninOen n Boodhoo and Ocean; Indian the of overview historical detailed a for , h rhelg fMauritius of archaeology The 933 tal et  C . niut ulctosLd 2015 Ltd, Publications Antiquity 2011 5) a remained has 155), : 2010 ,

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archaeology’ (Orser 2008). It is supported by an abundant textual record and offers us a deeply relevant view of what has taken place (and is still taking place) more generally in the world. The island is an exemplar of the globally connected post-medieval world, underpinned by relationships far more complex than slave or labourer vs master or European vs non-European. At a regional level, it is well situated to contribute to the recent and rapidly expanding interest in the Indian Ocean. Major research projects span the period from protohistory (Fuller et al. 2011) to the historic period, with work in an East African context (Biginagwa 2009) of particular interest. Regional studies offer critical areas for more immediate comparison; for example, slave communities in Kenya, Figure 8. The Steps of the Aapravasi Ghat, UNESCO Zanzibar and Pemba (Lodhi 1973; World Heritage Site (image used with permission of the Aapravasi Ghat Trust Fund). Marshall 2012), the important influence of Madagascan communities (Crossland 2001) for Mauritius and the region more widely, and indirect relationships that connected administrations across this zone, but were strictly beyond the Indian Ocean, with Suakin (Rhodes 2011), for instance. Future work will emphasise how ideas of identity construction (Wynne-Jones 2007) can be useful for the local context (Colwell-Chanthaphonh & de Salle- Esso 2014). Furthermore, mechanisms proposed for continental Africa might have potential for understanding labour and environmental histories (Lane 2010, 2014), as well as more specific issues relating to administrative policy; for example, the ecological consequences of introducing draft animals (Bernard & Parker 2006). On a more theoretical level, Le Morne contributes to a wider discussion on why archaeologists need to pay careful attention to the role of oral history (Schmidt & Walz 2007). The differential sex ratios of incoming workers to Mauritius, both slave and labourer, underline the significant context of gender relationships (Allen 1999: 43, 58; Croucher 2007). Finally, the UNESCO World Heritage Site inscription of Le Morne and the influence of Madagascan and African peoples on local cultural heritage establishes another example that highlights the role of Africa in the wider world (Police 2001: 81–110; MacEachern 2007; Seetah 2015a). Although comparisons with East Africa are the most immediately relevant, these should ultimately serve as points of departure for wider, global-level comparative studies that take in differences between landscapes, administrative policy and transitions from slavery, as noted in the Atlantic (Armstrong 2009). Farther afield, demographic and social differences could be compared: such as diasporas involving predominantly South Asians in the Indian Ocean vs East Asian in the Pacific, at Hawaii for example (Lui 1984). C Antiquity Publications Ltd, 2015

934 sse nsbeun xaain lwrcnr n right). and centre (lower excavations subsequent in seen as omtdcmlxt.I uhtesm a,salilnssrea esthrough lens a as serve the islands in former between small elsewhere i.e. way, colonialism, scale after equate same groups larger not between the does interactions a dynamic scale much view on small to In entities; place which complexity. different taking are muted contained however, transitions a to complexity, provide mirror and regarding enclaves debates Scale that colonial Small to world. motifs become. contribute will can of it in locations what set such both and in node is research archaeology critical how what a consider is to Mauritius on us It Developments dimensions. enable does. inter-comparative indentured and Asian) location intra- (predominantly up other later opening the diaspora, no and diaspora, way slave African) a (predominantly the in agendas research Atlantic iue9 rao arcs bv:terwo wlig;blw rudpntaigrdrrsls(oe et netknby undertaken left, (lower results radar ground-penetrating below: dwellings; of row Mu the Branko above: Barracks; Trianon 9. Figure artu evsa nesnilcneto ewe fia,Ain uoenand European Asian, African, between connection essential an as serves Mauritius ˇ si ˇ )adpa ftefudto fasrcue(an,psil sdfrhuiglvsok(rdt ig Calaon), Diego (credit: livestock housing for used possibly (main), structure a of foundation the of plan and c) h rhelg fMauritius of archaeology The 935  C niut ulctosLd 2015 Ltd, Publications Antiquity

Research Krish Seetah

Figure 10. Excavation at Bois Marchand (photograph: Yves Pitchen).

imperial Europe, modern-day dependencies and newly formed republics (Seetah 2010b). In future we may see archaeological theory and practice applied as the ‘direct offspring of European colonial archaeology’ (Willems 2009), returning as essentially different entities that have absorbed the ideals and requirements of the local community in new settings: accents of a language that has changed in its native land and that serves to promote novel conversation across pedagogic levels. Mauritian archaeology demonstrates how the discipline may evolve as the ideas of the global archaeological community are expressed, requiring a reflexive assessment of our genuinely universal subject. Why it has taken us so long to foster an ‘archaeology of indenture’ is a question that needs to be considered at a disciplinary level, particularly given the global impact of this diaspora, and the fact that historical, community and heritage archaeologies have become increasingly active fields Figure 11. Chickpea, Cicer arietinum,fromTrianon of engagement for the international Barracks (photograph: Jacob Morales-Matoes). archaeological community.

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936 A 06 itr,hsoia rhelg n h “history the and archaeology historical History, 2016. – people”: labouring for “want the Satisfying 2010. – labour and trade slave Mascarene The 2008. – A A ninOent nesadn h lblsd lrlsi n epycnetdmodern Acknowledgements connected deeply the and of knowledge pluralistic our globalised, from levels, the all world. understanding at a contribute to offers and towards Ocean develop archaeology steps can Indian Mauritian first subject Ultimately, the the indenture. how showcases of agenda: view It groups investigative locations. by new re-enacted different wholly and vastly a recreated the in with transposed, conditions comparison as of similar practice point under burial into unique of insight a elements offers and than broadly, island the more more the Atlantic; life-ways on discipline, slave the based of For historiography complexity landscape. its the the for in contextualisation features material architectural a just archaeology colonial Mauritius, as from For removed well development, Ocean. as early island’s Indian the bastions, the for point in focal widely physical more a furnished future has the in like look could References Sa particular in and project, MACH the of members to thanks sincere My lsosiadtorveesfrisgtu omnayo ale esoso hstext. this of Justice versions earlier and Aleksander on Truth Meskell, commentary Lynn The to insightful Cambridge; thanks for Sincere reviewers of London. two University of and Antiquaries the Pluskowski of Society at the Research and Award); Mauritius, Now’ Archaeological Commission, (‘Darwin for Council British Institute the McDonald (SG-10085/SG-54650); Academy the British The by: funded was work RMSTRONG PPLEBY LLEN artu fesoeve fwa itrclacaooyloslk ntegon,and ground, the on like looks archaeology historical what of view one offers Mauritius .Sea (ed.) in Seetah 1700–1900, K. Ocean, Indian the labour in and migrations trading, slave slavery, silence”: of http://dx.doi.org/10.1353/jwh.0.0100 Ocean, Indian 1500–1850. the in trading slave European Abolition centuries. nineteenth the and during eighteenth Ocean Indian the in migration Press. University Cambridge Mauritius colonial in laborers nvriyPress. Ocean University Indian the in history and rniin rmslavery. from transitions of explorations archaeological Caribbean: http://dx.doi.org/10.1017/S0003598 146–60. ieaddahatrabolition. early after of death snapshot and a life cemetery: Morne Le from cohort http://dx.doi.org/10.1002/oa.2259 Osteoarchaeology of .J A. .1999. R. , ANOO ,J.,K.S ..20.Dgeso reo nthe in freedom of Degrees 2009. D.V. , 4 33–50. 24: &V.T EETAH ora fWrdHistory World of Journal lvs remn n indentured and freedmen, Slaves, oncigcniet:archaeology continents: Connecting EELOCK ,D.C 4 737–46. 24: Antiquity 04 h juvenile The 2014. . ALAON Cambridge: . nentoa Journal International hcg I) Ohio (IL): Chicago . ,S. 84: C ˇ lvr and Slavery 1 45–73. 21: AVAL × h rhelg fMauritius of archaeology The 00099828 , 937 A C B A B B B B OODHOO ILBY IGINAGWA ERNARD AKKER RNOLD RMSTRONG ALAON oi:ApaaiGa rs Fund. Trust Ghat Aapravasi Louis: Mauritius century nineteenth in immigrants arvs htTutFund Trust Ghat histories. Aapravasi people and ports goods, Ghat: ot sa ora fSuhAinStudies Asian http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/00856409108723152 South of Journal Asia: South itrclArchaeology culture. Historical material and chronology diversity space, cultural through understanding for case a Jamaica: nineteenth-century in household laborers’ Indian eiaei otse pc:tecs fL Morne225–44. Le Mauritius. of in case landscape the cultural space: contested a in heritage n rtcini etIda lv life. History slave Caribbean Indian West in protection and ot fia ora fScience of Journal Africa. African South South in herbivores mammalian distribution large the of of record historical the supplement to information ethnographical and archaeological aaa rd at nnrhesenTnai:a report. Tanzania: preliminary north-eastern in halts trade caravan ,K.M.&J.S.H ..&F O F. & K.A. , .21.Idsra rhelg tAapravasi at archaeology Industrial 2011. D. , .19.TeIda ca sadsaezone. disease a as Ocean Indian The 1991. D. , ...&DM P D.M. R.T.F. & , .2010. R. , .20.Ecvto fte19 the of Excavation 2009. T. , ,D.V.&M.W.H  C ˇ sa niut ulctosLd 2015 Ltd, Publications Antiquity DENDALL elh ies n Indian and disease Health, ANDLER 82:153–83. 38(2): aa n ig aan This Calaon. Diego and Caval ˇ ym Akuma Nyame 82:9–21. 38(2): ARKER 04 ba:healing Obeah: 2004. . 08 Managing 2008. . AUSER :18–20. 9: 06 h s of use The 2006. . 0:117–19. 102: SAJAH 04 nEast An 2004. . 2 52–60. 72: th 23: Newsletter: ora of Journal century 4 1–23. 14: .Port

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