AUTHORIZED AGENTS the Projects of Native American Writing in the Era of Removal
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AUTHORIZED AGENTS The Projects of Native American Writing in the Era of Removal by Frank P. Kelderman A dissertation submitted in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy (American Culture) in the University of Michigan 2015 Doctoral Committee: Professor Julie Ellison, Co-Chair Associate Professor Scott Richard Lyons, Co-Chair Professor Philip J. Deloria Professor Mary C. Kelley Frank P. Kelderman 2015 For my parents. ii Acknowledgments A great number of people have helped me to write this dissertation. An acknowledgments section is hardly enough to express my gratitude to Julie Ellison and Scott Richard Lyons. Their tireless work in guiding this dissertation has gone far beyond what I ever expected from dissertation committee chairs. Julie was there since before I started my research, and has continuously offered inspiration, invaluable feedback, and support of all kinds. Her question, “Does early American literature constitute a public project?” has proven the most generative starting point. I still owe many answers, so I look forward to continuing our conversations. Without Scott’s mentorship and dedication to my work, I would have found neither the confidence nor the ability to tackle the questions I ask in these pages. His expertise, guidance, and approach to scholarship have been an endless source of inspiration, and have helped me to carry this project through to its current stage. To both, I express my deepest gratitude. Mary Kelley and Philip Deloria both offered generous advice and encouragement throughout many cherished conversations. Mary has profoundly shaped my thinking about American print culture, and has shared invaluable insights from the start. Phil has shown incredible generosity in reading my work, and has offered intellectual guidance as well as extraordinary advice on organization and writing. iii I can only hope that this dissertation does some justice to the shared brilliance and hard work of my committee. I am beyond grateful to Marlene Moore for all she has done for me and all the graduate students in the Department of American Culture. Her expertise and her deep understanding of graduate students’ needs and challenges have created endless possibilities for us all. I also thank American Culture’s remarkable staff, especially Tabitha Rohn, Judith Gray, Mary Freiman, and Tammy Zill. As Director of Graduate Studies Kristin Hass has championed the work of American Culture graduate students, as well as my dissertation work. Michael Witgen and Gregory Dowd both played an enormous part in my early decision to pursue a project on Native American literature and history. Through their scholarship and their dedicated teaching—and many conversations—they have shaped my understanding of Native American history and the field of Native American studies. I also want to thank many faculty members at the University of Michigan for all their formal and informal feedback on my work, including James W. Cook, Müge Göçek, June Howard, Kerry Larson, Anthony Mora, Susan Scott Parrish, and Sarita See. At the William L. Clements Library I wish to thank Clayton Lewis, Brian Leigh Dunnigan, and Diana Sykes for their help. Additionally, I am grateful to the staff of the Bentley Historical Library, the American Antiquarian Society, the National Archives in Ottawa, and the Newberry Library. For their generous funding of my research and travels I wish to thank the Department of American Culture, Rackham Graduate School, the American Antiquarian Society, the Summer Academy in Atlantic History, and the Heidelberg Spring Academy in American Studies. iv I received much guidance and support from friends and colleagues in American Culture: Yamil Avivi, Ivan Chaar-Lopez, Joe Cialdella, Margot Finn, Joo Young Lee, Katherine Lennard, Rachel Miller, Stephen Molldrem, and Hannah Noel. Many thanks to my friends in the Draconian Breakfast Club, for wonderfully productive writing days— and a great way to get them started: Cordelia Zuckerman, Natalie DeSole, Lori Smithey, Adam Mazel, and Liz DeLisle Rodriguez. I benefited from many people’s feedback on early versions of this dissertation: thank you, Sony Coranez Bolton, Jesse Carr, Genevieve Creedon, Aston Gonzales, David Green, Jennifer Peacock, Mejdulene Shomali, Marie Stango, Wendy Sung, and Shannon Winston. At the D’Arcy McNickle Center for American Indian Studies I benefited from excellent suggestions by Scott Manning Stevens, Raymond Fogelson, Edward Labenski, Douglas Miller, Susan Sleeper- Smith, Adam Spencer, Jenny Tone-Pah-Hote, and Isaiah Wilner I owe a large debt of gratitude to Michelle Cassidy, Becky Hill, Sophie Hunt, and Christie Toth, not in the least for starting the Native American and Indigenous Studies Interdisciplinary Group (NAISIG) at the University of Michigan. Through this group I benefited enormously from the sense of community among graduate students in Native American Studies, including Stefan Aune, Courtney Cottrell, Joseph Gaudet, William Hartmann, Emily McGillivray, and Steve Pelletier. Many faculty members in Native American Studies also supported our work through this group, including Joseph Gone, Petra Kuppers, Barbara Meek, Tiya Miles, Susan Najita, Margaret Noodin, and Gustavo Verdesio. Of course, I could not have seen this project through without the love and support of my friends: Liz Harmon, Jenny Kwak, Calvin McMillin, Lisa Jong, Chris Broughton, v Alex Olson, and Nicolette Bruner-Olson. Over the past few years Amel Omari, Emma Paul, and Adrian Lyjak have helped to make Ann Arbor my home. Jason Ness, Meghan Wind, Aaron Fredette, and Lisa and Kirk Maki: thank you for your love and support, and for all the good times. At the University of Groningen, Wil Verhoeven, Amanda Gilroy, and Marietta Messmer encouraged and supported my plans for graduate school early on. Andrew Fearnley, Albert Everaarts, and Dirk Visser have all been a professional inspiration to me, as well as dear friends. Finally, I am grateful to my family for giving me a loving home. To Jasper, thank you for always taking good care of your little brother. My parents, Janny Kelderman-Kunstman and Harm Kelderman, have taught me more than I am able to thank them for here. I happily dedicate this work to them, with love. vi Table of Contents Dedication .......................................................................................................................... ii Acknowledgments ............................................................................................................ iii List of figures .................................................................................................................. viii Introduction: Native Writing in the Era of Removal .....................................................1 Chapter One: Projects of Diplomacy Pawnee Futures and the Benjamin O’Fallon Delegation of 1821-22 ................................40 Chapter Two: Projects of Intervention Black Hawk, Keokuk, and Removal Policy in Sauk Writing and Oratory ......................109 Chapter Three: Projects of Negotiation Indian Removal and Choctaw Nation-Building in the Writings of Peter Pitchlynn ........176 Chapter Four: Projects of Circulation The Networks of Ojibwe Writing in Jane Johnston Schoolcraft, Peter Jones, and George Copway ...............................................................................................................247 Afterword: Building Keokuk ........................................................................................320 Appendix .........................................................................................................................328 Bibliography ...................................................................................................................329 vii List of Figures 1. “Tshusick, an Ojibway Woman” (1836) .................................................................................... 2 2. Diagram of a Lancaster school classroom (1812) ................................................................. 59 3. “A Pawnee Brave” (1822) ............................................................................................................. 79 4. “Petalesharoo” (1854) ..................................................................................................................... 79 5. Petalesharro, A Pawnee Brave” (1836)..................................................................................... 80 6. “The Generous Chief” (1824) ...................................................................................................... 80 7. Friendship medal given to Petalesharo (1822) ....................................................................... 83 8. Treaty at Fort Armstrong” (1837) ............................................................................................. 120 9. “Plate 156: Keokuk” (1847) ....................................................................................................... 135 10. Portrait of Robert Lucas (1907)................................................................................................ 163 11. Records of the Choctaw Council Meeting (1826) ............................................................... 187 12. Personal diary of Peter Pitchlynn (1828)................................................................................ 191 13. Recommendation letter from Richard Mentor Johnson (1827) ...................................... 211 14. “Plates 221 and 222” (1841) ......................................................................................................