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<I>Yersinia Pestis</I>: Examining Wildlife Plague Surveillance in China and The

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<I>Yersinia Pestis</I>: Examining Wildlife Plague Surveillance in China and The University of Nebraska - Lincoln DigitalCommons@University of Nebraska - Lincoln USDA National Wildlife Research Center - Staff U.S. Department of Agriculture: Animal and Publications Plant Health Inspection Service 2012 Yersinia pestis: examining wildlife plague surveillance in China and the USA Sarah N. Bevins US Department of Agriculture, [email protected] John A. Baroch USDA/APHIS/WS National Wildlife Research Center, [email protected] Dale L. Nolte USDA-APHIS-Wildlife Services, [email protected] Min Zhang Chinese Academy of Sciences, Institute of Zoology, [email protected] Hongxuan He National Research Center for Wildlife Borne Diseases, [email protected] Follow this and additional works at: https://digitalcommons.unl.edu/icwdm_usdanwrc Bevins, Sarah N.; Baroch, John A.; Nolte, Dale L.; Zhang, Min; and He, Hongxuan, "Yersinia pestis: examining wildlife plague surveillance in China and the USA" (2012). USDA National Wildlife Research Center - Staff Publications. 1102. https://digitalcommons.unl.edu/icwdm_usdanwrc/1102 This Article is brought to you for free and open access by the U.S. Department of Agriculture: Animal and Plant Health Inspection Service at DigitalCommons@University of Nebraska - Lincoln. It has been accepted for inclusion in USDA National Wildlife Research Center - Staff Publications by an authorized administrator of DigitalCommons@University of Nebraska - Lincoln. Integrative Zoology 2012; 7: 99–109 doi: 10.1111/j.1749-4877.2011.00277.x 1 REVIEW 1 2 2 3 3 4 4 5 5 6 Yersinia pestis: examining wildlife plague surveillance in China 6 7 7 8 and the USA 8 9 9 10 10 11 11 12 12 13 Sarah N. BEVINS,1 John A. BAROCH,1 Dale L. NOLTE,1 Min ZHANG2 and Hongxuan HE2 13 14 14 1US Department of Agriculture, Wildlife Services, National Wildlife Disease Program, Fort Collins, Colorado, USA and 2Chinese 15 15 16 Academy of Sciences, Institute of Zoology, Beijing, China 16 17 17 18 18 19 Abstract 19 20 20 21 Plague is a zoonotic disease caused by the bacterium Yersinia pestis Lehmann and Neumann, 1896. Although it 21 22 is essentially a disease of rodents, plague can also be transmitted to people. Historically, plague has caused mas- 22 23 sive morbidity and mortality events in human populations, and has recently been classified as a reemerging dis- 23 24 ease in many parts of the world. This public health threat has led many countries to set up wild and domestic an- 24 25 imal surveillance programs in an attempt to monitor plague activity that could potentially spill over into human 25 26 populations. Both China and the USA have plague surveillance programs in place, but the disease dynamics dif- 26 27 fer in each country. We present data on plague seroprevalence in wildlife and review different approaches for 27 28 plague surveillance in the 2 countries. The need to better comprehend plague dynamics, combined with the fact 28 29 that there are still several thousand human plague cases per year, make well-designed wildlife surveillance pro- 29 30 grams a critical part of both understanding plague risks to humans and preventing disease outbreaks in the fu- 30 31 ture. 31 32 32 Key words: plague, sentinel species, surveillance, Yersinia pestis 33 33 34 34 35 35 36 36 37 INTRODUCTION sion to humans and other mammals can occur (often 37 38 during epizootic conditions) through flea bite or direct 38 Yersinia pestis is a Gram negative flea-borne bac- contact and, in some cases, results in severe morbidity 39 terium and the causative agent of plague. The patho- 39 40 and death (Barnes 1982; Gage & Kosoy 2005). Y. pes- 40 gen is traditionally described as cycling between small tis has been documented to infect more than 200 mam- 41 mammals, with an enzootic cycle and an epizootic cy- 41 42 mal species, but likely persists in only a small number 42 cle (Fig. 1). The enzootic cycle of plague is maintained of rodents that are relatively resistant to disease (Pollitzer 43 among rodent hosts and their fleas; however, transmis- 43 44 1960). It has also been suggested that plague continual- 44 45 ly cycles, even among susceptible species, but that the 45 46 loss of a few rodents often goes unnoticed (Gage & Ko- 46 47 soy 2005). These maintenance species differ depending 47 Correspondence: Sarah Bevins, USDA National Wildlife 48 upon the geographic location, or plague foci, in ques- 48 49 Disease Program, 4101 LaPorte Ave, Fort Collins, CO 80521, tion. Plague foci are not static and foci presently ex- 49 50 USA. ist in North America, South America, Africa and Asia. 50 51 Email: [email protected] In Asia, some species of gerbil (i.e. Rhombomys opi- 51 © 2012 ISZS, Blackwell Publishing and IOZ/CAS 99 S. N. Bevins et al. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 Figure 1 Basic plague transmission dynamics. 31 32 33 34 35 mus Wagner, 1841) and marmots (i.e. Marmota himala- ally well understood. The detailed dynamics that govern 36 yana Hodgson, 1841) are resistant to infection and are plague transmission, however, as well as the species in- 37 thought to be maintenance hosts for Y. pestis (Pollitzer volved in the USA, are still unknown, despite extensive 38 1960), as are some small mammals in North America research. 39 (i.e. Microtus californicus Peale, 1848) (Pollitzer 1960; Plague manifests in symptomatic hosts as bubon- 40 Biggins & Kosoy 2001). Carnivores and other species ic, pneumonic or septicemic, with untreated pneumon- 41 regularly exposed to plague likely mount an immune re- ic and septicemic cases in humans being invariably fa- 42 sponse that typically averts death, but these species are tal (Eisen et al. 2008). Bubonic plague is characterized 43 not believed to maintain the infection or to directly con- by bacilli spreading to, and enlarging, lymph nodes (ex- 44 tribute to its transmission (Gage et al. 1994, 2000; Per- ternally referred to as buboes) near the cutaneous site of 45 ry & Fetherston 1997). Humans, along with felids, lago- a flea bite. In some cases, bubonic infections can prog- 46 morphs, prairie dogs and other rodents, are a group of ress to secondary septicemic disease, spreading to other 47 mammals known to succumb to severe Y. pestis infec- organs via the bloodstream. Secondary septicemia can 48 tions (Gasper 1997; Gage & Kosoy 2005). The basic also follow a pneumonic infection originating from in- 49 facets of plague (low-level cycling in rodents and their halation of infectious Y. pestis. From 1964 to 2003, the 50 fleas with occasional epizootic events leading to mor- World Health Organization (WHO) documented 80 744 51 bidity and death in both wildlife and humans) are gener- 100 © 2012 ISZS, Blackwell Publishing and IOZ/CAS Yersinia pestis surveillance programs human plague cases around the world and more than human disease occurrence. As a notifiable disease, a 1 6500 deaths, but this is likely an underestimate (Dennis positive plague diagnosis is reported to the Centers for 2 et al. 1999; WHO 2002, 2004). Plague is 1 of 6 original Disease Control (CDC) by State Departments of Health 3 communicable diseases that member states are required when they occur in the USA. In China, it is also manda- 4 to notify occurrence of to the WHO. It is considered a tory that human plague cases be reported to the Depart- 5 Category A infectious disease because of its ability to ment of Health or Centre for Health Protection (Scien- 6 be transmitted via aerosol and because of the high death tific Committee on Vector-borne Diseases 2008). Plague 7 rates associated with airborne transmission. The abil- also remains a WHO notifiable disease if the disease oc- 8 ity to aerosolize also makes it a potential bioterrorism curs outside of plague-endemic areas or is likely to ini- 9 agent. These dangers, combined with continued plague tiate an epidemic spread. In the USA, plague is part of 10 presence punctuated by occasional outbreaks in coun- the National Notifiable Disease Surveillance System 11 tries across the globe, make plague surveillance an inte- (NNDSS). This surveillance system encompasses ani- 12 gral part of public health programs around the world. mal plague surveillance (i.e. serosurveys of carnivores) 13 and reports of human cases, as well as laboratory testing 14 MONITORING AND SURVEILLANCE of fleas, animal tissues and serum specimens. Having a 15 designated database for plague data, such as the NNDSS 16 Comprehensive disease surveillance programs are es- or the WHO Global Alert and Response system is cru- 17 sential to understanding the epidemiology of zoonotic cial and provides continual data flow on human plague 18 diseases. The importance of a strong surveillance system incidence, which enhances the probability of detect- 19 is being increasingly recognized in an era where live- ing an increase in disease and allows an early response 20 stock, wildlife and people are capable of rapidly moving to possible outbreaks. It should be noted however, that 21 around the globe, increasing the opportunity for patho- most of these systems are dedicated to human disease 22 gen dispersal and novel disease introduction. Areas with occurrence and any data collected from wild or domes- 23 comprehensive surveillance programs are better able to tic animals should be cataloged and analyzed as well. 24 detect and respond to disease, rendering disease emer- The CDC and the WHO follow the same plague di- 25 gence less likely (Morner et al. 2002; Jones et al. 2008; agnosis protocol to ensure robust and accurate disease 26 Deliberto et al.
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