Features News SPECIAL REPORT Krafft Ehricke's Moon: A Lush Oasis of Life 15 The 7th International Conference 19 Marsha Freeman On Cold Fusion: Only a grand vision for lunar development will move space The Latest Word about Cold Fusion programs into the future. Dr. Edmund Storms

GURWITSCH'S NON-REDUCTIONIST BIOLOGY ENVIRONMENT 66 There's No Truth to the Introduction: Alexander Gurwitsch: Father of Biophysics Rising Sea-level Scare 34 Co lin Lowry Dr. Richard D. Terry A marine geologist examines the myth that global warming will raise Alexander Gurwitsch and the 36 sea levels. Concept of the Biological Field, Part 1 68 The IPPC's Rising Michael Lipkind Catastrophe Level A student of the great biologist discusses the importance of Gurwitsch's thought and work. PEDAGOGY 74 Revisiting the Simplest Discoveries Dr. Jonathan Tennenbaum Remarks on Gurwitsch's Method 52 Lyndon H. LaRouche, Jr. An economist comments on the importance of Gurwitsch's method for Departments physical economy, in particular, the spread of pandemics like AIDS. 2 EDITORIAL

3 LETTERS Simulation of Amperian Current Elements 55 By Magnetic Toroids 6 RESEARCH COMMUNICATIONS Hawking Radiation Challenged Thomas E. Phipps, Jr., and Jorge Guala Valverde With Far-Reaching Implications A relatively simple experiment, using U-shaped magnets in a toroidal Dr. Mario Rabinowitz configuration, demonstrates the existence of Ampere's angular force, which has been written out of physics by Maxwell, Grassmann, 8 NEWS BRIEFS Lorentz, and their epigones in today's physics establishment. 10 VIEWPOINT Extraterrestrials Have Never Visited the Earth Julian Grajewski In search of a relatively transcendent physical 83 BOOKS principle to unite two or The Anisotropy of Space more astronomical cy­ by Maurice Allais cles into a single whole, Remi Saumont Jonathan Tennenbaum pursues a geometrical 88 BOOKS RECEIVED metaphor. See Peda­ gogy, p. 74. On the cover: Illustration of Moon colony by Pat Rawlings, courtesy of the Lunar and Planetary Institute; cover design by Jim W. Grace/Science Source, Photo Researchers Rosemary Moak. EDITORIAL

Overturn Reductionist Science! his issue brings together reports on Not without reason, the life sciences Tthree topics, so seemingly unrelated, were the last to succumb to the onslaught according to the conventional schema of of mechanistic philosophy: that is, the science, that it is necessary to call the belief that all processes of nature can be reader's attention to the hidden, or un­ explained by resort to matter (in the form derlying conceptual thread, which unites of irreducible elementarities) and motion. them. The three articles are the report by Although many today even mistake this Professor Michael Lipkind on Alexander for the scientific method, we have shown Gurwitsch's work in biology, Lyndon elsewhere that such a prejudice (im­ LaRouche's commentary on Gurwitsch's ported into England from 16th century method, and physicist Thomas Phipps's Venice), and diffused by such populariz­ contribution on the virtual Amperian ers as Thomas Hobbes, Francis Bacon, current-element. and Isaac Newton), was never the basis The great beauty of the work of A.G. for discoveries in modern science.1 Gurwitsch is that it establishes so clearly, Formalism's Procrustean Bed and in so many different applications, that Not only is such reductionism unac­ the growth of a living organism cannot be ceptable in the life sciences, but it is explained by reference to a prepackaged equally unacceptable in the so-called set of instructions located within the indi­ hard sciences. Contrary to the usual text­ vidual cell. From the bell-Iike shape of the book and popular science accounts, it is chamomile floscule, to the form of the ep­ only by restricting the domain of appli­ ithelial layer in shark brains, the existence cations to the most specialized class of of the whole cannot be explained as the phenomena that one succeeds in fitting mere sum of of its parts. Comparing one the actions of inorganic nature into the member of a species to another, the parts, Procrustean Bed of sterile formalism, (individual cells, groups of cells, or or­ which textbook authors like to call "uni­ ganelles) are never the same, and are of­ versal laws." ten widely different in size, orientation, Thus, Andre Marie Ampere, by no later and ordering; yet, they arrive at the final than 1825, had demonstrated that the goal, the whole, which always assumes "universality" of the mechanism of the the shape or form recognizable as charac­ "inverse square law," which seemed to teristic of that species. underlie the phenomena of gravitation, But even more remarkably, the indi­ static electricity, and magnetism, did not vidual cells seem to act as if ordered by extend to moving current electricity. some agency outside of themselves. Gur­ Here, in addition to magnitude and dis­ witsch denotes by "biological field" his tance, a dependence on the angular rela­ attempt to conceptualize such an agency. tionship between the elements of current Yet, we must also recognize that it is had to be considered. The validity of Am­ only because of the success of our philo­ pere's new Force Law was brilliantly es­ sophical opponents, the reductionists and tabl ished by the collaboration of Carl mechanists, in imposing their restrictive Friedrich Gauss and Wilhelm Weber over point of view on all fields in science­ the ensuing two decades. However, ow­ biology above all-that Gurwitsch's work ing to the hegemony of mechanistic doc­ appears in any way remarkable. A cen­ trine, as enforced by such as Clausius, tury ago, it was not so, and even 50 years Helmholtz, Lord Kelvin, and Maxwell, ago, these were at least, topics of debate. the Ampere-Weber Law was suppressed Today, however, biology is molecular bi­ and eradicated from the textbooks. ology, that is, reductionist biology. There As demonstrated anew in this issue, by is almost no questioning of the axiomatic Thomas Phipps, Jr., and Jorge Valverde, assumption that all causal relations are ul­ Nature is not a studious reader of text­ timately to be explained by the actions of books. The deeper lesson to be learned, the genetic material, and the assumption is that nature is not reducible to laws de­ that its actions are reducible to something scribing "irreducible particles" and their analogous to a computer program, or like motions. Indeed, the irreducible particles form of symbolic logic. do not exist. Ampere's experimental re-

2 Summer 1998 21 st CENTURY EDITORIAL searches led him not to an irreducible el­ intellectual breakthroughs, which we call ementarity of electricity, but to an in­ Art (or Culture), and Science. These, by creasingly complex inner structure of their nature, must originate in the mind matter, which he associated with the con­ of an individual member of the species, cept of the "magnetic molecule." In the although the conditions which give rise hands of Wilhelm Weber, Ampere's mag­ to them are social. netic molecule became the basis of mod­ In the first case, that of biology, it is ern atomic science, including Weber's not so evident how one is to account for Letters discovery, publ ished in 1870 (and also the progression of the series. In the sec­ removed from the textbooks), of the non­ ond case, human economic evolution, Fusion: Hot or Cold? existence of the Coulomb repulsive force or progress, LaRouche recognized that below a certain critical length.2 the motor for development from one To the Editor: As LaRouche identifies in the third ref­ stage to the next, is the creative facu Ity The purpose of this letter is to point erenced piece, the source of the persist­ of the human mind: creative scientific out an inconsistency in the Winter 1997- ing error in contemporary science lies discoveries, socially disseminated and 1998 issue of 21 st Century: not in the stars, but in ourselves. The tol­ realized as breakthroughs in technology. Charles B. Stevens says ("Sandia Na­ eration of reductionist doctrine not only The vi rtually massless output of a cre­ tional Lab Clears Path to Inertial Fusion") produces error across the spectrum of ative human mind, a new idea, thus be­ on page 27, "Nuclear fusion of hydrogen scientific investigation, from the inor­ comes the motive force for the succes­ nuclei to form helium is the source for ganic to the living domain. It also actu­ sive evolutionary transformations in the the energy output of the stars." Stevens ally reverses the natural ordering, such biosphere, realized by human society. goes on to give another pitch for the old, that, in the ultimate absurdity of modern The analogy or parallel to Gurwitsch's and so-far sterile, hot fusion research "i nformation theory" approaches, the notion of the "biological field" guiding program. higher-ordered phenomenon of mind is the progressive development of the or­ Dr. Edmund Storms ("Cold Fusion: explained by the random actions of in­ ganism is notable. An Outcast of Science"), on page 24, sensate elementary particles-the The Primacy of Mind reports on Randell Mills's concept of billiard-ball theory of mentation. This leads us necessarily to the con­ "fractional energy levels [of hyd rogen In LaRouche's contribution, "Some Re­ ception that the hierarchy established by whereby] energy can be released by the marks on Gurwitsch's Method," he pre­ the reductionists' influence over sci­ formation of collapsed hydrogen atoms sents his unique refutation of reduction­ ence-that is, physics (even mathemati­ called hydrinos." In fact, Mills has ism, which emerged as the solution to a cal physics) at the top of the pyramid, fol­ stated (Infinite Energy, Vol. 3, p. 21) crucial paradox of economic science­ lowed by the other physical (quantitative) that "the gases around the Sun are 2 that is, the relationship of the human sciences; below them, the life sciences; million degrees and the surface only mind to the process of expanding physi­ and at the bottom, the (non-quantitative) 6,000 ....If the energy is being pro­ cal economic reproduction. The same humanities-must be overturned. This is duced in the core, why is the gas considerations which occupied Gur­ not to give credence to the perverse re­ around the Sun hotter?" witsch, he tells us, provided a foundation ductionist concoction known as "social for his solution to the economic problem. sciences." Rather, that a scientific ap­ Sandia National Lab The path of solution lay along the fo l­ proach to the understanding of nature Clears Path to Inertial Fusion lowing lines. The evidence of biology must dispense with the reductionist prej­ byCharlel.B.SIe'o'eflS provides us with two types of progressive udice implied by the notion of indepen­ evolutionary series: First, the series of dent irreducible elementarity, and in­ progressively more complex morpho­ stead re-adopt the standpoint of primacy genetic changes in living organisms, of mind which ruled modern science in sometimes referred to as phylogeny; sec­ its better, earlier days. ond, the series of developmental changes In this intellectual organizational pyra­ in the individual organism, from embryo mid of science, at the top stands the sci­ to adult form. ence of human mentation, (that is, physi­ The evidence of human economy pro­ cal economy) subsuming under it, the vides us also with two types of evolution­ humanities, the life sciences, and, fi nally, ary series: One, the series of successive the attempt to discover the ordering prin­ improvements in mastery over nature, ciple of non-living processes, the so­ Mills hypothesizes that solar energy which has expressed itself in a historic in­ called hard sciences. results from hydrogen atoms collapsing crease of the potential relative population -Laurence Hecht to hydrinos in the extreme heat and ex­ density of the human species, from primi­ treme low-pressure of the solar corona; tive hunter-gathering modes to modern Notes ------1. See, for example, Lyndon H. LaRouche, Jr., and he claims to be able under labora­ society (The human species distinguishes "How Hobbes's Mathematics Misshaped Mod­ tory conditions to replicate this non-nu­ itself from all other living forms in this re­ ern History,"21st Century, Spring 1996, p. 21. clear reaction with a release of many gard.) The second developmental series 2. See Laurence Hecht, "The Atomic Science Text­ books Don't Teach," 21st Century, Fall 1996, p. times more energy than the hydrogen­ is the succession of progressive, creative 21. helium nuclear reaction.

LETIERS 21st CENTURY Summer 1998 3 One or the other hypothesis may be targets that the Livermore NIF (National early 1980s, about the Gauss-Weber ap­ right; one is undoubtedly wrong. All bets Ignition Facility) laser will ignite, ana proach to nuclear fusion, during the for 30 years and billions of dollars have those that Sandia will ignite, have al­ time that we helped organize what be­ gone into backing the institutionalized ready been tested in underground ex­ came the LaRouche Strategic Defense science on the old idea; noth i ng has plosions and are demonstrated to work. Initiative as announced by President been spent on the new. No one appar­ In general terms, however, you are Reagan on March 23, 1983, helped ently had thought of it before. This may correct: the establishment does suppress spark the research that led to the so­ be because institutionalized expertise in science and new ideas in particular. called "cold fusion" experiments. the science establishment never wel­ Now, to your question concerning hot In any case, what people call "hot fu­ comes, and often suppresses new ideas. versus cold fusion. Wilhelm Eduard We­ sion" is probably cold fusion. That is, at 21st Century's very name impl ies its ber, who together with Carl Gauss built the hundreds of millions of degrees tem­ leanings toward new ideas. It should get the first electric telegraph in 1833, pub­ peratures which generate the plasma behind the new ideas and the lone indi­ I ished the fi rst paper on nuclear fusion. state in which nuclear fusion takes viduals who initiate them. Virtually all This paper, "Electrodynamic Measure­ place, the electrons and ions actually progress in science, if not in technology, ments-Sixth Memoir, Relating Specifi­ become highly organized, like a super­ has been initiated by the intu itions of cally to the Principle of the Conse"rva­ conductor. Cold temperatures, such as lone individuals. The institutions with tion of Energy," appeared in English in those found in cryogenic regimes, are their teams of experts have been a drag the Philosophical Magazine, 4th Series, usually taken to mean a minimal level in the past and are even more so today. Vol. 43, No. 282, Jan. 1872, pp. 1-20, of thermal fluctuations. Ironically, this C. Warren Hunt 1 19-49. Not only does the paper project can also be the case with high tempera­ Calgary, Alberta, Canada the existence of nuclear fusion, but it in­ ture plasmas. (In fact, this is the key to dicates that nuclear fusion can be the great success of the Sandia Z ma­ achieved "force-free," or in more cur­ chine explod ing wire plasma pinch, Charles B. Stevens Replies rent terms: "cold fusion." (See "The Sig­ which I discussed in the article you nificance of the 1845 Gauss-Weber Cor­ commented on.) I sympathize with the dilemma you respondence," by Laurence Hecht, 21st We will only begin to comprehend pose, and although many may dismiss Century, " Fall 1996, p. 21.) how nuclear fusion really works by end­ your polemic as a bit brazen, neverthe­ The Gauss-Weber paper, together ing the 150-year pogrom against the sci­ less you raise a very interesting question: with the possibility of cold fusion, were ence of Gauss and Weber. Is it hot or cold fusion? Actually there is first shown to me by Dr. Robert Moon of probably only "cold nuclear fusion." the University of Chicago in May 1974. First, however, to the more general Moon had come to the University of War on Drugs questions you raise about what is hap­ Chicago at the end of the 1920s to carry Questioned pening in nuclear fusion energy research out experiments to explore the Gauss­ and development: It is not the fault of Weber approach to nuclear fusion. To the Editor: scientists that fusion energy has not been Moon was going to begin by generating Karen Steinherz and Thomas Vissing fully developed and implemented forms similar to what Mills calls hydri­ ["The Medical Effects of Marijuana on throughout the world economy. The nos. But Moon's original work was in­ the Brain," Winter 1997-1 998, p. 59] Magnetic Fusion Engineering Act of terrupted by the Manhattan Project, in may well be correct in their assessment 1980, which called for the development which he made immense contributions. that chronic medical problems arise from of fusion energy by the year 2000, was After the war, it was again postponed by long-term marijuana usage. But this does ignored. In addition, the chief sponsor various other programs, until 1974, not mean that a society has the right to of that law, the Fusion Energy Founda­ when Moon joined in the effort to found treat individuals who choose to use mar­ tion, was illegally shut down and put the Fusion Energy Foundation. ijuana as criminals. Our civilization will into forced bankruptcy by the U.S. gov­ (The original Gauss-Weber fusion ef­ surely be looked upon someday as bar­ ernment in 1987. fort of the 1 830s, by the way, was shut baric for its practice of imprisoning citi­ Since that time, the development of down by the Holy Alliance and the zens who violate social norms (such as fusion energy has been systematically British Royal family when their troops this) in private. suppressed, with the limited exception occupied Gottingen University in De­ Let me make it clear: I am no advo­ of those programs that have gotten the cember 1836 for that purpose, expelling cate of drugs. I am a professional scien­ support of the military, such as the San­ Weber and six other scientists. And al­ tist, married to a church choir director, dia and Lawrence Livermore national though the Gottingen Seven is an infa­ with a fami Iy of three teenagers to raise. I laboratory inertial confinement fusion mous case of "academic" suppression in do not want my teenagers abusing drugs. programs. history, it is little known. Even the fact But over the last few years, news and And inertial confinement fusion is far that there is a standing pogrom against facts and rhetoric about the national from "sterile." Hydrogen bombs based the physics of Gauss, is kept pretty much "war on drugs" started catching my at­ on inertial confinement generate copi­ under wraps today.) tention. ous outputs of energy, and could be uti­ Although I cannot prove it, I believe Consider the following: lized for propelling spaceships and nu­ that the discussions that Moon and I had (1) Drug dealing and enforcement to­ merous other peaceful applications. The with various scientists in the 1970s and gether constitute a several hundred bil-

4 Summer 1998 21st CENTURY LEITERS I ion dollar per than the drugs sential message of the book Dope, Inc., year busi ness 0Tl1e'Medical Effects themselves. Isn't it published in 1978 by the Executive Intel­ worldwide. 1 We time to rethink ligence Review. I participated in the re­ are fuel i ng the . Of'�arijuaha our drug policies search and investigation of Dope, Inc., wo rld's largest OIi·the . - from square one? and its message is as true today as it was black market, Which drugs are then. creati ng a bo­ Br'ain" really dangerous? George Soros, in fact, is not just a ma­ nanza for drug Which are addic­ jor supporter of marijuana legalization dealers, and in tive and which organizations like NORML and the Drug return our soci­ are not? Which Policy Foundation. He also supports the ety gets gangs, drugs might even narco-terrorist apparatus in Latin Amer­ violence, crime, have usefu I ef­ ica which is the absolutely essential mili­ and corruption. fects? tary support for the the cocaine produc­ (2) The gov­ The citizens of ers in Bolivia and Peru. (For references, ernment builds California have see Executive Intelligence Review, Jan. costly, overflow­ voted that mari­ 31, 1997, pp. 46-65.) ing prisons in juana has valid (2) There must be effective intelligence which victimless offenders can become medical uses. Users of MDMA (Ecstasy) sharing and technical and military logis­ violent criminals. California, for exam­ report a sense of bliss and euphoric em­ tic cooperation between the United ple, has not constructed a new university pathy with others. I have read on the In­ States and the relevant drug-producing campus since 1965. Instead, about two ternet about some monks using it suc­ nations, without direct U.S. military in­ dozen new prisons have been built. cessfully to create a transcendent state. volvement. For this, I refer you to the cur­ (3) Primarily as an anti-drug offensive, Are these things bad? Are these things rent case of Peru which has reduced its the government has granted itself vast that people should go to jail for in a civi­ cocoa cultivation by 50 percent, with the power to seize private property even lized society? help of the Clinton administration. For from innocent people.50 if a spouse or a Steinherz and Vissing may be med­ this, I refer you to an article titled "Co­ business partner, say, winds up involved ically correct, but their conclusion is lumbia Must Follow Peru's Strategy vs. in drugs, your share of assets will be morally and ethically wrong. Narco-terrorism," by Dennis Small (Exec­ taken away from you no matter how in­ Bernhard Haisch utive Intelligence Review, May 8, 1998), nocent you might be. In an amazing rul­ Redwood City, Calif. as a dramatic case in point. ing, the Supreme Court upheld the right (3) We must mobilize the citizens of of the government to do just that. A wife Notes ------the United States through the media to lost her share of a seized automobile, 1. $53.7 billion was spent on illegal drug purchases support this war-winning strategy and in the United States alone in 1996, according to because her husband had used it in so­ the Associated Press. Add to that a similar idealism, instead of the pessimism and liciting a prostitute. That happened not amount spent on enforcement. pop culture that is spread through Amer­ to be a drug case, but 110 matter, the prin­ ican television and news media. ciple was established, and the "war on drugs" is where seizure is most widely Karen Steinherz Replies used by the government. On the Blood Brain Barrier (4) We are appalled when Islamic We understand your frustration that regimes ban Western books, music, tele­ the War on Drugs has not stopped drug To the Editor: vision, clothing, and the like. We con­ traffic. However, please reread the last The article on "The Medical Effects of sider it outrageous when a repressive few pages of our article, because you Marijuana on the Brain" was generally government dictates the private behav­ have missed our point. I can only repeat well written, but one passage stands out: ior of its citizens. And yet, we allow our what we wrote: The private citizen is the On page 60, the authors state that "Even government to throw our own citizens victim of financier-speculators like antibiotics, or drugs for cancer treatment, into prison for things done in private. George Soros, and other political and fi­ do not cross this barrier," referring to the On what moral or constitutional nancial backers of the international drug blood brain barrier. I would advise the grounds can we justify controlling the cartels, who try to engineer more "soft" authors to read page 1 0 of Th e Pharma­ mere possession or private use of some­ drug use, as well as more hard drug use. cological Basis of Th erapeutics by Good­ thing? This is their method of controlling the man and Gilman, 6th edition, which We may not want people to be using post-i ndustrial society of the 20th and states that "the barrier is neither absolute drugs. But do we really want to give the 21 st centuries. nor invariable." In addition, a cursory government the power to incarcerate its An effective War on Drugs would examination of modern drug therapy citizens fo r this? This seems barbaric ... have to include the fo llowing strategic demonstrates the great dependence and an ominous road to be going down recommendations: medical care has on the ability of med­ that threatens all of our rights. (1) "Shut down the drug money-laun­ ications to cross this barrier. I have, regretfully, come to the con­ dering by the major Anglo-American Kervin Glick, Reg. Pharm. clusion that our national "war on drugs" banks and the dope cartel would choke Lihue, Hawaii poses a greater danger to our society to death on its own profits." This is the es- (Continued on page 7)

LETIERS 21 st CENTURY Summer 1998 5 RESEARCH COMMUNICATIONS Hawking Radiation Challenged With Far-Reaching Implications

by Mario Rabinowitz, Ph.D.

y means of gravitational field emis­ similar to the Aharonov-Bohm effect, is sion, radiation may be emitted from also possible. A second body accom­ Bblack holes in a process differing from plishes two things. It lowers the barrier that of Hawking radiation, which has and gives the barrier a finite, rather than proven elusive to detect experimentally. infinite, width. This new theory can lead to an under­ The Implications standing of the universal gamma-ray These small black holes are quiescent background and gamma-ray pulsars. compared with Hawking's. Since they Minuscule black holes herein are candi­ are extremely massive for their minus­ dates for the missing dark matter of the cule size, they may well explain the universe, and possibly even some ball missing mass or so-called dark matter of lightning. which -95 percent of the universe is Although black holes were long con­ composed. Because they can be small sidered to be a fiction, they now seem compared with the wavelength of visible to be firmly established. In our own light, they will not scatter or occlude galaxy, and in the galaxy NGC 4258, light from the distant stars. For example, the central dark mass is accepted as a black holes between 10-4 gm and 1022 black hole. In the case of our galaxy, re­ Rabinowitz in 7992, addressing the gm have radii between 10-32cm and

cent measurements of the velocities of physics department at Virginia Com­ 1 0-6cm = 100 A radius, well below visi­ stars as close as 5 I ight days from the monwealth University on Codel's Proof ble wavelengths. (For comparison, the dynamical center imply a black hole of and what is allowable in physics. mass of the Sun is 2 x 1 033 gm.) 2.6 x 106 solar masses. To account for the missing dark matter The concept of black holes whose proach). Th is is similar to electric field there would need.. to be between 1036 gravitational attraction is so great that not emission of electrons from a metal by and 1061 such black holes. For our uni­ even light can escape, can be traced back application of an external field. A mutu­ verse of radius 15x 1 09 light-years, this to John Michell in 1783. A century later, ally orbiting black hole and second mass would require a density of between 105 in 1916, just two months after Einstein will produce a lighthouse effect for an and 1031 black holes per cubic light­ published his basic equations of General observer who will detect well-timed year-orders of magnitude larger than Relativity in a short communication, gamma-ray pulses when the black hole, permitted for Hawking's extremely ra­ Schwarzchild derived a spherically sym­ orbiting mass, and observer line up. diative black holes. That many of his metric solution of Einstein's relativity for Hawking deals with a single isolated black holes would fry the universe. an uncharged black hole of mass M with black hole because that is what the The radiated power from a black hole no angular momentum, which he sent to Schwarzchild solution represents. The derived in the new theory is: Einstein for submission. It is remarkable general relativistic solution for a black [1ic6e-2tlY ] 1 not only that Schwarzchild did this so hole in the presence of other bodies has 2 2 ooe-2'l:yPH, '" 16nG M quickly, but that he did it while fatally ill not been derived as yet. An isolated PR with pemphigus, contracted while on ac­ body is an idealized abstraction. In the where e-2tly is the transmission probabil­ tive combat for the German Army. real world, there are no isolated bodies. ity for photons and neutrinos out of a Although Hawking radiation appears Despite industrious searching, Hawk­ black hole, and PH is the Hawking radia­ to come from a black hole and fi nally ing radiation has not been observed. tion power. This implies that the smallest depletes its mass, its source is from the Tunneling radiation can be emitted at mass that can survive up to a time t is: uncaptured member of a particle pair in much higher temperatures in the present the region of space just outside a black epoch than Hawking radiation, and thus hole. Tunneling radiation originates from may be able to fit the detected gamma­ within a black hole and tunnels out as a ray background and serve as a model for result of the field of a second body (in gamma-ray pulsars. A gravitational inter­ Thus, the smallest mass that can sur­ contrast to Hawking's single body ap- ference effect for black hole radiation, vive within _1017 sec (the age of our uni-

6 Summer 1998 21 st CENTURY RESEARCH COMMUNICATIONS verse) is tion does not originate from within the tion from within. hole, but comes from the vicinity out­ As a young man, I was captivated by 1015 (e-26y)1 /3gm. Msmall 2: side a black hole, only appearing to Hawking's bold vision of light from a For Hawking, all black holes less than come from within. Thus, it seems clear black hole, and wanted to see if I could 1015 gm would have evaporated by now. why Hawking concludes that the infor­ derive the same effect, but didn't get 2 Inasmuch as a $ e- 6Y$ 1, an entire range mation that entered the black hole can around to it for 24 years. I am grateful to of black hole masses, much smaller than be forever lost. If Hawking radiation my son Dan for rekindling my desire to 1015 gm, may have survived from the be­ does not come from within the hole, do it. Thanks also go to my wife, Lav­ ginning of the universe to the present, then it does not really reflect what is in­ erne, and my friends Yeong Kim and Fe­ than is permitted by Hawking's theory. side as the hole evaporates away, lipe Garcia. For example, if the average tunneling shrinking down to zero mass and zero Mario Rabinowitz, a physicist, was 26 probability (e- y) _10-1 5, then Msmall radius. On the other hand, energy con­ the first person to show that a nuclear -10'0 gm and these bodies will presently servation, classical and quantum me­ electromagnetic pulse cannot black out radi ate at - [10'5/1 O'OF = 10'0 times chanics are violated if the information the United States. He has more than more power than a 10'5 gm black hole is lost. Tunneling radiation may resolve 130 published papers and 33 patents in with the same e-26y. this enigma, because this radiation wide-ranging fields, and he has been In Hawking's popularizations, he comes from within the hole and carries an adjunct professor at several univer­ clearly takes the position that the radia- attenuated, but undistorted, info rma- sities.

Letters and never get a signal back from the Thus, I conclude that there is very lit­ laser pulse. tle movement of the Earth-Moon system (Continued from page 5) There are, in fact, three such reflectors with respect to the postulated ether. A The Author Replies on the Moon. One each was placed dur­ deeper analysis of the experiment ing the Apollo 11, 14, and 15 fl ights. should be able to put a numeric upper­ We stand corrected. (See http://www-sn .jsc. nasa.gov/ex­ bound on the movement. Unfortunately, You have raised an important point, pore/data!apollo/Part1/LRRR.htn) that material was not located online, namely the physics and chemistry of though sites can be found at the NASA how substances cross barriers in our web pages. bod ies. We need more scientific activ­ MiCh�fs�h-MOrleY'Miller: TI:eCo�eiup ":t'- · ;:i Max M. Stalnaker [email protected] ity along those lines, as indicated in the ptlcal Theory lp. the 19th ;,t2 section of our article addressing the Century and the Truth about '/, ,! role of membranes in cannabinoid ac­ Michelson-Marley-Miller tivity. Laurence Hecht Replies

It's an interesting idea, and certainly Looking .for the worth a closer look. Be sure you go be­ Ether Drift yond "reported data" to closely examine the experimental setup. Here, the devil is To the Editor: in the detail (and in the assumptions em­ 21 st Century publ ished an article by bedded in their interpretation). In gen­ Laurence Hecht on ether drift theories eral, the idea of utilizing our aerospace ["Optical Theory in the 19th Century, capability to reproduce the Michelson­ and the Truth about Michelson-Morley­ Morley-Miller, and other fu ndamental Miller," Spring 1998, p. 35]. I read it with experiments relating to light and gravita­ interest thinki ng of experiments that tion, such as Allais's paraconical pendu­ would prove or disprove the existence of lum, is a very good one. an entrainable ether. Here is one that In the near future, it should be possi­ came to mind. The LRRR stands for Laser Ranging ble to move beyond the heliosphere en­ Suppose you have a reflecting surface Retroreflector. My memory says prob­ tirely. An automated laboratory, located on the Moon. Suppose there is a lems occurred with the Apollo 11 exper­ perhaps 100 A.U. away from planet 200m/sec motion of the solar system iment. But it is clear from the above URL Earth, poses all sorts of interesting possi­ through the ether, perpendicular to the and related URL's that the Apollo 14 and bi I ities for fu ndamental research in plane of the ecliptic. Since the Moon is 15 installations were successful. Laser physics, astronomy, and other sciences. about 1.5 light seconds away, if you can light was successfully bounced off of the As an upcoming article will reveal, we see the reflector, it is actually 300 miles device from Earth. The purpose of the have had the plans to produce an nu­ "north" of where it appears. If you shoot experiments was to determine the dis­ clear-explosion-powered rocket (the Put­ a laser at its apparent location, the laser tance between the Earth and Moon ac­ Put of Project Orion) that could realize hits the Moon 600 miles "north." As a curately and to identify variations in that such a dream, on the drawing boards result, assuming the laser beam diame­ distance due to "wobbling" of the Earth since the 1950s. Surely, it's time to un­ ter is small, you never hit the reflector and Moon. leash such capabilities now.

RESEARCH COMMUNICATIONS 21 st CENTURY Summer 1998 7 NEWS BRIEFS

GERMAN POPULAR SCIENCE MAGAZINE FEATURES COMING ICE AGE "In 30 years, the next Ice Age will begin." This is the title of the cover story of the June issue of the German-language popular science magazine, P.M. Interessante. The cover shows a picture of Munich's cathedral with an ice­ berg looming menacingly in the background. P.M. is the most widely read popular science magazine in Germany. The article, by Peter Ripota, refutes the global warming scenario, focussing on sunspots, precession of the Earth's axis, and the Milankovitch cycles as an explanation of climate change. In particular, Ripota discusses the recent book The Manic Sun, by Nigel Calder, which covers the work of Danish scientists on the moderat­ ing effect of the solar wind on cosmic rays, the main generator of cloud cover. Ripota concludes: "As long as we ...confuse the virtual world of com­ puter simulation with reality, then a possible catastrophe is heading our way. And it could mean the end of our civilization."

ECOTERRORISM EXPOSED IN CONGRESSIONAL HEARINGS ON CRIME "We are here to consider the growing and extremely disturbing problem of violent acts by radical environmental organizations, or 'ecoterrorism,'" stated Rep. Bill McCollum, a Florida Republican who chaired hearings of the House Subcommittee on Crime, June 9. McCollum, who is sympa­ thetic to green causes, warned that "we will not tolerate domestic terror­ ism in the name of Mother Nature." Among the witnesses were California PM's cover story: Th e Ice Age could be here in as congressman Frank Riggs, whose office was stormed by Earth First!; pri­ little as three years, according to the geological vate investigator Barry Clausen, author of Wa lking on the Edge-How I ln­ evidence. fi ltrated Earth First!; and Ron Arnold, author of EcoTerror: The Violent Agenda to Save Nature.

FOR ONCE, THE NEW YORK TIMES HAS SOMETHING RIGHT An editorial titled "Setting the Sextant Aside," reports that the U.S. Naval Academy announced that it will drop its course on celestial navigation, be­ cause "it has been antiquated by modern satellite-linked computer sys­ tems." "Perhaps the Navy has put a little too much faith in the redundancy of its electronics and too little faith in the valuable human redundancy of teaching midshipmen a self-reliant and time-tested means of finding their way across open water," the editorial notes. "[Allmost anyone would prefer to find himself in the lifeboat with a celestial navigator and a sextant aboard rather than the one carrying a navigator-minus computer-who had been instructed only in satellite navigation."

CANCER-CAUSING RAYS ARE ULTRAVIOLET A, NOT UV-8 Depletion of the global ozone layer may not lead to more melanomas, be­ cause the most cancer-causing rays, ultraviolet A, already pass through the ozone layer, which blocks only ultraviolet B, according to the research of biophysicist Richard Setlow, Associate Director for Life Sciences at the Brookhaven National Labo ratory in New York. As reported in the Marjorie Mazel Hecht Brookhaven Bulletin, May 8, Setlow said that "about 90 percent of sun­ Dr. Setlow (right) with astrophysicist Dr. Sallie light's melanoma-causing effect may come from UVA and only 10 percent Baliunas, at 1996 congressional hearings on the from UVB." Sunscreens don't always prevent skin cancer, Setlow said, be­ ozone hole hoax. cause they block UVB, and this may be the reason for the steady, annual 5

8 Summer 1998 21 st CENTURY NEWS BRIEFS percent rise in melanoma rates among whites. Melanoma is a cancer of pigment-producing skin cells, which is expected to strike 41 ,600 persons in 1998.

LAROUCHE MEETS WITH COLD FUSION SCIENTISTS IN ROME A group of Italian scientists, includ ing 27 st Century scientific advisory board members Giuliano Preparata and Francesco Celani, met with Lyn­ don H. LaRouche, Jr. in Rome April 4, for a wide-ranging discussion on sci­ entific research and the frontiers of science. The first subject was the cold fusion work of Martin Fleischmann and Stanley Pons, and remarks by LaRouche against the idea that you can linearize in the small. "As you get

smaller and smaller in the interval of observation, the assumption that EIRNS things become linear in their relations is absurd. The smaller and smaller Lyndon H. LaRouche, Jr. (left) at the Rome meet­ you get, the less linear they've become," LaRouche said. ing with scientists, April 4. A transcript of the meeting is featured in Executive Intelligence Review, May 1.

NEW CANCER TREATMENT USES MODIFIED CHLOROPHYLL Dr. Avigdor Scherz, of Israel's Weizmann Institute, presented his re­ search on photodynamic therapy for cancer, at the National Academy of Sciences in Washi ngton, D.C., May 19. Scherz has developed a modi­ fied form of a bacterial chlorophyll, which absorbs near-infrared light frequencies, and emits toxic free radicals that kill cancer cells. His dis­ covery solves two problems that had hindered photodynamic therapy: By using near-infrared light, the penetration into tissue is greater-about 3 cm-allowing larger tumors to be killed. (previous compounds pene­ trated only about 1 millimeter.) Also, the new bacterial chlorophyll is water soluble, and is flushed out of the body in 16 hours, leaving no toxic residue. In experiments with mice and rats, injection of the modified bacterial chlorophyll, followed by immediate exposure of the area to near-infrared light, resulted in the complete destruction of small tumors. In larger tu­ f mors, the photodynamic therapy kills the tumor by destroying the blood vessels that feed it, resulting in cure rates of 75 to 80 percent for melanoma and sarcoma in rats. Clinical trials in human beings will begin within a year.

UNEP AND PRINCE PHILIP'S GREENS: HOW CLOSE CAN YOU GET? Klaus Toepfer, new head of the United Nations Environment Program (UNEP), intends to bring Prince Philip's green groups "closer to the policy­ making process," as he moves UNEP into taking a "stronger role" in over­ seeing how member countries carry out the U.N. treaties related to conser­ vation. According to a report in Nature magazine May 14, the former German environment minister has Prince Philip's International Union for the Conservation of Nature (lUCN) and the World Wide Fund for Nature (WWF) at the top of his list. "I want to be as close as possible to organiza­ tions such as IUCN, and WWF," Toepfer is quoted as saying. Nature reporter Ehsan Masood notes, "The role of IUCN may be particu­ larly controversial, as many of its members appear to see conservation as more important than development."

NEWS BRIEFS 21st CENTURY Summer 1998 9 VIEWPOINT

Extraterrestrials Have Never Visited Earth: A Socratic Narrative n 1981-1 982, I and a friend, Chris not have both feet on the ground; Dietz, team-taught a series of classes whereas, actually an idealist is a per­ Ion Platonic ideas at Cochise County son who believes in the power of Community College, in Bisbee, Ari­ ideas. zona. This is a copper-mining town, 5 Likewise, a realist is seen as a person miles from the Mexican border, which who has a grasp of the practical, who by the 1970s, had acquired an alterna­ may be cynical of human motives, but tive component including a number of is a "man of action." In Platonic philos­ "trust-babies" with time on their ophy, however, a realist is a person hands. who does not trust his five senses, be­ We wanted to assure our students cause he knows that behind the con­ that there was a method by which one crete, there are the forms of the con­ could distinguish between opinion and by Julian Grajewski crete, which can be apprehended only truth, and we wanted to introduce unidentified flying objects, appropriate by applications of reason. them to the study of philosophy in gen­ for a town like Bisbee which, among The other tradition of philosophy is eral. After months of earnest and ardu­ its charms, has a contingent of saucer the nominalist one. This tradition is ous study, we thought that the core of devotees and was mentioned in the headed by Aristotle who, of course, our rather fluid class membership had film "Close Encounters of the Third was a pupil of Plato, who, in turn, was a grasp of what Platonic philosophy Kind." a pupil of Socrates. The two traditions meant, and what it could do. Our formal title for the topic was, "If are by no means strictly separate, more The biggest stumbling block we en­ Socrates or Plato were alive today, so because of Aristotle's habit of ap­ countered was the pragmatic, practical what would either make of a UFO re­ plying Plato's terminology to his own ideology which intellectually disarms port?" Having now given this presenta­ purposes. However, broadly speaking, so many Americans (in Aquarian Bis­ tion approx imately 60 times, I find the term nominalism harks back to bee, this sometimes took the form of that, to carry out such a discussion, I William of Ockham, and the word it­ varieties of mysticism, the fl ip side of have to sketch the history of Western self refers to the Latin nomina, which pragmatism), and makes any serious philosophy and give an outline of con­ means naming. A nominalist suspects discussion of philosophy difficult, es­ structive geometry-one of the tech­ that ideas have no power to change pecially Platonic philosophy. The di­ niques Plato used to make philosophy the universe, and are named and con­ alectical process, which views reality sensuous. Here is the basic presenta­ sidered for the purposes of discussion not as a thing-in-itself, but as a rela­ tion. only. tionship, is difficult for a person af­ Plato Vs. Nominalism There have been, and still are, many flicted by the Sergeant joe Friday syn­ Briefly, there are two traditions of varieties of nominalism. Positivism drome ("The facts, ma'am, just the Western philosophy: One is the Pla­ comes to mind; so do the utilitarian facts!"). Equally, any hint that ideas tonic tradition, which has also been outlooks of philosophers like jeremy precede "facts," and not the other way called Humanism, Idealism, or Real­ Bentham. In economics, we have around, is "intuitively" dismissed. ism. Of course, none of those words Adam Smith's The Wealth of Nations, With Plato, we were dealing with a holds the mean i ng for contemporary which is a thoroughly nominalist work. philosopher who had been dead for Americans that it would for a philoso­ French existentialism is likewise. So is 2,400 years and whose written dia­ pher of the Platonic tradition. Today, a john Dewey's pragmatism. Politically, logues were dated. We cast about for a humanist is confused with a humane fascism is nominalist. But what con­ way to update him. We challenged our person, and is popularly viewed as a cerns us here most, is the American students to consider a problem which "do-gooder." In reality, a humanist is a ideology: the down-to-Earth, common­ offered I ittle or no material evidence, person who has rigorously educated sense approach, the practicality, the and one in which the testimony of wit­ himself, or herself, to understand what quickness to action of Americans, nesses was insufficient, contradictory, the best interests of the human species which speaks of a thorough distrust of unreliable, or otherwise suspect. This are. We should think of the great Re­ theory. was the way to challenge the nominal­ naissance humanists who were city The Method of Plato ist bias expressed as pragmatism in the builders and city dwellers. Today, Plato was a pupil of Socrates, who United States. Since we were at the however, among the educated, hu­ never wrote anything down. After end of months of stud ies, I wanted a manism is the movement that is specif­ Socrates' judicial murder in 399 B.C., problem which had entertainment ically anti-clerical and focusses on tol­ Plato founded his academy, and his value. "Lighten up," Chris and I told eration and cultural pluralism. Idealists fame spread widely. One of the ideas ourselves. We settled upon the topic of are seen as starry-eyed people who do he discussed was that of the ph i loso-

10 Summer 1998 21 st CENTURY VIEWPOINT pher-king. A king, if he were to be a tion of two lines which makes a point. Arnold, the man who started the UFO good ruler, must be educated in the We can also inscribe in it all other craze, now believes that the nine disks rigors of philosophy. Dionysius of Syra­ plane figures, and by spinning the cir­ he observed flying at 1,200 miles per cuse, a Sicilian tyrant, heard of this and cle we have a sphere in which can be hour across the face of Mt. Rainier, invited Plato to come to teach him how inscribed any solid figure. By slicing a Washington, were a previously un­ to be a wise philosopher-king. conical section of the sphere, we can known biological manifestation. Oth­ Plato had misgivings; he was aware generate the self-similar spiral, which ers suspect that he was looking at of the corruption and brutality of most leads to higher mathematics. wingtip reflections of a formation of P- ru lers of the ti me, but he 80 "Shooting Stars," which, in couId not pass up the 1947, were the latest jet fighters.) chance to put his ideas into If so, such intelligence is not to be practice. He came to Syra­ found on the planetary bodies of cuse, was dined and feted, our solar system. and then proceeded to edu­ Human beings have visited the cate Dionysius. However, Moon; Soviet and American for weeks and weeks, Plato probes have landed on Mercury, would only teach Diony­ Venus, and Mars; and f1y-bys sius constructive geometry, have been conducted to Jupiter, although Dionysius kept Saturn, Uranus, and Neptune. In asking him to teach him to 1986, a probe even crashed upon be wise. Instead, Plato con­ the tiny, black nucleus of Comet tinued to teach him con­ Halley. No life, not even living structive geometry, until microbes-never mind sentient Dionysius became thor­ beings-has been found. oughly disgusted and had We surmised that, if the aircraft Plato sold into slavery. that Kenneth Arnold saw were Some years later, his son, crewed by alien pilots, these pi­ Dionysius II, invited Plato lots would have had to have over again. And for the sec­ come from another solar or star ond time Plato travelled to system. The nearest star, the Syracuse. This time, he was Proxima Centauri system, is more nearly assassinated by jealous advisers But, one might ask, why is a circle than four light years away. (A light year to the younger Dionysius. more rational than a point or a line? is the equivalent of 6 trillion miles.) What ki nd of geometry was it that Because the circle is the answer to a Statistically speaking, these pilots Plato taught, that nearly cost him his question-the interaction of two probably would not have come from freedom and life? things. In th is case, the two things are: the nearest stars-one with suitable A Reasonable Geometry what figure can give (1) the greatest planets would probably be tens or If we look at a high school geome­ area with (2) the least perimeter? Any hundreds of light years away-an even try book, we notice that it starts with other plane figure of the same perime­ more stupendous distance. With our definitions which build up to a com­ ter would have less area. This property present technology, it would take hun­ plete system. A line is defined as an of the circle is called the isoperimetric dreds and thousands of time years to infinite number of points. A point is principle. Going further, any solid fig­ cover such distances. the intersection of two lines. We no­ ure would hold less volume than an We quickly dismissed one of the tice immediately that we have a circu­ equivalent sphere. The important thing standard plots of science fiction­ lar definition-an absurdity at the be­ here, again, is that we have forced our whereupon thousands of people em­ ginning of the system, which should minds to move from viewing a thing­ bark in giant spaceships and live and bring the rest of Euclidean geometry in-itself, such as a point, to pondering die in space between the stars until into question. Sadly, it usually does a relationship, which initiates a self­ they reach their far-flung objective. not, because most students u nques­ conscious thought process and never Even today, such a course would be tioningly accept givens. accepts arbitrary givens. morally and psychologically unaccept­ Is there a more reasonable geome­ Freedom Equals Necessity able-not to mention intellectually try? Plato would say, "yes." He would In our classes, we reasoned together devastati ng to those sent on such a not start with a point or a line, but with by a chain of implications. UFOs in pursuit, and equally to those who sent a circle. By fi nding its diameter, or our skies suggest extra-terrestrial intel­ them, never to be seen again. Sus­ fo lding it in half, we have a line. By ligence. (There are other possible ex­ pended animation would also be ruled folding it twice, we have the intersec- planations: for example, Kenneth out as even less acceptable.

VIEWPOINT 21 st CENTURY Summer 1998 11 let us say 15,000 years ago? We find lion mark. If we add up all the energy (from anthropological studies), that the used by the human species in all its mul­ Earth could not support more than 10 tifarious activities, such as eating, agri­ million hunter-gatherers. There simply culture, manufacturing, power produc­ would not be enough game, nuts, tion and consumption in ships, aircraft, roots, fruits, and herbs to support a computers, lighting, air conditioning, greater number. We can see that if the heating, maintenance and building of popul ation curve could be plotted roads, military uses, space programs, sci­ back far enough, it would show a long entific enterprises, research, and innu­ and steady rise until approximately merable other categories, the figure 10,000 or so years before present. At comes to roughly 250,000 kilocalories WORLD lQ - co that time, the population rose 13-fo ld per person per day. Of course, this is an over a dramatically short period of average, and the rich in rich countries No, we agreed that these would be time. Ruins of cities such as Jericho in use far more than the poor everywhere. linear, nominalist techniques for inter­ present-day Israel, the West Bank, and It is easily seen that peasants in some stellar travel. A dialectical solution Catal Huyuk, in what is now Turkey, African and Latin American countries would be to marshal the resources of are found with few antecedents; they are often lucky to consume 12,000 kilo­ the entire species and invent superlu­ seem to suddenly be there. calories daily-what an average human minary travel. At the same time, energy consump­ being consumed 10,000 years ago! Of course, superluminary travel to­ tion more than doubled, from the Far more interesting than these sta­ day is not even theoretically possible. 5,000 or so kilocalories used by our tistics, is how they look when plotted Relativity theory states that a material caveman (3,000 from eating and per­ on the graph. The amazing thing ;s that object travelling at the speed of light haps 2,000 from cooking with fire, the here, today, with technology nowhere would acquire infinite mass. Time dila­ one energy source available to him), to at the level where superluminary travel tion effects also come into play, with 12,000 kilocalories per person per day. would be even theoretically conceiv­ all their absurd possibilities. Suppos­ Potential Relative Population Density able, where perhaps a solar system edly, nothing in nature can move faster How did this energy and population economy (colonization and terraform­ than the speed of light. "explosion" occur? What made 130 ing of, let us say, Venus, Mars, and To respond to all this, we turn to phi­ million human beings possible on the some of the moons of Jupiter and Sat­ losophy, and posit the question that surface of the Earth? Obviously, it was urn), begins to look possible, our pop­ freedom equals necessity, and that the invention of agriculture and the do­ ulation and energy utilization are ap­ when a sentient species arrives at the mestication of animals. By capturing proaching 300,000 kilocalories per point that superluminary travel is nec­ solar energy via the cultivation of person per day. essary, the science and technology re­ grains, a lot more food became avail­ Here is where I pause, and ask how quired will be developed. able, and assured, from year to year. many people there would be if the Intelligence Has Infinite Potential Population density increased, and cities plotted curves were to touch the pre­ At this point, we stood back and became possible and, soon, necessary. sent axis, or approach it very closely? took a deep breath. How would Plato Other inventions fo llowed: hydro-en­ Those who have taken an algebra proceed? We agreed that Plato's ap­ gineering, metallurgy, weaving, roads, course strugg le with upwardly in­ proach would be encompassing and ships, better weapons, and the science creasing figures (Carl Sagan's billions fundamental. He might ask what the of astronomy were devel- rate of development of such a civiliza­ oped. In spite of negative de­ tion would be. In the accompanying velopments, such as the figure, the population growth and en­ spreading of warfare at many ergy utilization rate of the human social levels, and the honing species as a whole is plotted as two of superstition and magical exponential curves.1 To prove that practices (which, in some aliens have never visited the Earth and, cases, led to human sacrifice therefore, that UFOs cannot be the and infanticide even as late craft of an alien civilization, Plato as the Carthaginian culture), would use the entire knowledge and the population increased un­ experience of the human species from til, during the Renaissance its inception to the present, which is the globe counted 700 mil­ succinctly presented in this graph. Let lion people, each utilizing an us examine it. average of 70,000 ki localo­ Although the figure does not show ries daily. it, we may ask how many hunter-gath­ During 1986, the popula­ ., DID 'Iou L.£...... " 1'''� AtlSWaRlNG MACKlt-I[ON � erers were on the surface of the Earth, tion broke through the 5 bil- t. TIlINK 'IIIE MI$EI) 1'/tElR C. ... ll. ,.

12 Summer 1998 21 st CENTURY VIEWPOINT by 3:42 p.m., our own civilization would have been advanced by them Kilocalories r------,Population beyond recognition! That this did not happen, demonstrates that extra­ 225 • I terrestrials have never visited the Earth. I , Dialectical Method 200 I 4 billion , At this point, my "proof" is usually , , met by a profound, puzzled silence. 175 I I Quickly, a number of objections are I I raised. The first one is that alien cul­ I 3 billion 150 I tures would not necessarily follow our , I I mode of development. The idea of tril­ I 125 I I lions and quadrillions of beings, I I whether human or otherwise, is daunt­ I 100 I 2 billion ing, especially in this age where the I , notion that we have a "population 75 problem" has been internalized by , '" , " many. Some biology students point out " " that population figures for animals and 50 , 1 billion , , bacteria show the characteristic bell­ " " . shaped curve, where exponential 25 .," growth is fo llowed by equally expo­ nential extinction. Answering these 500 100 o objections involves pointing out that Years before present human beings are sentient beings and ENERGY CONSUMPTION AND POPULATION POTENTIAL therefore can alter their environment The process of scientific invention through the course of human history, has to suit their needs by applications of produced an exponential increase in per capita energy consumption science. (da shed line), showing that secular increases in human population-potential Likewise, it is objected that re­ produced by scientific and cultural progress more than offset the increases sources are finite and, therefore, can­ in population (solid line). In the modern period, the introduction of fo ssil not support infinite growth. I answer fu els and, most recently, nuclear energy, has rapidly increased the energy this objection with the story of frac­ density available fo r further progress. tional distillation. In the 19th century, oil was not an energy resource. Penn­ and billions!) until infinity is first ten­ almost vertically punching through the sylvania farmers would feed gobs of tatively suggested. The staggering fa ct ceiling of the classroom and the roof of crude oil to their sick cows as a purga­ is that today, we are on the threshold the building to reach the stratosphere, tive. The oil was gushing out of the of infinitepopulation growth and en­ where skies are blackening, our visitor's ground for millions of years, but it did ergy use. population and energy utilization fig­ not become a resource until chemistry Proof Positive ures would be stupendous-practically was developed to the point that oil At this point, we might imagine at the infinity point. So, we would have could be distilled into fuel. To a cave­ Plato or Socrates pausing and sitting a species of aliens spreading throughout man, a stone might be sharpened into back (of course, in circa 2,400 years the galaxy, and perhaps spreading to a spear point or thrown as a missile­ before the present, chairs were yet to other galaxies ad infinitum. limited uses for a resource finally ex­ be invented), to let all this sink in. They What would necessarily occur when ploited thousands of years later by Hit­ might smile, and then ask: "Now, what these beings reach Earth? tite metallurgists. That rock may have does all this have to do with flying Well, let us step back again, this time existed for four or five billions of years saucers? Why does all this prove that to June 24, 1947, at 3 p.m. On that before it was smelted into iron. aliens from outer space have never vis­ day, Kenneth Arnold, a civilian pilot, There is enough fusile deuterium in ited Earth?" was looking for a downed DC-4 Air a gallon of seawater to release the Well, Socrates would certainly ask Force cargo aircraft. It was then that he equivalent energy of 300 gallons of the fertile question now. If aliens are saw the nine flying disks spreading gasoline in a thermonuclear reactor of visiting our home Earth, where would across the face of Mt. Rainier, to be the near future. The deuterium has ex­ their civil ization be on this graph? At promptly dubbed "flying saucers." I isted since the beginning of the uni­ what technological juncture would su­ submit, and so would Socrates and verse, perhaps 15 billion years ago; perluminary travel place them? If one Plato, were they alive today, that if sen­ yet, it is still to become a human en­ extended the time axis and the two tient alien beings from another star sys­ ergy sou rce, one that cou Id not be curves 20 miles straight up, the curves tem were piloting these saucers, then imagined until the 1930s. Thus, only if

VIEWPOINT 21 st CENTURY Summer 1998 13 resources are viewed in nominalist and state that the cumulative loss of discovered on other planets; all physi­ isolation can they be considered fi­ lives represented by the miseducation cal processes would have to be mas­ nite. Viewed dialectically, as an inter­ of an individual, or his relegation to a tered, including planet, star, and play between a raw material and menial function, or one even slightly galaxy formation, and, ultimately, technological sophistication, we fi nd less in accord with his potential, even the creation of new universes. that the resource base is predicated could also prove disastrous. Here we must be aware of the dictum upon the cultural and technological For example, the contemporary that we cannot predict with our pre­ level of society. practice of undereducating women sent consciousness, what our future I insist upon the close connection and paying them lower wages would consciousness will be, and thus there between population growth and scien­ be prohibitive. So would most of to­ will be now-unimaginable "ultimate" tific innovation (already apparent in day's jobs be considered a lethal necessities. the figure), by asking why a gasoline waste of potential: salespersons, To bring everyone back down to engine was not invented at the time of stockbrokers, investment bankers, in­ Earth, I name one practical advantage Plato? Is there a reason that it was in­ surance agents, hamburger fl ippers, (in spite of my diatribes against nomi­ stead invented 2,300 years later? Yes, soldiers, manual laborers, advertising nalism and pragmatism) of this dialec­ there simply were not enough human executives, secretaries, management tical proof that aliens have never vis­ beings, enough brain mass, enough di­ consultants, waiters, real estate ited the Earth: At the moment, Carl vision of labor, enough social stimula­ agents, politicians, grant writers, dri­ Sagan [now deceased], et aI., are tion, to generate an oil economy until vers, systems analysts, etc. Useful spending millions of dollars to set up the 20th century! Some students nod jobs would be those of scientists, en­ radiotelescopes to listen for possible affi rmatively at this latest example of gineers, technicians, skilled workers alien signals. If what I have discussed dialectical reasoning. (such as machinists who perform the holds, then this is a waste of time, The readers of science fiction vital fu nction of translating a blue­ money, and effort: Any sentient be­ among the audience then ask, why print into cut metal), teachers, writ­ ings in other star systems (unless they would the alien visitors have to con­ ers, musicians, artists (who, if they are very close), would be advancing tact us and develop us? Why could are good, increase the self-conscious­ so rapidly, after having discovered ra­ they not maintain a scientific detach­ ness of the species and foster overall dio, that they would arrive at the Earth ment? Perhaps they see us as too creativity), explorers, pilots, and per­ well ahead of any signals they might primitive to interact with them in a haps other categories of employment have transmitted years previously! meaningful way? Perhaps we are too we have yet to dream of. Julian Crajewski is a prison law li­ warlike for them, and they would The degree of social coherence of a brarian in Arizona. He has published decide to shun us? I suggest that sen­ superluminary civilization would works of fiction, poetry, and literary tience is a universal (a Platonic con­ have to be stupendous. Today, there criticism, and has been a high school cept). Once a being achieves sen­ is much wishfu l thinking about the teacher and community college in­ tience, it can be taught to interact possibility of extrasensory perception structor. His involvement with the with any other sentient species in the and telepathy. These abilities are the­ ideas of Lyndon LaRouche dates back remaining universe or cosmos. Sen­ oretically possible (after all, our to 7975. tience, intelligence, creativity, are by brains are electrical transmitters), but Notes definition infinite in scope and effect. realizable only in a society with much ------Thus, all sentient beings are joined in greater social cohesion and a need 1. The concept of potential relative population density was developed by economist Lyndon this infinity. for rapid and efficient communica­ H. LaRouche, who has used it not only to ex­ Freedom Equals Responsibility tion among individuals (instead of our plain the historical rise in population, but also to warn, from the early 1960s, of the dire con­ The uniqueness and preciousness present anarchic one). sequences (especially in terms of population of human life becomes apparent, for, Today, claims of repeatable tele­ collapse) of turning our backs on scientific at the infinity rate of development, pathic communication (chance ones and technological progress. Advances in civi­ lization result from both increases in the each and every sentient being be­ may occur occasionally as our billions quantity of kilocalories available per person, comes important to every other sen­ of brain cells may very rarely transmit and in the intensity, or flux density, with which tient being; no one's ability or life can and receive signals at the proper that energy can be generated and/or applied. Think of the way that a laser with the same be wasted or diminished. In such a power and frequency), are simply evi­ power as a 100-watt lightbulb can cut, drill, social geometry, it is probable that dence of nominalistic thinking. How­ and weld metal; it is not simply the amount of ever, in a superluminary culture, they energy, but also its organization. LaRouche's the loss of even one life, by accident, breakthrough in physical economic science murder, or war, may prove cata­ would necessarily be an every mo­ was realizing that the only real source of new strophic to the entire species, because ment event. In such a culture, every wealth was the creative reason potentially present in every human mind. For a full dis­ the contribution that that life would kind of life-enhancement would have cussion of potential relative population den­ have made would have been vital. to be practiced: its citizens would sity see So You Wish to Learn All About Eco­ One can even abstract this concept have to be practically immortal; crime nomics: A Text on Elementary Ma thematical Economics, by Lyndon H. LaRouche, Jr., 1st into an index (much as insurance and war would have to be abolished; ed. (New York, N.Y.: New Benjamin Franklin companies do with actuarial tables), new sentient beings would have to be House, 1984), chap!. 2.

14 Summer 1998 21 st CENTURY VIEWPOINT SPECIAL REPORT

THE 7TH INTERNATIONAL CONFERENCE ON COLD FUSION The Latest. Word about Cold Fusion by Dr. Edmund Storms

n spite of many expectations and pre­ dictions to the contrary, the phenome­ Inon known as cold fusion is alive and well. Once again, a small but deter­ mined group of scientists held their regu­ lar conference, th is time in Vancouver, Canada, April 19-24. Twenty-one coun­ tries were represented by 211 registrants, who contributed 76 presentations. Even the television media were present, this time in the form of one cable channel and two freelance companies, each of which finds an interesting story in fol­ lowing this field, and its struggle with conventional science. Over the years, the story has grown more complex, on the one hand, and more simplified on the other. What started as a proposed fusion reaction be­ tween deuterium nuclei-hence, the name cold fusion-has now expanded into claims for a variety of nuclear reac­ Photos by Edmund Storms tions (transmutation) being produced in Martin Fleischmann addressing the conference on "Cold Fusion: Past, Present, and special solid materials, under conditions Future. " totally at odds with current expectations. Thus, the phenomena are being renamed ford Research International (SRI) in the Ironically, much of the limited funding chemically assisted nuclear reactions, or United States is being cut back. At the was used to satisfy skeptics, rather than CANR. same time, work in France, China, Rus­ trying to understand the basic nature of In addition to being a potential source sia, and Italy is continuing and, in some the phenomena. As expected, these ef­ of clean energy, the phenomena can be cases, expanding. forts have been shut down for the time proposed as a means to detoxify radioac­ These shifts have resulted from the being. tive materials. This increased complexity simplification process. Most early studies New Results has overwhelmed the credulity of sup­ concentrated on the claims and method Fortunately for the field, many other porters and emboldened skeptics. pioneered by Professors Stanley Pons techniques and materials have been Adding to the difficulty has been the frus­ and Martin Fleischmann. Unfortunately, found to produce reproducible results . tratingly hard job of reproducing some their method has been discovered to be For example, Dr. Roger Stringham, of E­ claims. As a result, while beneficial im­ very difficult to reproduce, because of Quest, Inc., has developed a method to plications for society are growing, sup­ the very complex nature of palladium load hydrogen isotopes into various met­ port for the field is shrinking. deuteride, the material in which the fu­ als using ultrasonic cavitation. He claims For example, the New Hydrogen En­ sion reaction is proposed to occur. With­ very high reproducibi I ity, heat produc­ ergy (NHE) laboratory in Japan has shut out reproducibility, skeptics could not tion from a variety of metals including down after failing to find a path to com­ be persuaded, and fu nding could not be palladium and silver, and continued heat mercial development, the amazing early justified-hence, resources were not production after the ultrasonic energy is discoveries made in India at the Bhabha available to solve the considerable prob­ turned off. A similar "Iife-after-death" Atom'lC Research Center are not being lems associated with achieving repro­ has been seen by Professors Pons and pursued, and the careful work at Stan- ducibility. Fleischmann, as well as by other re-

SPECIAL REPORT 21 st CENTURY Summer 1998 15 Roger Stringham (right), E-Quest Sciences/First Gate Energies

Tom Claytor, Los Alamos National Laboratory

� Akito Ta kahashi of Osaka University (right) and Swe-cai Chen of National Ts ing Hua University, Ta iwan

searchers using other techniques and materials. Stringham also detects formation of numerous other nuclear products, in­ cluding helium, especially at regions in the metal which show indications of melting. The newest resu Its were presented from a method developed in Russia (at LUCH), by a team including Drs. Alexander Karabut and I ri na Savvati­ mova. This method loads various metals with hydrogen isotopes obtained from an electric discharge in gas. Heat pro­ duction is found to be consistent with the amount of various nuclear products detected. Although high reproducibility is claimed, the method has not been du­ plicated outside of Russia. After the initial discovery of Prof. Yosi­ ahki Arata, of Osaka University in Japan,

16 Summer 1998 21 st CENTURY SPECIAL REPORT Hollins" B.I=: Bush, E. Miles, 1993. "Correla- EXI�es:Sjf�OVVer and. Helium Produc­ H20 E;lectr9lysis Using es," J,'),"" Electroa'na/: p. 99. Seir illso:· M.H. Miles. and 1994. "Heat and He'­ lium Measurements in Deuterated Palla- diJrn." Tra ns. ' 'on Technol;, Vol. 26. No. ' . 4;t+'p· 156. les. B.P, Ely�h. and K� e:�i�i.:· Rt Caputo� R} L. Ci9nini; iM'?, 1\1 :;: j J§pryson. 1 ... Anoma'iQu$:;Effects .in , Tomellini, G. Gigli; G. Balducci, E. Cisbani, S. . D�,uterated Systems." Naval' Air Warfare 'FrlJllani, F. Garibaldi. M. Jodice. G. M . UrCi-. Ce'nter Weapon'S. Division, Report #NAW­ ; uoli. "Excess Heat and Nuclear Product, Mea­ CWPNS TP 8,302, Sept 1996. 98 pp. surernents in Cold Fusion Eh3ctrochemical 5o-. B.F, Bush and. J; {J> Lagowski, 1996. "Nuclear i� Cells." Proc. Fourth International Conferen�e , . Products Associ•�led . with the pons and Fleis"'\ ':u(on Qold Fusion, Lahaimj',;,MaQi. Oec.\9,/$,' cti1J\ann' Effecl.� Reliu,m Comfl)ensurate to '., 1993. EPRI'TR-104188-V1, (1994). published ' by ElectriC Power Research Institute 3412 Hell-t Generation;'.Calorimetry and Radiation." Hillview Ave .. Palo Alto, Calif. 94304. Vol. 1, The Sixth International Conference on Cold . n,' Progress in New Hydrogen Energy, ', �. 2. " . ' .< - '. ' 1 ., . . �e� al ? jb( p. Gszzj; �t al..< "l'Ieli.u,\Ri,. 1�-18• • J ��9!! Ffokkaid . n, (Ed" N(:'!. , , � !,. d" ; 4 Quantitative Measurements In the Gas oto); Vo t 2i; p. 622: . ". '. ' . ," '.2' PhaSe of Cold Fusion Electrochemical Ceils;"' 6. q:;: Case, 1998: ·Catalytic Fusion of dep­ seen. Vol. 1. p. 6. Also; F. Cellucd;,·R. L Cignini. G. terium, " Th e. 7th. ./ntemational Conference on ' Gigli. D. Gozzi. M. TomeHini, E. Cisbani. S. C;b!dFusion, Va hcpuver, Canada,.' Apri/ 19;. HeliurT), has , Fruilani, 'F. Garibaldi, M, Jodice, and �l,'t 1998. . D2• afld4H� hc-e ' UrCiuolit 1996.�X:ray; Heai Excess and 4 7. q:fF,.JUones, gas in lt hlass the ElectrochemiCal Colifinementof . ·Sbe(ton. an ' " .... Th orne, 1995,' "Fa radaic ' . .,<,-,_ terr�m in paUadium;� The Sixth Internatiorya Efficiencies Les�. Than 100% during Electrol­ · is eliminated in IVV'[.,.''V... 'v ... . Conference on Cold FUSion, .Progress in NeW ysis of Wa ter Ca,iI Account (or Reperts of Ex­ lution mass , Hydrogen ,:Ener;gy, Oct.. 13-18, J 996; , C�rs Heat in "C ld FUSio" r3::ells, " J. Phys.,� nl0tO): y • .. ' hem. Vol. 9 73. which can cI M,:;a¥�) LA . .. ,:;;1" , . c Miles, eply tii 'Examination pf masses�.and the 2. �E.o� Botta.r'l{�O, ;T." aRBressani.:?}(�d., D. Calvo. C. Fa , ' s of Miles et al. in Pons-Fleischmann­ \l ;; . ,Type Cold Fusi6n Experimerit,'" J. . • the gas !)y a che and·F. lazzi, "Measurements of 4He Produc.­ . Phys does not cha . tion; from D2 Gas-Loaded Pd Sample: The Ch em., Vol. 102."p. 3642. .

SPECIAL REPORT 21 st CENTURY Summer 1998 17 who loaded finely divided palladium

(palladium-black) with deuterium, Dr. I Les Case, of Fusion Power, Inc., de­ scribed the easy production of excess energy using finely divided metals de­ 350, 525, 700 mA posited on activated charcoal (hydrogen • catalyst materials). This form of micro­ crystal appears to be easier to handle 1 and more robust to energy production L,..J u than is the fine powder used by Arata. Q) Pd containing B If) .... Significant helium, the expected nuclear T IlIEL product, was detected. Methane, the ex­ I pected chemical product from the char­ 101 1 � �Q) coal, was not produced. An early at­ .J::: If) J :� tempt to reproduce the claim appears to E . '"./ \./ be successful, and more studies are � L,..J + planned. Each of the methods noted above now offers a practical demonstration of en­ o 500 mA ergy production, and, hopefully, will be 400 mA explored by independent researchers. o Transmutations Found The transmutation branch of the - 24 MeV/atom reaction field continues to expand as re­ 1 10 0 I searchers take the trouble to search 0.00 0.05 0.10 0.15 their samples for unexpected elements. Excess power (watts) Prof. George Miley, of the University of Illinois, and Prof. T. Ohomori of TWO STUDIES OF HELIUM PRODUCTION DURING Hokkaido University in Japan, pre­ EXCESS ENERGY PRODUCTION sented more details of their continu­ Compared here are data fo r experiments of Bush and Lagowski 7996 (solid ing, careful work to identify nuclear circles) and Miles et al. 7996 (open circles and squares). Energy was pro­ transmutation products, using metal duced over several hours while the generated gases flushed the system. The electrodes electrolyzed in ordinary wa­ number of helium atoms produced per second were calculated based on the ter. The obvious explanations involv­ helium concentration in the flowing mixture of 02 and 02' ing contamination and analytical error, are gradually being eliminated. scribe his work, little doubt can remain clear explanation for the observed heat, Results using a particularly successful in an open mind that this element is be­ when deuterium is used. method developed by Stan Gleeson, of ing produced by a nuclear reaction In addition to continued emphasis on The Cincinnati Group, were described within his apparatus. Unfortunately, the the successful techniques, the presenta­ by Dr. Francesco Celani, of the Nuclear amount of this isotope is small, and its tions included results from basic chem- Energy Institute in Frascati, Italy. A solu­ production is still very difficult to repro­ , istry and physics studies, attempts at an tion of thorium nitrate was placed in a duce. Nevertheless, Dr. Claytor is zero­ explanation, and more trial-and-error special cell and subjected to high-volt­ ing in on those alloys able to produce explorations of new methods. Unfortu­ age electrolysis. As has been found by with increased success. nately, all of these efforts, while essen­ several other investigators, the amount Helium is another nuclear product tial to an eventual understanding of the of thorium was reduced, as shown by which is being seen by an increasing phenomenon, are too underdeveloped both a reduction in radioactivity (12 per­ number of scientists. Dr. Melvin Miles, to have an immediate effect on the skep­ cent" reduction), and a chemical analysis of the Naval Air Warfare Center, and tical climate or to produce insights (18 percent reduction) of all parts of the Prof. Benjamin Bush, of the University needed to amplifythe effect. Until over­ apparatus. The appearance of significant of Texas, described their very careful come, this skeptical attitude will con­ quantities of previously absent elements studies of helium production during heat tinue to influence denial of funding and was also detected, with a few having generation, using Pons-Fleischmann patents and, thereby, hamper a normal abnormal isotopic ratios. type cells. The two independent studies development which promises great ben­ One of the few radioactive elements both show that helium is being pro­ efits to the general public. made by CANR methods is tritium, a duced by a reaction that is consistent Edmund Storms retired in October beta-emitting isotope of hydrogen. One with the quantity of energy expected if 7997 from Los Alamos National Labora­ of the most carefully done studies of its d-d fusion were occurring. In spite of tory in New Mexico, where h.e had production is being undertaken by Dr. several obvious rejections offered by worked fo r 32 years. His research there Tom Claytor, of Los Alamos National skeptics, the growing amount of careful was on the SP700 space nuclear program Laboratory. After hearing Dr. Claytor de- work is tilting the jury in favor of a nu- and space nuclear propulsion systems.

18 Summer 1998 21 st CENTURY SPECIAL REPORT Krafft Ehricke's Moon: A Lush Oasis of Life

by Marsha Freeman

Only a grand vision fo r lunar de velopment will move space programs into the fu ture.

"Like the giant cathedrals of the Middle Ages, Selenopolis will be the work of many generations." -Krafft Ehricke

Christmas in Selenopolis in the year 2037, as envisioned by ince the end of the Apollo program in 1972, there has Krafft Ehricke. The Hall of the Astronauts (left) and the elevated been great frustration expressed by planetary scientists, monorail providing transport around the city (right) fla nk a tra­ Sspace mission designers, young children, and occasion­ ditional ice skating rink. The dome (rear left) provides storage ally, even the Congress, at the lack of long-term goals for the fo r supplies , and houses the life support and climatizing equip­ u.s. space program. The overwhelming response by the Amer­ ment. Th e transparent dome in the center rear is the entrance ican (and international) public to the movie Apollo 13 three to the tropical habitat sector of Selenopolis. years ago, and to the recent series about Apollo, From the

21st CENTURY Summer 1998 19 Earth to the Moon, shown on the HBO television network, be­ civilization, including the industrial revolution that lies the oft-repeated mantra that the American public has "lost replaced slaves by machines. It is also the bridge to the interest" in space. cosmos. It can now enlarge our environmental base-not Increasingly since the early 1970s, the notion that carrying only for resources, but for growth in technology and, out bold efforts in space is "too expensive," and that it drains thereby, human existence. resources from the terrestrial economy, has led to an approach by national space agencies to propose only the "cheapest" For Krafft Ehricke, the next evolutionary step for mankind, space missions, necessarily requiring that they be done quickly into the cosmos, lies in the foundation of the philosophical or­ and, largely, with already available technology. ganizing principles of his civilization. From the 1970s on, he In fact, the reason we do not have a progression of increas­ increasingly recognized that the zero growth ideology must ingly complex space missions under way, in logical steps to­ be overturned, before evolution into the cosmos would be ward bold goals for the future, is not because what has been possible. proposed is too expensive or pie-in-the sky-j ust the opposite. As civilization on this planet has become increasingly ruled by I must emphasize that technology is not the solution to the self-destructive policies of post-industrial zero-growth, we our shortcomings. The solution is that we must grow and have set our sights lower and lower. This has reached the level mature. But technology can make that easier. By contrast, of absurdity, where the money spent by HBO to portray the a no-growth philosophy, which asks humans to live with Apollo missions, and to try to preserve that magnificent ac­ less of everything, can regress us to the Middle Ages, complishment for future humanity, cost more than the United because a dog-eat-dog fight is bound to break out under States was willing to spend on the current Lunar Prospector such conditions. mission, to actually go to the Moon! As space visionary Krafft Ehricke restated throughout his life, The purpose of space exploration for Krafft Ehricke was not space is not a place, nor a series of missions, nor line items in to complete a se.ries of interesting missions, or to simply learn budgets. It represents the next step in the natural evolution of more about the Universe surrounding us. the human species. The goal of a lunar program, Ehricke stated, is not an outpost or a lunar base, but the building of a city on Expanding into space needs to be understood and the Moon, which he called Selenopolis. Like cities on Earth, approached as world development, as a positive, Selenopolis will embody the culture and accomplishments of peaceful, growth-oriented, macrosociological project civilization, accommodating millions of citizens who engage whose goal is to ultimately release humanity from its in scientific research, exploration, and recreation, while devel­ present parasitic, embryonic bondage in the biospheric oping the industry and agriculture needed for self-sufficiency womb of one planet. This will demand immense human and interplanetary trade and commerce. creativity, courage, and maturity. To express this understanding, Ehricke developed what he called "the extraterrestrial imperative." The reason mankind At this time and place, to insist that this tired world does not moves into space, he believed, was the same reason that life have the resources, by which is meant money, to move human moved through past evolutionary stages-to grow by develop­ civilization into space, is nothing but a lie, through the worst ing new capabilities. Extraterrestrial man will not even be the fallacy of composition. first species to take advantage of extraterrestrial resources, Were the sane governments of the world to dry out the tril­ Ehricke said. The first instance of the use of astrogenic re­ lions of dollars that daily whirl through financial markets, feed­ sources was the development of photosynthesis using water, ing a speculative bubble that is close to popping, it would carbon dioxide, and extraterrestrial solar radiation. quickly become obvious that there is no shortage of money; Life's "first Great Crisis on Earth," he explained, occurred but there is a shortage of scientists, engineers, teachers, steel when the limits of primitive chemosynthetic processes, mostly production, research laboratories, machine tools, and energy. fermentation, were reached: These shortages we can correct through the simple direction of resources to meet the needs of the majority of the world's pop­ But what seemed to be an absolute limit to growth was ulation today, by developing the capabilities to take them into no limit to growth. It was the beginning of a series of space, tomorrow. evolutionary technological advances that led to more growth. Metabolic advances in the photoautotroph led to Why the Moon? . the chlorophyll molecule and photosynthesis. 'It has been said, 'If Cod wanted man to fly, He would have given man wings.' Today we can say, 'If Cod wanted man to This development led to the "magnificent negentropic creation become a spacefaring species, He would have given man a of the biosphere, as life "gained control over the production of moon. '" its basic staples of food and energy." -Krafft Ehricke With man, further evolution will be planned and purposeful, based on his uniqueness. The human being, Ehricke wrote, has Over the past few years, stunning new discoveries about the the seed of the next higher metabolic capability-thought: planet Mars, both from pieces of it that have found their way to Earth and arrived here as meteorites, and from the Pathfinder We all know what information metabolism has mission that did in situ exploration, have led to proposals fo r accomplished so far. It is the foundation of human manic, harebrained schemes to send manned missions to

20 Summer 1998 21st CENTURY The Earth is part of a two-planet system. Th is photo taken by the crew of Apollo 17, July 16, 1969, shows the Earth rising, as seen from the surface of the Moon.

Mars. Such programs to send people on years' long, high risk to which it can be underwritten by industrial and biotechnical missions, without having done the required preliminary work, productivity have no place in a world-historic effort to move human civi­ Extraterrestrialization: a prolonged process of socio-psycho­ lization into space.1 logical development and anthropological divergence, based "We are fortunate to be part of a double planet system," on the integration and further evolution of the first two phases, Ehricke wrote, "with a nearby sister planet whose surface con­ manifesting itself in the physiological, anatomical, immuno­ ditions, despite all their differences from ours, still bear closer logical, esthetic, and general cultural sectors." That is, the es­ resemblance to Earth than do any other accessible surfaces in tablishment of an entirely new civilization, which may bear this Solar System." more or less resemblance to the one that beg at it. In 1957, after having participated in the earliest steps into After considering the various venues for operations in space, space, in pre-war German amateur rocket societies and the Ehricke concluded that the extraterrestrial imperative requires wartime rocket program at Peenemuende, Krafft Ehricke wrote the movement of civilization to Earth's sister planet: an article outlining what he called the " Anthropology of Astro­ nautics," in which he promulgated three fundamental laws: In the past, human growth could unfold in a monoglobal framework. In the future, human civilization First Law: Nobody and nothing under the natural laws needs to be polyglobal. The Moon is the first step. It is a of this universe impose any limitations on man except seventh continent, almost as large as the Americas. It is man himself large enough to support a civilization. It alone offers the Second Law: Not only the Earth, but the entire solar opportunity to create a strong exo-industrial economy system, and as much of the universe as he can reach based on highly advanced nuclear, cybernetic, and under the laws of nature, are man's rightful field of material processing technologies, ultimately turning large activity parts of the once-barren lunar surface into a lush oasis of Th ird Law: By expanding through the universe, man life, capable eventually of exporting even foodstuffs to fulfills his destiny as an element of life, endowed with the orbiting installations, if not to Earth. power of reason and the wisdom of the moral law within The Moon is the logical proving ground for himself. subsequent industrial developments and settlements elsewhere. Only 2 to 3 fl ight days away, it allows us to A few years later, Ehricke had developed his concept of the develop at our very doorstep the experience we need to Extraterrestrial Imperative, concluding that after the initial explo­ operate successfully and cost-effectively in more distant ration, there should be three evolutionary phases of our expan­ regions. No other celestial body and no orbiting space sion into space, guided by his three principles: station can more effectively permit development of the Space Industrialization: the capability of productive exis­ habitats, material extraction and processing methods, tence in the new environment and in essence, all the science, technology, and Space Urbaniza tion: the capability of establishing large­ sociology required for a responsible approach to scale settlements and extraterrestrial civilization, to the extent extraterrestrial operations.

21 st CENTURY Summer 1998 21 For Krafft Ehricke, the development of the Moon represents clude the use of nuclear energy, for power supply and indus­ the proof-of-concept for the extraterrestrial imperative, be­ trial processing, rather than for transportation; the reduction of cause the Moon cannot support life without the intervention of the use of terrestrial propellant through the production of lunar man: oxygen (LULOX), and use of LULOX depots on the Moon and in relevant orbits, especially geosynchronous and near-Earth For Selenians, creation will be the major trade. The orbits; and the extensive use of lunar materials for construc­ human being and its technosphere arrive first and then tion, shielding, growth of food plants, and for other purposes. create a biosphere. This kind of creation will require an "In summarY,"Ehricke stated : approach that is rational and effective without precedent. ...Wh atever the details of the human relationships may maximum value generation capability and flexibility be, Selenians will be space "amphibians" travelling with should be achieved with minimum initial expenditures ease between surface and orbital gravitites and later, in and lead time. Only on this basis can lunar industry be the gravities of Mars, as well as on the moons of Jupiter or developed early, effectively, and in a financially . Saturn. responsible manner. And only rising productivity and The Moon is the touchstone of the human future. sustained economic growth can sustain an ever­ Instead of searching for and speculating about life increasing lunar population and the development of high elsewhere, we will put it there. Forthwith, civilization will Selenian living standards. be three-dimensional, and life will be polyglobal. Living at the ethereal shores of heliocentric space, the Selenians Industrial enterprises on the Moon will create mining and will be the Cosmopolynesians of the solar system, manufacturing facilities to produce semi-fi nished and finished navigating between worlds. products made from the iron, titanium, magnesium, sodium, silicon, and other raw materials of the Moon. These will be A Lunar Investment Strategy fashioned into all manner of products from sheet metal, bars, "Lunar development must be rooted in a viable lunar econ­ wires, glasses, and ceramics, to silicon chips. From these semi­ omy, which I call 'seleneconomy. "' finished products will come products such as entire structures -Krafft Ehricke of solar cells made of various metals and alloys for lunar and

The unmanned scouting and pro­ specting missions to the Moon, and the basic infrastructure needed to transport men into space, are the re­ sponsibility of national governments. Just as the U.S. federal government sponsored explorations missions, like that of Lewis and Clark, and directed the building of the railroads across the nation to enable the movement of civi­ lization from one coast to the other, a national effort is required, to provide access to space and missions to survey the future terrain. Assuming that these very first steps will have been completed, Krafft Ehricke proposed that a lunar develop­ ment strategy should "maximize in­ vestment returns, minimize return times, and keep investment sizes man­ ageable, so that venture capital and private investment can be attracted as rapidly as possible." The goal is to cre­ ate a nearly self-sufficient lunar econ­ omy, which has a relationship to Earth similar to that of individual nations on Figure 1 Earth to each other, based on trade and THREE TECHNIQUES FOR UNDERGROUND MINING sovereignty. Kra fft Ehricke worked out in exquisite deta il many of the technologies that liv­ To reach that goal, he proposed that ing and working in a lunar environment would require. Here he presents tech­ the general rule be that investments by niques fo r underground mining, using small nuclear detonations. private companies, in the lunar econ­ omy, be "independence-oriented." Pri­ Source: Krafft Ehricke mary areas of investment should in-

22 Summer 1998 21 st CENTURY orbital installations; heat shields and insulation materials, as well as radiation shielding materials for space stations; propel lant containers for entire orbiting facilities, such as space station and fac­ tory modules, and liquid lunar oxygen depots; large portions of cislunar and interplanetary spacecraft; and so on. Ehricke envisioned lunar operations, as they develop, moving toward a total ind ustrial sys­ tem. The key is to progressively minimize non­ selenogenic imports from Earth. As these new extraterrestrial industries move toward self-suffi­ ciency, they will support orbiting and terrestrial industries with oxygen for transportation, and an increasing variety of materials, products, and services, which will balance their imports from Earth. He saw four primary markets for lunar in­ dustrial product: First, would be the lunar surface itself, where there will be a domestic demand for lunar indus­ trial and habitational development. Also, there will be services performed on the lunar surface for the benefit of the "folks back home" on Earth, such as "science and technology experiments for terrestrial customers, new forms of entertainment for terrestrial television viewers, and eventually tourism and retirement environments for Terres­ Krafft Ehricke trians." Reflecting mirrors, called Lunetta by Ehricke, can be seen at the top right of In 1984, Ehricke envisioned that by the year this 1981 painting, as they orbit the Moon. With the Earth just at the hori­ 2000, Geosynchronous orbit "may well hold zon, Lunetta provides areas of light near the terminator on the Moon, to al­ over 1 ,000 satellites that will be virtually indis­ low fo r mining and other operations during the two-week lunar night. pensible socio-economically," primarily for communications. "This market will demand spacecraft servic­ (habitats, living and working spaces, society, economy, poli­ ing; replacement parts; new components, and partial or en­ tics, and culture}." tirely new satellites; salvaging and recycling of inoperative sys­ -Krafft Ehricke tems, sections, components, and elements," which could eventually be supplied from lunar industrial facilities. In addi­ Stage 1. In 1984, Ehricke proposed that this stage could be ac­ tion, LULOX filling stations might be established to reduce the complished in this century. It involves the synoptic prospecting cost of supply deliveries needed from Earth. of the Moon to detect metallogenic or mineralogenic provinces, Third, Ehricke proposed that Near-Earth orbit (NEO) micro­ and obtain further advanced info rmation needed for industrial gravity manufacturing facilities will be likely buyers of lunar site selection. He suggested that simplified Surveyor-type lan­ raw materials, capital equipment, entire production facilities, ders, which were used in the 1960s unmanned Apollo precursor oxygen (not only for air but also for water), and eventually missions, could be used, and at least one lunar polar orbiter. even some basic dehydrated foodstuffs. The first development stage would also include the devel­ And finally, the Earth itself, Ehricke wrote, opment and deployment of a Lunetta reflector orbiter, or space mirror, "to illuminate the perpetually shadowed places will be a major market for lunar raw materials, semi­ at high latitudes and the polar regions to permit photography, finished products, and space-made components in larger cartography, and the possible identification of polar ice de­ quantities and involving larger masses than could be posits, if any." handled economically if the raw material should first have Stage 2. This involves further work toward surface base site to be supplied from Earth in Near Earth Orbit selection and operations training for personnel, prior to lunar manufacturing facilities. These lunar imports will sustain base build-up. industries and create new job markets on Earth. A Circumlunar Space Station (CLSS) is established in about a 1 OO-km equatorial lunar orbit and makes use of a Moon Ferry for limited manned surface missions. It serves as a habi­ The Five Stages of Lunar Development tat, operations and training center, and laboratory for engi­ "Each of the fi ve lunar development stages include three neering, biological, and medical purposes. Such a facility in main sectors: (a) the technosphere (research, technology, in­ lunar orbit will support experimental research with much dustry); (b) the biosphere (p lant/animal, life, fo od production, larger quantities of lunar materials than could be economi­ general plant growth, selenbiosphere); and (c) the sociosphere cally delivered from the Moon to Earth, Ehricke explains. Most

21 st CENTURY Summer 1998 23 lurgy, vapor phase metallurgy, production of solar cells, com­ puter parts, and eventually space habitat structures, communi­ cation platform structures, antennae, service satellite parts, re­ flector structures, and much more. During this stage, the orbiting space station of Development Stage 2 grows into a staging base, training second-generation selenauts and expanding into a zero-g factory. Stage Four. This is characterized by the expansion of indus­ tried production and services. Industrial diversification grows beyond extraction and semi-finished products to finished prod­ ucts and assemblies: As Ehricke envisioned it,

Strategic economic positions must be atta ined for supplying orbital and terrestrial markets, yielding a high gross lunar product that not only builds a positive balance of trade, but also builds the infrastructure and establishes credit-worthiness for continuing expansion. Krafft Ehricke Krafft Ehricke's depiction of a firs t-generation laboratory/ To broaden market response capability, Cynthia is aug­ habitation module is made up of hardware that would be mented by feeder stations, in sometimes distant provinces "ma iled" fr om Ea rth. The inverse converging shape maximizes identified during Stage 2 as having an abundance of certain shielding against radiation, optimizes tempera ture control in valuable raw materials. Today, with the indications ofthe pres­ equatoria l regions, and even serves as an umbrella to provide ence of water ice at the lunar poles, such would be candidate shade. sites for such Feeder Stations. The Feeder Stations are highly automated and basically sim­ lunar materials will be brought from the surface to the CLSS ple. Most are unoccupied or intermittently occupied. They are by automated returners. The data obtained should lead, about remotely controlled, and Ehricke suggests that they be oper­ halfway through Stage 2, to selection of the appropriate sur­ ated from the central complex by laser communication link via face base site. a novel series of communication relays. Experience in this stage will also provide medical and behav­ ioral profiles of the personnel, who will be spending time in the Materials collected at the Feeder Stations can be two worlds of the lunar surface and the orbiting space station. transported to Cynthia by various methods, depending on This Development Stage includes the establishment of sophis­ distance. Relatively close Feeder Stations, say 120 miles ticated, automated laboratories and pilot facilities on the surface. away, can send cargo by electric cars. The most important Modules are "mailed" from Earth to the selected base site and, Feeder Stations can eventually deliver goods via high­ using the Moon Ferry, CLSS personnel descend to the surface to speed electromagnetic trains. Meanwhile, distant Feeder set up, start, and maintain the systems. These pilot facilities Stations can hurl cargo ballistically to receiver craters could include the first small-scale automated lunar oxygen ex­ near Cynthia with great accuracy, thanks to low lunar traction plant, providing gaseous oxygen fuel for the Moon Ferry gravity and high vacuum. and CLSS. Other modules placed on the Moon during Stage 2 can permit personnel to stay on the surface for weeks at a time. Stage 4 also includes installation of fusion power plants, and Stage 3. This marks the beginning operation of lunar industry. the initial buildup of a solar reflector swarm, termed, "Soletta," A first-generation nuclear-powered Central Lunar Process­ placed in L-1 . Eventually, Soletta will reach the size of 120,000 ing Complex (CLPC), which Ehricke named "Cynthia," is es­ sq km, illuminating an area of 200,000 sq km during the lunar tablished in a region where there are favorable conditions for night, for agricultural and biospheric purposes (creating No­ a transportation node, and for finding valuable raw materials vaterra). Biospheric Novaterra and technospheric Cynthia be­ nearby. Cynthia's first job will be the large-scale production of come the pillars on which sociospheric Selenopolis and lunar oxygen, and then, other materials. Construction skills, learned civilization rest. from the previous stages, will be needed, including cold­ welding, cutting of lunar rocks, producing lunar bricks and Building the Technosphere possibly cement with lunar sulfur as a binder (instead of wa­ "Selenopolis cannot be built with yesterday's technology. " ter), and compacting lunar fines (powdery to coarse sandy -Krafft Ehricke material) into building blocks for lunar igloos, or ligloos. These ligloos will have sprayed airtight inner liners and air­ From the first stages of lunar development, energy will be locks-providing shirtsleeve shelters, workshops, and "green­ the critical element for progress. Electrical and directed energy houses" for growing food plants. will have to substitute for the often water-based chemical pro­ The first-generation lunar crews can schedule Cynthia for cessing methods commonly used on Earth. The separation and production runs of oxygen, silicon, aluminum, iron, glasses, refi ning of the Moon's raw materials, starting with oxygen, will and other materials, depending upon what is needed . From involve developing adequate processing heat, at the lowest these raw materials, Cynthia can progress to powder metal- poss i b I e cost.

24 Summer 1998 21 st CENTURY The hierarchy of possi- ble energy sou rces for raw material processing, as outlined by Ehricke are, in order of increas­ ing temperature: the high-temperature reactor (HTR), with reactor-cool­ ing gas outlet tempera­ tures of 900 to 950°C; nuclear-electric arcs (less suitable for quantity pro­ duction); solar concen­ trator-heater ovens, for temperatures up to sev­ eral thousand degrees and low mass require­ ment (inoperative, of course, during the 354- hour-long lunar night); u ndergrou nd atom i c ovens stoked by small fis­ sion or fusion detona­ tions; and the plasma from a fusion reactor, once this technology is Figure 2 developed. For early ap­ MOON MINING AND PROCESSING plication and high-mass During Development Stage 3, the fi rst strip mining, beneficiation, processing, and refining flow, day and night, the fa cility will be established, as part of the Centra l Lunar Processing Complex, called, Cyn­ HTR and underground thia. Material mined on the surface is sorted and fed into fu rnaces. Raw materials to be re- atomic ovens are the fi ned are removed, to be processed fo r transport to circumlunar orbit and fu rther processing most effective methods, at zero gravity. Some can be exported to customers in Earth orbits, and on the Earth. in addition to solar heat­ ing during the day. Source: Krafft Ehricke As we move forward in time, through the Devel- opment Stages toward the creation of Selenopolis, new, more (the Heavy-Lift Launch Vehicle), and the liquid-hyd rogen intensive, forms of energy become necessary. "For economy, Centaur upper stage used today, which was designed by and because of the long lunar night, fusion energy is as funda­ Ehricke. The Centaur could function as an orbital transfer ve­ mental and as indispensible to the Selenosphere as the Sun's hicle, to take the payload from Earth orbit to lunar orbit. energy is for the terrestrial biosphere." The fusing of light nu­ clei in a reactor, like that which takes place in stars, yields en­ A City on the Moon ergy orders of magnitude greater in energy flux density than "For those coming generations who are born on the Moon the nuclear fission process, and the direct use of the fusion and who are not transfixed by the beauties of Earth, and fo r fuel plasma allows the direct reduction and separation of any those who remain on the Moon except fo r vacation or business and all materials. trips to Earth, there will be no place in geolunar space more Unlike most who have designed transportation systems for beautiful, vital, or abundant with the fu ture than the Moon and lunar development programs, Krafft Ehricke insisted that the the selenosphere created on it. II approach should not be to use the same vehicles for a wide -Krafft Ehricke variety of functions, because it appears to be "cheaper" than developing new vehicles, but to develop "a novel class of ve­ Stage 5. This establishes the city, Selenopolis, and the se­ hicles, facilities, and techniques that use the unique lunar lenosphere-"a fu lly developed lunar world with a large popu­ and cislunar environments to advantage." As the payload re­ lation underwritten by industry." Ehricke cautions that quirements for the developing lunar civilization change, so will the requirements for the transportation system. this stage is contingent upon a strong economic In Development Stages 1 and 2, Ehricke proposes, the pay­ fo undation, a very high degree of self-sufficiency, loads required for lunar prospecting, establishment of the Cir­ particularly in food production, and a powerful fusion cumlunar Space Station, and pilot surface facilities can be de­ energy base. Initially, it will require more massive imports livered to the Moon and Cislunar Orbit by combinations of from Earth. But its expansion should be commensurate the Space Shuttle, a Shuttle derivative to carry more cargo with economic growth and the ability to sustain

21st CENTURY Summer 1998 25 -'.

Earth are maintained. In the beginning, simulated Earth cli mates will include continental, dry sub­ tropical, and semi-arid, with Earth-like climatic cy­ cles, where applicable.

Other sections will have climates that are adjusted to their special agricultural functions in order to maximize plant growth (measured as yield per unit area and number of crops per annum). This will be accomplished primarily through CO2 enrichment of the atmosphere, and by temperature, humidity, and suitable irradiation cycles, all coordinated to achieve the optimum combination.

Selenopolis will not be all work. Ehricke envi­ sions resort areas, that can include a winter section Krafft Ehricke with snow, a subsurface lake for boating, and a Ehricke's cislunar superfreighter would use lunar oxygen and aluminum, "sunbelt" with "lunar desert" views from a club­ to tra vel between the Moon and Earth, carrying lunar "bounty, " and sup­ house that also overlooks the Alan B. Shepard low­ plies from the mother planet. gravity golf course. Selenians may also use the Krafft A. Ehricke rotating swimming pool. corresponding population increases, thereby financing its The interiors of the city are illuminated by natural sunlight evolution to a high degree with lunar capital. reflected through the ceiling by a mirror system. But since a lu­ nar day is 14 Earth-days long, and there is no change of season At this point, with a growing industrial economy and inde­ or beautiful sunsets, "some of the mirrors are colored to pro­ pendent economic and financial base, "we move into the twi­ vide the same time changes and sky colors experienced on light zone between economics and politics," Ehricke states. Earth from morning to night and from season to season." There will be the "onset of the social and cultural extraterrestri­ Selenians will not be hostage to the biological environmen­ alization process," where "the issue will arise concerning the tal niches in their city. extent, in Development Stage 5, of fi nancing and controls by terrestrial institutional power." In comfortablespace vehicles, or in transport vehicles In this stage, there is a state "in which trade relations with with interior shirtsleeve environments, they can tour the Earth are based on rough commercial equality. This means coasts of mare, the mountains, the cliffs of the southern mutually complementary value generation, where lunar civi­ highlands, the province of large craters stretching from the lization is not in a receiver position vis-a-vis Earth. The result­ eastern coast of the Mare Numium to the South Pole, and ing high level of fiscal and economic self-determination, and more. the attraction of terrestrial investment capital," cannot help With the establishment of Selenopolis, the development but encourage political independence. Therefore, Ehricke of lunar habitation reaches its conclusion, in the sense says, the questions posed in Development Stage 5 will in­ that a new environmental niche-a lunar biosphere clude: honeycombed with ecological niches-has been created. But Selenopolis is open-ended, growing with its Will this be a colony of Earth, part of the common population and advancing technologies. In principle, the heritage of terrestrial mankind? Or will it be an overall complex could eventually house many hundred independent political entity with Selenians in control of million people. Such a large complex is never completed, their own world? On a foundation of fusion power, the just as development of a continent is never completed. vast potential of the lunar economy renders the latter alternative possible and hence likely. Krafft Ehricke's vision of Selenopolis-in words and in graphics and painting- is the appropriate goal for any and all While the early lunar habitats "are envisioned as a series of lunar exploration programs. We must evaluate how far we are small units hugging the inside walls of a crater, Selenopolis­ advancing with that as our measuring stick. the city-state of lunar civilization and the lunar biosphere­ will be a network of enclosures gradually expanding to cover Where Are We Now? many square miles of the lunar surface, and some parts of the Tra nsportation Systems. Although since the 1980s, there has subsurface." Ehricke envisions a city that is comprised of sev­ been no progress in developing the U.S. heavy-lift launch ve­ eral sections, each several miles long. hicle for interplanetary cargo that Krafft Ehricke envisioned, Selenopolis embodies urban, rural, agricultural, industrial, the dramatic political changes in the former Soviet Union have and resort areas, mirroring the variety we have created for created the possibility, if not the necessity, for the international ourselves on Earth. Each section has a different Earth-like cli­ community to make use of the capabilities that now lie dor­ mate and season, and normal atmospheric conditions for mant there.

26 Summer 1998 21st CENTURY Illustration by Christopher Sloan Selenopolis will be a lunar city housing tens of thousands of selenarians, and the kernel from which will grow other cities, and an entirely new civilization. Here, fusion power plants are under construction to the right of the city, and an elevated tra nsport system connects the city to other points on the Moon. Inset: Ehricke's illustration of the exterior of Selenopolis shows the trans­ port system, winding its way past an industrial mining project, with the Earth at the horizon.

In 1992, J. Lassmann of the Institute of Aeronautics and As­ from lunar orbit to the surface of the Moon, and a "highly cost­ tronautics at the University of Berlin, presented a paper at the effective" nuclear-electric geolunar freighter. Although the World Space Congress on the possible use of the Russian Ener­ electric propulsion, which is very efficient, has low thrust and gia rocket, with an energetic third stage for lunar transport. His does not accelerate quickly, we would want the cargo they estimate was that a cargo version of the Energia could land 15 would haul to travel cheaply, not necessarily quickly, like the tons of payload on the Moon for about $25,000 per kg, or barges on our rivers. about half the cost of a comparable Apollo-era Saturn V mis­ Nuclear Energy fo r Space. No progress can be reported on sion. the critical work that is needed to design, build, and test an up­ Lassmann proposed an integrated staging scenario, includ­ dated nuclear electric generator for space appl ications either ing an orbital fi lling station in Low Earth Orbit and tankers that for lunar electrical power or for Ehricke's cislunar freighter. would travel between the Earth and the Moon, carrying lunar Under the rubric of NASA's current "faster, better, cheaper," oxygen. He warned then that "This historical opportunity for there is little room for the development of complex, while vi­ international cooperation will last only for a few years. Two tal, new technologies. complete Energia launchers are stored and have to be In a report by the National Research Council released earlier launched within the next 3 to 5 years .. ..Very soon tools, this year, "Space Technology for the New Century," a list of workers, and engineers will be no longer available at Energia's enabling technologies for space exploration that are not under production and launch facilities in the Russian Federation." development is indicated. One of these, that had been under In Development Stage 2, Ehricke assumes that the Space development as far back as the 1960s, was space nuclear Shuttle capability will be increased to that of the Heavy-Lift power. The Committee that prepared the report pointed out Launch Vehicle, and Centaur II to evolve to a cluster of rockets that eight years ago, the National Research Council had stated which would function as the drive for a large, first-generation that "nuclear power eventually will be essential for lunar and Geolunar Transport, to establish the Circumlunar Space Sta­ Mars bases," yet nothing is being done. tion. Development Stage 2 would also establish the require­ While the Committee acknowledges that nuclear power ments fo r two new transportation systems-a Moon Ferry to go may be "unpopular," it points out that "if NASA does not in-

21st CENTURY Summer 1998 27 vest now in the long-term Re­ port vehicles. Bringing the oxygen to search and Technology that space from the shallow gravity well could Jead to future high-effi­ of the Moon, rather than from. the ciency, safer, nuclear power much steeper gravity well of the sources, future mission planners Earth, corresponds to a specific. im­ · and spacecraft designers will be pulse of 12,400 to 15,200 seconds, deprived of potentially valuable in terms of the efficiency of the use of design options that could im­ the fuel, Ehricke calculates, which prove safety and performance could otherwise only be attained by a and reduce the costs of future very advanced nuclear propulsion space activities." system. Fusion fo r Selenopolis. Al­ Because the production of oxygen though in the 1980s, Krafft from the lunar surface is widely rec­ Ehricke reported on the advan­ ognized as a crucial economic "en­ tages of using advanced fusion abling" capability for lunar transporta­ fuel cycles, such as the rare iso­ tion systems and industrial tope, helium-3, he assumes it development, research in this area will have to be bred on the has moved forward, at least on a small Moon, from lithium imported scale. from Earth. As early as 1970, The Shimizu Corporation, one of Apollo samples were "known to Japan's largest construction compa­ contain helium-3, deposited on nies, was founded in Japan in 1804, the Moon over eons, from the and began research and development solar wind, but a new look, in space technology in 1984. Shimizu years later, at the data, the sam­ scientists and engineers are doing re­ ples, and their potential, by fu­ search into lunar soil reactivity, using sion scientist Gerald Kulcinski Apollo sam·ples from NASA, experi­ and Harrison Schmitt, the NASA ments with lunar soil simulant, and Apollo 17 astronaut and geolo­ Mining on the Moon, whether fo r minerals or he­ technology development experiments gist, led to a detailed proposal lium-3, will be automated on a commercial scale. for raw materials processing and con­ for mining this prec"ious energy Here a depiction of a prospector, taking samples struction. resource for export to Earth. inside a crater to determine if there are unusual Working with McDonnell Douglas Their studies indicate that he- concentrations of specific raw materials. Space Systems Company in the lium could be recovered from United States, Shimizu has developed the lunar soil by heating, and then cryogenic distillation could a conceptual design for a lunar base. The goal is for the "maxi­ be used to separate the helium-3 from the more abundant he­ mum use of available space resources to support exploration lium-4. If the first fusion power plant fueled with heli um-3 missions directly, and to push base life support toward self-suf­ came on line in the year 201 5, Kulcinski and colleagues esti­ ficiency." In this step along the way to Krafft Ehricke's Selenop­ mate, demand for the fuel to meet u.S. energy needs could be olis, they envision a 15-person crew, closed (self-replenishing) one ton per year by 2030. plant and human life support systems, a Mars test facility, a sci­ But, they point out, to process enough lunar soil to obtain ence laboratory, and telescopes. that ton of helium-3, multiple tons of other, very precious In a joint paper presented in 1992 at the World Space gases, such as hydrogen, would be released. In addition, min­ Congress in Washington, Shimizu and McDonnell Douglas ing soil just about anywhere on the surface of the Moon would engineers evaluated a method Shimizu has developed for yield, via extraction, 3,300 tons of water for each ton of he­ the hydrogen reduction of ilmenite (FeTi03) that is found lium-3. Kulcinski and Schmitt have recently pointed out that on the Moon. The process of passing hydrogen through the whether or not there is water ice at the lunar poles (which they ilmenite produces water, which can then be used as the question), adequate supplies of water can be "mined" from the feedstock for the lunar oxygen needed for fuel. Working lunar soil. with Carbotek, Inc. since 1991, Shimizu has done tests However, the world is little closer to developing a fusion aboard a NASA KC-1 35 aircraft. By making parabolic dives, reactor today than it was in 1984, when Krafft Ehricke last the aircraft can produce tens of seconds of microgravity, en­ wrote about it. The same inability of societies today to plan abling a fl uidized bed reactor to process lunar soil, at simu­ and execute long-range plans in space is reflected in the lated lunar gravity. slashed research and engineering development budgets for In an Ad Astra article (Nov.-Dec. 1996), Carl Allen from fusion. Lockheed-Martin reports on his studies of the different meth­ Producing Lunar Oxygen. In Development Stage 3, a larger ods for extracting oxygen from lunar rock and soil that have Geolunar chemical Transport-II is needed, along with a LU­ been proposed over the past 20 years. Most researched is the LOX filling station in Cislunar Orbit. Ehricke continually hydrogen reduction of iron oxide, which Shimizu is also study­ stresses that transport costs are greatly lowered by having lu­ ing. The theoretical oxygen yield is 10.5 percent by weight, nar oxygen available in lunar and Earth orbit to fuel the trans- Allen reports.

28 Summer 1998 21 st CENTURY Lunar oxygen will be the Moon's firs t commercial product. It will dramatically lower the cost of transportation, and can be used to attract investment. Here, a tele-operated lunar oxygen plant is in operation, having received lunar soil from auto­ mated surface vehicles, fo r the extraction, liquefaction, and storage of the oxygen.

A metric ton of pure ilminite would produce 105 kg of oxy­ gen, and a cubic meter of ilminite has a mass of almost five metric tons. Thus, a pickup truck load of this mineral could supply enough oxygen to launch a rocket, he concludes. Shimizu Corporation A group at NASA's Johnson Space Center, Allen reports, is Concrete modules in hexagonal shapes, which can be closely looking at oxygen production from the soil or regolith of the packed, are Shimizu Corporation's design fo r lunar bases. The Moon. "We have completed hydrogen reduction experiments modules allow the lunar base to be extended in any direction, on 17 different lunar soils." The oxygen yield was strongly and provide shielding against radiation. correlated to each sample's iron abundance. Although yield was only as high as 3.6 percent by weight, "these experi­ cated lunar concrete modules that are in the form of hexago­ ments demonstrated that some amount of oxygen can be ex­ nal prisms, and can be designed with different interiors for tracted from the soil anywhere on the lunar surface," but habitation, research, or other fu nctions. Typically, concrete is prospecting for locations of high iron abundance will provide about 5 percent water. The oxygen for the water would be the best oxygen yield. liberated from the regolith through Shimizu's hydrogen re­ Selling lunar oxygen to the captains of passing ships in cis­ duction process, which also yields iron, useful for reinforce­ lunar space will be a going concern, even in the early stages ment of the concrete. But the company's plan relied on im­ of industrial development. porting the hydrogen from Earth, in order to produce water A team of researchers at NASA's Marshall Space Flight with the oxygen. Center's Space Sciences Laboratory has also been investi­ Whether or not there is ice on the Moon, Lunar Prospector gating methods for the mining and processing of in situ has measured a three-fold increase in the concentration of materials on the Moon. They are examining novel tech­ hydrogen at the poles, as compared to the equatorial regions niques for using available lunar resources for structural sampled by the Apollo astronauts. If there is water ice at the and life support applications. poles, concrete could be that much cheaper to manufacture. Construction on the Moon. Some preliminary design and Even if there is just a higher concentration of hydrogen, and technology work has been done by Shimizu in developing not ice, at some point it might be economically feasible to construction technologies, its forte, for the building of lunar "mine" that hydrogen and transport it to the lunar base that is bases. Another joint paper presented by McDonnell Douglas under construction. and Shimizu in 1992, described the development of lunar concrete for construction and shielding. Most current designs The Next Small Steps-Japan for lunar habitats throw regolith, or soil, on top of the struc­ Of the world's spacefaring nations, the Japanese have put ture for shielding against radiation. "More advanced bases forward, and are trying to implement, the most far-reaching lu­ should consider radiation shielding as part of the design nar exploration program. The activity in Japanese industry is process," the paper states. substantial. Three of the largest Japanese construction firms The disadvantage of using tons of regolith for shielding is have spent $40 million on lunar projects over the past decade, that it requires increased structural support for the additional and Shimizu alone spent $3 million just in 1997, according to weight of the soil. The Shimizu concept is to use prefabri- an article in Th e Wa ll Street JournalApri l 2, 1997.

21 st CENTURY Summer 1998 29 In a cultural sense, the japanese are at a stage in their lunar japanese are nof immune to budget pressures. In October program similar to where the United States was in the early 1997, at the annual meeting of the International Lunar Explo­ 1960s; they are embarking on a lunar exploration program and ration working Group in Turin, the japanese reported that the want to organize public support for the effort. In 1990, japan delay to a February 1999 launch has placed the project over sent its first spacecraft headed towar� the Moon. The Muses-A budget, resulting in a reduction of the number of penetrators . . 'spacecraft was s'ent on an engineering test mission not de­ from three to two. signed to make new scientific discoveries about the Moon, but In 2003, the japanese plan to launch SELENE-the Se­ to practice a lunar swing-by as a gravity assist maneuver for fu­ lenological and Engineering Explorer-to include the first ture planetary missions. The first lunar science mission from lander on the Moon in more than 20 years. The original de­ japan is Lunar-A, which is scheduled for launch early next sign was for an orbiter and a small lander, which would year. japan will become only the third nation, after the United have separated from the mother ship and landed at the be­ States and former Soviet Union, to launch a spacecraft to the ginning of the mission. But in january 1997, lander develop­ Moon. ment was suspended after cuts in the NASDA budget, by the The leaders of the japanese space program, in order to in­ Ministry of Finance. Last july, it was announced that the form and engage the public in this new ef­ lander will be terminated, and the main fo rt, have embarked on an educational out­ spacecraft will land after a year orbiting reach campaign, reminiscent of the public the Moon. This has cut 9.9 billion yen from appearances at elementary schools in the SELENE's total cost of 37 billion yen ($400 1960s by NASA official and space pioneer, million from $500 million). Engineers had Wernher von Braun. wanted the lander to be on the surface as As reported in the April 1998 newsletter early as possible in the mission, so they of the National Space Development Agency could use the results it obtained for design­ of japan (NASDA) on Feb. 28, a Lunar Ex­ ing the next-phase missions, but now they ploration Symposium was held for children will have to wait for a year after SELENE at the Tokyo Metropolitan College of Aero­ arrives at the Moon. nautical Engineering to "promote children's SELENE consists of a lunar polar orbiter, understanding of the significance" of the to study the entire planet, and a relay satel­ japan's future SELENE mission to the Moon. lite which will be in a highly elliptical lunar There were lectures, a demonstration of a orbit, 100 km by 2,400 km. The orbiter has lunar rover, and a quiz session by scientists. a mission module and a propulsion-system More than 300 youngsters participated. The module. After one year's orbital observa­ high turnout, both of individual children tion, the 2-ton propulsion module will sepa­ and elementary school classes, according Institute of Space and Astronautical Science rate from the mission module, to make a to NASDA, was due to the fact that the japan's Lunar-A mission to the soft landing on the Moon. The relay satellite "Moon is the most familiar celestial body to Moon will shoot two penetrators will be released during the fl ight to the the japanese." into the lunar surface. These Moon. The upcoming Lunar-A mission was ap- small devices will make mea­ One object of the mission is to measure proved by the Space Activities Commission surements of lunar seismometry the gravity field of the Moon. A suite of in­ of japan 1991 . It was designed to include and thermal properties. struments on the orbiter will also provide three small penetrators to be released from data on the chemical and mineralogical an orbiter, each 3.3 feet long, to begin japan's scientific study composition of the lunar surface, a topographic camera will of the Moon. The penetrators will measure lunar seismic waves look at subsurface structure, as will the laser altimeter and the and the heat radiating from the core to the surface. A similar radar sounder, to provide information on th'etect onic history deployment of penetrators was part of the Russian Mars '96 of the Moon. The atmosphere of the Earth will be imaged by mission, which unfortunately did not succeed in leaving the the Plasma Imager. There is a dust analyzer, charged particle orbit of the Earth. spectrometer, and plasma analyzer. Each penetrator aboard Lunar-A has a small active attitude In addition to these lunar science missions, designed by control system, to point it perpendicular to the surface. The ISAS, the Institute of Space and Astronautical Science, NASDA challenge is to ensure that the penetrators hurl themselves into is putting government resources in to developing the on-the­ the lunar soil at a steep angle. If they do not, it is likely they ground technology required for the next stages of lunar explo- would be destroyed on impact, since they will hit the lunar ration. surface with the equivalent force of 10,000 Earth gravities. Under NASDA's Office of Research and Development, a vari­ Each penetrator is expected to dig between 1 to 2 meters into ety of rovers is under development. The focus is on' automatic, the soil, and the data from each penetrator will be transmitted remote-controlled rovers to explore the Moon. The rovers will to the orbiter. The sensitivity of the seismometer in the penetra­ be more capable than the Apollo lunar buggy, or the Soviet tor is many times better than that of the Apollo program. Lunokhod, with a goal of operation for one or two years, through In june 1997, the probe failed vibration tests, which many cycles of the lunar day and night. NASDA has engineered pointed to a weakness in the system to separate the probe a test model to obtain data on running performance, which has from the orbiter, so it is being redesigned. The launch has also been used for public demonstrations. In the future, rovers been delayed until early 1999, and even the forward-looking should be equipped for resource exploration, topographical ob-

30 Summer 1998 21st CENTURY servation, geological surveys, and lunar resource exploitation experiments on the Moon. In 1995, NASDA also began studying lunar soft landing technology and how to further miniaturize mission equipment and reduce its weight. It already has a mock-up of a landing vehicle. In order to quicken the pace of lunar exploration technology development, Japan is also forming international alliances to take advantage of the expertise and experience that already ex­ ists. On April 20, a space cooperation agreement was signed by Japanese Prime Minister Ryutaro Hashimoto and Russian President Boris Yeltsin. According to a report in Space News, the agreement calls for making concrete progress before the year 2000. Cooperation will kick off with a series of personnel ex­ National Space Development Agency of Japan changes. Areas that are under discussion are Japanese access The SELENE mission, to be launched in 2003 by japan, was to Russian biomedical data and remote sensing technology, to include an orbiter, a lander, and a small communications and sharing of research on laser transmission in space. Akira relay. Although it has been scaled back to only two space­ Noie, director of the office of research and international affairs cra ft, the orbiter will land after one year of observations, al­ on space activities of the Science and Technology Agency of lowing japan to test techniques fo r 50ft-landing spacecraft on Japan, told the press after the agreement was signed, that one another planet. problem in cooperation is chronic funding instability in Russia, which makes the Japanese cautious. study was authorized, the Lunar European Demonstration Ap­ On April 28, the Russian Interfax news agency reported that proach, or LEDA, to look at the critical technologies that would the world-famed Lavochkin research and production com­ be required for an eventual manned lunar program. Various pany, which designed and built the Soviet Union's planetary specific missions were proposed, such as MORa, the Moon robotic systems, has signed a contract with an unnamed Japan­ Orbiting Observatory, a $400 million-class mission. (MORa ese company for cooperation on exploration of the Moon. Ac­ lost the competition for a new science mission in November cording to Lavochkin's deputy general director, Igor Zaitsev, 1996, when the Science Program Committee selected its next, the contract will allow Lavochkin to continue its Moon-related medium-size mission.) In 1995 the ESA Ministerial Council en­ projects, which are now not being funded. Specific areas of dorsed the general approach, and requested a formal proposal cooperation will be discussed in subsequent negotiations, In­ for a small-scale LEDA mission in 1997, which would start in terfax reports. Lavochkin will participate in an exhibition high­ 1998. lighting Russian space research July 9-Aug. 23 in Japan. A robotic South Pole Expedition was one mission design, Despite the increasingly uncertain financial situation in and it was presented to ESA officials in June 1996. It was se­ Japan, the government and industry seem determined to em­ lected by ESA's long-term space policy committee as a candi­ bark upon a series of precursor missions and research that they date for a "Millennium Celebration" mission, that would be hope will prepare them to participate in an international .Iaunched in the year 2000. But in November 1997, the south manned lunar exploration program in the coming century. polar lander mission received a "cool response" from ESA's Among the governments in Europe, there is no similar com­ Space Science Advisory Committee, which believed it would mitment to a lunar program. be a "burden" to its budget, and some of the supporters of the mission began to seek private funds. The Fallacy of 'Privatizing' Space By last year, "Euromoon 2000" had become the lunar pro­ In July 1989, during a celebration of the 20th anniversary of gram proposal before ESA, predicated on ESA seed money, the first Apollo landing on the Moon, President George Bush (about 25 percent of the mission cost), but heavily dependent announced that the United States would formulate a program upon private funding. In a paper presented in October 1997 to return to the Moon, "this time to stay," and then plan a at the annual conference of the International Astronautical manned mission to Mars. Few then imagined that the President Federation, former astronaut Wubbo J. Ockels, now at ESA's was bluffing, in that he had no intention of organizing a fight European Space Research and Technology Center in The for the budgetary support in the government to make that pos­ Netherlands, described Euromoon 2000: The object is to land · sible, so his speech remoralized space mission planners who a spacecraft at a continuously sunlit spot at the south pole at had seen little beyond the international space station on the the huge the Aitkin basin. Ockels reported that they had cho­ horizon for man in space. sen the "Peak of Eternal Light" on the rim of the 20-km Shack­ The first International Workshop on Lunar Exploration was leton crater at the South Pole. Euromoon 2000 would be the held in Beatenberg, Switzerland in 1994. The European Space first in situ investigation of the lunar ice assumed to be at the Agency (ESA) presented its four-phase approach to lunar ex­ pole. Costs would be kept down by using existing technol­ ploration, culminating in a permanent manned presence on ogy, he said. the Moon. But ESA, which engages in new initiatives only with Part of the project's budget would be raised through a "dy­ the consent of its member governments, did not have the bud­ namic public relations strategy and marketing program." get for an additional program at that time. A small internal Why would private companies be interested in spending

21st CENTURY Summer 1998 31 money on a lunar science gets, as the international mission, for which there speculative financial bub­ was no financial return? In­ ble consumes more and dustrial partners formed the more of the resources that EuroMoon Company; a new are needed by societies to­ marketing and advertising day, as well as tomorrow, consortium to raise funds various "get-rich-quick" through "diverse commer­ schemes are being pursued cial activities." These com­ to try to fund lunar explo­ mercial activities consist ration programs. largely of a public market­ Even a 1997 paper by ing campaign to "sell" the the Shimizu Company pro­ mission through entertain­ poses that, like the ment, tee shirts, and other Olympics, "Entertainment" paraphernal ia witli the Eu­ and "Competition" will be romoon logo, to pay back important factors for the the cost of the mission. commercialization of Euromoon supporters events, and "may also be thought they had made ESA applicable to the commer­ an offer it couldn't refuse. cialization of space activi­ But, as Professor Hermann ties, including lunar re­ Koelle reports in the April source utilization." The 1998 issue of his Lunar Base paper quotes figures of Quarterly, the ESA council how much money is spent met March 25 and decided u.S. Geological Survey by japanese citizens on not to fund Euromoon, even The radar results from the Clementine spacecraft, and more re­ horse racing, speedboat though industry would con­ cent data from the Lunar Prospector, indicate that there may be racing, and a japanese ver­ tribute the hardware and large caches of water ice in permanently shadowed craters at the sion of pinball machines. development costs and take lunar poles. Missions to do the more intense exploration, includ­ Their conclusion: "One of the risk of ru nning the pro­ ing a landing at a polar site fo r in situ prospecting, must be seen the most feasible approach ject, and a fundraising con­ not as enterta inment, but as the next step in a long-term program to secure sufficient funds sortium was already work­ to bring human civilization in to space. for future lunar resource ing out a plan to finance it. util ization would be the Prof. Koelle, who is one of the founders of the international utilization of space activity's attractiveness as a public enter­ lunar development initiative, believes that, "If no counter will ta inment. ...The general public could participate in these be taken, Europe will step out of any Lunar Exploration activi­ events at small personal expenditures." ties." These days, even with only one quarter of the cost com­ This "free market" approach to space science and explo­ ing from government resources, the European nations have ration is nowhere more prevalent than in the United States. opted out of lunar exploration. LunaCorp was established in 1989 by David Gump to "find The prevailing attitude was expressed by Italian Space non-government funding" for a commercial mission to the Agency manager of automation and robotics, Simonetta Di Moon. Their plan is to land a pair of remotely operated ro­ Pippo, at the second International Lunar Exploration Working botic vehicles on the Moon. Funding for the $200 million pro­ Group (lLEWG) meeting held in October 1996 in Kyoto, japan. ject is to come from corporate sponsors, science researc hers As reported in Space News, she said that the world's space (!), TV networks, and amusement parks. The attraction is sup­ agencies must develop "affordable, incremental Moon mis­ posed to be the abi I ity for people to teleoperate the rovers sions that can capture the imagination of taxpayers." around historic sites, such as the Apollo 11 landing site, and For their part, the majority of the scientists, researchers, mis­ those of unmanned landers on the Moon, for a fee. A similar sion planners, and visionaries who make up ILEWG, agreed at proposal is being pursued by International Space Enterprise, the same meeting that there was no real alternative to initial based in California. government support, stating: "[Flor development of commer­ However, not every idea of how to bring the creative and in­ cial resources, the ro le of government appears to lie in con­ vestment potential of the American private sector (as opposed tributing to infrastructure development, technology advance­ to the entertainment "industry") into lunar industrial develop­ ment, environmental protection, and commercial regulation. ment is based on a gimmick. The role of industry is to develop and operate production and Former Apollo astronaut Harrison Schmitt, with colleagues distribution systems." at the University of Wisconsin, have put forward the formation Serious people, who have been working on lunar missions of Interlune, as a private effort to start industrial exploration by for decades, such as Prof. Koelle and a core group in Hous­ landing rovers on the Moon to further analyze the regolith for ton, Texas, know that the first steps of a great project, such the abundances of helium-3 and other materials, after the as moving human civilization into space, will not be funded transportation and infrastructure for lunar development is in by selling "entertainment." But in this age of dwindling bud- place.

32 Summer 1998 21st CENTURY dell Mendell, gave an interview to Fusion magazine, during a meeting he, Michael Duke, and Barney Roberts had organized at the Johnson Space Center, on returning to the Moon. Mendell reported that in 1981 , when the Reagan administra­ tion came in to office, it proposed deep cuts in space science programs, including the closure of the Lunar Curatorial facility at the Johnson Space Center. "We had always been lunar advocates here because of our scientific heritage in the Apollo program, and work with lunar samples," Mendell explained. NASA was concentrating on "near-Earth space," and "that phrase caught me. I began think­ ing about it, and then came to the realization that the Orbital Transfer Vehicle going to geosynchronous orbit [from an Earth­

Marsha Freeman orbiting space station] would have the capability to go to lunar Kra fft Ehricke (left) is presented with a painting of lunar indus­ orbit. It is 10 times the distance, but it is equivalent energeti­ trialization by Or. Michael Duke, after Ehricke's talk at a 7984 cally. That does not meal! land on the Moon, but that means conference on Lunar Bases and Space Activities of the 27 st you can get into lunar orbit." Century in Wa shington, D.C. "It was clear to us that the Moon was part of near-Earth space. Nobody realizes that. ...It's too close not to do it. It's Colorado lawyer and space enthusiast Declan O'Donnell is a 'freebee' in a sense." organizing support for the establishment of a Lunar Economic In an article published in Space Policy, three months after Development Authority, which would both develop the private the Lunar Bases conference, authors Duke, Mendell, and capital resources for long-term industrial development, and be­ Roberts state that the Apollo missions "have provided the gin to lay out the legal and commercial framework for it. technology and the information necessary to fulfill a greater Those who feel they might succumb to the pessimism about dream-the transport of civilization beyond the confines of national space programs, and propose to create an "enter­ the Earth." The purpose is to develop "our dual planet sys­ tainment industry," or rely on corporate altruism to support tem." lunar exploration, should study carefu lly the experience of The vision of Krafft Ehricke is reflected in Mendell's re­ Dr. Alan Binder, the organizer and principal scientist for the cent article, in the May/June 1996 issue of Ad Astra: "The current Lunar Prospector mission. At a briefing in Washing­ real vision is (and should always have been) the creation of ton on Dec. 4, 1997, a month before Prospector's launch, a space-based civilization." One principle function of the Binder related that at the end of the Apollo program, in the lunar base, Mendell states, "is the establishment of indus­ early 1970s, the scientific community agreed that the next trial processes to support the base or to export products to step was intensive mapping of the Moon, from polar orbit. other space activities." He describes some of the particular Not able to secure NASA funding, a group of scientists, led technologies that could be used for the mining of lunar oxy­ by Binder, concluded that if they worked without pay (which gen, as an enabling activity for lunar industrialization, and they were willing to do), and the then-Soviets would launch concludes, "Krafft Ehricke, one of the great minds of our the group's spacecraft free on a Proton rocket (which they era, understood both the technological and ontological as­ agreed to do), then the group would just need about $10 mil­ pects of what he called 'The Extraterrestrial Imperative.' " lion in cash, and donations of hardware and equipment, from But this vision is not so easy to maintain. Just a year earlier, U.S. industry for the mission to fly. But Binder and his col­ NASA Administrator Dan Goldin had fool ishly challenged leagues were never able to find sources to donate either the mission planners at Johnson Space Center to come up with cash or the hardware. They persistently pressed for a NASA a scenario to send astronauts to the Moon by the year program to accomplish the task, and fi nally got it off the 200l-with only $1 billion. ground, and to the Moon. In introducing Krafft Ehricke's featured presentation at the There are no future missions to the Moon currently on conference on Lunar Bases in Washington in 1984, Fred Du­ NASA's agenda. rant, who met Krafft Ehricke in 1952, when Durant was active in the American Rocket Society, noted, " ...[Ilt is a lonely In the Footsteps of Krafft Ehricke world where Krafft lives part of the time, because it is the fu­ At the end of October 1984, a small group of planetary sci­ ture." entists and mission planners from NASA's Johnson Space Cen­ Whether that future will be the fulfillment of the vision that ter organized a conference at the National Academy of Sci­ Krafft Ehricke had for it, is now the responsibility of those of us ences, in Washington, D.C., on Lunar Bases and Space who have come after him. Activities of the 21 st Century. The featured presentation was Marsha Freeman is an Associate Editor of21 st Century, and given by Krafft Ehricke, who, while gravely ill with leukemia, the author of How We Got to the Moon: The Story of the Ger­ agreed to speak. He held the audience spellbound as he pre­ man Rocket Pioneers, published by 27 st Century Science As­ sented the concepts for lunar colonization that are summa­ sociates. rized in the first part of this article. Notes ------The year before, in March 1983, before they were aware of 1. See, for example, Marsha Freeman, 1997. "Making Sure We Never Get to Krafft Ehricke's work, one of the conference organizers, Wen- Mars," 21st Century, Spring, p. 71.

21st CENTURY Summer 1998 33 Alexander Gurwitsch:' Father of Biophysics

INTRODUCTION

he work of Alexander G. Gurwitsch is hardly known by recting the course of development. Driesch had successfully scientists in the West today, yet he may rightly be consid­ separated a two-cell echinoderm embryo, and each half grew Tered as the father of biophysics. Gurwitsch sought the normally into a complete adult organism. From this, and other causality underlying living processes, and his experiments were experiments, Driesch had ascribed to embryonic cells a prop­ the fi rst to reveal part of the electromagnetic organization of the erty of equipotentiality, and raised the question of what caused living state. the development to proceed. Driesch himself thought that the Gurwitsch concentrated on two main areas related to this actual cause of this development process was unavailable to problem. The first was the development of the embryo, and the scientific analysis; Gurwitsch, however, used this as the start­ second, the process of mitosis. Gurwitsch was fascinated by ing point for his work in embryology. Although Gurwitsch the experiments of Hans Driesch (1867-1 941) in embryology, adopted Driesch's conception of the whole organizing the de­ which emphasized the role of the embryo as a whole, in di- velopment of the embryo, he remained a close friend of Wil-

34 Summer 1998 21 st CENTURY . . widely '"OW" thm"gho"' the We" i" the 1930,. G",wi",h .. .: .·, , had found that cells undergoing mitosis, emit radiation in the form of photons in the ultraviolet range, which could trigger mitosis in other cells. Using onion root tip meristems, which have a large population of mitotic cells, Gurwitsch tested t whether a root tip brought toward another root meristem, could induce increased rates of mitosis. The result was a 20 to 25 percent increase in mitotic cells in the other root meristem. However, the effect could be eliminated, if a glass plate that absorbed ultraviolet radiation were inserted between the roots. These initial experiments were fo llowed by hundreds more, us- ing early photon detectors, and other methods, to analyze the spectroscopy of the emitted radiation. This crucial discovery raised many questions as to what was the source of the emission of this photon radiation, and how such a small amount of energy could trigger a process as complex as mitosis. Gurwitsch viewed the living cell as a co­ 36 Ale�ander Gurwitsch herently organized system, containing "unbalanced molecu­ lar constellations," which required an input of metabolic en­ ancl the Concept, of the ergy for their existence. The disruption of metabolism in the Biological Field , cell, he said, will cause the breakdown of these molecular constellations, and the subsequent release of the stored en­ by Michael Lipkind ergy. To test this hypothesis, Gurwitsch observed the release of ".< energy from dying cells, and also from reversible perturbations 52 Remarks on G'urwitsch's Method of metabolism, such as cooling and light narcosis. In each of by Lyndon H. LaRouche, Jr. , these cases, the cells emitted photon radiation very similar to that found in mitotic cells. Gurwitsch called this "degrada­ tional radiation." At that time, most scientists who were convinced of the phe­ nomenon of mitogenetic radiation, did not know what to do further, and did not see the real physical and biological impli­ cations of the discovery. But Gurwitsch then took his investiga­ tions of mitogenetic radiation to the molecular level. Experi­ menting with solutions of purified proteins, he found that when weak electric and magnetic fields were applied to the proteins, and then removed, the proteins emitted ultraviolet photons, similar to degradational radiation. At this point, Gurwitsch's theory of the biological field came to maturity, as he could now explain the relationship of events from the molecular, cel­ lular, and organismal levels. helm Roux, (the founder of the mechanistic approach in em­ bryology) who encouraged Gurwitsch to experiment, and al­ Optical Biophysics ways published Gurwitsch's papers in his journal. Gurwitsch's pioneering work formed the basis of "optical One of Gurwitsch's important experiments in embryology, biophysics," and later investigations into the electromagnetic used a centrifuge to disrupt the organization of the visible organization specific to living systems. Recent work on bio­ structures of an early embryo. The embryos that were disrupted photon emission has shown that DNA is the major emitter and by this technique still developed normally, usually after re­ absorber of photon radiation in the cell, and this may be di­ forming the visible structures in the cytoplasm. From this re­ rectly related to its important role in the regulation of growth sult, Curwitsch hypothesized that the restoration of the visible and metabolism. Much of the current work that traces its con­ structures in the embryo, was organized by "invisible struc­ ceptual lineage to A.G. Gurwitsch's biological field, focusses tures," or, a dynamic force that remained undisturbed. From on the coherence of the living state, in restricting the random, this hypothesis, Gurwitsch developed his conception of a "bio­ thermal motion of molecules, thus making possible resonant logical field," which was the electromagnetic organizing force effects triggered by small amounts of energy. of the living state, a concept he refined over the course of The scientific method employed by Gurwitsch runs contrary decades of experimental work. to the linear, Aristotelian approaches that dominate biology to­ day. The study of Gurwitsch's ideas and his life's work thus Mitogenetic Radiation · may serve as a friendly guide for those who wish to break free Gurwitsch's study of the initiation of mitosis led to the dis­ of the Aristotelian axioms of today's science. covery of "mitogenetic radiation" in 1923, for which he was -Colin Lowry

21st CENTURY Summer 1998 35 36 Summer 1998 21 st CENTURY great deal could be said about the remarkable life of his youth, he displayed an inclination to music and painting, Alexander G. Gurwitsch, spanning the juncture of two and after fi nishing gymnasium in 1892, he moved to Munich , Acenturies and nourished by two great sources of cul­ to join the Munich Academy of Fine Arts. He failed the exami­ ture: specifically Russian (he was born and brought up in Rus­ nations, and instead entered the Medical Faculty of the Uni­ I versity of Munich. Very quickly he became keen on the bio­ t'" sia and spent most of his ife there), on the one hand, and Western European, particularly German, on the other (he stud­ logical sciences, and from the third year started his scientific ied, graduated and began his scientific activity in Munich and activity in the laboratory of Professor Karl von Kupffer, a distin­ continued his work in Strasbourg and Bern). Much could be guished anatomist and morphologist. Gurwitsch's first work, said about his brilliant intellectual power: By the cast of his concerning the influence of the chemical composition of the mind he was a typical theoretician possessing a rare combina­ medium on amphibian development, was published in 1895. tion of deep philosophical intuition, with an incredible gift of In 1897 he graduated from the University of Munich and con­ experimental inventiveness. He comprehensively analyzed all tinued working in Kupffer's laboratory until he obtained a posi­ facts and phenomena in an intrinsically vitalistic manner-vi­ tion in the Department of Anatomy of the University of Stras­ talistic not in an agnostic sense, but in a working sense of this bourg. Here, and later in the Department of Anatomy of the notion. He had a deep devotion to scientific and humanistic University of Bern (1 901 -1 905) he worked in the fields of em­ principles, together with a tolerance of opposite views, and bryology, histology and cytology. kindness to all those he met. In 1903, Gurwitsch married Lydia D. Felicina, who was a An example of his crystalline adherence to principles was Russian student at the University of Bern Medical Faculty, and his resignation in 1948 from the post of the Director of the In­ who subsequently did her doctoral thesis under his supervi­ stitute of Experimental Biology in Moscow, as a protest against sion. Apart from the great general influence of her personality the Lysenko dictatorship in Soviet biological sciences. At that on the scientific creativity, and the whole I ife of Gurwitsch, time, this was an act fraught with mortal danger which, fortu­ she became an unfailing collaborator of her husband, and co­ nately, only made him fall into disfavor until the end of his author of many of his works on mitogenetic radiation. days. In 1905 the couple returned to Russia, and soon after, A peculiarity associated with his works is the quaint fate of Alexander became professor of anatomy and histology at some of his fi ndings and ideas which have become a sort of Bestuzhev High Women's Courses in St. Petersburg. His work "scientific folklore" when the authorship at times is forgotten. there continued until the October Revolution and Civil War of However, this panegyric can be considered the personal 1917. The St. Petersburg period was one in which his general emotional feel ing of one who was lucky in his adolescence to conceptual view of biological problems was substantially become acquainted with Gurwitsch, and to hear from him fo rmed. He began there as a highly erudite biologist with an about the innermost mainsprings of living processes. Some excellent background in physics and mathematics-rare facts about his life should be added. among biologists, especially at that time. During this period his Alexander Gavrilovich Gurwitsch was born in September inherent inclination toward understanding the whole enigma 1874, in Poltava, Ukraine, into an educated Jewish family. In of the essence of the living state became focussed on two main

Michael Lipkind was born in Laboratory of Mitogenetic Radiation, Lipkind subsequently Moscow in 1934, and was person­ joined the Institute of Virology, and pursued a career in the ally acquainted with Alexander field of general and molecular virology. In 1974, he emigrated Gurwitsch in his youth. Gur­ to Israel, where in addition to his "official" work, he returned witsch's brilliant intellectual to his "old flame, " biophysics. power, original scientific and Lipkind is currently a research professor of virology at the philosophical vision, humane per­ Kimron Veterinary Institute, in the Vo lcani Center fo r Research sonality, steadfast honesty and gen­ in Agriculture, in Beit Dagan, Israel. Since 1987, he has been a erosity during a cruel period of member of the Board of Directors of the International Institute Russian history, strongly influenced of Biophysics (Neuss, Germany), whose main research fo cus is Lipkind, who considers himself as biophotonics, which is a continuation of Gurwitsch's mitoge­ Gurwitsch's disciple. In 1952, Lip­ netic radiation. kind attempted to join the Biological Faculty of Moscow Uni­ Lipkind's scientific interests range from virology and cell versity, which was hopeless fo r a Jew at that time. Then, as a biology to biophotonics and the theory of the biological student at the Moscow Medical Institute, Lipkind worked in field. This theory-the topic of this article-Lipkind consid­ Gurwitsch's Laboratory of Mitogenetic Radiation, and attended ers an unprecedented attempt to fo rmulate a non-tautologi­ a private course of lectures given by Gurwitsch in his apart­ cal vitalistic principle. The theory has the fo rm of a mathe­ ment, in the last year of his life. There were only three listen­ matical model based on strictly definedpostulat es that are ers: Anna Gurwitsch (his daughter), Lev Beloussov (his grand­ deeply rooted in biology. Consequently, it has the potential son), and Lipkind. to become a powerful tool that would work when applied to In 1958, Lipkind graduated from the Moscow Medical Insti­ all three levels of biological organization: molecular, cellu­ tute but was not allowed to work in Gurwitsch's laboratory. In­ lar, and organismal. stead, he was sent to Siberia fo r three years, to work as a med­ Lipkind's article was edited by Colin Lowry and David ical doctor. Without the possibility of working in the Cherry. Part 2 will appear in the next issue of21 st Century.

21 st CENTURY Summer 1998 37 problems: the regularities of formative processes in embryonic In 1930, Gurwitsch was offered a position at the Research development, on the one hand, and the "miraculous phenom­ Institute of Experimental Medicine in Leningrad. This was the enon of karyokinesis" (mitosis, in his expression), and its initia­ first research institute in Russia not affiliated with any univer­ tion factors, on the other. The way to understand the former sity. It was established in 1890 on the pattern of the famous problem was based on constructing some "supraprinciples" in­ Pasteur Institute in Paris, fo unded only two years before. He tended to explain various processes occurring in a living sys­ was given a laboratory in the newly established Leningrad In­ tem and displayed at different levels of its organization. Pre­ stitute of Roentgenology and Radiology. For the first time, he cisely during this period, the notion of "field" used in physics was able to plunge into pure research without any teaching was applied by Gurwitsch for the first time for the analysis of obligation. morphogenic phenomena. The Leningrad period was marked by further intensive stud­ In St. Petersburg, Gurwitsch was one of the initiators and ac­ ies using mitogenetic radiation as a powerfu l tool for analyzing tive members of the "Circle of Small Biologists," which em­ the molecular substrate of various living systems-plant, ani­ phasized the conservative arrogance and stagnation of the es­ mal, and microbial. The application of mitogenetic radiation tablished universities' "Big Shots." methods to various biological problems led to the develop­ In autumn 1918, Gurwitsch and his family moved to Simfer­ ment of essentially new views and conceptions when applied opol, Crimea, where he headed the Histology Department of to neurophysiology, biochemistry, and carcinogenesis. At that the newly founded Tavria University until the end of 1924 time, the phenomenon of degradational mitogenetic radiation (where he became a friend of the famous geochemist Vladimir was found (emitted by dying cells) and became the basis for Vernadsky). The Crimean period was one of the most fruitful in the concept of "non-equilibrated," unbalanced molecular con­ his life. In conditions of practical isolation from the Western stellations. This phenomenon underlay the theory of the vecto­ world during 1918-1 921 , he concentrated on two main topics: rial biological field. the further development of the concept of the morphogenic During the Leningrad period, Anna Gurwitsch, Alexander field and its application in various embryological models, and Gurwitsch's daughter and successor, began working in the a dualistic conception of the initiation of mitosis. The latter led field of mitogenetic rad iation. Gurwitsch to the discovery of mitogenetic radiation in 1923, In January 1934, Gurwitsch was invited by the Vienna Bio­ which brought him a worldwide reputation. logical Society, the Pasteur Institute, and the Holland Student In 1924, Gurwitsch was elected professor of the Depart­ Association, to read a series of lectures on mitogenetic radia­ ment of Histology and Embryology of the Moscow University tion in Vienna, Paris, Amsterdam, Leyden, Utrecht, and Medical School, where he worked until 1930. This first Groningen. In the autumn of the same year, he participated in Moscow period was marked by intensive studies on the newly the International Congress on Electroradiobiology in Venice, discovered phenomenon of mitogenetic rad iation, which was where he presented a report on "The Contemporary State of widely recognized in the Soviet Union and in the West. A the Problem of Mitogenetic Radiation." During these two visits newly elaborated method of biological detection of mitoge­ to the West, which turned out to be his last, Gurwitsch became netic radiation, using budding yeast culture, proved to be a acquainted with the main Western researchers working on mi­ powerfu l tool. He also applied the conception of the mor­ togenetic radiation. phogenic field to some other embryonal models. This was the In autumn 1941 , Leningrad was beseiged by Nazi troops. In period of the establishment of Gurwitsch's school within So­ conditions of starvation, Gurwitsch and his family, along with viet biology, which included his old students of the Western other scientists, were evacuated to Kazan on special planes. and St. Petersburg periods, V.V. Polovtseva and, A.A. Lyu­ Here, in hard wartime conditions, without any possibility for bishchev; his students from the Crimean period, S. Sal kind experimental studies, he concentrated fu lly on purely theoreti­ and G.M. Frank; and his new Moscow students, M.A. Baron, cal work, and here, his field theory acquired its final form un­ L. Blyacher, M.A. Vorontsova, V.F. Eremeev, A.P. Potoskaya, der the name of the vectorial biological field. It was published N.N. Kannegisser, and V.A. Dorfman. At the end of this pe­ in Russian in 1944, and, after the war, in French in Leyden riod, Gurwitsch's classic work, Histologischen Grundlagen (1947). der Biologie (Histological Foundations of Biology) was pub­ Immediately after the war, Gurwitsch was appointed director lished in Jena in 1930. of the Institute of Experimental Biology, which was affi liated In 1927, Gurwitsch was invited to Germany, along with a with the newly established USSR Academy of Medical Sciences. number of distinguished Soviet scientists, this being his first He was the head of the Department of Mitogenesis at the Insti­ visit abroad since the October Revolution of 1917. At an offi­ tute during the same period. The appointment lasted until Au­ cial reception in Berl in, Gurwitsch met Albert Einstein. In a gust 1948. This was a period of intensive experimental studies, short discussion with Einstein, Gurwitsch indicated difficulties especially on the application of mitogenetic radiation analysis to in finding energy sources in living systems sufficient for the the problems of neuromuscular excitation and carcinogenesis. emission of high-energy ultraviolet photons. Einstein expressed Gurwitsch was also involved in an experimental analysis of his confidence that, like any factual finding, the study of mito­ karyokinetic (mitotic) phenomena by means of the postulates of genetic rad iation would reach the point at which a purely the theory of the vectorial biological field-the work was carried physical explanation of its energy sources would be found. out by L.Ya. Blyacher and E.Ch. Puchalskaya. At the end of the 1920s, Gurwitsch came to be seen as a During the Leningrad and second Moscow periods, Gur­ symbol of heretical free-thinking by the university authorities. witsch's scientific school acquired a number of talented re­ An inevitable conflict occurred in 1929, and Gurwitsch left searchers and ardent followers: E.S. Billig, L.D. Lyosner, B.S. Moscow University. Pesochensky, E.Ch. Puchalskaya, and N.S. Siavina.

38 Summer 1998 21 st CENTURY In 1948, the notorious August Session of the Academy of the inductive capacity of a particular part of an embryo trans­ Agricultural Sciences, organized by T.D. Lysenko, took place. planted onto another to determine the morphogenic fate of the This was the beginning of the gloomiest period for the Soviet local tissue surrounding it. The experiments performed by Dri­ esch on harmonic regulation in the embryo, underlay the es­ Ii. '. biological sciences-the period of forced obedience to primi­ & tive obscurantist dogmas in all branches of biology. In such a tablishment of a clearly expressed vitalistic conception. medieval atmosphere, Gurwitsch, unlike most scientists at the Any theory of development or heredity, no matter how com­ time, made the only possible form of protest: He submitted his plicated, at that time was based on one of two basic theoretical resignation and retired. At the time, Gurwitsch was 74 years concepts-preform ism or epigenesis-which had dominated old, and remained full of creative activity. Working at home, the minds of biologists from the very beginning of scientific bi­ he practically directed the laboratory of mitogenesis, which ology, often serving as "supreme" principles. The roots of pre­ was more and more cut off, until its liquidation in 1953. Al­ fo rmism can be traced back to Hippocrates, while the idea of though it was re-established soon after, its personnel included epigenesis comes from Aristotle. only two in tenure track positions, Professor Anna Gurwitsch According to the logical structure of preform ism, the zygote and Dr. Victor F. Eremeev. However, a number of young vol­ (fertilized egg-cell) contains all the potential prerequisites for unteers, students, and employees of various institutions worked the development of a future organism, with all its specific pat­ in the laboratory, which was crammed into one, and later, two terns, features, and properties. Evidently, the original concept rooms. of preform ism considered the whole chain of events constitut­ At that time, most of Gurwitsch's efforts were concentrated ing the embryo'S development to be "predestined" by these on his last work, Analytical Biology, which included the main potential prerequisites. However, this original, general defini­ epistemological premises for theoretical biology, and the tion of the principle of preform ism gave way to a modified fu llest description of the conceptions of his theory of the vecto­ concept based on the idea that all the observed complexity of rial biological field. This book has not yet been published, and the organism, can be reduced to separate independent features still awaits its readers. Only Gurwitsch's close followers have that can be projected onto strictly determined, separate entities read the manuscript. I myself, by just a lucky chance, had the contained in the zygote. These entities are responsible for all privilege to be one of a few listeners to the course of lectures the actual species-specific features. Using the contemporary which Gurwitsch read at home during 1953-1 954, just before vocabulary, one can define such entities as genes and, accord­ his death on July 27, 1954. ingly, classic Mendelian genetics can be considered a pure form of this kind of preformism. The Biological Field Theory: As to the classical embryological preformism, the zygote Prerequisites, Origin and Conceptual Development presents a puzzle-like (mosaic) spatial distribution of the enti­ Gurwitsch's central theoretical work was the development ties inside it, with each entity being responsible for a certain of the concept of the biological field, which he first introduced morpho-anatomical part of the future organism. Thus, the de­ into biology as a notion of "field" that had previously belonged velopment of the embryo is just an evolution of these pre­ to the vocabulary of physics. In his 1912 paper, "Die Verer­ formed and predetermined entities. Accordingly, there are bung als Verwirklichungsvorgang" (Heredity as a Process of rigid, unequivocal connections between each such entity and Realization), the notion of field was associated with the con­ the corresponding part of the embryo: Hence, each ontoge­ ception of the co-subjection of elements to a common mor­ netic stage can be reduced by projection backward, through phogenetic factor, as opposed to an alternative conception the chain of all previous stages, to the initial stage which is the considering the whole morphogenesis as a result of interac­ zygote itself. tions among the elements. Gurwitsch's field conception under­ Epigenesis, in its initial form, was just an alternative to pre­ went successive developments, from the first abstract models formism. According to its logic, any momentary stage of an describing single morphogenetic phenomena, to the general embryo'S development can be deduced from an immediately theory of the vectorial biological field dealing with all the lev­ earlier stage only, but not from one several steps earlier. Thus, els of organization of the living organism-morphological, cel­ contrary to preform ism, no stage of the embryo'S development lular, and molecular. has a direct, unequivocal prerequisite in the zygote: The zy­ gote has the prerequisite only for the first act of the whole de­ Historical Background velopment. Similarly, any stage of the whole chain of develop­ At the turn of the 20th century, when Gurwitsch started ment contains only an actual prerequisite for the stage working on the whole problem of ontogenesis, several new de­ immediately following it. These are epigenetic actual prerequi­ velopments in biology became key infl uences on the forma­ sites as opposed to the preformistic potential prerequisites. Ac­ tion of his biological concepts. The first was the rediscovery of cording to this approach, the developing embryo system pre­ the basic laws of formal genetics discovered by Gregor Mendel sents a combination of partly independent and partly in 1864, and the second, the crucial experiments in embryol­ non-rigidly associated processes. If one analyzes the develop­ ogy performed independently by Wilhelm Roux (1850-1 924) ment not in the genealogical, but in the chronological order, at and Hans Driesch. The studies initiated by Roux led to the es­ a certain stage something new appears without any visible pre­ tablishment of a new branch of developmental biology, the requisite, and it, in turn, is a prerequisite for the next stage. me.chanics of development (Entwicklungsmechanik), which The doctrine of developmental mechanics was founded by flourished, and which culminated in the famous experiments Wilhelm Roux, together with the "causal-analytical" method by Hans Spemann and Hilde Mangold (1924). Spemann's ex­ in embryology (1 895), according to which the embryo is com­ periments resulted in the discovery of "embryonal induction," pared to a complicated mechanical gadget. In order to under-

21st CENTURY Summer 1998 39 stand how this mechanism works, one should know how it is the preformist one: There is no intrinsic predetermination of an constructed and what part acts on another during develop­ element's individual destiny, nor is there a rigid spatial distribu­ ment. In other words, one should know the localization of the tion of the prerequisite entities inside the zygote, with exactly causes of development. In this respect, the main problem is to scheduled specific roles for each one in development. know whether the cause of the development of a certain part These considerations led Driesch to his classic general con­ of the embryo is localized in this very part (self-differentia­ clusion: The fate of the element is a function of its location tion), or needs the influence of another part, or from the exter­ within the whole. The whole was called by Driesch a "har­ nal environment (induced differentiation). One approach to monic whole," to which he ascribed a teleological property, a solving this problem is to change the local environment: to factor of realization of the purpose of development. This he isolate this part, to combine it with another one, or to change called ente/echia after Aristotle, and defined it as a non-mater­ the external environment, having in mind to reveal the causal ial, non-spatial, metaphysical factor that leads and organizes connections. the development of the embryo, even if its parts are drastically The general problem of embryology, according to Roux, is perturbed, mixed, or deleted. Thus, designating ente/echia as the fo rmation of visible heterogeneity from something invisible, vis vita/is (living force), Driesch gave the name "vitalism" to his the main research task being to reveal the causal connections doctrine (Driesch 1908, 1915) and counterposed it to Roux's between these two states: invisible heterogeneity-visible causal-analytical method. changes. As to the nature of this invisible heterogeneity, Apart from the factual contribution of both schools, the con­ whether it is predetermined (preform ism) or appears de novo frontation arose from differing philosophical backgrounds, (epigenesis), Roux himself hesitated, while other fo llowers of namely, diffe rent definitions of the notion of cause. The vitalis­ the causal-analytical method, such as W. His and R. Lancaster, tic conception developed by Driesch was based on the notion adopted preformism. of the final cause (purpose) (Aristotle's causa (ina/is) while the In 1887, Roux raised the question of whether the develop­ causal-analytical method of Roux was based on the notion of ment of two blastomeres depends on each other. He used a the immediate (acting) cause. Considering ente/echia to be un­ frog embryo at the stage of two blastomeres (two cells) and available to rational analysis, Driesch himself left experimental killed one of them with a red-hot needle. The remaining blas­ science, having discouraged any potential followers from ex­ tomere developed into only half of the embryo, which seemed ploring this direction. The causal-analytical school founded by to support the principle of preformism. Roux, and highly developed by Spemann (1936), attracted However, Hans Driesch performed a similar type of experi­ many fo llowers, and has determined the face of contemporary ment in 1891, mechanically separating two blastomeres from a embryology. sea urchin embryo, which produced a crucial result: From Upon this background, the field conception developed by each blastomere, the whole embryo developed without any Gurwitsch became an alternative challenge to the principle of morphological defect. The development of the whole from a preformism underlying the dominant trend of contemporary bi­ part was called by Driesch "embryonal regulation." After­ ology. wards, it was shown that the technical approach used by Roux was not suitable, because the remaining, killed blastomere pre­ Gurwitsch's Critical Analysis Of the Main vented the other live one from developing properly. Driesch Theoretical Conceptions in Biology performed other experiments, using various organisms such as Gurwitsch's attitude toward the purely descriptive studies in Coelenterata, Echinodermata, and Ascidia, which consisted of morphology (cytology, histology) of that time was clearly neg­ perturbing various parts of an embryo, as well as mixing some ative, especially when such studies were followed by arbitrary of its parts. His results were similar: formation of a normal em­ and speculative interpretations, which was very often the bryo after drastic interventions into its normal development. case. This reflected his negative view toward studies per­ One of the impressive results was the development of a mor­ formed blindly, according to the "let's see what we get" ap­ phologically normal Hydroid embryo, after a single cell was re­ proach. His scheme of research consisted of a comprehensive moved at the 32-cell blastomere stage. deductive analysis from all the facts related to the problem, Such general phenomena were called by Driesch "harmonic inductive construction of a working hypothesis, and then its regu lation." Driesch's harmonic regulation was demonstrated experimental examination. Certainly, this is rather a general on the embryo level, that is, after cleavage of the egg. More re­ (perhaps truistic) scheme of a proper scientific analysis, but cent experiments on intracellular manipulation have shown the history of science shows that the scheme has been carried that suction of about one-fourth to one-third of the zygote cyto­ out only in the really distinguished cases. In Gurwitsch's case, plasm will be followed by the development of a normal em­ his capacity for deductive analysis was remarkable for its wide bryo. scope of included facts related to different fields of biology: Driesch drew important and far-reaching conclusions from Confrontation with these facts led sometimes to unexpected his experiments. He suggested two principal notions: equipo­ conclusions. Such a wide scope was based on his vitalist tentiality and equifinality. The former means that all the ele­ philosophical orientation, which permitted him to foresee a ments (cells) of a whole (embryo) are equal in their potential common principle in quite different biological phenomena. morphogenic capability, each having a full set of possible po­ Correspondingly, the inductive part of Gurwitsch's analysis tencies. The latter means that the final result of the develop­ was intrinsically original and bold. As to the experimental ex­ ment-formation of a highly specific mature organism-may amination of his conceptions, the best example is the discov­ be reached by quite different paths. Thus, the two notions are ery of mitogenetic radiation, which, like the discovery of the very expression of the epigenetic principle, as opposed to Pluto, was done "at the tip of a pen."

40 Summer 1998 21 st CENTURY ca lly is free of contradictions. However, most of the Mendelian � features appeared to be collective phenomena involving many . "r"E cells in their realization. _ A2-Aa- Gurwitsch gives an example of the Mendelian features of t B B smooth and jagged contours of a nettle leaf. Evidently, the real­ t.! _ 2- 3- 1 H ization of such a feature is the result of specifically directed _cz_ca- movements and mitoses of many cells into the corresponding -- leaf contour, but the gene in each of these cells is not able to D1 - D2 - D3 -- guide such actions. The gene "speaks cellular language," while the feature is realized on the supracellular level. Gurwitsch did not see a solution to this contradiction within genetics. Gl Roux and Oriesch had obtained experimental results con­

------� i4 cerning the separate temporal determination of the anterior­ T1 =::�=::---- -��:- =-_ - --'"�4 posterior and the dorsal-ventral axes of the developing amphib­ C9 -- �4 ian limb. Harrison (1 918) had done striking related experiments on the transplanted amphibian limb, and Gurwitsch subjected ------� the theories of the two schools of thought, mechanistic and vi­ tal ist, to a comprehensive analysis on this question of deter­ -- -::::: ==> -- -- mining axes in the embryo. This analysis can be well demon­ 1fi strated with the scheme of a causal matrix (Figure 1) presented in L.V. Beloussov's Introduction to General Embryology (1 980).

--- According to Roux's scheme (Figure 1, I) there are some ------strict causal connections originating from factors localized in the egg (A1, B1, C1, D1), and through intermediate stages 2 and 3, they lead to the respective "final products" projected ------� on a fi nal stage of the matured organism (A4, B4, C4, 04). In ------..... addition to these immediate connections, there may be infl u­

� ences (mainly at the initial stages of development) from the D1 ------external environment (E � A 1) as well as unilateral or bilat­ B1 ------eral influences of different parts of the embryo on each other (B2 � A2; C3�B3). According to this scheme, the develop­ Figure 1 ment cycle can be completely and unequivocally resolved CAUSAL MATRIX OF DISTINGUISHABLE into separate causal connections, and the aim of analysis was COURSES OF DEVELOPMENT thought to be the deciphering of these connections. This con­ Schema of the mechanics of development (Entwick­ ceptual approach to studying the mechanics of development lungsmechanik) proposed by Wilhelm Roux (/). Hans led to some outstanding achievements, the most prominent Oriesch's concept of harmonic regulation is illustrated being the discovery of the phenomenon of embryonal induc­ in the remaining sections. The embryonic material un­ tion by Hans Spemann. dergoes excision (/I), addition (III), and disturbance (IV). However, the phenomena of harmonic embryonal regula­

Source: Beloussov 1980 tion discovered by Oriesch did not conform to the principle of strict causal connections. Indeed, after extraction of some em­ bryonal material (parts B1, C1, shown removed in Figure 1, 11), The revived formal genetics, in the original description by the final structures B4 and C4 are formed nonetheless, al­ Gregor Mendel, highly fascinated Gurwitsch by its logical, al­ though the mature embryo is correspondingly smaller. In con­ most mathematical strictness. However, very soon he under­ trast, the addition of redundant material (double portions of B1 stood that formal genetics, by its definition of the gene, as well and C1 , in Figure 1 ,\� did not lead to doubling of final B4 and as by its "evident" conviction that the whole organism may be C4; and perturbation of the embryonal material did not prevent resolved in full into Mendelian features, could not logically ex­ the development of the final mature embryo (Figure 1, IV). The plain the realization of morphogenesis itself. In his paper, conclusion was that the embryo'S development cannot be re­ "Heredity As a Process of Realization" (1912), Gurwitsch wrote solved fully into a network of separate cause-and-effect con­ that embryogenesis itself turned out to be beyond the consider­ nections, but that the embryo as a whole is responsible for the ation of Mendelian genetics, which treated the transfer of final result. hereditary features as if it were an isolated process apart from Thus, Gurwitsch turned away from the preformist causal­ embryogenesis. The point is that the gene, by definition, is analytical conception of developmental mechanics, and characterized by chemical parameters, determining the mech­ adopted the vitalist conception of the whole as a factor orga­ anism of its action. (One should take into account that all these nizing the "normal" embryogenesis as well as harmonic regu­ considerations were made when nothing was known about the lation. However, while Driesch himself refrained from further structure of the gene, although the same logic is relevant for the research on the whole, which he associated with the agnostic case of modern genetics based on the universal biochemical entelechia, not available to rational analysis, for Gurwitsch this code.) Thus, the mechanism of gene action inside the cell logi- was just a starting point for the development of his own origi-

21st CENTURY Summer 1998 41 nal path of research. This path considered the whole as an ob­ ject for scientific analysis, that is, as a "working" principle.

Elaboration of Quantitative (Statistical) Criteria Confirming the Influence of the Whole on Its Elements Although Driesch's experiments seemed to have substan­ tially shaken the conception of unequivocal causal connec­ tions, Gurwitsch considered it necessary to show the applica­ bility of Driesch's conception as a "working principle" for the analysis of a normal development cycle, without drastic exper­ imental interference. In his 1910 paper "Uber Determination, Normierung und Zufall in der Ontogenese" (On Determina­ tion, Regulation, and Contingency in Ontogenesis), Gurwitsch made a unique analysis of the behavior of elements (cells) dur­ ing the development of geometrically exact and symmetric forms, such as a sea urchin gastrula, the crystalline lens and Figure 2 cornea of a chick embryo, and an onion root. The question ORIENTATION OF CELL AXES IN THE was, whether the exact geometrical, definitive "macroform" of BRAIN VESICLE OF A SHARK the embryo (or the organs) is associated with (and the result of) Th e orientation of the axes of cell nuclei in the mitotic the correspondingly strict and coordinated behavior of the ele­ zone of the shark's brain vesicle has prognostic signifi­ ments. The experiment ("Naturexperiment" according to Gur­ cance. witsch), consisted in the calculation of the numbers of mitoses Source: A.G. Gurwitsch 1914 in both halves of the macroforms, and the comparison of the empirical curves with the theoretical Gaussian curve of normal distribution. can be expressed either by their movement and/or by their The results showed different kinds of distributions in the differentiation) is fairly certain and mathematically simple; (b) empirical curves. Only in the case of the sea urchin gastrula the successive putting in order of the arrangement of the ele­ was the distribution "subnormal," that is, the empirical devia­ ments during the embryo's development (the whole), from tion (difference between the numbers of mitoses in the halves) apparent disorderly dispersion to a more and more regular was less than the standard deviation of the nornial (Gaussian) spatial distribution; (c) "the including," the whole (a geomet­ distribution. In the other cases, the empirical distribution of rically regular contour of the macroform shape), is more pre­ the number of mitoses was either normal or "supranormal." cise than the "included" (the distribution of the elements con­ However, there was no case of mirror symmetry between sin­ stituting this contour at the microlevel). The meaning of this gle mitoses synchronously occurring in both halves. The case is that the geometrical exactness of the macroshape is not of the subnormal distribution of mitoses was designated by constituted by the exactly shaped and correspondingly Gurwitsch as "determination," which means that there is an arranged "included" elements (like that in puzzle mosaic individual causal interaction between the symmetric mitoses. constructions, where each piece is precisely local ized). On In the cases of the subnormal distribution of "microprocesses" the contrary, the whole itself acts as an organizing factor, (mitoses) in the developing macroform, one should accept the providing a particular arrangement of the elements whose in­ presence of immediate causal connections between the mi­ dividual microshapes, not being predetermined, are adapted croprocesses. In contrast, both normal and supranormal distri­ to (dictated by) the macroshape contour at each geometri­ butions of microprocesses, designated by Gurwitsch as "nor­ cally specific point. mating" (from the German Normierung [usually translated as Thus, by elaborating criteria of the potential influence of the standardization or regulation-eds.J) show the absence of the whole as a factor on the elements' behavior during normal em­ immediate causal connections between the microprocesses. bryogenesis, Gurwitsch for the first time attempted to make the Instead, the microprocesses are subordinated to a "single nor­ concept of the whole a working concept, and hence, con­ mating factor," which is common to all. Thus did Gurwitsch verted it from entelechia, which was declared unknowable, to establish the principle of the subordination of "equipotential" a working principle available to strict scientific analysis. elements to a common invariant "normating" factor, as an al­ ternative to the principle of immediate causal interactions be­ Construction of Embryonal Morphogenic Fields tween specifically "predestined" elements. According to Gurwitsch's analysis, therefore, the whole sub­ The actual influence of the "normating" factor on the ele­ ordinates the elements to a single common invariant field fac­ ments is associated with their localization within the devel­ tor. Indeed, such a conception makes sense only when the de­ oping macroform. This notion became a prototype of Gur­ pendence of elements on the field is invariant within a witsch's field principle. In his paper "Heredity As a sufficiently lengthy period of the embryo's development. Realization Process" (1912), Gurwitsch suggested criteria for In his paper, "The Mechanism of Form Inheritance" (1914), the equipotential elements being under the infl uence of the Gurwitsch suggested an invariant law explaining the move­ whole, which is expressed as a field factor. These criteria are ments of embryonal cells over a long period of development. as follows: (a) the dependence of the elements on their loca­ The work was based on a histo-embryological study of the tion within the whole (their fate, according to Driesch, which movements of epithelial cells of the developing shark brain. It

42 Summer 1998 21st CENTURY was the first embryological study in which the movement of ' the epithelial cells within the neural layer was found. The cru- ... cial discovery was that at each moment of the development of the embryo'S cerebral vesicle, the long axes of cells in the in- . . ternal layer of the neural epithelium were not oriented perpen- t' dicularly to the layer surface, but at an angle of 15 to 20 de­ grees. Such orientation turned out to have a prognostic significance: A curve constructed normal to the cell axes at a certain developmental stage, will coincide with the actual shape of the cerebral vesicle at a later stage of development (Figures 2, 3, 4). Gurwitsch compares such a prognostic orien­ tation with the turning of a ship's helm which precedes the turning of the ship itself. On the basis of these data, Gurwitsch formulated the follow­ ing abstract invariant regulation. During the morphogenic process, the moving cells are oriented as if they are attracted by Figure 3 a "surface of force" which was designated by Gurwitsch as "dy­ THEORETICAL CONSTRUCTION COMPARED WITH namically preformed morpha" (DPM). According to this con­ THE OBSERVED FORM OF THE BRAIN VESiClE cept, at each moment, the cells' long axes are oriented along Agreement of the predicted (E-7 F) with the observed the bisector between a perpendicular to the actual surface of (C-7 0). the developing layer, and that of the DPM (Figure 4). If, in the limits of this construction, one analyzed a set of the successive Source: A.G. Gurwitsch 1914 shapes of the developing layer, one could see that some points of the layer are at a minimal distance from the DPM surface, while others are at a maximal distance (Figure 5). According to the DPM conception, the cells in the former area are under a stronger attracting influence of the DPM than the latter. Corre­ spondingly, the actual microscopic picture shows strong polar­ ization of the cell nuclei in the areas close to the DPM surface, and their disorderly arrangement in areas remote from the DPM surface. This polarization is measured by calculating the degree of dispersion of the orientation of cell axes around some mean position (perpendicular to the layer) in both areas (Figure 6), and in some cases strong polarization (intensive attraction by the DPM) and dispersion are evident without special calcula­ tions (Figure 7). II Thus, the "invariant law" describing the behavior (move­ ments) of the cells during a relatively long period of develop­ ment was demonstrated. However, the law was based on only one specific object, its mathematical expression was too com­ plicated and close to a simple interpolation, and its teleologi­ cal inclination was evident, because the law's action was as­ r --�-- sociated with the DPM, which did not exist at the moment of Figure 4 its action. TRAJECTORY OF AN EPITHELIAL CEll (NUClEUS) Gurwitsch elaborated on the field principle in his next pa­ UNDER THE INflUENCE OF THE DYNAMICAllY per, "A Concept of Embryonal Fields" (1922). Logically similar ' PREFORMED MORPHA invariant constructions were made for the case of the morpho­ During the morphogenic process, the moving cells are genesis of the floscule of the chamomile plant (Matricaria oriented as if attracted by a "surfa ce of fo rce, " designat­ chamomilla), and the hats (fruit bodies) of two mushroom ed by Curwitsch as a "dynamically preformed morpha" species. (OPM). Contours of successive stages in the develop­ The mature form of the chamomile floscule has the geo­ ment of an epithelial layer are shown in I, II, and III, metrically regular shape of a stereometric paraboloid. How­ with N representing perpendiculars to the momentary ever, at earlier stages, the developing floscule shape is not so surface of the layer, am the shortest distance from the regular, and only gradually reaches the definitive paraboloid base of the perpendiculars to the OPM surface, and form which can be considered a kind of "dynamically pre­ aaaa the actual cell (nucleus) trajectory, the bisector be­ formed morpha." The behavior of the components of the reg­ tween N and am. ular paraboloid, which are single flowers consisting of proxi­ mal receptacles and distal corollas, is quite remarkable. Source: A.G. Gurwitsch 1914 Evidently, the lower flowers of the floscule ("the included") must grow faster in order to allow the formation of the regular

21 st CENTURY Summer 1998 43 paraboloid shape of the floscule as a whole (lithe including"). ing of their parts (Figure 8, Sa, Sb). Gurwitsch's invariant law The growth of each single flower results from the growth of is expressed by the DPM paraboloid force surface, now des­ the parts of both its corolla and receptacle. It was found that ignated a "field," which attracts the elements (single flowers) the accretions to each part are not strictly determined, and along radial trajectories so that the direction and accretion can be quite different, but that they are coordinated in such a values of each individual flower are the function of its local­ way that the resulting growth velocity of the flower as a ization in the field. whole is strictly regular, securing the paraboloid shape. Some individual variations in the flower's growth velocity lead to compensatory bending of the flower's axes, and the stretch-

A B

Figure 5 INFLUENCE OF THE DPM ON VARIOUS POINTS OF THE SURFACE LAYER The initial stage of development is shown in A, and the fo llowing phases, I, II, and III, are shown in B. Va rious points on the surface of the epithelial layer are desig­ nated a, b, and c. Va rious points on the OPM surfa ce are identified as a7, b7, c7, a2, b2, and c2. The direc­ tion of maximal influence of the OPM is indicated at I each stage by M. Figure 6 In the initial stage, point a has one predominant M di­ DISPERSION OF CELL AXIS ORIENTATIONS IN THE rection (a�a 7), while c shows two opposed M direc­ EPITHELIAL LAYER OF THE BRAIN VESICLE tions (c�c7 and c�c2). In the fo llowing stages, I� Image I shows an area distant from the OPM surface II�III, the observed point eventually cqmes under a and displays maximal dispersion of the axes of the cell single M influence: the distance III�M is significantly nuclei fro m lines normal to the surfa ce of the layer. shorter than any other radial line from III. Near the OPM (Image II), the dispersion is minimal.

Source: A.G. Gurwitsch 1914 Source: A.G. GUlwitsch 1914

Figure 7 POLARIZATION AND DISPERSION OF CELL AXES AS A FUNCTION OF INFLUENCE OF THE DPM Images I and II show two regions of the epithelial layer that diffe r in their distance from the OPM surface and correspond to the different coordinates in Figure 5. Im­ age I corresponds to point a (Figure SA-minimal dis­ ta nce from the OPM in the direction a�a 7). The polar­ ization and slanting arrangement of the cell nucleus axes, oriented in the M direction (maximal influence of the OPM), is clearly recognizable. Image II corresponds to point c (Figure SA-equal distance of the point from the opposite sides of the OPM surfa ce c� c7�c2) and shows a maximal dispersion of axes.

Source: A.G. Gurwitsch 1914 I JI

44 Summer 1998 21st CENTURY The morphogenesis Figure 8 of two kinds of mush­ MORPHOGENESIS OF THE room is described by CHAMOMILE FlOSCULE another ki nd of field Drawings 7, 2, 2a, 3, and 3a show structure. At the early contours of the chamomile floscule stage, the developing in successive stages of development, fru it body of a gymno­ with increasingly precise geometriza­ carpus mushroom (Ma­ tion of the fo rm toward a paraboloid: rasm ius sp.) consists of the fo rm is partially (2, 2a) and then a disorderly bundle of fu lly (3, 3a) inscribable in a parabola. hyphae whose edges Images 4 and 5 show sagittal cuts define the correspond­ through the structure at two succes­ ingly loose and indefi­ sive stages of development. Th e ma­ nite contours of the ture floscule (5) is shown with mor­ body. As it develops, phologically different individual the edges of the hyphae flowers on opposite sides; 5a shows are "brushed up" and, the contour of a basal flower from the accordingly, the con­ leftside of the "normal" shape, and 5b tou rs become more is a flower from the right side with geometrically regular "distorted" shape. Both look like they (Figure 9). have been stretched to the surface of In the case of an an­ the circumscribing paraboloid; by giocarpus mushroom, reaching it, they contribute to the geo­ the developing fruit metrical preciseness of the whole body at the early stage floscule. A geometric scheme of the also consists of a disor­ development process is shown in 6. derly plexus of hy­ phae. As it develops, a Source: A.G. Gurwitsch 1930 geometrically regular arched line looms, lo- cated not upon the up- per edges of the hyphae, as in the case of the Marasmius, but Figure 9 below the edges of the hyphae. The next developmental step MORPHOGENESIS OF THE displays loosening, and finally, falling off of the edges of the GYMNOCARPUS MUSHROOM hyphae that are above the contour to be formed (Figure 10). Successive stages of development The morphogenic field in this case is described by the follow­ are shown in 7, 3, and 4, while 2 is ing structure: If the plane projection of the mushroom's hat a schematic of the arrangement of shape is considered, there are two point field sources l<;Jcated at the fu nga l threads (hyphae). The the edges of the definitive form of the hat body (Figure 11). gross morphology of the mushroom These are the sources of forces, whether attractive or repulsive, is shown in 4a. which decrease in proportion to distance and are summed up according to the parallelogram rules of force composition. Source: A.G. GUlwitsch 1930 Hence, a set of equipotential surfaces can be obtained, one of them corresponding to the major value of the vertical force component (Figure 11, dotted line). This arched line corre­ sponds to the distal surface of the Marasmius mushroom hat, along which the edges of the hyphae are "brushed up." It also corresponds to the barrier line above which the edges of the hy­ phae fa ll away in the angiocarpus mushroom. This field con­ struction is quite different from the concept of the DPM used in the case of the shark brain vesicles and the chamomile floscule 2 3 morphogenesis, because now the definitive forms of the mush­ rooms' hats do not correspond to DPM attracting-force surfaces, but are the equipotential field surfaces originating from point sources. Another important aspect is that this kind of field does not have the teleological coloration of the previous DPM con­ structions and can be considered a causal factor. The next important step in the construction of the mor­ 4a phogenic field was made by A.W. Anikin, in studies under the 4 direct guidance of Gurwitsch (A.W. Anikin 1929). These stud-

21 st CENTURY Summer 1998 45 ies were an analysis of changes in the shape of nuclei of mes­ the geometrical center of the section transverse to the axis, is a enchymal cells during the development of the triton phalanx point source of a repulsive isotropic field, acting on each point cartilage. In the transverse section of the phalanx, various of the surface of the nucleus. Insofar as mitoses occur mainly shapes of the nuclei are distributed with a certain regularity. In along the axis, and the nuclei move centrifugally, the momen­ the center of the section, the nuclei are of round shape, which tary velocity (v) of each point of the nucleus is inversely pro­ changes to an increasingly curved one (bean shape), depend­ portional to the distance of the point from the source, and can ing on distance from the center. However, beyond a certain be expressed by the differential equation: critical distance toward the periphery, the shape again be­ comes round. The range of forms of the nucleus can be de­ d R= K = V scribed by a law which is a function of location relative to the dT R' phalanx axis of symmetry. The law is based on the idea that where R is, in general, coordinates of the given point and, in particular, the point's distance from the field source; t is time, and K is a coefficient of proportionality. Integration of this equation gives an expression combining the distance traversed by the point and the time of travel. If the initial distance be­ tween the point and field source is R, and the point moves for an additional segment r in the centrifugal direction, this will take time t',which is associated with Rand r by:

2 2Kt= r + 2Rr.

On the basis of this equation, a graph can be constructed of the dependence of the velocity of each point of the nucleus surface on its distance from the center, and hence it is possible to infer and construct theoretical shapes of the nuclei, as a fu nction of their distance from the point source of the field (Figure 12). These theoretical shapes are highly similar to the actual morphological appearance of the nuclei in histological preparations (Figure 13). The deduced formula of postulated field action describes very well the observed phenomenon in the morphogenesis of the triton phalanx. There is a remarkable

Figure 11 MORPHOGENIC FIELD OF THE DISTAL SURFACE OF THE MUSHROOM HAT If the plane projection of the mushroom's hat shape is considered, there are two point fie ld sources located at Figure 10 the edges of the defin itive fo rm of the hat body. These MORPHOGENESIS OF THE are the sources of fo rces, whether attractive or repul­ ANGIOCARPUS MUSHROOM sive, which decrease in proportion to distance and are The developing fruit body at the early stage again con­ summed up according to the parallelogram rules of sists of a disorderly plexus of hyphae. As it develops, a fo rce composition. Hence, a set of equipotential sur­ geometrica lly regular arched line looms, located not fa ces can be obtained, one of them corresponding to upon the upper edges of the hyphae, as in the case of the major value of the vertical fo rce component (dotted the Marasmius (see Figure 9), but below the edges of the line). This arched line corresponds to the distal surface hyphae. The next developmental step displays loosen­ of the Marasmius mushroom hat, along which the edges ing, and finally, fa lling off of the edges of the hyphae of the hyphae are "brushed up. " It also corresponds to that are above the contour to be fo rmed. Low magnifi­ the barrier line above which the edges of the hyphae cation (I) and stronger magnification (II). fa ll away in the angiocarpus mushroom.

Source: A.G. Gurwitsch 193 Source: A.G. Gurwitsch 1922

46 Summer 1998 21 st CENTURY I

Figure 12 THE MORPHOGENIC FIELD IN THE DEVELOPMENT OF THE TRITON PHALANX CARTILAGE Changes in the shape of cell nuclei of mesenchymal cells occur with regularity during the development of the triton phalanx cartilage. In the center of a transverse section of the phalanx, the nuclei are round, but they change to bean shape with increasing distance fr om the center. Beyond a certain critical distance toward the pe­ riphery, the shape again becomes round. Th e distance r tra velled by a point on the surface of the cell nucleus depends on the initial distance R be­ tween this point and the field source. Th is hyperbolic fu nction of the second degree is shown in I. The corre­ sponding calculated changes in the fo rm of the nucleus, as the nucleus becomes more distant from the point field source (1-72-73-74), are shown in II. Drawing 11/ shows changes in the nuclear shape in the centra l (1-72) and peripheral (3-74-75) areas of influence of the fi eld source.

Source: A.G. Gurwitsch 1930 Figure 13 CHANGES IN THE SHAPE OF THE NUCLEUS regularity in the gradual changing of the shape of the nucleus, ACTUALLY OBSERVED IN from round to bean-like, but then, after a further small but crit­ HISTOLOGICAL PREPARATIONS ical increment of distance, back again to round. A sagittal section is shown in A, while B, C, 0, and E are Two more studies testing the applicability of the field princi­ transverse sections. ple to the problem of cytodifferentiation during development were carried out, one by Lydia Felicine-Gurwitsch, Gur­ Source: A.G. Gurwitsch, Histologische Grundlagen der 6iologie, 1930 witsch's wife, and the other by Gurwitsch himself. The object of the former study, titled " Appl ication of the while in the peripheral part, the cells first differentiate and then Field Principle for Analysis of the Processes of Embryonal Dif­ grow (Figure 14). Such varying relationships between rates of 'ferentiation" (1924), was associated with the development of growth and differentiation in different cells are a function of the amphibian retina. The main question was whether there the distance of the cell from the center of the retina (exit of the are any components in the process of cytodifferentiation which optic nerve). depend on the coordinates (relative to the axes of symmetry) of While in the previous models, morphogenic field action was the differentiating cells within the whole retina layer. Accord­ expressed in cell movements, changes in the shape of nuclei, ingly, histogenesis in the central and peripheral parts of the and other "kinematic" effects, here the field action means di­ retina were compared. It was found that the growth of the am­ recting the cell either to continue growing or to start differenti­ phibian retina proceeds by the addition to the retina layer of ating, two processes of quite different character. In other new cells from the marginal mitotic zones. These young cells words, in the previous models the "mechanism" of the sug­ are much smaller than the mature rod-cells to which they will gested field action, either attraction or repulsion, was more im­ be converted as a result of differentiation. Correspondingly, the mediately realized through the observed cell movements, cells at the central part of the retina are older and larger. Thus, while in the case of the differentiation of the retina, the field maturation includes both growth and differentiation. At a cer­ was seen to be a factor having a much deeper involvement in tain stage of development, a wave of differentiation passes cellular structure and function. throughout the cells of the whole retina. Therefore, cells in the In a second field model dealing with cytodifferentiation, Gur­ central part of the retina first grow, and then differentiate, witsch analyzed the process of mammalian spermatogenesis

21 st CENTURY Summer 1998 47 cr

II

Figure 15 CONSTRUCTION OF THE MORPHOGENIC FIELD DESCRIBING THE DIFFERENTIATION OF THE HEAD OF A SPERM CEll Gurwitsch's model is based on the idea that the devel­ a b oping sperm cell is under the influence of some external field whose point source rotates around the cell. The Figure 14 dra wing shows three successive stages of differentiation ROD CELLS IN THE RETINA OF A YOUNG FROG of a sperm cell. Fully fo rmed ra t and mouse sperm cells JUST AFTER METAMORPHOSIS are shown in Rand M. A rod cell from the central area of the retina is shown in

a; rod cells from the periphery of the retina are repre­ Source: A.G. Gurwilsch 1927 sented in b (same magnification).

Source: A.G. Gurwilsch 1930 sperm, amphibian retina), or it can be vectoral (mushroom hats). However, in spite of their mixed character, these models are united by the same fundamental principle: A single invari­ (1927). Differentiation during spermatogenesis combines both ant law describes the development of a specific part of the em­ drastic changes in general cell morphology and complicated bryo as a complete macroform during a relatively long period. intracellular movements of the cell organelles, such as centri­ However, in spite of the elegance and descriptive capacity oles, Golgi apparatus, and so on. Both changes in cell morphol­ of the field models, Gurwitsch himself realized the shortcom­ ogy and the displacement of organelles are perfectly described ings of his primary field conception, emphasizing that this ap­ by Gurwitsch's model, which is based on the idea that the de­ proach was only the first step toward its further development. veloping sperm is under the influence of some external field First, although the field models are effective in their ability to whose point source rotates around the cell (Figure 15). describe events during a sufficiently long developmental pe­ The models based on Gurwitsch's primary conceptibn of an riod, none of them can serve as an invariant principle for the embryonal morphogenic field, present a mixed collection of whole ontogenetic cycle. For example, a particular formula of abstract constructions. Indeed, the model field can be either the "dynamically preformed morpha" can fairly well describe attractive (the dynamically preformed morpha of cerebral vesi­ the development of the shark's cerebral vesicles, but it is not fit cles and the chamomile floscule), or repulsive (Triton pha­ for the description of any fu rther development of the same lanx). Also, its descriptive capacity can work independently, species. In other words, the model may be suitable for a period whether attraction or repulsion is ascribed to it (mushroom of development from A to B, but the next period from B to C hats), or the field surface is of paraboloidal or other regular will need another model. Second, the objects analyzed by the fo rm. It can originate from point sources (Triton phalanx, models are rather artificially and arbitrarily delimited from the

48 Summer 1998 21 st CENTURY whole embryo. Thus, the only, though highly so, valuable applied to the molecular level was designated by Gurwitsch as principle of these models was the invariant postulate, and the "polyreactivity" (A.G. Gurwitsch 1944). Essentially, this means next intention of Gurwitsch was to use it for an adequate de- that there is no predetermination of intracellular compart­ scription of intracellular processes. ments: The subcellular entities behave according to their coor- dinates in the whole cell which, hence, presents a dynamic a." Molecular Prerequisites of the Field Theory: network (i n correspondence with the coord i nate network), Use of Basic Principles of the Field Theory which determines the fate of the molecules locally involved For Processes Occurring at Molecular Level ("structural process"). From the beginning of his scientific activity, Gurwitsch These views were supported by experiments in which the ap- showed interest in the biological processes occurring at the plication of cooling, starvation, and narcosis to ferti lized eggs molecular level, which was exceptional for a histologist at caused chaotic movements of intracellular organelles, such as that time. His first work in this direction-which can be con- centrosomes, mitotic spindles, and so on (A.G. Gurwitsch sidered one of the first studies of molecular biology-con- 1944). Gurwitsch concluded that the harmonic movements ob­ cerned regulational phenomena in the protoplasm of amphib- served in a normal cell are caused by a certain factor related to ian and echinoderm eggs, revealed by means of the the cell as a whole, and that this factor is not destroyed or inac- centrifugation method, ap- tivated by the centrifugation plied for the first time to liv- method, which destroys the ing things (A.G. Gurwitsch visible intracellular structures. 1904, 1905, 1908). The main Therefore, space-time con- finding was that, although all nections between separate in- the contents of the eggs were tracellular structures or reshuffled by centrifugation, processes are not the result of and all the visible structures any properties of the struc- destroyed, the fi rst stages of tures themselves. In general, development, cleavage and the experimental factors caus- blastula formation, pro- ing such chaotic movements ceeded. The visible structures of the intracellular organelles, in the cytoplasm were usually such as starvation, cooling, restored, but often develop- and narcosis, directly or indi- ment proceeded even with- rectly decrease the intensity out such restoration. Gur- of energy metabolism. For witsch's conclusion was that Gurwitsch, this was the start- when destruction of the struc- ing point for a crucial leap of ture of the cytoplasm is fol- thought, that the metabolic lowed by its restoration, it is energy is necessary for the re-created from certain amor- maintenance of this intracel- phous (invisible) materials, lular invisible structurality. which are carriers of (are re- Further development of this sponsible for) living expres- idea led to the conception of sions. Gurwitsch proposed two distinct kinds of molecu- that, in the case of reversible lar associations in living sys- perturbations of the initial in- From archives of L. Beloussov tems. tracellular molecular organi- The Gurwitsch laboratory at Simferopol (7923-7924). Gur- The associations of the first zation, certain "dynamic con- witsch is first row, second fr om left; his wife is third from left. kind are stable molecular for- ditions" in the cytoplasm mations constituting visible responsible for the organizational specificity remain undis- and invisible structures, in which the molecules are bound to­ turbed, and restore the damaged molecular organization using gether by means of ordinary chemical bonds: covalent, ionic, deliberately different material (molecules). hydrogen, and Van der Waalsian. In order to destroy these Such "interchangeability" of the molecules participating in structures, external energy must be applied to break the bonds. the morphogenic processes is the expression of the same phe- The associations of the second type are unstable molecular nomenon of equipotentiality described by Driesch, now ob- constellations, in which the molecules are not connected to served at the molecular level. The specificity of the observed each other by any of the above-mentioned bonds, but their as­ processes (in spite of the destruction of the structures normally sociation within the constellation is supported by a continu­ participating in them) realized through the involvement of ous infl ux of energy. This means that if for any reason the en­ other molecules, impelled Gurwitsch to designate the cyto- ergy influx ceases, the constellations immediately dissociate. plasm as the "structured process" which underlay his "physio- Such labile molecular associations, within which the mole­ logical theory of protoplasm." The application of the regula- cules are not bound by any known chemical bonds, and tional principle of Driesch (harmonic regulation) to the whose existence depends on a continuous influx of metabolic molecular level meant that a single cell should be considered energy, was designated by Gurwitsch as "unbalanced molec­ as the whole. Accordingly, the notion of equipotentiality when ular constellations." The word "unbalanced" is perhaps an in-

21st CENTURY Summer 1998 49 H =e::n c

adequate English translation of a Russian equivalent, which required amount of accumulated potential energy (position en­ was first introduced and widely used by Gurwitsch, who had ergy). Moreover, the involvement of a high number of protein no opportunity to publish the material in English. molecules in a constellation, and the relationship to the entire Similar ideas concerning the unbalanced state of the living continuum create the conditions for the fo rmation of common system were developed independently by E. Bauer (1935), energetic levels, permitting the migration of common energy who considered the general intrinsic property of the protein within the constellations, with the possibility of its summation molecules of the living system to be a "steady unbalanced at certain points of the continuum. Certainly, the area of such state," which is expressed in their deformations. Accordingly, energy migration had to be within supra-molecular distances. the metabolic energy is transformed into a certain "structural These considerations shaped the experimental approaches energy" in deformed (structurally altered) protein molecules, aimed to reveal the accumulated potential energy. which is utilized for the realization of functions of the organ­ The first approach, realized by Anna A. Gurwitsch (1 947), ism. An adequate experimental examination of this hypothesis consisted of experiments on protein solutions in which the was seen by Bauer as an attempt to reveal this structural en­ protein molecules were oriented by applying physical factors, ergy, which is released as the living system dies. such as a constant flow of the solution, or a weak electric Gurwitsch often indicated the closeness of his and Bauer's field, or a strong magnetic field. In the first two cases, a so­ views on the unbalanced state of the living system, and em­ called secondary mitogenetic radiation was detected from phasized Bauer's priority in the general elaboration of this con­ both the flowing protein solution and the solution under the ception. However, there was an important difference in the influence of the electric field. The emission of secondary mi­ representation of a substrate for the realization of the principle togenetic radiation is known to be a consequence of energy of the unbalanced state in living systems. According to Bauer, migration along oriented molecules (A.G. Gurwitsch 1932, the state relates to the internal (deformed) structure of.the pro­ 1944; A.G. and L.D. Gurwitsch 1931, 1945, 1948). The pro­ tein molecules themselves, while Gurwitsch, on the basis of tein solutions in the experiments using the magnetic field strong evidence, came to the conclusion that not only separate were then exposed to infrared radiation. This resulted in an molecules, but actually the labile molecular constellations, are emission of mitogenetic radiation from the solution. This can in the unbalanced state, forming the entire molecular contin­ be explained by the fact that the infrared energy brought to uum throughout the cell. the protein solution was shifted up to the ultraviolet level \the The evidence Gurwitsch used to come to such a conclusion mitogenetic radiation). The general suggestion from these ex­ related to the phenomenon of degradational mitogenetic radia­ periments was that the above-mentioned physical factors tion (A.G. and LD. Gurwitsch 1937a; A.G. Gurwitsch 1937b). caused a spatial orientation of the protein molecules in solu­ Unbalanced constellations need a continuous influx of meta­ tion, leading to the formation of common energetic levels, bolic energy for their existence, and at any moment possess the providing energy migration and summation.

50 Summer 1998 21 st CENTURY The second approach was associated with the problem mal, cellular, and molecular. The first drafts of the new con- ' stated first by E. Bauer (1935) and then by Gurwitsch (1937b), ception of the vectorial biological field were outlined by Gur- of reve31ing the energy spent for the support of the unbal­ witsch in autumn 1941 , in besieged Leningrad, and the com- anced state of the living system. This problem was brilliantly pleted theory was published in 1944 in Moscow, and then in . '_ 1947 in Leyden. a addressed via the discovery of the phenomenon of degrada­ tional mitogenetic radiation (A.G. Gurwitsch 1937a, 1937b). To be continued

The difference between Bauer's point of view (the unstable References ------­ state relates to individual protein molecules, and the meta­ AW. Anikin, 1929. "Das Morphogene Feld der Knorpelbildung, oW. Roux' Archiv fur Entwicklungsmechanik, Vol. 114, pp. 549-577. bolic energy is expended for their deformation), and that of E. Bauer, 1935. Th eoretical Biology. Moscow: USSR Institute of Experimen­ Gurwitsch (the unbalanced state relates to the molecular con­ tal Medicine Publishing House. stellations and the metabolic energy is expended for their cur­ L.V. Beloussov, 1980. Introduction to General Embryology. Moscow: Moscow University Publishing House. In Russian. rent support), determined the experimental design. H. Driesch, 1908. "Studien uber das Regulationsvermogen der Organis­ It was suggested that this hypothetical energy might be cap­ men," Archiv fur Entwicklungsmechanik, Vol. 26. tured in the form of mitogenetic radiation. According to Gur­ -- , 1915. Vitalism: Its History and System. In Russian; the authorized translation from German, by A.G. Gurwitsch. witsch's conception, the release of the energy accumulated in L.D. Felicine-Gurwitsch, 1924. "Die Verwertung des Feldbegriffes zur the unbalanced molecular constellations can be precipitated Analyse der Embryonaler Differenzierungsvorgiinge," W. Roux' Archiv either by stopping the influx of metabolic energy (followed by fUr Entwicklungsmechanik, Vol. 101, pp. 40-52. A.A. Gurwitsch, 1947. "Attempt to Construct a Model of Non-balanced Mole­ a collapse of the unbalanced constellations, with the subse­ cular Constellations and Degradational Radiation," in: Papers on Mito­ quent release of the potential energy), or by "mechanical" de­ genesis and the Th eory of the Biological Field, edited by A.G. Gurwitsch (Moscow: USSR Academy of Medical Sciences Publishing House), pp. struction of the constellations (followed by the destruction of 92-1 01 . In Russian. the common energetic levels, with subsequent release of the A.G. Gurwitsch, 1904. "Ober die Zerstorbarkeit und Restitutionsfiihigkeitdes potential energy). Such a combination of "metabolic" and Protoplasmas in Echinodermeneiern und Amphibieneiern," Verhi!iltnis der Anatomischen Gesellschaft, 146-151. "mechanical" approaches is not applicable to Bauer's con­ --,19 05. "Ober die Zerstorbarkeit und Restitutionsfiihigkeit des Proto­ ception, which is compatible only with the former one. plasmas der Amphibieneier," Anatomischer Anzeiger, Vol. 27, pp. 481- The results strongly confirmed Gurwitsch's conception. All 497. --, 1908. "Regulation Phenomena in the Protoplasm," Proceedings of of the animal and plant objects studied displayed a short the SI. Petersburg Naturalist Society, Vol. 37, pp. 140-189. In Russian. burst of mitogenetic radiation in the case of both metabolic -- , 1910. "Ober Determination, Normierung und Zufall in der Ontoge­ (sharp cooling or light narcosis), and mechanical degrading nese," W. Roux' Archiv fUr Entwicklungsmechanik, Vol. 30, pp. 133-193. -- , 1912. "Die Vererbung als Verwirklichungsvorgang," Biologische factors (centrifugation or weak alternating current). Impor­ Zentralblatt, Vol. 32, pp. 458-486. tantly, if any of the degrading factors was immediately fol­ -- , 191 4."Der Vererbungsmechanismus der Form," W. Roux' Archiv fUr lowed by any other, it did not cause additional mitogenetic Entwicklungsmechanik, Vol. 39, pp. 516-577. -- O , 1922. " ber den Begriff des Embryonalen Feldes," W. Roux' Archiv radiation. This means that all the degrading factors used in fUr Entwicklungsmechanik, Vol. 51 , pp. 383-415. the experiments had the same target: unbalanced molecular --,19 27."Weiterbildung und Verallgemeinerung des Feldbegriffes," W. Roux' Archiv fur Entwicklungsmechanik, Vol. 112, pp. 433-454. constellations. If the constellations were already destroyed by Festschrift fOr H. Driesch. any of the above factors, repeated appl ication of the factor -- , 1930. Die His tologischen Grundlagen der Biologie. Jena: G. Fis­ wou ld have no effect. The degrading action of the factors cher Verlag. -- , 1932. Die Mitogenetische Strahlung. Berlin: G. Fischer Verlag. used was fully reversible: After the cessation of the factors' -- , 1937a. Mitogenetic Analysis of the Excita tion of the Nervous Sys- action, a fu ll physiological restoration of the unbalanced tem. Amsterdam. state was observed. Gurwitsch's conclusion was that the un­ -- , 1937b. "Degradational Radiation from the Central Nervous Sys­ tem," Arkhiv Biologicheskikh Nauk, Vol. 45, pp. 53-57. In Russian. balanced state of the intracellular molecular substrate was as­ --, 1944. The Th eory of the Biological Field. Moscow: Sovetskaya sociated with the protein constellations, rather than with in­ Nauka Publishing House. dividual protein molecules. -- , 1947. "Une Theorie du Champ Biologique Cellulaire," Bibliotheca Biotheoretica, ser. D, Vol. 11, pp. 1-149. The influx of metabolic energy is an absolute condition for A.G. Gurwitsch and L.D. Gurwitsch, 1931 . "Analysis of Secondary Mitoge­ the existence of the unbalanced molecular constellations. netic Radiation," Arkhiv Biologicheskikh Nauk, Vol. 31 , pp. 85-87. In Russian. Their existence is organized by a certain dynamic factor -- , 1937. "Degradational Mitogenetic Radiation," Bulleten Experim en­ whose action, although connected with a continuous utiliza­ tal'noy Biologii i Meditsiny, Vol. 4, pp. 459-460. In Russian. tion of metabolic energy, is quite independent. Since pre­ --,19 45. Mitogenetic Radiation: Physico-chemical Basis and Applica­ Medgiz Publishing House. In Russian. cisely this factor determines the specific orientation of the tions in Biology and Medicine. -- , 1948. Introduction to the Doctrine of Mitogenesis. Moscow: USSR protein molecules within the constellation, and the orienta­ Academy of Medical Sciences Publishing House. In Russian. tion is connected with the specific spatial arrangement of the R. Harrison, 1918. "Experiments on the Development of the Forelimb of Am­ blystoma, a Self-differentiating Equipotential System," Journal of Exper­ protein molecules relative to certain coord inates, this dy­ imental Zo ology, Vol. 25, p. 413. namic factor can be defined as a field factor. Essentially, the W. Roux, 1895. Gesammelte Abhandlungen uber Entwicklungsmechanik action of the "orienting" field factor should be expressed as der Organismen. Vols. 1 and 2. Leipzig. H. Spemann, 1936. Experimentelle Beitrage zu einer Theorie der Entwick­ limitations it imposes on the free chaotic movements of the lung. Berlin. molecules. Hence, the action of the field factor is expressed H. Spemann and H. Mangold, 1924. "Ober Induction von Embryonalanlage in a certain vectorization of the chaotic movement of the pro­ durch Implantation artfremder Organisatoren," Archiv fur Entwick­ lungsmechanik, Vol. 100, pp. 599-638. tein molecules. For This was the basis for the new general conception based on further reading ------­ L. Beloussov, 1997. "Life of Alexander G. Gurwitsch and his relevant contri­ the same principles, which could now combine the events oc­ bution to the theory of morphogenetic fields," InternationalJournal of curring at all three levels of biological organization: organis- Developmental Biology, Vol. 41, pp. 771 -779.

21st CENTURY Summer 1998 51 Remarks on Gurwitsch's Method

by Lyndon H. LaRouche, Jr.

An economist comments on the importance of Gurwitsch 's method fo r physical economYt in particular, the spread of pandemics like AIDS.

www.arttoday.com "Modern science has known, since the collaboration of Luca Pacioli and Leonardo da Vinci, that healthy living processes are characterized by a kind of harmonic order­ ing. " Here, Leonardo's star-of-Bethlehem and other plants.

have just read a review of Gurwitsch's work presented by rivation of Kepler's astrophysical laws coherent with the con­ one of the great biologist's former students. Gurwitsch's struction of the circle's Golden Section, a construction coher­ I method has striking resemblances to the notion of living ing with the uniqueness of the five Platonic solids within the processes which I developed as a criticism of Mathematical ordinary discrete-manifold space of faith in naive sense­ Biophysics of Chicago's Nicholas Rashevsky, at the close of perception. It is demonstrable, that, excepting the extremes of the 1940s, a criticism which aided me greatly in effecting my astrophysics and microphysics, any process which exhibits discoveries in economic science. these harmonic morphogenetic characteristics is either a living This is, I think, no mere coincidence; at the beginning of process or a special case of activity by a living process. the present century, the Pasteur Institute exerted important in­ This was emphasized already in Plato's dialogues, the fluence on certain leading circles of Russian science, both in Timaeus most emphatically, but the appreciation of such har­ biology and the nuclear physics of fission. The case of Acade­ monic orderings antedates Plato in such respects as the origi­ mician Vernadsky is exemplary. Also, although my friends nal design of the Athens Acropolis and the early forms of and I have so far failed to uncover the relevant aspects of the well-tempering in classical Greek music. This standpoint was Pasteur Institute's work, some associated with that Institute revived, most notably, by Pasteur's work on optical activity of showed variously the direct and implicit influence of Bern­ living processes. Advances in quality of spectroscopy's instru­ hard Riemann's method, in their approaches to biological ments have lately promoted the special ized form of optical and biogeochemical processes. My own work has also been biophysics known most commonly as "nonlinear spec­ influenced very strongly by Bernhard Riemann, notably in troscopy." treating the processes of social reproduction (Leibnizian The eruption of the global pandemic, AIDS, has placed a physical economy) as coherent with the principles otherwise great importance on study of the spectroscopy of the mitotic characteristic of living processes. processes, work in which Gurwitsch was a true pioneer. However, the practical implications are much broader, in­ What Is Life? cluding relevance to cancer research, and studies of the dis­ Despite the recent hegemony of molecular biology, modern eases of aging of tissues more generally. A.G. Gurwitsch was science has known, since the collaboration of Luca Pacioli and a true pioneer in development of the optical biophysics Leonardo de Vinci, that healthy living processes are character­ which promises now to dominate future leading work in bi­ ized by a kind of harmonic ordering, consistent with the de- ology.

52 Summer 1998 21st CENTURY The standpoint in mathematical physics most appropriate to these lines of research is that of Carl Gauss, and such among his scientific heirs as Dirich­ let, Weierstrauss, Riemann, and Cantor. Where the method of Pacioli, Leonardo, and Kepler, was derived from Nicholas of Cusa's rigorous treatment of isoperimetry in such locations as his De Docta Ignorantia, Gauss reworked the leading accomplishments of Kepler, Leibniz, et al., superseding simply isoperimetric notions of least actfon with a notion of conic, self-similar-spiral ac­ tion as the elementary form of least ac­ tion in the universe. The work on mathe­ matical physics by Gauss, Weierstrass, and Riemann, must be examined from the vantage point of a synthetic (radi­ cally constructive) geometry, without Ca rl Friedrich Gauss (7777- 7855) Bernhard Riemann (7826-7 866) employment of the axiomatic-deductive forms of mathematics of a (Cartesian) discrete manifold. described by a Gauss-Riemann construction of the complex This Gauss-Riemann approach accounts uniquely for the domain. common harmonic orderings in astrophysics and living Such was the standpoint of my own discoveries ofthe early processes, and implicitly demands that the microphysical do­ 1950s. A brief summary of key points indicates the relevance main be treated from this same methodological standpoint. A of my own work to a reading of Gurwitsch's work. mapping of the principal features of the microphysical domain The point of departure for my discoveries was my rejection from this standpoint is already in progress, with some experi­ of Norbert Wiener's definition of "negentropy" in human be­ mental proofs of this already supplied. This obliges us to sup­ havior and "information" transmitted by this behavior. Like plant the notions of "negentropy" associated with the stand­ Immanuel Kant's Critique of judgment, Wiener's approach point in statistical mechanics characteristic of the work of insisted that true synthetic judgment (creative discovery) was Boltzmann et aI., with the definition of "negentropy" first elabo­ accomplished by an unknowable process. Wiener went fur­ rated by Paciol i and Leonardo, and asserted by Kepler. The ther, to insist that such synthetic judgment was nonexistent. Gauss-Riemann standpoint in radically constructive physical Since the progressive evolutionary development of the bio­ geometry of conic self-similar-spiral least action, provides us a sphere exhibited a characteristically creative process of mor­ vastly more adequate view of this matter. phogenetic development, and since the increase of demo­ This also signifies fundamental, ontological as well as graphic potential of the human species exactly paralleled methodological flaws in the assumption in the definitions of such evolution within the biosphere, the cause of human cre­ "cybernetics," derived from Boltzmann, et aI., as supplied by ative thought must be a special sort of development of the Norbert Wiener, et al. If the astrophysical is ordered as same kind of negentropic principle characteristic of living Gauss's reconstruction of Kepler's laws indicates, then the processes. That is, that the physiology of the human brain's elementary laws of the universe are "negentropic," not "en­ function must provide the efficient substrate for higher mani­ tropic" in form. Similarly, the discrete manifold is to be festations of human intell igence. viewed not as ontologically elementary, but as a projection In other words, mentation must not only be rooted in the of a higher-order continuous manifold, such that ontological mechanisms of reproduction of cells, but must be subordi­ elementarity lies in the physical geometry of a continuum nated to the same, subsuming morphogenetic principles of

EDITOR'S NOTE LaRouche 's remarks were written on March 15, 1987, when put into forced bankruptcy, won a lawsuit against the fe deral gov­ Michael Upkin d's work on on Alexander G. Gurwitsch was being ernment for the illegal shutdown, and subsequently, when the gov­ discussed and edited for publication in Fusion magazine. The de­ ernment appealed that decision, the publications won the appeal. lay in publishing th ese comments, and the Up kind work, has a his­ Federal bankruptcy judge Martin V. B. Bostetter, Jr. , ruled that the tory of its own. government had "acted in bad fa ith, " and had perpetrated "a fra ud On April 23, 1987, Fusion, a publication of the nonprofit Fusion on the court" in pursuing the fo rced bankruptcies. Energy Fo undation, was summarily shut down and put into forced The editors of Fusion magazine, which at its height had nearly bankruptcy by a corrupt fa ction of the U.S. fe deral government, as 200, 000 subscrib ers, founded 21 st Century Science & Technology, part of their "Get LaRouche" campaign. LaRouche was a member of to continue Fusion's mission, publishing the first issue in early 1988. the fo undation's board of directors. Two and one-half years later, the Th e second part of LaRouche's comments will appear in the next fo undation, and two LaRouche political publications that were also issue, along with Part 2 of Up kind's work.

21st CENTURY Summer 1998 53 (Riemannian) potential and old varieties of epi­ which delimits the cell­ demics and pandemics. production processes to During 1974, it became the effect of producing a very clear that continua­ definite member of a defi­ tion of mutually re-en­ nite species. forci ng monetary-pol icy The convergence of my and Malthusian trends own approach with that would bring man-kind to of Gurwitsch is already the threshold of prolifer­ suggested strongly. ating entirely new kinds In physical economy of pandemics, as well as (ignoring superimposed reviving old ones. monetary processes), the The projection made characteristic event is the by my associates at the increase of the society's close of 1974, aptly fore­ potential population-den­ casts the epidemiologi­ sity, which has increased cal developments of the by about three orders of 1980s, approximately on magnitude since the up­ schedule. Although the per limit of a 10-million origi nal generation of human population esti­ The MIT Museum human AIDS is unre­ mated for a pure hunting­ Norbert Wiener in 7955, studying the record of his brain wa ves solved, the conditions and-gathering society. emerging from a new device developed at Massachusetts General have developed which The source of this in­ Hospital, which compares brain wa ves in one time period with those would tend to suffice to crease in population po­ which preceded them. Wiener's cybernetics denies the existence of have generated such a tential, is the generation human creative discovery. new pandemic in nature. of those modifications of Whether or not AIDS is social and individual behavior we associate today with scien­ the product of accidental recombinations occurring in cancer tific and technological progress. research on human tissue, during the 1960s or later, the con­ Although the development of the individual scientific dis­ ditions for its proliferation were fostered by a lowering of the coverer is socially determined, each discovery is the product standard of life. of the individual human mind, although the realization of Excepting pockets of anomalous behavior (homosexuals that discovery is, again, socially determined. It is in the power and drug-users), the evidence is that the rate of proliferation of the individual to generate discoveries, or related acts, of the infection among normal portions of the population var­ which transform the potential population-density of society, ied according to the misery index among compared popula­ in which the efficient connection between the individual (mi­ tions. Homosexuals and drug-users have had the special sig­ crocosm) and the society (macrocosm) is directly exhibited in nificance of rapidly building up a reservoir of carriers among physical-economic processes. industrially developed regions of society. The causal connection between such advances in technol­ This point of view requires us to examine the way in which ogy, generated by individual discoveries, and a resulting in­ a rapid lowering of the potential population-density of popu­ crease of the productive powers of labor (potential popula­ lations, to levels below existing population-density, may tion-density), served thus as the most convenie.ntpoint of cause human bodies to generate new forms of diseases, es­ reference for a necessary and sufficient refutation of Wiener's pecially viral diseases. This requires mastery of the mitotic Cybernetics. processes, treating the existence of parent and daughter cells My concern was the feasibility of measuring this causal as special aspects subsumed by a determining, morpho­ connection, such that technological progress, measured from genetic function of mitosis. For known reasons, this requires the standpoint of Gaussian notions of least action, enjoy a a concentration on the spectroscopy of such mitotic func­ measurable connection to ensuing increases of the produc­ tions. tive powers of labor. On condition that Gauss-Riemann The relation between the processes of the brain's cortex physics is comprehended in terms of the indicated synthetic and the possibility of human synthetic judgment as an activ­ geometrical elaboration of conic least action, the methods ity coherent with such cortical processes, becomes a central appropriate to solution of problems of measuring such "non­ concern. The spectroscopy of these functions, from the van­ linear" process-connection were implicitly available. tage-point of mitosis in general, defines the general approach By virtue of the derivation and elaboration of this hypothesis, under which investigation must be broadly subsumed. what is shown to be characteristic of physical-economic Therefore, the work of Gurwitsch is properly of extraordi- processes in the most elementary terms, is also a reflection of nary interest. that which is truly elementary in living processes. On this basis, To be continued during 1973, I outlined to my associates a project fo r estimating the impact of continued, then-prevailing trends for the collapse Economist Lyndon H. LaRouche, Jr. is a member of the sci­ of human population-potential upon the proliferation of new entific advisory board of 21 st Century magazine.

54 Summer 1998 21st CENTURY 21 st CENTURY Summer 1998 55 Introduction: Ampere longitudinal Forces Minkowski for relativity theory, by virtue of its being capable n 1822, Ampere did some memorable (but largely forgotten) of "Lorentz covariant" expression. This was not true of Equa­ work identifying the law of force-action between two "cur­ tion (1), which holds only in an instant action-at-a-distance I rent elements."1 He devised a number of elegant null exper­ context, such as that of the early electrodynamics of Gauss and iments, added the requirement of obedience to Newton's third Weber.3 law (equality, oppositeness, and collinearity of action-reaction Equation (2) is thus the famous Lorentz force law, written in along the line connecting interacting particles), and from these an unfamiliar form. As it happens, the two laws, (1 ) and (2), as inputs derived a force law that Maxwell later termed the "car­ well as an infinitude of others, differ only by additive quantities dinal law of electrodynamics."2 In the 175 years since that that are exact differentials, which consequently integrate to time, no empirical counter-evidence to Ampere's law has been zero'around closed circuits.2,4 Since current flows generally in offered, with one exception that we shall mention. In the spe­ closed circuits, this means that there is no obvious experimen­ cial case that the current elements lie in the same plane, this tal way of determining Nature's preference among these candi­ law takes the form date laws. Maxwell stated both laws and left the issue of choice entirely open.2 Thus began an apparently interminable, and I I ds ds � d 2 F = 1 2 1 2 r[3 cos a· cos 13 - 2 costa-13 )] Eq. (1) still active, "controversy." The 20th century's resolution of the A 2 r scientific issue has been not scientific, but political: Textbook for the idealized case in which infinitesimal filamentary cur­ , writers and other authorities, untrammeled by empiricism, 2 rent element 11 dS 1 exerts an increment of force d FA on current unanimously decided that it was all right to violate Newton's element 12ds2 (ds1 = I ds1 1, dS2 = Ids21) where r = r/r is the unit third law, but not all right to violate covariance. It is possible, vector between current elements, r = r2 - r1 , r = Ir.1 We have in lack of concrete evidence, that the experts were guided to recently done independent experiments concerned with verify­ this choice by divine revelation. ing this law for the interaction of "polarization currents," which may be pictured as flowing on the surface of a toroidal Three Ways of Resolving the Force law Puzzle permanent magnet, and we report the results here. Is there a more scientific way of addressing the issue? We In the geometry on which we shall focus attention, element shall mention three empirical approaches to resolution of the 2 is the test element supported on an analytic balance pan, controversy of Equation (1) vs. Equation (2) that have been de­ with which forces are measured, and element 1 is the force vised in recent years, as an introduction to a fourth way, which exerter fixed directly above it in the laboratory; hence, r is our main topic. First, despite Maxwell's endorsement, 2 the points downward, so that repulsive force is counted as posi­ idea that current must flow always and only in closed circuits tive, corresponding to a positive increment of weight regis­ is not physically valid. Current flows in stub antennas, and en­ tered by the balance. Here a, 13 are the angles with the verti­ gineers (if not physicists) know that these are not closed cir­ cal direction (counted as positive upward) made by the cuits. (It has been claimed that transmitting and receiving an­ force-exerting element and the test element, respectively. The tennas together form "closed circuits." But closed circuits with restriction, above, to coplanar elements is not a serious one, separately observable parts, as to their momentum properties, as Ampere showed that non-coplanar current components ex­ are just as embarrassing to conventional theory as non-closed ert no force. circuits.) Pappas and VaughnS have done momentum observa­ We see that Ampere treats infinitesimal directed segments as tions of antennas that contradict Equation (2) and confi rm lacking physical extension, in the same way Newton ians treat Newton's third law, thereby supporting Equation (1). Natu­ idealized point "particles." Grassmann, a few years later, rally, such work has been ignored by the experts. claimed that directed segments need not obey such ru les. He Another appr0ach suggested by the above is to recognize ridiculed the complexity of Equation (,I) and the apparent odd­ that, although the laws (1 ) and (2) predict the same net action­ ity that force vanishes at the strange angle a = 13 = cos-1 reaction forces when integrated around complete circuits, they W3 = 35.264°. He proposed instead (still for the coplanar cur­ predict not at all the same magnitudes or spatial distributions rent element case), on the basis of aesthetics rather than physi­ of stresses internal to the circuits. For instance, Ampere's law cal evidence, a law of the form predicts longitudinal repulsive forces between aligned current elements (putting a = 13 = 0° in (1) reduces the square bracket 11 1 d S1 d S � � d 2 F = 2 2 [r cos (a - 13) + ds 1 cos 13], Eq. (2) to 1, which is positive, indicating repulsion); hence the exis­ L 2 r tence in a current-carrying wire of an "Ampere tension." Lorentz's law, however, predicts only forces transverse to cur­ which has some advantage of simplicity, but violates Newton's rent (for aligned current elements r and -d'S 1 are parallel; third law by being asymmetrical in subscripts 1 and 2, and fail­ hence a = 13 =0° reduces the force in (2) to zero). Therefore Eq. ing to be directed along r. Here, d'S1 is the unit vector ds,lds1· (1) asserts, contrary to Eq. (2), that at large enough currents, the Grassmann had a mathematical axe to grind, in that he needed 12 forces within a single circuit (straight wire) will become a selling point for a new variety of algebra that he had discov­ huge, and at some point must blow the wire apart. This "ex­ ered, a forerunner of Gibbs's vector analysis. In this, he ap­ ploding wire" phenomenon exists and was first observed by pears as a prototype of the string theorists of our own day, who Nasilowski,6 who at the time (like most textbook-taught physi­ seek to impose on physicists their ideas of mathematical cists), did not know of Ampere's law. It has been extensively beauty, while scrupulously shunning the laboratory. Subse­ validated by Peter Graneau7 and others. Again, Newton and quent history was kind to Grassmann, in that his law, Equation Ampere are supported and longitudinal electrodynamic forces (2), was later appropriated by Lorentz and then by Einstein- are confirmed.

56 Summer 1998 21st CENTURY " Ihe· Ampere An,g�lar" Joree In 1820, immediately following on Oersted�s discovery of the effect of an electric current on a magnetic compass, a"d''' Ampere adduced the basic relationships of force between ' current-carrying wires: Two parallel wires attrac:r when the current flows in the same direction, and repel when the 'd' current flows in opposite directions. //I'' ' But to formulate a general law, Ampere needed to deter­ / mine the relationship between two infin itesimal elements ' of current within any two wires, in any spatial otientation ------' � � to each other. For example, what w'ould be t�eJorce be­ ad ':��- a'd' tween current elements ad and a' d', as element a' d' moves from position 1 to position a" d", also dependent on the angles between the directed current Through an intensive series of experiments, Ampere was elements, This Ampere angular force also led to the ironic ' able to determine that the force between current elements situation that two elemehts of curr��trrioving in the same " wirei pne in front of the() ther, wo repel-the longi was proportiona,lto the inverse square of the distance be­ .' tween them, but, unlike the'other familiar forces, it was nal' fQrce, . ,', ' >. ,

A third approach is to recognize that despite compartmen­ it-and that the mistake readily propagates unto the nth gen­ talization of the teaching of dynamics and electrodynamics, eration of experts. Because of the importance of this third the two disciplines do interact with each other in a unified real means of resolving the force law puzzle, in the fo llowing sec­ wo rld. The force law we assert between circuits or their ele­ tion we amplify our digression from the main topic to discuss ments, for instance, is tacitly predicated on the immobility of little-known evidence for the occurrence of inertial modula­ the force-exerting object: The latter is presumed rigidly con­ tion as a physical fact nected to some large mass, so that it cannot recoil. If, instead, some portion of a force-exerting circuit does recoil, this "steals" Empirical Evidence for Inertial Modulation energy from the interaction and selectively reduces the observ­ Of Electrodynamic Force able effects of the force exerted by that portion. The effective Neal Graneau at Oxford has carried out a beautiful experi­ (observable) force is thereby weakened below what the force ment exploiting the third approach (using the inertial modula­ form ula predicts. So, the inertial properties of a current-carry­ tion effect) to demonstrate the existence of Ampere longitudi­ ing circuit, determined by its mass distribution, physical con­ nal forces:8 He used a high-voltage circuit with unequal arc figuration, stiffness, degree of mobil ity, or connectedness with gaps to get high current to pass briefly through a vertical cylin­ external masses, and so on, can alter its effectiveness as an ex­ drical conducting rod, termed the "armature." If the lower arc erter of force on a test object gap was narrower than the upper, the armature was observed If one exploits the "inertial modulation" effect just described, to jump up against gravity whenever sufficient current flowed. whereby the force exerted by portions of a circuit can be selec­ Longitudinal forces (parallel to current in the rod) are needed tively modified through deliberate design choice of circuit in­ to explain this. But, in addition, recognition is needed of the ertial properties, one can resolve the force-law issue with elec­ special role of the inertial properties of the conductive medium trically closed circuits-despite all the time-honored within the arc gaps. For, if a gapful of current-carrying arc "theorems" going back to Maxwell that deny such a possibil­ plasma were the same in force-exerting capability as a gapful ity. The reason theorists have unanimously reached a contrary of solid metal, carrying the same current (as the current-depen­ conclusion, is that they have hermetically sealed their minds dence of force formulas such as (1) and (2) might suggest), the against the possibility of effective forces being altered by recoil gap widths would have made no difference, regardless of the effects resulting from imperfect inertial "anchoring" of conduc­ force law, and both gaps would have been effectively of the tors. Without stopping to think, they have treated all circuits as same (zero) width. if infinitely massive. But infinite mass is never a realistic case. It The gap symmetry at the top and bottom of the armature is particularly ironical that unrealism of this sort has been al­ would have resulted in up-force and down-force cancellation, lowed to dictate the dogma of unresolvability of the force law with no possibility of the observed armature jump-up. In puzzle. short, the fo rm ulas prove that the bumblebee cannot fly-but To date, not one authority has stepped forward to acknowl­ it fl ies. edge the purely mathematical point made here, that, in princi­ In actuality, the low-mass current-carrying plasma acts ple, the statements of all accepted theorems bearing on pon­ upon the massive armature in much the same way a colliding deromotive interactions among circuits need, and lack, an rowboat acts upon an ocean liner: The state of motion of the explicit caveat to the effect that infinitely massive (or other­ massive test body (ship) is not observably altered, and all ob­ wise immobilized) force-exerter circuits are assumed. Ob­ servable recoil is allocated to the rowboat Unlike a rigid pier serve that if one authority makes an oversight they all make attached to the shore, the rowboat can sustain little reaction,

21st CENTURY Summer 1998 57 Figure 1 THE VACE CONCEPT Shown is the evolution of relationships between fl ux and current, real and virtual (or "polariza tion"), leading to the VA CE concept. The "stock magnet" VA CE actually used in experiment is shown in (h).

(8) Wire carrying real current and surrounded (b) Same wire as in (a), bent for form a small (c) Amperian current element, represented by by lines of force that fall off with distance from loop, simulating an Amperian current loop a short up-arrow the wire

• . � ...... -� (d) Evolution of (c) in which the circulating flux (e) Enlargement of cross section of the dotted (f) Current flowing on the surface of the toroid, lines are confined to a magnetized torus, with current element in (d) with greater density toward the "hole" the current element shown dotted

" .. . . , , .I. ." ,

' • , �"<1 '" . •. '. . � I . • • '...... !

(g).Flat, washer-shaped magnetic toroid begins to simulate the ideal Am­ (h) Two U-shaped permanent magnets come close to producing a flux­ pllrian current element of (c) containing torus that is a Virtual Amperian Current Element, or VACE.

and can thus exert correspondingly little measurable action. If ductive medium in the gap is effectively not present as an ex­ the state .of motion of the ship. is all we can observe, the row­ erter of observable force on the comparatively massive test boat might as well not be present. body (armature rod). So it suffices as an approximation, in ana­ In the same way, the' arc plasma is inertially "anchored" by lyzing the Neal Graneau experiment, to consider only the solid so little self-mass, and is itself so subject to recoil, that the con- portions ("anchored," like the pier, to the Earth) of the circuit

58 Summer 1998 21st CENTURY as force exerters, and to consider the gaps as if they exerted no except for a short segment from which the current "looked force, although all parts of the circuit carry the same current. out" to simulate the Amperian current element. Gray did ex­ The effect of inertial modulation of force in Neal Graneau's periments with contrivances of this sort, but got strange prelim­ experiment, as just described, has been verified in detail by inary results that seem to suggest the possible dominance of quantitative calculations already published.9 Unfortunately, unwanted apparatus effects. Gray's VACE concept seems to Graneau's account of the experiment itself has met with rejec­ have proven more successful. tion by both American and British first-line physics journals.8 Let us approach this concept in successive stages, through a A further irony is that the only thing in print in a scientific progression of familiar considerations. Figure 1 (a) shows a journal on this topic is the Robson-Sethian paper,10 in which long straight wire carrying real current and surrounded, as the experimental setup was much like that of Graneau, but in everyone since Faraday has chosen to suppose, by magnetic which equal arc gaps were used, so that force-cancellation "lines of force" (B-field flux), falling off in intensity (density) occurred by gap symmetry. (There was circuit shape asymme­ with distance from the wire, and encircling it clockwise as we try, which Robson-Sethian assumed would suffice to reveal look down the wire in the direction of conventional current Ampere forces, if they existed; but it has been proven that flow. shape does not matter and that it is gap asymmetry that is re­ Next, in Figure 1 (b), we show this same wire, now bent quired for a positive demonstration of Ampere longitudinal around to form a small loop. As the wire is bent, the density of forces.9) No armature jump-up could possibly have been ob­ flux lines increases on the interior side of the loop and de­ served in the Robson-Sethian arrangement; yet their non­ creases on the outside. In an imagined limit of vanishing loop observation was welcomed, and published where all physics size, portrayed in 1 (b) by circles of decreasing size, we see, that teachers could benefit from it, as proving the nonexistence of the loop contains a single line of flux, normal to the plane of longitudinal forces.lO Graneau's contrary evidence showing the loop (out of the paper), and no flux outside; or rather, we the existence of such forces for unequal arc gaps was unani­ agree to neglect the return path of the flux loop. (The current mously rejected. leads shown as twisted together in this diagram have no signif­ Such double standards in the handling of evidence could icant external magnetic effects, because equal currents flow not have existed in science before this centu ry-nor could adjacently in opposite directions, effecting clockwise and such universal scientific incuriosity have been credited. counter-clockwise flux cancellation.) Here, then, is exemplary proof of what dissidents have been What we have in Figure 1 (b), then, is a real-current simula­ saying: Modern physics journals have no room to print the tion of an Amperian current loop or whorl. Similarly in news that does not fit, nor' do establ ished physicists leave thought, the latter produces a magnetic flux line normal to its any room for it in their heads. Ideology (of a viciously censo­ plane, but is not necessarily constituted of real "circulating" rious variety) has replaced empiricism in the physics of the current (produced by drifting electrons) but on a micro-scale late 20th century. EXaggerated respect for theorists (if not for might correlate with some quantum mechanical property­ theory) has led to disrespect for fact, or to the playing of fa­ "probability current," electron spin, or the like. (Caution is ad­ vorites among facts. visable here, because coplanar electron spin effects add when The Robson-Sethian "evidence" is, as far as we know, the orjented in the same direction, whereas coplanar Ampere only empirical evidence that purports to disprove Ampere lon­ whorls cancel internally. So, spins can hardly be legitimately gitudinal forces and is, coincidentally, the only evidence re­ modelled as current circulations.) cently accorded widespread dissemination. All other experi­ Figure 1 (c) sketches another conceptual object, the Am­ ments we know of on the subject (there are scores-see perian "current element," represented by a very short up­ Graneau7) support Ampere and, being consigned to obscurity, arrow, encircled again by magnetic flux directed in the same are consistently ignored by the vast majority of physicists. If, way as if we were considering a short length of the wire shown overlooking this majority prejudice, we here tentatively accept in Figure 1 (a). Roughly speaking, the fl ux is so distributed as to the extensive empirical evidence7,8 for Ampere forces-Equa­ fall off in intensity with the inverse square of distance from the tion (1 i-it becomes a matter of interest to relate such forces to (infinitesimal) element, and is symmetrical in azimuth. But magnetism. That is the subject of the investigations we de­ how it is distributed in polar angle (that is, with respect to the scribe below. direction in which the element points) is the question on which we shall seek enlightenment. All laws-Lorentz, Ampere, and The VACE Concept so on-agree that flux is not confined to the median plane nor­ In 1995, one of us UGV) and his co-workers conducted ex­ mal to the current element, as might be suggested by Figure perimental studies of the interaction of permanent magnets of 1 (a), because that would lead to a delta-function (discontinu­ toroidal shape. These were the first such studies of which we ous) type of interaction of two elemehts, which is highly im­ are aware. In March 1996, Reginald I. Gray (now deceased) plausible. made a suggestion for a way of simulating an Amperian cur­ Figure 1 (d) shows an evolution of Figure 1 (c), in which the rent element by means of permanent magnets in a flux-con­ circulating flux lines have been gathered-in from all space and taining toroidal configuration that we shall call a Virtual Am­ are largely confined to the interior of a permanently magne­ peri an Current Element, or VACE. This will be described tized torus. The torus is considered to have a circular cross below . About the same time, Gray applied for a U.S. patent on section, indicated 'by the dotted circle on the left side. The another scheme to the same end. This employed real current "current element" at the center is now a ghost (shown dotted) in a circuit, all parts of which were magnetically shielded, as of the conceptual current element in Figure 1 (c). We shall term by enclosing electrically insulated conductors in soft iron pipe, this ghost of something imagined, a "virtual" Ampedan c'urrent

21 st CENTURY Summer 1998 59 element. For real current at this stage has faded away, like the to our knowledge, been put to any test. The proposition is Cheshire Cat. plausible, because variable surface current density entering Next, in Figure 1 (e), we show an enlargement of the dotted into circuital integrations could spoil the purported exactness cross section in Figure 1 (d). This cross section of the magnet is of differential integrands. There thus remains much to be considered to be filled with magnetic flux lines pointing out of learned about matters of principle on the side of theory. the paper, each encircled by an Amperian current loop similar Permanent magnets that largely contain their own flux, such to that shown in 1 (b). On the atomic scale, these would not be as those we have been discussing, are not commercially avail­ loops of real current, but would each correlate with some able. One of us (JGV) has fabricated magnets of cylindrical quantum-theoretical attribute of a magnetic domain. In the in­ toroidal shape (similar to a short section of thick-walled pipe). terior of the permanently magnetic material, according to the More will be said about the performance of these presently. Ampere model, the effects of adjacent "currents" cancel, leav­ Without such special efforts, the nearest one can come to pro­ ing only a counter-clockwise circulating current on the surface ducing a flux-containing torus is to cling together two horse­ of the toroid. This, too, is not a "real" current in the sense of shoe or U-shaped permanent magnets, as shown in Figure charge transport (drifting electrons). It is often referred to as a 1(h). This depicts an immediately realizable VACE or Virtual "polarization current." Amperian Current Element. It could, as in the figure, be noth­ Figure 1 (f) shows the pseudo-current, just mentioned, flow­ ing more than a pair of Alnico refrigerator magnets, oriented ing on the surface of the toroid. The important thing to notice with their north and south poles in contact. The contained flux here is the greater density of the encircling current lines toward points conventionally from each magnet's north pole toward the interior of the torus-that is, toward the "hole in the donut." the adjacent south pole. The 1 (h) VACE points up in the con­ On the outside of the torus the filaments of current are less figuration shown. crowded. We see that as the hole is made smaller, the current What can one reasonably expect to attain by such a crude density in the center increases without limit, whereas the outer physical simulation of an idealized Amperian current element? density remains finite. In the small-hole limit, the central up­ The first and most important thing not to expect is a correct current comes to resemble (in some sense of dualism) the ide­ simulation of the variation of force with distance from the ele­ alized Amperian current element depicted in 1 (c). Only a sur­ ment. In the ideal case, this variation is ilSthe inverse square of face current is involved, but the surfaces draw together as the distance. But the radial distribution of flux confined within a hole shrinks, leading to simulation of a single current filament magnetic toroid of finite size is all wrong to match the radial of infinitesimal length, as in 1 (c). distribution in the ideal case, which goes smoothly to infinity. Hence, although real current is not involved, the relation­ In fact, it was fo und empirically that the force action between ship of surface current loops and flux lines for a flat, washer­ two VACEs, such as that depicted in Figure 1 (h), falls off with shaped magnetic toroid, as depicted in Figure 1 (g), begins in­ separation with approximately the inverse sixth-power of sepa­ creasingly well to simulate the ideal Amperian current element ration distance, instead of the desired inverse second-power. of 1 (c). As the central hole in the washer is made smaller, the But that is of no consequence, because we know the dis­ up-flowing surface current in the hole increases in concentra­ tance law. All theories agree on the inverse square-law depen­ tion and density, thereby improving the simulation. In 1 (g), as dence of force between current elements. What we dq not in 1 (d) and 1 (f), it may be assumed that magnetic flux is largely know, and hope to learn through inference, is the force depen­

(but not necessarily entirely) confined to the toroid. Just as in dence on polar angles, the (.l' and (3 of our candidate force 1 (b) we neglected the outer return portions of the flux loops, in laws, Equations (1 ) and (2). Here, hopes of empirical resolution 1 (g) we neglect the outer return portions of the surface current prove to be better justified. It is found that even a very crude filament loops. VACE approximation of type 1 (h) to the ideal thin-washer With this idealization we get a model (capable of approxi­ shape 1 (g) may serve to give a good indication of angular vari­ mate physical realization) of our famous nonesuch, the ideal ation of force between two ideal ized Amperian current ele­ Amperian current element. For, with a small hole in the washer, ments. Finally, three important points: the up-flowing inner surface current is very intensely concen­ (1) Usually it is assumed that any toroidal shape of ideal trated and localized, while if the washer is thin, the in-and-out magnetic material, magnetized for flux confinement within surface currents on top and bottom of the washer will be close the material, will contain all its flux, so that there is no leak­ together in space, and the more or less mutual cancelling of age and no external force. If that were true, two magnetic their effects will be observable at a distance. Also, the down toroids, such as shown in Figure 1 (g), would not interact at all, currents on the outside will all be comparatively short and spa­ unless brought into direct contact. But, look at it the other tially dispersed, so they can presumably be neglected. way, in terms of surface current greatly concentrated in the A subtle point may be mentioned in passing: The "filamen­ central hole and dispersed elsewhere. Two such VACE's might tary approximation" shown in Figure 1 (f), whereby a smooth be thought of as interacting via their intense central currents, surface polarization current is bunched-up into distinct closed­ regardless of what "flux" is pictured as doing. In other words, loop fi laments, may be invalid fo r calculations that depend on there could be direct physical interaction of the virtual surface distinctions between Ampere and Lorentz force laws. For such currents, just as there would be between geometrically similar laws, as we have noted, yield the same result when integrated elements of real current. This supposition of polarization cur­ around any closed filamentary loop. That a computational dis­ rent interaction violates the presumption of field theorists that tinction between these laws might follow from an analysis B-field must be present at the site of force exertion in order for based on a true two-dimensional "spread" of surface current, magnetic force effects to be observable. But Aharonov-Bohm of varying density around the torus, is a possibility that has not, have already demonstrated such violation in another context.

60 Summer 1998 21 st CENTURY So we ought not to close our minds, a priori, to the possibility, but should put it to empirical test. (2) If the idea works at all, it should work spectacularly wel l, because with Alnico or better permanent magnets, the confined fluxes amount routinely to thousands of gauss, so we are talking about surface currents equivalent to thousands of amperes per transverse cm. Hence, the forces of interaction of two small VACEs separated by a few times their maximum physical dimen­ sions, may amount to many milligrams (dynes), even hundreds of milligrams­ very easily and accurately measurable by the crudest of analytic balances. So, anybody can check it out without spe­ cial equipment. (3) From the experimentalist's stand­ point, the real beauty of using VACEs for force measurement is that they do not Figure 2 require any real current input. This GEOMETRY OF VACE MEASUREMENT means no current leads, which gets rid The lower VA CE, mounted on a rotational motion controller, is supported on of the experimentalist's main nightmare, the pan of an analytic balance. The upper VA CE, on separate motion controller, viz., unwanted perturbations of force is supported at a fixed location in the lab. The angles of coplanar VA CEs can be observations by the mechanical and adjusted independently without altering center separation s. other properties of current leads. Saumont has done pioneering experi- ments measuring Ampere longitudinal forces with an analytic RSA-1 small rotary-motion controller. This allowed the angle a balance, by getting current into a test element on the balance or 13 to be varied between 0 and 360 degrees, by hand setting, pan through mercury contacts.11 One of us (TEP) has tried to maintaining the geometrical center of the VACE at a fixed posi­ replicate this, and has found it to be very tricky. One needs just tion in space, while turning the Plexiglas circle "into itself," the right type of optical-mechanical balance, one needs to be that is, rotating it in its own plane. scrupulous about cleanliness of the mercury, etc. In fact, so far, Two such assemblies were prepared, the lower being placed only Saumont has demonstrated the experimental skill required removably in a fixed, reproducible position on the balance pan to make this method work. But with VACEs, one's experimental of a Sartorius AC2 1 OP electronic balance, sensitive to 0.1 mg. technique can hardly be sloppy enough to prevent getting mean­ Any other analytic balance would serve. The upper VACE was ingful results. Needless to say, this is a great practical advantage. positioned reproducibly on a lab-fixed support, in such a way that its geometrical center lay directly above that of the lower VACE Experiments with Stock Magnets VACE. The Plexiglas circles carrying the two VACEs lay in par­ Observations were made by one of us (TEP) with two types allel (vertical) planes, in such manner that the two VACEs were of U-shaped magnets and one type of parenthesis-shaped (par­ coplanar, as shown in Figure 2. The separation, s, of the VACE tial U) magnets. (All of these were procured as stock items centers was variable, but was kept fixed throughout any single from Edmund Scientific Co.) Despite the considerable varia­ "run" involving angle variation. We shall not concern ourselves tion of these shapes, all tell essentially the same story. In every here with the considerable amount of data that was taken on

case, a pair of similar coplanar VACEs interacts in polar angu­ fo rce variation with 5, because this does not bear on the choice

lar (a, 13)dependence (see Figure 2) in much the way predicted between laws (1) and (2). a = O' corresponded to the upper

by the Ampere law, Equation (1). There is no resemblance to VACE pointing straight up; 13 = O' corresponded to the lower the Lorentz law, Equation (2), which is markedly different in VACE pointing similarly. form. The differences are so striking, that there is no point in G ravitational action measured by the analytic balance acts doing hypothesis-testing or other statistical calisthenics. A downward. Because, in our geometry, the unit vector r points glance of the eye tells the story. j downward, the observed weight changes correspond to the Here, we shall limit attention to a typical representative dot product of r and the incremental force vectors given by VACE composed of a pair of small Alnico U-magnets of the Equations (1) and (2). For the Ampere law, this implies an an­ shape and dimensions depicted in Figure 1 (h). (These were gular factor, which we denote fA- bought hom Edmund Scientific many years ago and are ex­ actly duplicated by none of their current stock.) A pair of these fA = 3cosa cosI3 - 2cos(a - 13). Eq. (1)* U-magnets was epoxied onto a Plexiglas circle of diameter 4.4 cm, which was screwed to the face plate of an NRC Model For the Lorentz law, the corresponding dot product with r

21st CENTURY Summer 1998 61 . = . yields (because r r 1), fL = cos (a -13) + (r d'S,) cos13, or ligrams. (The indicated uncertainties are one calculated standard deviation). It is apparent that the general character of the empiri­

f = cos (a -13) - Cosa· cos13, Eq. (2)* f = L cal curve (3) fits with the Ampere prediction A cosO', where a is in radians rather than degrees. The main diffe rences are a sub­ because , r· d'S , = -cosa, the minus sign resulting from the stantial phase shift of about 14 degrees, and a small additive fact that r points down, whereas d'S, is referenced to the up­ constant fo rce term. The latter could be a "lift" effect caused by ward vertical direction. These angle functions are positive for proximity of ferrous material of any kind and shape. That is, even force directed downward (repulsion between VACEs, regis­ a handful of nails held 4 cm above a permanent magnet on the tered as a positive weight increment by the balance). Three baiance pan would be expected, through its attraction, to cause types of data runs were made with the stock magnets: some red uction of the measured weight. The observed small de­ Ca se (A): 13 = 0° (lower current element pointing straight up) crease of weight almost independent of orientation of the upper was kept fixed, while a was varied in 10-degree increments VACE, measured by the parameter C in (3), can be rationalized from 0° to 360°. For this case we see from Equation (1 )* that on that basis. The goodness of fit hardly needs quantifying, but the Ampere law predicts an angular variation fA = cosa. Equa­ we mention that the calculated "Coefficient of Determination" tion (2)* predicts for the Lorentz law fL = 0 , for all a-values. (COD) is 0.9981 ; the Correlation Coefficient (CC) is 0.9990; and Case (B) : 13 = 90° (lower current element pointing horizon­ the so-called Model Selection Criterion (MSC), based on a 3-pa­ tal) was kept fixed, while a was varied as above. For this case, rameter fit is 6.1 82, a comparatively high value. The origin of the

f = the Ampere law predicts A - 2sina, while the Lorentz law phase shift is not known. With other magnet shapes it is gener­ predicts fL = sina. ally much smaller, sometimes absent. Case (C): The two angles are varied in 1 O-degree steps Case (8), 13 = 90°, is shown in Figure 4. The fitted curve has around the circle in synchronism, 0'=f3, so that parallelism of the equation the VACEs is always maintained. For this case the Ampere law 2 � = = [ predicts f 3cos a -2; whereas Lorentz predicts f f = -2 sin (a +B) ] XA+C, Eq. (4) 2 A L l O 1-cos a.

From this it is clear that even quite crude data should suffice where the best-fitting parameters are: A = 22.92±.1 1, B = to select between the two laws. We show here in Figures 3-5 2.77±.27, C = -12.044±.15. The fitting measures are COD = the data for three runs, corresponding to the three cases just .9983, CC = .9992, MSC = 6.321. This time, the phase shift is

listed, for a fixed VACE center separation distance s = 4.15 cm much less, but the "lift" effect (C-value) is greater. There is

f = in all cases. Attention is limited here to the small refrigerator good consistency with the Ampere result, A - 2sina. If that magnets shown in Figure 1 (h). Many other ru ns were made consistency were perfect, the A-values in cases (A) and (8) with these and other stock magnets, but these suffice to typify would agree; but, in fact, they differ by about 50 percent. Sti ll, the results. In all cases, the measured data points are shown as the signs are all correct to agree with the Ampere law, and this cross-hatched circles, and a best-fitted (by least squares) degree of quantitative discrepancy in force magnitudes seems smooth curve is shown by open stars connected by the curve. readily accountable by the nature of the stock magnets.

Case (A), 13 = 00, is shown in Figure 3. The empirically fitted Case (C), a = 13, is shown in Figure 5. The empirically fitted smooth curve is given by the equation equation is

[ � c f= A cos (a +B) 1 0 ] + , Eq. (5) where the best parameter values (obtained by Levenberg­ with best-fitting parameter values A = 20.41 ±.1 1, B =

Marquardt fitting) are A = 15.S74±.08, B = 14.089±.30, C = 2.41 5±.1 6, C = -9.12±.13, D = -11.05±.1 7. The fitting mea­

-2.70±.06, the angle B being in degrees and A, C being in mil- sures are COD = .9981, CC = .9990, MSC = 6.148. This time,

Figure 3 VARIATION OF MEASURED FORCE BETWEEN VACES WITH TEST VACE POINTING STRAIGHT UP As described in Ca se (A), Equation (3). Shown is the variation of measured fo rce between "stock magnet" VA CEs with the polar angle ex of (up­ per) fo rce exerter, fo r test VA CE (on balance

-10 pan) kept pointing straight up (/3 = 00). Data are shaded circles; the calculated (empirically best­ -15 fitted) curve is designated by open stars con­ t nected by a line. VA CE center separation is kept  -20 constant at s = 4. 15 cm. o 60 120 180 240 300 360 Alpha (degrees)

62 Summer 1998 21st CENTURY the measured variation of inter-VACE force with

40 �----�-----'------'------'------'------'separation distance s was roughly as S-6, a varia- tion of such rapidity as to exaggerate any impreci­ sion of mounting. Other magnets, independently ------: -- 20 t·------� mounted, did not show this apparent "eccentricity" effect. Apart from the perturbation, the agreement 2 \ is good with that Amperian oddity, fA = 3cos 0: -2, which Grassmann rejected as incredible. Commentary; The impression conveyed by the j � particular data discussed above, that the VACEs - are "trying" to behave like idealized Amperian - I;� ---­ current elements, is confirmed by all data taken ------,,('------to date on three different sets of VACEs formed +� from stock-item magnet pairs of various sizes and shapes. All tell the same story with remarkable -60 L-��-L�consistency. It seems that there is hardly any­ o 60 120 180 240 300 360 Alpha (degrees) - thing one can do to spoil the "signature" of Am- pere in the data. There are generally perturba­ Figure 4 tions superposed on that basic signature, but the VARIATION OF MEASURED FORCE BETWEEN VACES WITH latter is not to be erased. In the stock magnet ex­ TEST VACE POINTING HORIZONTALLY periments, one message was clearly and consis­ As described in Ca se (8), Equation (4). The configuration is the same tently conveyed: Th e virtual surfa ce currents hy- as Figure 3 with the test VA CE pointing horizontally (13 = 90°). pothesized by Ampere to flow on permanent magnets, when manifested in flux-containing toroidal geometries, insist on exerting fo rces at a 20 r----,-----r------,-----,------,------� distance in just the specific, complicated angular 10 wa y Ampere stipulated that short "elements" of o real current ought to do. As for the Lorentz law, o �-- its supporters are going to have to look elsewhere -10 for confirmations. Remark on "flux leakage"; On conventional Cl -20 §. ideas of magnet interaction, there is something of a mystery as to how magnets that contain their � -30 �--_4_4---��---�---1\_--&1-----1 lJ..(; own flux are supposed to interact at all. A toroid­ -40 whether a solenoid or a permanent magnet-con­ -50 taining flux, is supposed to contain all its flux: Such is the accepted idealization. Similarly, an in­ -60 �------+-C�� I----- fi nite straight solenoid is supposed to contain all its flux. Customary conceptions also demand the 60 120 180 240 300 360 presence of B-field flux as a precondition for force Alpha (degrees) exertion on magnetic material. So, considering Figure 5 their quasi-toroidal geometry, there is no conven­ VARIATION OF MEASURED FORCE BETWEEN VACES WITH tional way to explain VACE interactions except as VACE ANGLES VARIED IN SYNCHRONISM a consequence of flux leakage. As described in Case (C), Equation (5). The configuration is the The substantial forces observed between VACEs same, with VA CE angles varied in synchronism, so that 0: = 13. Th is arouse some doubt about this explanation. Could means the two virtual Amperian current elements always point par­ flux leakage be the whole story? It seemed strange allel to each other. that the Ampere law "signature" was so plain in all the data. Flux leakage sounds like a random and we have resorted to a four-parameter fit (although the phase accidental sort of thing-variable with magnet shape, magneti­ shift 8 is small enough that getting along without it impairs the zation differences, and so on-so, why the apparent regularity fit quality very little-for example, correlation reduced from of the observed consequences? What if one were to offset a pair 0.999 to 0.996). The reason is that some perturbing influence of fo rce-exerting magnets deliberately, so as to increase the flux is causing the peak amplitudes to'vary markedly. The likeliest leakage substantially? That was tried, and resulted in very little explanation that comes to mind, is that the lower VACE (ro­ change in measured force between VACEs. This reinforced sus­ tated in this case, but not in the previous ones) was mounted picions. A Hall-effect gaussmeter (Applied Magnetics Lab eccentrically. ThiS would account qualitatively for the sine­ Model GM 1 A) with an accurate probe was procured, and function nature of the observed perturbation. used to measure directly the leakage flux from one of the The explanation is plausible (a) because all mountings were VACEs situated at the separation distance of the other. Leak­ done by "seaman's eye," without aids to precision; (b) because age flux thus measured proved to be apparently too small by

21st CENTURY Summer 1998 63 about a fa ctor of fi ve to account for the interac­ tion forces measured. Something does not add up. The model of direct interaction between current elements-for in­ stance, via an electrodynamics of the old action­ at-a-distance style of Ampere and Wilhelm 2 Weber1, 3, 7, 11, 1 might allow measurable and ob­ servable forces to exist in the total absence of flux leakage (whatever "flux" may be, physically), pro­ vided that virtual (polarization) surface currents can be analyzed in the same way as real currents. Yet, accepted electrodynamics of the Faraday­ Maxwell-Lorentz-Einstein-QED variety is helpless to understand any force action whatever between VACEs, except by loading the whole burden of ex­ planation onto IIflux leakage." This camel's back is 120 180 240 300 360 Alpha (degrees) in danger of breaking. But that is a different story from the one we set Figure 6 out to tell here. Even if one hesitates to go back all VARIATION OF MEASURED FORCE BETWEEN VACES, the way to Gauss-Weber in order to find one's way USI NG MORE PERFECTLY TOROIDAL V ACE out of the maze of theory, it seems that one must at As described in Case (A), Equation (3). Th is is the same configura­ least bring in the vector potential A, associated tion as in Figure 3, but uses a more perfectly toroidal VA CE, built with the intense, virtual currents at the center of the with prepared magnets, not stock magnets (7995 data). VACE toroid. This seems to echo Aharonov-Bohm, as magnetic flux, or B-field, plays no necessary role in accounting for the phenomena dominantly observable. If this magnets, because the U-magnet interfaces (conducive to leak­ happens to be confirmed by other investigators, we hope it will age) were absent from the more perfect toroids. (Measured flux raise the consciousness of the people who call themselves leakage for both types was a few gauss at 5-cm distance, and physicists, perhaps to a level where they can recognize the was roughly independent of VACE orientation.) Yet, the ob­ strategic advantages of nurturing over time a plurality of models served forces for the prepared magnets were substantially of such important, and basically mysterious, phenomena as greater than those for the stock magnets. This suggests that, in those of electromagnetism. general, it is not the external (leakage) B-flux that dominates VACE interactions but the contained B-flux, or the magnetic po­ V ACE Experiments with Prepared Magnets larization surface current, to which the latter gives rise. In 1995, one of us UGV) performed interaction force mea­ surements on pairs of specially prepared Alnico toroids. These "There are things about electromagnetism were of more perfectly toroidal shape than any that could be that remain obscure and demand formed from stock magnets. The shape can be pictured as a exploration unprejudiced by what is section of length 6 cm, cut transversely from a straight cylindri­ cal pipe of outer diameter 6 cm and inner diameter 2 cm. 'known' among conventional theorists. " These were magnetized circularly, with contained inner B­ field exceeding 6,000 gauss. Maxwell's equations, which do allow for representing the The results of Case (A) measurements, similar to those de­ source term J as magnetization surface current, seemingly scribed above, are graphed in Figure 6 for VACE separation s = ought to be able to cope with VACE description. But, their 5.5 cm. The data points are shown as solid black circles. The physical content being minimal, they are like an erector set best-fitting curve (marked by line-connected open stars) is of without instructions. The vector potential can be expressed in the form terms of the surface current-but, when one tries to go from that to "force," what kind of force, electromotive or pondero­ ( 1t ) f= Acos a 180 ; Eq. (6) motive? And beware, once one has "proven" that the actions between polarization currents must be ponderomotive one has with parameter value A = 42.1 0±.33, it yields COD = 0.9991 8, set oneself up for a new misery: Observations (which we do

CC = 0.99963, MSC = 6.9624. This is in exact agreement with not discuss here) aimed at detecting ponderomotive force ac­ the Ampere law prediction, without any of the perturbations tion between polarization current and real current, have ap­ that affect the corresponding stock magnet measurements parently failed to show any such cross-action. How sad, that shown in Figure 3. after a century's dream of self-sufficiency, theorists must sti ll Thus the II Ampere signature," which was reasonably appar­ snatch peeks at empiricism. ent in the imperfectly-toroidal stock magnet data, is entirely un­ mistakable in the data for the more perfect prepared toroids. Summary Also, despite a much higher level of contained flux, the ab­ VACEs are permanent magnetic toroids containing their own solute level of flux leakage was no greater for the prepared flux (to a large extent). They are not available commercially,

64 Summer 1998 21st CENTURY but can be approximated, peasant-style, by putting together a magnetism that remain obscure and demand exploration un­ pair of U-magnets. The interactions of pairs of VACEs roughly prejudiced by what is "known" among conventional theorists. simulate the angular dependence of the interactions of pairs of The 21 st century confronts physicists not fully ready, in terms Amperian current elements, as evaluated by Ampere in formu­ of maturity of their science, to enter the 20th. lating his original theory during the 1820s. The accuracy of Thomas E. Phipps, Jr., a retired physicist, describes himself simulation improves with increasing perfection of the toroids. as a certified heretic in the field of modern theoretical physics. The separation distance dependence of Amperian current Jorge Guala Va lverde works at the Instituto Julio Pa lacios in elements (inverse square-law) is not correctly simulated. The Neuquen, Argentina. The material in this paper is scheduled to successfu l simulation of angular dependence may prove to be appear in modified fo rms in Electric SpacecraftJournal and in a mere fluke of nature. Or, it may turn out to be a valid mes­ Galilean Electrodynamics. sage signaling the existence of circumstances in which Am­ pere's law is superior to Lorentz's. Notes ------These are the first data we have encountered that select 1. E.T. Whittaker, 1960. History of the Theories of Aether and Electricity (New York: Harper), Vol. I. the Ampere law exclusively and favor it over all rivals, in­ 2. J.C. Maxwell, 1873. A Tre atise on Electricity and Magnetism (New York, cluding alternatives,' due to Riemann and others, that (like Dover, 1954). Ampere) include non-vanishing longitudinal force compo­ 3. Laurence Hecht, 1996. "The Significance of the 1845 Gauss-Weber Cor· respondence," 21st Century Science & Te chnology, Fall, p. 21 . nents. The experiments are so cheap and simple that anyone 4. C. Christodoulides, 1988. Am. J. Phys. Vol. 56, p. 357. can check out a favorite candidate force law by personal ob­ 5. P.T. Pappas and T. Vaughn, 1990. Phys. Essays, Vol. 3, p. 211. servation. 6. J. Nasilowski, 1984. IEEE Tra nsactions on MagnetiCS, MAG-20, p. 2158. 7. P. Graneau, 1994. Ampere-Neumann Electrodynamics of Metals (Palm There is a distinct suggestion tnat the observed forces be­ Harbor. Fla.: Hadronic Press) 2nd Ed. tween VACEs are too great to be accounted for by B-flux leak­ 8. P. Graneau and N. Graneau, 1996. Newtonian Electrodynamics (Singa­ pore, World Scientific). pp. 84-87. So far, this highly-to-be-recommended age alone. Since fluxes can be measured and forces can be bdok provides the only account in print of this important experiment. It is measured, this seems a resolvable issue. Alas, the academies ironical that a book can be brought out in less time than it takes first-line can be of little help in such matters. They are prisoners of im­ journals to do their utterly predictable rejecting. Incidentally. on the dust­ jacket of this book is a polar diagram corresponding to our Case (C), Fig­ age, bound hand and foot by a self-importance that prevents ure S. their becoming implicated in projects of the high-school "sci­ 9. T.E. Phipps, Jr., 1996. Hadronic J. Vol. 19. p. 273. ence fa ir"-Ievel described herein. In the bad old days, profes­ 10. A.E. Robson and J.D. Sethian, 1992. Am. J. Phys. Vol. 60, p. 1111. 11. Rami Saumont, 1997. "The Battle Over the Laws of Electrodynamics," sors cravenly yielded to scientific curiosity; today, only yokels 21st Century Science & Te chnology, Spring, p. 53. do so. Still, it would seem that there are things about electro- 12. A.K.T. Assis, 1994. Weber's ElectrodynamiCS (Boston: Kluwer).

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21st CENTURY Summer 1998 65 ENVIRONMENT

There's No Truth to the Rising Sea-level Scare

by Dr. Richard D. Te rry

A marine geologist examines the myth that global warming will ra ise sea levels.

lobal warming proponents are G sounding the alarm about potential flooding of low-lying coastal areas and low islands, but the likelihood of any global warming causing a catastrophic rise of sea level is nonexistent.1 As I shall show, there is no credible evidence, con­ temporary or historical, that a global warming will cause such flooding. Fur­ ther, claims by global-warming mod­ ellers that they can predict sea level are a myth. The processes that control or affect sea level and the origin and nature of sea level changes are complex. The ocean's surface is in constant motion and undu­ lates. Water moves in some general di­ rection, but the flow is turbulent and su­ perimposed on the general movement. It is generally thought that there is a corre­ lation between glacial lowering of sea levels and the ice tied up on the Earth's surface. Variations of atmospheric CO2 levels and ocean temperatures are re­ lated to changes in ice volumes, and probably contribute to glacial-inter­ glacial cycles. But, as I show, warming at the poles, means more ice, not a rise

in sea level. (And note that, contrary to NASA the propaganda, we are now at the end The Maldive Islands, a chain of atolls south of India, and chief example of threat­ of an interglacial.) ened inundation used by the global warming propagandists. Ta ken from the Space Tides, which are one of the indicators Shuttle in April 1984, the photo shows the coral atolls and cones visible in the la­ of ocean levels, are difficult phenomena goons. to measure and compare. In some parts of the world there are no tides or tidal unstable fo undations; no known place floor topography, volcanism and ther­ currents; in other places, tides exceed 50 on Earth is free from Earth movement. mal effects (super plumes, sea-floor em­ 2 ft. Tide-gauges record sea levels Therefore, no completely satisfactory anations, Earth degassing), changes of throughout the world, although records data exist to measure or compare rela­ land and ocean areas, sedime ntation are limited prior to 1900. These tide­ tive sea levels.3 and compaction, isostasy,4 geoidal ef­ gauges are not well distributed around Sol id-Earth processes that affect sea fects, Earth pulsations and cycles, and the world, and the records are usually ir­ level come in many varieties: Earth astronomical forces. As can be seen in regular, requiring statistical analyses to movements, geological fau Iti ng, verti­ the table, page 70, movements of the compare any two stations. The biggest cal movements caused by earthquakes, Earth's su rface can be exceed i ngly problem is that most tide-gauges are on sea-floor uplift and subsidence, sea- large.

66 Summer 1998 21 st CENTURY ENVIRONMENT Other processes are oceanic and cli­ predicted by the publicized global­ matic: glacial surges and ice melting; warming models. climate effects (drastic weather changes • In 1993, using the computer models that occur randomly); ocean effects on which global warming is based, 30 (steric ocean response, temperature and authors attempted to calculate atmo­ salinity), long-period tides, shelf-waves spheric temperature for 100 years into and seiches, gravity waves, and others. the future, by means of the standard de­ Most of these processes are poorly un­ viations of the 15 different models. They derstood and difficult to model, because ' started this work partly because not one they are not linear. model had correctly predicted atmo­ Dubious Assumptions spheric temperature during the preced­ Global warming "predictions" are ac­ ing 10 years!8 tually based on dubious assumptions, • "Doomsayer" Stephen H. Schnei­ unsupported by measurement or testing. der, noting the claimed atmospheric For example, global-warming advocates temperature increase of +0.5°C during assume that they can accurately model the 20th century, pointed out in Science climate and forecast sea level. But, can in 1994, that such an increase had hap­ they? pened only twice in a thousand years. Shortly before his death, physicist Ho­ He then offered the extraordinary con­ race Lamb wrote, "I am an old man Author Richard Terry: "There is no cred­ clusion that there is a 80 to 90 percent now, and when I die and go to heaven ible evidence, contemporary or histori­ probability that the 20th century in­ there are two matters on which I hope cal, that a global warming will cause crease can be attributed to man-made for enlightenment. One is quantum elec­ fl ooding of low-lying areas." carbon dioxide.9 As I show, this is a trodynamics and the other is turbulence completely arbitrary and provably false in fluids." Werner Heisenberg, a Ger­ ellers take into account that air and wa­ assumption. man physicist who helped define quan­ ter vapor can move between boxes, and What about Temperature? tum mechanics, made a similar com­ predictions (or best guesses) are made How have temperatures varied during ment on his death bed: "There are two of events as they unfo ld. Ultimately, a the last few hundreds and thousands of questions for God; why relativity, and "picture" will be displayed on a com­ years, and is a small rise of temperature why turbulence." Heisenberg added: "I puter screen or a series of graphs that a cause for concern? think He may have an answer to the first can be manipulated. Fossilized records of the population question." The major problem in simulations is of midge larvae are one of the best indi­ Climate modellers assume that the at­ that they hardly ever mimic the "real cators of temperature, because they pin­ mosphere behaves in a linear, non-tur­ world," which is bewilderingly complex point temperatures to within 1°C. Steve bulent, fashion. They must do so, be­ and still has many unknowns. For exam­ Brooks, an entomologist studying cause otherwise they cannot possibly ple, models have difficulties with: the ef­ midges in bogs in Scotland and western model in detail the atmosphere or the fects of rainfall on vegetation and soils, Norway, found dramatic fl uctuations oceans, both of which are chaotic and the growth and shrinkage of sea ice, 5,000 years after the end of the Ice nonlinear. Nonlinear forces operate combining climate and ocean circula­ Ages, -14,000 YBP (years before the throughout the universe and have long tion, and variations of energy from the present). The largest fluctuations were haunted physicists, oceanographers, and Sun, especially cloud cover. One cli­ in the Younger Dryas, when the ice astronomers. Lamb and Heisenberg mate model, shows Death Valley filled caps retreated in North America and were simply emphasizing the fact that with water! In another, oceans are mod­ Europe. In Scotland, at the start of the turbulence is, so far, beyond their com­ elled as a "swamp." Younger Dryas, summer temperatures prehension.s A look at some case examples from crashed by about 10°C over just a few A sampling of climate modelling will contemporary modelling indicates their decades. This glacial reprise lasted for help the reader understand both the limitations and questionable conclu­ about 1,500 years. process and its shortcomings.6 In a sions. Two other sudden and shorter freezes computer simulation, the atmosphere is • In 1994, Christe and McNider7 occurred around 12,500 YBP, when broken down into a series of boxes in a made an attempt to rescue the global summer temperatures plummeted, in grid. Each box covers an area of several warming scenario by examining the Scotland, 1 .5°C for about 150 years.lO hundred square miles, and boxes are lower tropopause (lower 3 miles) of the Similar data are reported from Canada, stacked on top of one another. Inside Earth's atmosphere, using satellite mi­ inferring, again, large swings in tempera­ each box, the laws of physics and crowave measurements for the past 15 ture. Unexplained rapid temperature os­ chemistry are applied to what is hap­ years. They plotted sea-surface tempera­ cillations, as much as 5° to 10°C, on the pening at any given time. All the cli­ tures, EI Nino events, volcanic eruptions Greenland Ice Sheet are the norm.ll matically significant variables are·aver­ (EI Chich6n and Mount Pinatubo), and Moreover, it has been confidently stated aged across the grid boxes, or are they arrived at an upward temperature that the world is heading for another ice assumed to have a linear change from trend of only +0.09°C per decade. This age. A case in point is the Northwest Ter­ one side of the box to the other. Mod- "best estimate" is five-fold less than that ritories of Canada, where temperatures

ENVIRONMENT 21 st CENTURY Summer 1998 67 have declined SOC since the Climatic temperature increase of :=l°C or so, war­ Nevertheless, it is assumed that com­ Maximum, 6,000 years ago.12 rants immediate attention when recent puter models are sufficiently accurate to These reports make temperature mod­ geologic history records much larger model an increase in atmospheric tem­ ' elling suspect. One must wonder why a fluctuations over short time-scales. perature over many decades. It is also

0 giv�1legitimacy to tne "man­ �" " ' J' induced glob�l-warming/; �oax, in � 1988 the Director of the United Na-

68 Summer 1998 21 st CENTURY ENVIRONMENT Global warming and the stability of

. - .: " . - ..- .: , the West Antarctic Ice Sh. eet

Michael Oppenheimer

Oftoday's great Ice sheets, the W.stAntarctic Ice Sheet pos.s the most Immediate threat of a larg. ... ·I.v.1 rise, owing to Itspot.ntl al instability. Complet. rel.as.of ItsIce tothe ocean would ral•• global m.an s.a l.vel by four to six metres, causing major coastal flooding worldwld•. Human·lnduced ellmat. chang. may play a significant rol. ln controlling the long· stability ofthe W.st Antarctic Ice Sheet and In datermlnlng Its co butlon to .... level hang. ln th

This is the opening of an article by Environmental Defense Fund scientist Michael Oppenheimer in the May 28 issue of Nature magazine, which was then spread throughout the national media.

assumed that the major source of CO2 time (<36 mYBP), and slightly below a ellers are able to take into account all is industrial and man-made. But indus­ factor of 10 for the Late Cretaceous (90 to the aspects of the Earth and ocean trial sources contribute only 6 billion 100 mYBp).1sThe Last Glacial Maximum processes noted above. Earth scientists tons of CO2 annually, compared to 700 atmosphere is thought to have had a CO2 agree that predicting ocean volume billion tons from natural geologic and level between 50(±30) and 95(±50) ppm changes and sea levels are difficult and, biologic process.13 Major natural per- higher. The glacial atmosphere would as will be discussed later, sea levels are . turbations-volcanism, sea floor hy­ have had, therefore, a CO2 partial pres­ barely measurable, and the predicted drothermal emanations, changes in sure of between 330 and 375 ppm. In the changes are well within sea-level ocean CO2 levels, sea floor CaC02, at­ Holocene interglacial « 0.5 mYBP), CO2 "noise" range. In the final analysis, mospheric CO2-are parts of Earth's was as high as during the last inter­ when it comes to the Earth sciences, in­ 2 natural dynamic system that have taken glacial. o cluding oceanography and geophysics, place throughout geologic time. The These levels of CO2 are consistent global warming modellers are out of 2 present CO2 level is -360 ppm (parts with another study, 1 which plotted at­ their milieu. per million).14 Historically, atmospheric mospheric CO2 against geologic time (in Nonetheless, global-warming propo­ CO2 levels have fluctuated over wide millions of YBP) as a simple ratio of CO2 nents assume that the United Nations rang'es throughout geologic time, as levels compared to the present day. The climate models are accurate, thus per­ have temperatures. conclusions are: Even in the earliest geo­ mitting them to make accurate sea-level A proto-ocean, the outgrowth of im­ logic times, CO2 levels were exceed­ predictions. The difficulty in assessing pacts of aCCretion, produced a growing ingly high. At the end of the Cambrian sea-level modelling values is that the Earth that had an H20-C02 atmo­ period (-500 mYBP), atmospheric CO2 modellers present us with a moving tar­ sphere.1S Partial pressures of CO2 atmo­ levels dropped, and during the Carbonif­ get; that is, their sea level predictions spheres in the Archean (earlier than 550 erous (-300 mYBP), CO2 levels were keep changing. million YBP) are estimated to have been lower than the present day. Concentra­ One study states that there will be a 100 to 1,000 times greater than the pre­ tions of CO2 increased again -100 rise in sea level of 10 feet by the year sent day.16 Atmospheric CO2 levels dur­ mYBP when, in the Cretaceous-Tertiary 2024. Elsewhere, we are told that a 4°C ing the Cambrian (560 to 500 mYBP) «65 mYBP), CO2 levels were -300 rise in temperature would cause sea were between 3.7 to 14.7 times that of ppm. level to rise 2 m in 500 years. In 1980, the supposed modern pre-industrial To summarize, CO2 levels were higher global-warming prognosticators esti­ value of 285 ppmY Superplume tecton­ than the present for nearly 2.5 bi IIion mated a 25-ft rise of sea level over the 22 ics during the Cretaceous (-140 to 70 YBP. Low CO2 levels are a modern phe­ next 150 years. The 1985 Intergovern­ mYBP) produced large CO2 emissions. nomenon-"modern, " meaning the past mental Panel on Climate Change (lpeC) During the Early and Late Miocene (20 60 million years! report projected a "best estimate" rise of 2 to 8 mYBP), pC02 was less than 700 Why? That is the question. But it's not sea level of 3 ft. 3 In the same year, a re­ ppm, but was as high as -3,000 ppm in global warming! port by the U.S. National Research the Early Cretaceous and Early Jurassic Sea-level Predictions Elude Modellers Council, chaired by M.F. Meier, also re­ (-200 mYBP). Now, on to predicting sea level. duced the projected sea level rise to 3 2 Over the last 100 million years, the Global warming modellers assume ft. 4 Then, 1989, Meier, allowing for partial pressure of CO2 was near a factor that they can predict sea level-and that more water vapor and other factors, cal­ of 2.5 greater than the present atmo­ they can do so with breathtaking preci­ culated that sea level in 2050 would 2 spheric CO2 level during the post-Eocene sion. Of course, this implies that mod- rise about 1 ft. S

ENVIRONMENT 21st CENTURY Summer 1998 69 As for the !PCC, in 1989, its estimate ative sea levels (-3.3), because the land and storm surges), EI Nino episodes, and of rise of sea level dropped to 1 foot. is rising. so on. Then, in 1990, the !PCC report projected From these studies, several important Now, a global-warming-induced 60- a "best estimate" of 66 cm for sea level conclusions can be reached: cm rise in sea level in 43 years amounts 2 rise in the next century. 6 • Great caution (if not skepticism) to a rise of 14,000 mm/l ,OOO years, By 1992, however, other scientists should be given to any predicted sea which is far greater than the most reli­ were predicting that sea levels would fa ll level. able sea level estimates using tide by -1 ft., also as a result of global warm­ • Tide-gauges records are extremely gauges and historic sea level informa­ 2 ing. 7 A Canadian-American team of sci­ variable, owing to Earth movements. tion. Further, a sea-level rise of 60 cm in entists reported that ice sheets will grow • Emery and Aubrey were unable to a half-century would be impossible to in size as a result of more water being cite a single value to describe global eu- detect, because the sea surface is in con- tied up as snow, caus'ing sea stant motion, with perturba­ level to drop in the next cen- tions that reach 60 cm or tury.28 At the same time, others TYPICAL VERTICAL EARTH MOVEMENTS more. A 60-cm rise is orders ' predicted that on the basis of a (In mm/1 ,OOO years)1 of magn itude less than the forecast of a 6° to 8°F rise in ocean's volume (329,000 temperature, sea level would Location Uplift/Subsidence km3); such a rise is a minus­ rise 1 to 3ft, as a resu It of the Arctic Coast of N. America +200-20,000 cule portion of the ocean. Fur- thermal expansion of the Southern California 5,000-10,000 ther, a 60-cm rise in sea level oceans. Japan, Boos Peninsula -22,000 to +6,000 is well within the "noise"­ d When Real Numbers Are Use Japan, South Kanto District -10,000 to +10,000 range of sea-level measure­ Emery and Aubrey summa­ ments. Kuril-Kamchatka trench and Islands 10,000-14,000 rized the actual sea-level mea­ As Barrett32 notes, there is a Loyalty Ridge, Southwest Pacific 40,000 surements from J 914 to 1990. low-frequency (1 cycle/l 00 The estimates range from a low Taiwan 19,000 to 20,000 years); consequently, a " ... of <500 mm/l ,OOO years to a Solomon Islands 20 to 10,000 change in [relative sea level) high of 3,000 mm/l ,OOO years. North coast of Aitape 11,360 as a result of man-induced ef­ Most values appear to be about Surtsey, Iceland 40,800 fects will be difficult, if not im­ 1,500 mm/l ,OOO years.29 Over Campi Flegrel, Italy 200,0002 possible, to detect on any real­ the past 600 million years, sea Limnos, Greece -10,000 istic time scale." level has risen at an average Where Does the Water Come from? rate of only 1,000 mm/l ,OOO Notes ------years. 1, Numbers without plus sign (+) are uplift rates; minus sign (-) de­ Now, we must understand Emery and Aubrey's statisti­ notes subsidence. that 97 percent of the water on 2. Highest known uplift rate, cal summaries were prepared Earth is in the ocean. If one for global sea levels. For the en- wishes to raise the ocean's tire world, using tide-gauges level (sea level, that is), a for more than 10 years, the mean annual static sea level; all tide-gauge records tremendous amount of water must be sea-level, relative to 1950, shows a show either a rising or fal ling sea level. found and put into the ocean. It is gener­ downward (falling sea level) trend-line, • Claims by global-warming mod­ ally assumed that the largest potential with a slope of -14. Next, they used ellers that they can predict sea level are source of water to raise sea level is glacial on Iy tide-gauge stations on what they not real. In a word, predicting sea level ice. Most climate models today, how­ considered to be stable coasts. These is well nigh impossible. ever, foresee increased precipitation. If data, depicted an upward-sloping trend • There is no credible evidence that that were to happen, as we shall see, (rising sea level), with a slope of +0.8. global warming will cause flooding of there is a good chance that sea level will Then, using all tide-gauge stations for the low-lying areas. Ten years ago, when drop as much as 2 ft in the next century. world, from 1807, the trend-line gave a global warming alarms fi rst sounded, Why? Because increased evaporation downward slope of -0.9. had policy-makers built sea walls at locks up more water and puts more ice Tide-gauge records from 1986 on­ great expense to protect coastal areas, it on the Antarctic ice sheet.33 ward, show a rising sea level trend with wou Id have been a totally wasted The Arctic Ocean has a deep ocean a slope of +0.6. Other tide-gauge sum­ effort.3D basin that is covered entirely by floating maries gave a wide range of trend-lines" Now to Fairy Tale sea ice (frozen sea water). The density such as, a rising sea level for the U.S. A recent global-warming sea-level of sea ice is 0.92 gm/cm3. The tempera­

Atlantic coast (slope = +2.1 since 1898, study along the California coast used a ture at which sea ice freezes is -1 .9°C; and a rising trend-line of +3.1 since global warming forecast of a 60-cm rise salt lowers the freezing point of water. 1923. Emery and Aubrey also summa­ by the year 2040 as a baseline.31 The au­ The colder the solid form gets, the less ' rized tide-gauge results for Fennoscan­ thors then offered the specter of various dense it becomes. Sea ice floats be­ dia, where the land is undergoing isosta­ threats to the coastal zone-shoreline re­ cause it is less dense than when it is liq­ tic rebound, from deglaciation. As cession, coastal erosion, extreme natural uid form and, once frozen, ice occupies expected, there is a steep decline of rel- ocean processes (such as extreme tides 10 percent more space. This means that

70 Summer 1998 21 st CENTURY ENVIRONMENT to fall. Water evaporated from the Thousands of Years before Present oceans would accumulate as snow and become "locked up" on the ice sheet. § Therefore, the ice sheet would thicken.37 8" c5§ .- 0) co I' <0LO o This process would lower sea level by about 1 foot. From all this, we can confidently say +10 that global warming's basic argument­ 0 warming will cause sea level to rise-is completely at odds with the dynamics of -10 the hydrologic cycle. This self-regulating 20 process, which restores equilibriLim, is a 30 well-known principle that every fresh­ man college chemistry student learns.38 40 It often has been stated that, if melting i!! 50 of the Antarctic ice cap took place, sea * level would rise -150 ft, a figure widely �60 reported by the media. This is a lie, as al­ 70 ready mentioned. The Antarctic Ice Sheet will grow, rather than diminish, if 80 temperatures increase in the next cen­ 90 tury, accumulating snow faster than it 100 loses ice. Antarctica has little meltwater, 110 owing to the extreme cold, but a small amount reportedly reaches the ocean 120 ? from the East Antarctic Ice Sheet. If the Antarctic Ice Sheet were to com­ SEA LEVElS OVER THE PAST 150,000 YEARS pletely melt, the air temperature of Th is approximate curve of sea levels is based on various measuring methods. Antarctica would have to be 1·C or Similar curves have been made from carbon- 14 dates and the depths at which higher, over thousands of years . Not coastal fo ssils were fo und on the continental shelves. only that, but in order to get the temper­ ature of Antarctica to rise to 1°C, the en­ Source: Adapted from F.P. Shepard and J.R. Curray. 1967. "Carbon-14 Determination of Sea Level Changes in tire atmosphere would have to have a Stable Areas." In Progressin Oceanography. Vol. 4 (Oxford: Pergamon). p. 283. temperature increase of -51°C-210° F. (Imagine Washington, D.C., summer melting of sea ice does not cause sea heating, ice would not melt, because of temperatures of 210°F ....) level to rise; it actually lowers (local) its large thermal response time. The ice For these reasons, the Antarctic ice sea level. cap is thick, and ice itself acts as an ex­ sheet can obviously be ignored in global It has been claimed that ice in the Arc­ cellent insulator, protecting it from warming scenarios.· No one expects the tic is melting; however, after analyzing melting. melting of the Antarctic Ice Sheet, even 27,000 temperature readings, Professor Even if the air temperature rose, say 6° with a 7-fold increase in CO2.39 Jonathan Kahl found a statistically signif­ to 7°C, the ice cap would still have a This leaves the global warming flood icant trend in the opposite direction-to­ temperature of --46°C, and the Ice propagandists with only Greenland, day the Arctic is cooling.34 Both the Sheet would remain solid.35 The air tem­ mountain glaciers, and ice bergs, all of Greenland and Antarctica ice caps have perature above the ice sheet must reach which are trivial sources of water. As one been growing in recent years. 1°C before ice would begin to melt, and writer summed up the problem of model­ More than 90 percent of all ice is it would take +5,000 years to melt the ling sea level rises from glacier melting, stored on the Antarctic continent; Green­ ice cap-ifglobal warming could cause "Wide uncertainties still remain."4o And, land accounts for only 5 percent, and the temperature to rise this much. as glaciologist F .B. Wood has pointed glaciers the remainder. The quantity of It is generally accepted that the rise of out, "If there were a magic way to melt water stored in glaciers is debatable, but sea level in postglacial time required all the land glaciers of the Northern certainly is insignificant in any asserted melting of ice at a rate of 5,000 km3 for Hemisphere, sea level would rise only 10 impact on the oceans. 7,000 yrs.36 cm."41 Global warming will have no effect As the air temperature heats up, it Ah, but if we can't raise sea level by on the Antarctica ice cap. There are sev­ holds more water vapor. This is the op­ melting the ice, global-warming advo­ eral reasons. Melting of ice on any con­ posite of the theory of global warming's cates then pull out of their hat the fallacy tinental ice sheet takes place only at the basic assumptions. If the mean air tem­ of thermal expansion of the ocean. In bottom, where it is warmed by geother­ perature around Antarctica were to rise, theory, this could raise sea level 1 to 2 ft, mal heat. The top of an ice sheet is cold more clouds would develop; more but, as we have seen, such a small rise (-50°C) and dry. Even with substantial clouds would cause the air temperature would not be apparent. And then, too, it

ENVIRONMENT 21st CENTURY Summer 1998 71 would take about 13,000 years for the World Wa r /I veteran of the U.S. Navy, Ages, So Relax." Wa ll Sf. Journal(Oct. 30). action to take place. 14. pC02 = partial pressure of atmospheric CO2 who received his advanced degrees in given as ppmv (parts per million by volume), or Why Global Warming? marine geology fr om the University of �atm. Present CO2 atmospheres are given as Given the absurdity of the claims of Southern California. For many years he ppm. From the earliest geologic time to the Cretaceous-Pliocene time, CO2 levels were al­ global warming propagandists about worked in the marine division of North ways higher than the present day. ice melt, why do they persist in scaring American Rockwell. Dr. Terry has served 15. Y. Abe. and T. Matsui, 1988. J. Atmos. Sci., people about rising ocean levels? My as consultant to the U.S. Defense De­ Vol. 45, No. 21 , pp. 3081 -3101 . 16. L.D. Stott, 1992. Paleoceanography, Vol. 7, conclusion is that it's purely political, partment, the Assistant Secretary of the No. 4, pp. 395-404. and has to do with population reduc­ Navy (R&D), the Strategic Defense Initia­ 17. K. Caldeira and M.R. Rampino, 1991 . Geo­ phys. Res. Letts, Vol.18, No. 6, pp. 987-990. tion. tive, and several space progra ms. He has 18. E.T. Cerling, 1991 . Am. J. Sci. , Vol. 291 , No. 4, Global-warming gurus have built ca­ also worked as a consulting geologist in pp. 377-400. reers and fortunes warning people that East Africa and the Middle East. Now re­ 19. W.H. Berger and A. Spitzy, 1988. Paleo­ ceanography, Vol. 3, No. 4, pp. 401-41 1. sea level is rising. These fear-mongers tired, he continues to work on advanced 20. L.H. Martin, 1990. Paleoceanography, Vol. 5, feed on the public's lack of knowledge concepts in marine geology. No. 1, p. 113. about the true facts. They counsel peo­ 21 . R.A. Bener, 1992. Nature, Vol. 355 (July 9). Notes ------22. S. Schneider and R. Chen, 1980. Ann Rev. of ple living in low-lying coastal areas­ 1. See, for example, "An Oceanographer Looks Energy, Vol. 5, p. 107. usually with the help of a pliant and ig­ at Global Warming," by Dr. Robert Stevenson, 23. Global Warming Update: Recent Scientific 21st Century, Winter 1996-1997, p. 51 , and norant media-that they are in danger of Findings, 1997. George C. Marshall Institute, "What Man-made Global Warming?"by Dr. 1730 M St., N.W., Suite 502, Washington, D.C. being inundated by a rising sea. These Hugh Ellsaesser, 21st Century, Summer 1997, 20036-4505. gurus have argued that a rising sea level p. 61 . 24. M.F. Meier, 1985. Glaciers, Ice Sheets and 2. All units are in their original. The reason is that, is already demonstrated by the wide os­ Sea Level: Effects of a CO2-Induced Climate when converting to metric units, errors are in­ Change (Washington, D.C.: Natl. Acad. Press). cillations of lake levels in the Caspian troduced and give the reader a false sense of 25. -- , 1989. Tra ns. Am. Geophys. Union, Sea. (A Russian geologist, however, has accuracy. Vol. 70, p. 1002. 3. This problem is analyzed by K.O. Emery and 26. U.N. Intergovernmental Panel on Climate shown that the fl uctuations are caused D.C. Aubrey, 1991 . Sea Levels, Land Levels, Change, The IPCC Scientific Assessment, by tension and compression in the and Tide Gauges. (New York: Springer-Ver­ 1990. Eds. J.T. Houghton, E.J. Jenkins, and 2 lag). Earth's crust.4 ) J.J. Ehphraums (Cambridge: Cambridge Univ. 4. Isostacy is "the mechanism whereby areas of Press). People living in the coastal zone are the crust rise or subside until the mass of their 27. G. Miller and A. deVernal, 1992. Nature, Vol. being frightened into thinking that they topography is buoyantly supported or compen­ 355, p. 245. Global Warming Update: Recent sated by the thickness of the crust below, are about to lose everything. They are Scientific Findings, p. 22 (see Note 23). which floats on the denser mantle. The theory 28. C.R. Bentley, 1989. Tran. Am. Geophys. told that they can expect higher-than­ is that continents and mountains are supported Union, Vol. 70, p. 1002. normal tides and storm surges, EI Nino by low-density crustal 'roots.'" From Earth, 2nd 29. K.O. Emery and D.C. Aubrey, 1991 . (See Ed., by Frank Press and Raymond Siever (San Note 3.) events, hurricanes, tidal waves, and the Francisco: W.H. Freeman and Company, 30. Global Warming Upda te: Recent Scientific like. The media-TV, newspapers, even 1978). Findings. George C. Marshall Inst. (See Note pseudoscientific publ ications43-use 5. In recent years, the word chaos has replaced 23.) the term turbulence, but it is allied with turbu­ 31. A. Constable, et al., 1997. "Demographic Re­ archival films and photographs showing lence in fluids. Climatologists have used the sponse to Sea Level Rise in CaliforniaI" World calamitous ocean and climatic events, term fluid dynamics, because the atmosphere Resources Review, Vol. 9, No. 1, pp. 32-44. behaves like a turbulent fluid. As one writer The senior author is a sociologist at California passing them off as if they happened a stated, " ...the proper algorithms [for turbu­ Lutheran University and the Department of So­ few days ago. lence1 models . . . so far has eluded physi­ ciology, Department of Populations Research Australian scientist Peter Sawyer char­ cists and the heftiest supercomputers on the Laboratory, University of Southern California. planet." (New Scientist, July 5, 1997, p. 52). 32. T.P. Barrett, 1984. "The Estimation of Global acterized the situation this way: "It's a Richard Feynman struggled for years on the Sea Level Change: A Problem of Uniqueness." bit hard to reduce people to a state of problem of turbulence of gases and fluids, as J. Geophys. Res., Vol. 89, No. C5, pp. 7980- fear and panic with the 'threat' of more described by J. Gleick in Genius (Vintage 7988. Books, 1992). 33. G. Miller and A. deVernal, 1992. Nature, Vol. food and better climatic conditions [from 6. Emery and Aubrey, op. cit. (pp. 163-1 65) and 355, p. 245. warmer temperatures], so something else "Computing Difficulties in Generating Accurate 34. Milwa ukee Sentinel, Nov. 23, 1992. had to be found. It's a measure of just Forecasts," In Scientific Perspectives on the 35. A.B. Robinson, 1997. "Global Warming," Ac­ Greenhouse Problem, 1989. George C. Mar­ cess to Energy, Vol. 25, NO. 3 (Nov.). how fl imsy the whole greenhouse argu­ shali inst., pp. 10-14. This give excellent de­ 36. D.Y. Donovan and E.J.W. Jones, 1979. R. ment is, that the worst 'threat' that could scriptions of the current status of modelling of Soc. London, Vol. 136, No.187, p. 192. the atmosphere and oceans. 37. In 1929, Admiral Byrd erected two 79-foot be presented was that oceans-levels will See also E.M. Pascali, 1997. "Climate Model­ radio antennas on the Ice Sheet at Little Amer­ somehow rise, and flood out some ling: Linearization in the Small and the Large," ica. The antennas originally were 60 feet above coastal areas."44 in The Coming Ice Age: Why Global Warming the Ice Sheet. The following are the height of Is a Scientific Fra ud, (Washington, D.C.: 21st the antennas, still visible: In 1934, 30 It; in It's time for people to wake up, realize Century Science Associates, Nov., 1997) pp. 1947, 18ft; and in 1955, one antenna was at 8 the serious consequences stemming from 101-103. ftthe other 10ft above the ice. As ice (as snow) the policies of global warming hacks and 7. J.R. Christy and R.T. McNider, 1994. Nature, accumulated, part of Little America broke Vol. 367, p. 325. away, so there is no way to recheck the bureaucrats, and fight back with the 8. Science, 1993. Vol, 262, pp. 1511-1255, (Nov.). heights. This appears to confirm that the Ice truth. The real global warming catastro­ 9. S. Schneider. 1994. Science, Vol. 263, p. 341. Sheet is growing. (H.A. Brown, 1967. Cata­ 10. F. Pearce, 1997. "The Buzz on Climate," New clysms of the Earth, Twaye Publications). phe is how easy it is for some scientists Scientist (Sept. 15). p. 15. 38. This process of dynamic equilibrium is referred to scare people with scenarios that have 11. R.A. Kerr, 1993. Science, Vol. 261 , p. 292. to as the Le Chatelier Principle, which states, no scientific validity. (July 16). "If the condition of a system, initially at equilib­ 12. J. Sauers, 1997. "We're in a Little Ice Age!" rium, are changed, the equilibrium will shift in Th e author of fi ve books and many 21st Century, Summer, p. 5. such a direction as to tend to restore the origi­ technical articles, Richard Terry is a 13. V.H. Abadie II, 1997. "We're Between Ice nal condition, if such a shift is possible."

72 Summer 1998 21 st CENTURY ENVIRONMENT 39. Gerd Weber, 1992. Global Warming-The Trends, 1960s to 1980s," Arctic and Alpine Re­ coastal areas. Every schoolboy has learned Rest of the Story (Wiesbaden, Germany: Dr. search, Vol. 20, No. 4, pp. 404-413. the Dutch have been fighting the sea for cen­ Boettiger verlag) Available in English from 21 st 42. N.A. Shill, 1989. "Causes of Fluctuations in the turies. This is dishonest. Century Science Associates. Level of the Caspian Sea," Ookl. Akad. Nauk 44. P. Sawyer, 1990. The Green Hoax Effect, (Vic­ 40. T.M.L. Wigley and S.C.B. Raper, 1995. Geo­ SSSR, Vol. 305, No. 2, pp. 412-416. toria, Australia: Braum-Brunfield, Inc., 152 pp.) phys. Res. Letts., Vol. 22, No. 20, pp. 2749- 43. Scientific American, Aug. 1997. A 4-page pho­ Available from Groupacumen Australia Pty 2752. tograph of flooding of the Netherlands is Ltd., P.O. Box 34, Tawonga 3697, Victoria, 41. P. D. Wood. 1989. "Global Alpine Glacier shown, implying that this will happen to other Australia.

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ENVIRONMENT 21 st CENTURY Summer 1998 73 PEDAGOGY Revisiting the Simplest Discoveries by Jonathan Te nnenbaum

re ideas and concepts somehow pre­ Aprogrammed into our brains, by some sort of genetic code? Or do they come from the outside, through sense perceptions, or some other way? Or do our minds have the power to generate new ideas, for example, in the form of discoveries of new scientific principles­ ideas which existed neither in our minds, nor in the outside world prior to their discovery? Few questions have such far­ reaching implications as these. In a posthumously published fragment titled, "Attempt at a Theory of the Funda­ mental Concepts of Mathematics and Physics As the Basis for the Explication of Nature," and in other writings, the great 19th century mathematician and physicist Bernhard Riemann developed an historical approach to the origin of ideas and concepts, which is well worth studying today. Riemann wrote: "On the basis of the concepts, through which we grasp the natural world, we not only constantly supple­ ment our observations, but, in addition, we determ ine certain future observa­ tions in advance as necessary, or-in case our system of concepts is not suffi­ ciently complete-as probable; on this basis it is determined, what is 'possible'

(that is, also what is 'necessary' or that ADN Zentralbild, Berlin whose opposite is impossible); further­ Solar observatory in Samarkand, Uzbekistan, built around 7420 by the Ta rtar prince more, the degree of possibility (the Ulugh Beg, who also had many large astronomical instruments, and carried out 'probabi I ity') of every si ngle event so careful observations of the stars. judged possible, can be mathematically determined, when the concepts are suf­ a way that the observed event ceases to the pathway by which our knowledge of ficiently precise. be impossible or improbable according Nature has progressed. The systems of "If an event occurs, which is neces­ to the enlarged or improved system of concepts, which form the basis of our sary or probable according to the given concepts. The extension or improvement present understanding of Nature, were system of concepts, then that system is of the conceptual system constitutes the generated by progressive transformations thereby confirmed; and it is on the basis 'explanation' of the unexpected event. of older conceptual systems; and the rea­ of this confirmation through experience, Through this process, our understanding sons that pushed forward the generation that we base our confidence in those of Nature gradually becomes more com­ of new modes of explanation, can in concepts. prehensive and more true, while at the every case be traced back to contradic­ "But if something unexpected occurs, same time reaching ever deeper beneath tions or improbabil ities arising in older being impossible or improbable accord­ the surface of the phenomena. modes of explanation. ing to the given system of concepts, then "The history of the exact sciences, as "Thus, the generation of new con­ the task arises, to enlarge the system, or, far as we can fo llow it backwards in cepts, insofar as it is accessible to obser­ where necessary, to transform it, in such time, demonstrates that this, in fact, is vation, occurs by this process.

74 Summer 1998 21 st CENTURY PEDAGOGY "Herbart, on the other hand, has pro­ impulses of "animal instinct" and "sense Intrigued, you repeat the experiment, vided proof, that those concepts, upon certainty"? T.heworld of the existential­ but with a variation: You as� a friend to which our conceptualization of the ist Yahoo, or a newly born infant, is a keep watching the stars, WIthout inter­ world is based, but whose origins we kind of Chaos, a "kaleidoscope of feel­ ruption, during the time your eyes are can neither trace back in history, nor in ings" replacing each other in more or closed. The experiment is performed. our own development, because they are less rapid succession. Mankind could Once again, you find an undeniable not survive, were it not possible to change in the positions of the stars, when transmitted together with language with­ · out being noticed-all of those con­ awaken a power of creative discovery you look at the sky again after a nap. cepts, insofar as they are more than in the infant, or the supposedly infant­ Your friend, however, swears he never mere forms of connection between sim­ like, primitive man-a mental function saw the stars move! ple sense perceptions, can be derived energized by the most powerful human A Paradox from the above source; and need not be emotion, Agape. It is that agapic power, The paradox strikes deep into your attributed to some special property of inseparable from the faculty of memory mind. Whatever fo llows, will depend on the human soul, assumed to predate all as understood by the Renaissance, how you respond to the paradox. How­ experience (as Kant claimed to do with which conquers the Chaos of bestiality ever you respond-or even if you do not his categories)." and creates the Cosmos of human de­ respond-that response will reflect some An Obvious Case velopment as an ordering of successive sort of hypothesis, an hypothesis gener­ Often it is most instructive, in explor­ acts of discovery. ated nowhere but inside your own mind. ing the implications of a fundamental Next, consider the elementary para­ Shall you merely conclude that your principle such as Riemann's, to focus at­ dox of change, as it is addressed by the eyes (or those of your friend) have lied to tention on the most deceptively simple simplest of astronomical discoveries. you in some arbitrary fashion? Or that cases-cases of the sort fools would be The following exploration is hypotheti­ the Universe itself is maliciously arbi­ likely to dismiss as being "too obvious to cal, but necessarily touches upon a dis­ trary? If so, then how would human exis­ be worth thinking about." covery actually made (and in fact, made tence be possible? Take, for example, the everyday con­ repeatedly in various forms) in human Or is there another way out? Perhaps cept of a "day." What could be more self­ history. we should not completely reject the evi­ evident? Does Riemann actually mean to You are a prehistoric human being, dence of our senses. Perhaps it were bet­ say that there is a real, creative discovery living perhaps 500,000 years ago. On a ter to assume, that although our sense embedded in that idea? What would beautiful clear night, you seek a place to perceptions in themselves do not repre­ have been the paradox or paradoxes, lie down under the open sky. Gaze up, sent reality, still there must be some im­ whose resolution gave birth to the con­ from there, at the magnificent canopy of plicitly discoverable, lawful relationship cept of "a day"? Evidently, the discovery the heavens! The myriad stars shine between sense perception and reality. involved predates history in the usual down on you in majestic silence, like lit­ This is the pathway of science. sense. We might try to project ourselves tle lights affixed to a lofty dome. Here is Choosing that pathway, the paradox mentally back to a hypothetical, very, peace, here is rest! You close your eyes moves us to hypothesize the existence of very distant point in time, at which the and relax. something, which our senses-in virtue concept of "a day" did not exist, and then You wake up later that night. As your of some lawful limitation of the same­ ask: What paradoxes must intrinsically eyes once more open to the sky, you are cannot grasp: to hypothesize a concept confront a mind in the process of freeing struck with a sudden sense of strange­ of a process of change, which in itself is itself from a naive, beast-like belief in the ness. Something is diffe rent! Something invisible to the senses, but yet efficiently primacy of sense-perception? First, reflect has happened ! The stars seem to have accounts for the observed (or rather, re­ on the fol lowing: changed. Looking around, you recog­ membered) difference in positions! That Could we discover anything without nize a group of bright stars, whose form adduced concept, of an invisible-but memory? Is a pot-head Yahoo, who you remember having remarked before efficient-process of change, is an ob­ cannot remember what he saw or did you took your nap. That group of stars is ject of a different sort than a sense per­ five minutes earlier, able to make sci­ no longer where it was before; the stars ception (including the paradoxical entity entific discoveries? Would a Yahoo have changed position! we commonly identify as the "percep­ ever have been able even to discover Changed? How is that possible? You tion of motion"). It is not sufficient to ac­ the existence of a "day" as a recurring stare intently at the stars. Not the slight­ count for that new concept, by merely cycle of light and darkness? Or was the est motion is perceptible; only a gentle saying: "the stars move too slowly for development of poetry, as a means of twinkling while they remain, seemingly our eyes to see." The point is, that the development of the powers of memory, immovable, in their places. paradox just presented, evokes the po­ crucial to the emergence of human civ­ A paradox! On the one hand, your fac­ tential of a new quality of relationship of ilization? ulty of sense perception insists that the our mind to the Universe. Pre-Socratic Greek tradition often stars are fixed and motionless. On the A change in the substance of our spoke of the origin of the Universe in other hand, you remember that the same mind! Prior to the explosion of the para­ terms of the creation of Order (Cosmos) faculty had earlier testified, no less insis­ dox, you looked at the Universe (the star­ out of Chaos. Does this not exactly de­ tently, to an arrangement of stars in the ried heavens) as an object of sense per­ scribe the subjective process by which sky, which is different from the one it ception. Now, you are looking at the a human mind frees itself from the blind now reports! Universe from the standpoint of a

PEDAGOGY 21st CENTURY Summer 1998 75 process of discovery, which stands in And knew nothing: no sign to foretell ironical contrast to naive belief in sense the winter storm, perception. To the reflecting mind, that - Nor the spring rich in flowers, nor the difference in mental attitude, from be­ fruitful fore to now, provokes the hypothesis of Summer, no sure measure. Without higher species of change-a process of Reason did they act improvement of human cognitive pow­ In everything, 'til I made them heed ers, which is invisible to our senses, but the rising and setting real and earthshakingly powerful Of the stars, so difficult to distinguish. nonetheless. And number, a most ingenious inven­ Turning once more to our nightly ob­ tion, servations, what shall be our next step? I created for them, and the invention Does our power of discovery give us the of writing capability to hypothesize, not only the As a monument to all, and Mother of existence, but also the fo rm of the the Muses. process of change of position of the And 'twas I that fi rst put the wi Id stars? How would we discover the co­ beasts under yoke, herence between the paradox of the That they do service to the plough and stars' motion, and a similar paradox, Bernhard Riemann: "But if something bear burdens, and so posed by the behavior of the Sun? And unexpected occurs, being impossible or Lift many a heavy task from the backs how could we do that, using nothing improbable according to the given sys­ of men. more than the means which were avail­ tem of concepts, then the task arises, to And to the wagons I hitched, eager able to prehistoric Man? enlarge the system, or, where necessary, willing to obey, Lest the reader find the above discus­ to transform it, in such a way that the Horses, the splendor of wealth. sion "too trivial" to be important, con­ observed event ceases to be impossible And to sail o'er the seas-none but I sider the following. Nearly everyone to­ or improbable according to the enlarged Invented the shipman's winged sails. day is faced (or will be soon) with a or improved system of concepts. 1/ Yet I, who for mortals such things congruent form of paradox: On the one Created, can find nothing for myself hand, most people would claim that Witness the words of Aeschyl us' To deliver me from my present plight." their most deeply held values and be­ Prometheus: Not without cause did Aeschylus em- liefs, being absolutely self-evident (to "Believe not, that I from pride or stub­ phasize the earliest discoveries of astron­ them!) are fixed and unchangeable. On bornness omy, connected with the construction of the other hand, comparing those "deeply Keep silent. Heart-rending thoughts I a solar calendar, as crucial events in the held personal values" of today, with the nurture, emergence of human reason as "the sure corresponding values held "self-evi­ Watching myself thus trodden under measure" of things. dently" by those same people 30 years foot. Implicitly, the discoveries made by ago, we find almost nothing in common! And yet to the new Gods, they-Was our pre-historic colleague in connection If mankind is to survive, an increasing it not I with the "invisible" motion of the stars, ration of leading and ordinary citizens Who granted them their fitting honors? refute everyth i ng univ ersity students must be brought to discover, as an "en­ But, of this I'll say nothing. Besides, it have been taught to bel ieve about sci­ emy image," the process by which the were to those who know ence and liberal arts since the mid- oligarchy was able to induce that radi­ That I would address you. But, of the 1960s. Astronomical cycles-beginning cal, downward paradigm shift in their dire need of Men with the "day"-are neither objects of own minds. Let me tell, how I made them, foolish sense perception, nor "significant statisti­ The 'One' and the 'Many' at first, cal correlations." Rather, the astronomi­ Have you ever stopped to consider, To be fu ll of thought and empowered cal cycles emerge as conceptions cre­ how a human being, a "mere infinitesi­ with Reason. ated in the human mind, through a mal" on the scale of the world as a I say th is not to complain of them, process of generation of paradoxes and whole, could actually come to know But only to explain the goodly inten­ their creative solution. the vast dimensions of the solar system, tion of my gifts. Change and No Change or to measure astronomical cycles hun­ They, who had eyes from the first, but From this standpoint, let us push our dreds or thousands of times longer than saw not, exploration of prehistorical discoveries a the brief span of his or her individual Who had ears, yet heard not; but like few steps further, to identify paradoxes life? The existence of such powers of figments which necessarily must have arisen, cognition, by which the "infinitesimal" Of dreams, their entire life long even though we do not now know the can know the macrocosm within its Mixed all things blindly together, and specific historical circumstances. own internal mental processes, is the knew nothing Our prehistoric observer notes: (1 ) The central issue in the bitter, millennial Of bricklaid houses and walls, positions of the stars appear to undergo a conflict between the human species and But lived deep-down in sunless caves constant process of change. (2) But, at the oligarchical "Gods of Olympus." Like hordes of ants, the same time, certain arrays of stars,

76 Summer 1998 21 st CENTURY PEDAGOGY the realization, that the day itself is sub­ ject to change. For example, the array of constellations, which are visible in the sky just before sunrise, is strikingly differ­ ent in winter than in summer. To investi­ gate the origin of this difference, identify a star or constellation, whose setting in the West immediately precedes the ris­ ing of the Sun in the East. Within a few days, we become aware of a slight delay in the appearance of the Sun, after the selected star or constellation sets in the West. The delay keeps growing: The Sun seems to be slipping backward in time relative to the stars! That apparent slip­ page constitutes a new, anomalous de­ gree of change. Again, the question is posed: what is the exact fo rm of th is change? Our prehistoric astronomer juxtaposes this solar anomaly with a whole cluster of paradoxes, connected with the empir­ ical cycle of "the year." The empirical notion of a year as a mere alternation of hot and cold seasons, or periodic recur­ rence of monsoons, floods or other nat­ Does our power of discovery give us the capability to hypothesize, not only the ex­ ural phenomena, bespeaks the nearly istence, but also the fo rm of the process of change of position of the stars? bestial state of Man before Prometheus bestowed his gifts. The mere counting of identified and fixed in memory through the diffe rentiation of East, West, North, days before the recurrence of some ter­ poetic (mnemonic) devices from earliest and South as determinate directions on restrial event, leads to erratic results, times, remain seemingly unchanged the Earth's surface. falling far short of the "sure sign" throughout the course of a night, reap­ In this way, we revolutionize the naive promised by Prometheus. pearing every night with the same dis­ empirical notion of a "day" as a mere Worse, was the attempt to arbitrarily tinct form. Also, apart from the appear­ "yin-yang" alternation of light and dark­ impose upon society, a nonexistent ance and disappearance of stars on the ness. Instead, we conceive the day as an correlation between changes in season horizon, the overall configuration of the astronomical cycle, subsuming an in­ and the cycles of the Moon. So, the constellations in relation to each other in creasing density of distinct events within Babylonians (and others) insisted on a the sky-"the constellation of constella­ a single ordered totality. Just as the gno­ calendar based on the "synodic lunar tions"-remains unchanged. mon's shadow progressively transits the month," as defined by the recurrence This paradox of "change" combined markings of a primitive sundial, includ­ of the full moon after approximately with "no change" evokes the notion, that ing the meridian, defined by the position 29.5 days. After the passage of a mere the "invisible" motion of the stars, has an of longest shadow; so the cycle of the 18 "years" of 12 synodic lunar months implicitly intelligible fo rm. That para­ "day" (that is, day and night as an inte­ each, winter now occurs in the months doxical idea becomes a specific thought­ grated process) subsumes and orders the where summer used to be, and vice object, undergoing its own process of events of rising and setting of stars and versa! The attempt to "fix" this mon­ evolution in the direction of a notion of constellations, and their transit across strous failure with the addition of spe­ a universal, rotational action subsuming angular positions defined by the sight­ cial days and alternation of longer and both the process of change in the night ings of a primitive stellar observatory. shorter months, while rejecting the pri­ sky, and the daily motion of the Sun. From the development of these methods, macy of the solar cycles and insisting Indeed, observation of the rising and our predecessors established the regu lar on the cult of the Moon (or some "rot­ setting of the Sun, and studying the Sun's division of the day, and an indispensible ten compromise" between the two), is overall motion, using such means as ob­ means for harmonically ordering the ac­ typical of the psychosis which dooms servation of the shadows cast by a pole tivities of society. every oligarchical empire to collapse. (gnomon), demonstrates an overall co­ But, there is a far-reaching paradox Although the present Western calen­ herence between the nightly motion of embedded in this splendid hypothesis of dar is entirely solar-based, and our the "constellation of constellations" and the day's rotational cycle as a universal months have no correlation to the the motion of the Sun during daytime. As ordering principle! Looming long on the phases of the Moon, the term "month" singularities of the hypothesized univer­ horizon of our prehistoric astronomer's still remains as an apparent relic of sal action, we get (among other things) mind, but now growing in urgency, is Babylonian lunacy.

PEDAGOGY 21 st CENTURY Summer 1998 77 In contrast, by adducing ous cycles, then how can a new, "solar long cycle" we conceptual ize the from the anomaly posed by "One" which subsumes the the slight discrepancy be­ successive emergence of tween the solar motion and new astronomical cycles as daily stellar motion, our apparent new degrees of prehistoric astronomer was freedom of action in our eventually able to invent a Universe? How do we mas­ "sure measure" of the sea­ ter the paradoxical princi­ sonal cycle, which remains ple of Heracl itus, that true over centuries and "nothing is constant except even millennia! The result change?" is best demonstrated by the Cycloids and EpicycJoids spherical sundials of the an­ Once our prehistoric pre­ cient Greeks, which regis­ decessors had created the tered not only the daily tra­ concept of a day, year, and jectory of the Sun, but also other astronomical cycles, the cycle of variation of the a new fundamental para­ Sun's approximately circu­ dox arose: By its very na­ lar pathway in the sky, over ture, a cycle is a "One" a period of approximately which subsumes and orders 364 days. That cycle sub­ a "Many" of astronomical sumes the cycle of change or other events into a single in the relative lengths of whole. But what about the night and day, as well as the mu Ititude of astronomical angles of inclination of the cycles? Must there not also Sun's rays to the Earth's sur­ exist a higher-order "One," face, providing in turn an which subsumes the astro­ intelligible basis for the nomical cycles into a single variation of the seasons. whole? But, the manner in which We can follow the traces the yearly solar cycle mod­ of Man's hypothesizing on ulates the daily one, order­ this issue, back to the most i ng the variations of the lat­ ancient of recorded times, ter, implicitly poses a new and beyond. The oldest

,may of paradoxes. For ex­ Jim W. Grace/Science Source, Photo Researchers sections of the Vedic ample: If the day is variable, Apart from the appearance and disappearance of stars on the hori­ hym n s-astronom i ca I might not the year be so zon, the overall configuration of the constellations in relation to songs passed down by oral also? And, in fact, carefu l each other in the sky, remains unchanged. Here, a time-exposure tradition for thousands of observation of the loci of photo, showing the North Star and six hours of star trains. years before being written rising or setting of the Sun down-are pervaded with and the stars, by means of suitable hori­ nomical cycles into a single calendar. a sense of the implicitly paradoxical re­ zon markers and observation points, re­ This was sometimes connected with the lationship among various astronomical vealed a very slight-but distinct­ idea, that some Great Cycle of the whole cycles, as an underlying motif. That mo­ anomaly in the solar cycle. From this, universe must exist, which subsumes all tif, in turn, shaped the long historical the ancient astronomers were able, thou­ other astronomical cycles. Yet even for struggle to develop and perfect astro­ sands of years ago, to adduce an approx­ the case of two simple astronomical cy­ nomically based calendars, as a means imately 26,OOO-year cycle of the preces­ cles-such as the day and the solar year, to organize the activities of society in ac­ sion of the equinoxes! The result is a or the year and the lunar month-no sin­ cordance with Natural Law. third, "long cycle" modulating the year. gle calendar could be constructed, that A fa miliar example of the problem in­ The latter, according to our best present would harmonize them. According to the volved, is the re lationship of the day (as knowledge, determines the cycle of ice available historical evidence, it was the the cycle of rotation of the entire array of ages, together with a fourth anomaly, work of the Pythagorean school on in­ the "fixed stars") and the solar year. namely, the elliptical character of the commensurable proportions, that first Egyptian astronomers made rather pre­ Earth-Sun orbit. supplied a theoretical explanation for this cise measurements of the solar year, in­ In the face of a growing multiplicity of curious difficulty of harmonizing two or cluding the slight, but measurable dis­ astronomical cycles, another paradox more astronomical cycles. In light of that crepancy between a solar year and 365 emerges: Ancient history records re­ work, the paradox became even stronger: fu ll days. Four solar years constitute peated attempts, from the earl iest If there exists no fixed arithmetical re­ nearly exactly 1,461 days (4 x 365, plus recorded times, to integrate various astro- lationsh ip which can combine the vari- 1, the additional day appearing in the

78 Summer 1998 21 st CENTURY PEDAGOGY present-day calendar as the extra day of a leap year}. The 4-year cycle was taken as the basis of the julian calendar, insti­ Cycle A tuted by julius Caesar in 45 B.C. (The p p preceding calendar had accumulated Circle A p p' " m discrepancies to the point that january Figure 1 came in the autumn). GEOMETRICAL REPRESENTATION OF AN ASTRONOMICAL CYCLE But the apparent coincidence of 4 years and 1,461 days is not a perfect I one; a small, measurable discrepancy I: : exists, amounting to an average of about q l I I I I I I 11 minutes per year. �---..I : I This tiny "error" Cycie B � eventually led to the reform of the julian • calendar, in 1582, by which time the discrepancy had accumulated to about Figure 2 10 days. A SECOND CYCLE Another classical example is the cycle of Meton, invented in ancient Greece in mate validity is strictly fi nite. Outside an extremely large circle (Figure 1). the attempt to reconcile the cycle of the that finite region, the scheme becomes Choose a point P, fixed on the circum­ synodic month (defined by the phases of useless-its validity has died. ference of the rolling circle, to signify the the Moon) with the solar year. Observa­ What is the reason for this persistent beginning (and also the end) of each rep­ tion shows, that a solar year is about phenomenon, which we might call "the etition of the cycle. As the circle rolls 10.9 days longer than 12 synod ic mortality of calendars?" Should we shrug forward, the point P will move on a cy­ months. Assuming the first day of a year our shoulders and take this as a merely cloidal path, reaching the lowest point, and the first day of a synodic month co­ negative fact of life? Or is there a posi­ where it touches the line, at regular in­ incide at some point, the same coinci­ tive physical existence waiting to be dis­ tervals. This is the location where the cy­ dence will occur once ilgain after 19 covered-a new, relatively transcendent cloid, traced by P in the course of its mo­ years (235 synodic months). In fact, 19 physical principle, accounting for the tion, generates a singular event known solar years are nearly exactly equivalent seeming impossibility of uniting two or as a cusp. Denote the series of evenly in length to 235 synodic months. That more astronomical cycles into a single spaced cusps, by P, P', P", and so on. defines the 19-year cycle of Meton, whole by any sort of fixed mathematical The interval between each cusp and its which was relatively successful as the construction? immediate successor in the series, corre­ basis for astronomical tables constructed A Geometrical Metaphor sponds to a single completed cycle of ro­ in ancient Greece. But again, more care­ Accord ing to the available evidence, tation of the circle A. ful observation shows that this apparent the Pythagorean school in ancient (For some purposes, we might repre­ cycle of coincidence is not a precise Greece attacked this problem with the sent the length of an astronomical cycle one. A slight discrepancy exists, be­ help of certain geometrical metaphors, simply by the linear segment ', and the tween 19 years and 235 synodic perhaps along something like the follow­ unfolding of subsequent cycles by a se­ months, which would cause any at­ ing lines. quence of congruent segments " "', "''', tempted solar-lunar calendar based on The simplest notion of an astronomical and so on, situated end-to-end along a rigid adherence to the Metonic great cy­ cycle embodies two elementary para­ line. In so doing, however, it is impor­ cle, to diverge more and more from re­ doxes: First, a cycle would appear to con­ tant to keep in mind, that this were a ality in the course of time. stitute an unchanging process of change. mere projection of the image of the The same paradox emerges, with even Indeed, the astronomical motions, sub­ rolling circle, the latter being relatively greater intensity, as soon as we try to in­ sumed by a given cycle, constitute more truthful.) clude the motions of the planets in a gen­ change; whereas the cycle itself seems to The fun starts, when we introduce a eralized calendar of astronomical events. persist unchanged, as if to constitute an second astronomical cycle! Represent In fact, after centuries of effort, no one existence "above time." Second, we this cycle by a circle B, rolling simulta­ has been able to devise a method of cal­ know that the real Universe progresses neously with the first one on the same culating the relationship of the astro­ and develops; hence, the astronomical line and at the same forward rate. Let Q nomical cycles, which will not eventu­ cycles, while relatively unchangeable denote a point on circle B, chosen to ally (that is, after a sufficiently long relative to the visible astronomical mo­ mark the beginning of each new cycle of period of time) give wildly erroneous tions, are themselves subject to change. B. A second array of points is generated values, when compared to the actual Reacting to these paradoxes, let us long the line, corresponding to the be­ motions of the Sun, stars, and planets! construct the following simple-minded ginning/ending points of the second cy­ No matter how sophisticated a mathe­ representation of astronomical cycles, in cle: Q, Q', 0" , and so on (Figure 2). matical scheme we might set up, and no the form of a geometrical metaphor: Now, examine the relationship be­ matter how well it appears to approxi­ Represent the unity of any astronomi­ tween these two arrays of singularities " mate the real phenomena within a cer­ cal cycle by a circle A, of fixed radius. P, ', P , ...and Q, Q', 0",. ...De­ tain domain, that domain of approxi- Roll the circle along a straight line, or on pending on the relationship between the

PEDAGOGY 21 st CENTURY Summer 1998 79 � � standpoint of the cycles A and B, Ci�e B the process unfo lding from any given point of common coinci­ Circle A dence, taken as a new starting­ point, must be congruent to that p p' p" pili p"" ensuing from any other point of a a' a" coincidence.) Aha! Have we not Figure 3 just witnessed the emergence of a A THIRD CYCLE third, great cycle, C, subsuming both A and B? The leng th Circle 8 .-... of this third Circle A cycle, would be the interval ' " li "" from the origi­ p p P pi P a Q' a" Q'" nal, common Great starting-point cycle C C' -C" of A and B, to Figure 4 the fi rst point MORE COMPLEX SPECIES afterwards, at which A and B come together again (that is, PP, P2 P3 P4 Ps Ps P7 where the rotating points P and Circle 8 t-I ---t--r--t---..,.I-+I---+-r----+I--r--+----1 Q touch the line simultaneously �-Least Gap at thesame point). This event in­ I I I I trinsically involves two coeffi­ cients (or, in a sense, "coord i­ Circle A 1-1----+------1I------I-----+----� nates"), namely, the number of o 0, O2 cycles completed by A and B, Great cycle C C, respectively, between any two successive events of coinci­ Figure 5 dence. SUPERIMPOSING CYCLES Seen from the standpoint of The least gapbetween the cusps of cycles A and B. mere scalar length per se, the re­ lationship of the great cycle C to cycles A and B (as reflected in the rela­ More generally, we could have a situ­ A and B would seem to be, that A and B tionship of their radii and circumfer­ ation, where one cycle of B is equivalent both divide C evenly; or, in other words, ences), we can observe some significant in length to three, four, or any other C is a multiple of both A and B. More geometrical phenomena. At this point, it whole number of cycles of A. It is com­ precisely, we have specified that C be is obligatory for readers to explore this mon to refer to this case by saying, that the least common multiple of both A and domain themselves, by doing the indi­ A divides B evenly, or that B is an inte­ B. In our present example, C would be cated so rts of experiments, before read­ gral multiple of A. equivalent (in length) to 3 times A, as i ng fu rther. The next, more complex species of well as to 2 times B. Consider the case, where we start the phenomena, is exemplified by the case, Those skilled in geometry will be able circles rolling at a common point, and where the endpoint of 3 cycles of A co­ to construct any number of hypothetical with P and Q touching the line at that incides with the endpoint of 2 cycles of cases of this type. The simplest method, beginning point. In other words, P = Q. B. Note, that in this case q (the end­ from the standpoint of construction, is to If the radii of A and B are exactly equal, point of B's first cycle) fa lls exactly be­ work backwards from a fixed line seg­ then obviously P' = Q', P" = Q" and so tween the endpoint of A's fi rst cycle (P') ment represe nting C, to generate A and on. If, on the other hand, the radius (or and the end of A's second cycle (P'), B by dividing that segment in various l circumference) of A is shorter than that while pi i = Q" (Figure 4). ways into congruent intervals. of B, then a variety of outcomes is pos­ The defining characteristic of this type For example: Construct a line segment sible. of behavior is, that after starting together, representing C, and divide that line seg­ For example, the end of A's first cycle A and B seem to diverge for a while, but ment into 5 equal parts, each of which (P') might fa ll exactly in the middle of eventually come back together at some represents the length of a cycle A. Then, B's cycle, in which case A's second cy­ later time. Insofar as the lengths of A and take a congruent copy of C, and divide it cle will end exactly at the same point as B remain invariant, that same process of (by the methods of Euclidean geometry,

B's first cycle (P" = Q'). The same phe­ divergence and coming-together of the for example) into 7 equal parts, each of nomenon would then repeat itself in sub­ two processes must necessarily repeat it­ which represents the length of B. Next, sequent cycles (Figure 3). self at regu lar intervals. (Indeed, from the superimpose the two constructions, and

80 Summer 1998 21 st CENTURY PEDAGOGY p

...... " " "" -- - ...... \ /' ...... � �- t'- 1\ I \ / \ / \ /' I I / ". / /' Figure 7 THE GREAT CYClE Circle A must roll around theoutside of Circle B 5 times Exterior epicycloid Interior epicycloid before a cusp fa lls exactly on the epicycloid's point of Figure 6 departure. Circle A makes 7 rotations, and in the EPICYClOID GEOMETRY process, produces 7 cusps, which divide the circumfer­

Circle A can be rolled along the inside or outside of B. ence of B into 7 equal arcs. Their length, 1/7 B = 1/5 A, The position of the cusp is the same in both cases. Here, corresponds to the common divisor of the circumfer­ the radius of A is two-thirds that of B. ences of A and B. observe how the set of division-points Resist the temptation to apply alge­ Accordingly, leave the base-line aside corresponding to cycles of A, falls be­ bra to these intrinsically geometrical for the moment; instead, generate an tween various division-points of B (Fig­ phenomena. Don't fall into the trap of epicycloid curve by rolling the smaller ure 5). Try other combinations, such as collapsing geometry into arith metic. circle A on the inside of the larger circle dividing C by 15 and 12, or by 15 and Although we can use algebra and arith­ B, the curve being traced by the motion 13, for example. metic to calculate the division-points of the point P on A. Observe, that an Carrying out these exploratory con­ and the lengths of the gaps generated equivalent array of cusps is generated, in structions with sufficient precision, we by the division-points, there is no alge­ a somewhat more convenient way, if we are struck with an anomaly: the near braic formula which can predict the lo­ roll A on the outside of B instead of on misses or "least gaps" between cycles of cation of the least gap! We have not yet the inside (Figure 6). Experimenting with A and B. arrived at an adeq uate representation our first example of a great cycle, ob­ In the case of division by 7 and 5, for of the great cycle C and its re lation­ serve that the epicycloidal curve in this example, observe that before coming to­ ships to A and B. case wraps around B twice, before clos­ gether exactly after 7 cycles of A and 5 Geometry Bounded by Physics ing back on itself (dotted path of point P cycles of B, the two processes have a Take a new look at the circles A and in Figure 6), while A completes 3 com­ near miss at the point where B has com­ B, rolling down the line. In our chosen plete rotations. Also observe, that the pleted two cycles and A is just about to representation, the rate of forward mo­ points where P touches the circumfer­ complete its third cycle. In terms of tion of the circles is the same, and they ence of B-that is, the 3 cusps of the scalar length, three times A is only very make a common point of contact with epicycloid-divide B's circumference slightly larger than two times B. For dif­ the line at each moment. But what is the into 3 equal arcs. Observe, finally, that ferent pairs of cycles A and B, dividing relationship of rotation between A and the points of contact of A, while it is the same common cycle C, we find that B?Would it not be essentially equiva­ roll ing, between the locations of the the position and gap size of the near lent, to conceive of A as rolling on the cusp-points of the epicycloid, include misses can vary greatly. For example, in inner circumference of B, at the same not only P, but also the opposite point to the case of division by 15 and 12, the time B is rolling on the line? P on A's circumference. In fact, each of least gap occurs near the beginning of It suddenly dawns upon us, that the the 3 equal arcs on B's circumference the process, between the moment of geometrical events occurring between correspond, by rolling, to one-half of A's completion of A's first cycle and that of A and B in the course of any great cy­ circumference. 8's first cycle. But for division by 15 and cle C (including the phenomenon of Aha! That arc-length (that is, one-third 13, the least gap occurs near the middle, near misses), are governed by the indi­ of B, equivalent to one-half of A) consti­ between the end of B's 6th cycle and A's cated, epicycloid relationship of A and tutes a common divisor of A and B. Com­ 7th cycle. B alone! paring the epicycloidal process of rolling

PEDAGOGY 21 st CENTURY Summer 1998 81 A against B, with the earlier process of A than the product NM; for example, if This situation presents us with a new

and B rolling on a common straight line, N = 6 and M = 4, the least common set of paradoxes: First, although A and B what is the relationship between the multiple is 12, not 24.) have no simple common great cycle, the common divisor, just identified, and the Return now to our original query re lationship of diagonal to side of a rec­ least gap generated by the two cycles? about the possibility of uniting a "Many" tangle is nevertheless a very precise, law­ To investigate this further, carry out of different astronomical cycles into a fu l relationship. This suggests, that the the same experiment with the pair of cir­ "One." The resu lt of our investigation difficulty of combining A and B into a cles A and B, obtained by dividing a up to now is, that there will always exist single whole does not lie in the nature of given cycle-length C by 7 and 5, respec­ a great cycle subsuming integral multi­ A and B per se, but in the conceptual tively. Rolling A on the outside of B, we ples of cycles A and B into a single limitations we have imposed upon our­ find that the epicycloid must go around whole, as long as A and B are commen­ selves, by demanding that the relation­ B 5 times, before it closes on itself (Fig­ surable-that is, as long as there exists ships of astronomical cycles be repre­ ure 7). That corresponds to the great cy­ some sufficiently small common unit of sentable in terms of a calendar based on cle C. (See Figure 5.) In the course of measurement, which fits a whole num­ whole numbers and fixed arithmetic cal­ that process of encircling B 5 times, the ber of times into A and a whole number culations. rolling circle A will complete exactly 7 of times into B. Does such a unit always Second, what is the new physical prin­ rotations, generating 7 cusps in the exist? ciple, which reflects itself in the exis­ process; these 7 cusps divide the circum­ Remember the discovery of the tence (at least theoretically) of linearly ference of B into 7 equal arcs, each of Pythagoreans, of the incommensurability incommensurable cycles? In fact, the which is equivalent to one-fifth of the of the side and diagonal of a square. A work of Johannes Kepler completely re­ circumference of A. Those equivalent pair of hypothetical astronomical cycles defined both of these questions, by over­ arcs all represent a common divisor of A A and B, whose lengths (or radii) are pro­ turning the assumption of simple circular and B. portional to the side and diagonal of a motion, and introducing the entirely new Accordingly, construct a smaller circle square, respectively, could never be sub­ domain of elliptical functions. The 0, whose radius is one-fifth that of A (or, sumed exactly into a common great cy­ bounding of elementary arithmetic by equivalently, one-seventh that of B). In cle, no matter how long! If we start A geometry, and the bounding of geometry the course of a great cycle C, 0 makes and B at a common point, they will (including so-called hypergeometries) by 35 rotations. One cycle of A is equiva­ never come together exactly again, al­ physics, is one of the secrets guarding lent in length to 5 cycles of 0, and one though they will generate near misses of the gates to what Carl Gauss called cycle of B is equivalent in length to 7 cy­ arbitrarily small (but non-zero) size! "higher arithmetic." cles of O. Compare this with the least gap con­ structed in Figure 5. Evidently, the least gap generated by A and B, is equivalent to the common divisor of A and B, gen­ FIDELIO erated by the epicycloidal construction ' Journal of Poetry, Science, and Statecraft described above. Those skillful in math­ ematical matters will easily convince Publisher of LyndonLa Rouche's major theoretical lVritings themselves, that if C corresponds to the least common multiple of A and Bin Summer 1998: terms of length, then 0 corresponds to SPECIAL ISSUE their greatest common divisor. Evidently, C and 0 constitute a "max­ How Gauss Determined imum" and "minimum" relative to the cycles A and B-Ccont aining both and The Orbit of Ceres by Jonathan Tennenbaum o being contained in both. Out of this investigation, we learn, that if A and B and Bruce Director have a common great cycle, then they also have a common divisor; or in other also fe aturing words, they are commensurable. Also evidently, the converse is true: if A and Russia: A Coup fr om Above B have a common divisor 0, then we by Lyndon H. LaRouche, Jr. can easily construct a great cycle sub­ suming A and B. In fact, if A corre­ FIDELIO sponds to N times 0, and B corresponds $20 fo r 4 issues to M times B, then A and B will fit ex­ actly into a great cycle of length NM. Clip and send this ad with your check or money order to: (The length of the minimum great cycle Schiller Institute, Inc. is defined by the least common multi­ P.O. Box 20244 Washington, D.C. 20041-0244 ple of Nand M, which is often smaller

82 Summer 1998 21 st CENTURY PEDAGOGY BOOKS Undermining the Foundations Of Relativity by Remi Saumont

...... L'anisotropie de I'espace . tem of absolute reference, but that it is .11·\UUIl .Il l.. IIS (The Anisotropy of Space) subject to motion with reference to the Maurice Allais so-called fixed stars. Paris: Editions Clement Juglar, 1997 But it is only very succinctly, that he 750 pp. 280 francs I;ANISOTHOPIE indicates to us how he was brought to ()I� I;ESPACE making observations of the motion of the

his is an important volume of more 1",�it1'tht.O.lfI l"" Trt.��1> "paraconical" pendulum. Tthan 750 pages, which Maurice AI­ �uW,.I\M. lh"� I"fIIWttII"":linr. In his first researches, starting in 1950, lais has just published, in French, his intention was to establish, experi­ through Editions Clement Juglar (1997). I ,('S

. ing the foundations of the theory of rela­ j ( ;l;, � J C. IJ,.,.I.,\H results. On the other hand-as happens tivity. L-----[I]----- so often-the most interesting thing Beginning in 1953, Maurice Allais car­ came in as something subsidiary, merely ried out a long series of experiments instruments and collimators, on the noticed, whose existence had not been studying the influence of the Earth's mo­ [hitherto] unremarked regularities in the foreseen, and, consequently, was not tion on terrestrial phenomena, experi­ experiments of Esclangon, and on like further researched: Namely, that the ments along the lines of the famous things in D.C. Miller's interferometric movements of the pendulum he first Michelson-Morley experiments. observations." studied, in order to compare its motion One of the most original characteris­ Allais insists, with equal emphasis, on to another one, in the absence of a milg­ tics of this work, is that it is the work of the fact that, as opposed to other re­ netic field, "could not be reduced to the an economist-and not just any econo­ searches of this type, his are based on Foucault effect, but presented very im­ mist: Maurice Allais was awarded the very numerous, continuous observa­ portant anomalies, which varied over Nobel Prize for economic science in tions, day and night, carried out over time." 1988. As a matter of fact, Allais's orien­ long periods of time: Thus it was this unexpected observa­ tation towards economics was primarily "The new data deduced from [these] tion, that led to the researches which the result of necessity-World War 11- experiments ...appear equally incom­ constitute the subject of this book. for he tells us, in the opening pages of patible with the theories of the pre-Rela­ Allais's Experiments his book, that he had originally wanted tivistic period, and with the Special or The pendulum used was character­ to devote himself entirely to physics. He General Theory of Relativity." ized by the author as "paraconical" be­ estimates that, since 1950, he has spent This is thus a work resolutely "out of cause its suspension consists of a ball­ at least a quarter of his time in theoreti­ the ordinary," which is presented to us bearing, 6.5 mm in diameter (the cal and experimental researches in this as such, graced with a great number of amplitude of release was 0.1 1 radians, field. citations denoting a profound knowl­ to prevent the ball-bearing from sliding). From the book's opening lines, Allais edge of the history of science. The envelope of the various extreme po­ hoists his colors, asserting: Allais tells us that, early on, he be­ sitions of this pendulum had the approx­ "This work will limit itself to the analy­ came convinced that gravitational and imate form of a conic surface. sis of experimental data, the only real magnetic actions take place gradually, Unlike the Foucault pendulum, in­ source of our knowledge, and, in partic­ implying the existence of an intermedi­ stalled under the cupola in the Parisian ular, to the analysis of the new experi­ ate medium: the ether. However, con­ Pantheon, and because of the particular mental data which open up new per­ trary to the notion which pre-relativistic suspension of Allais's pendulum, its mo­ spectives in fo ur related domains of physicists had of the ether, to Allais it tion (especially that motion he calls research: on the behavior of the pendu­ seemed necessary to admit that this isotropic) with respect to the Earth, is not lum, on the optical deviations of sighting medium cannot be considered as a sys- subjected to significant forces tending to

BOOKS 21 st CENTURY Summer 1998 83 tion of the response to the equilibrium­ tending force, which was studied first. Allais tells us: "During the course of an uninterrupted series of observations, the tendency of the plane of oscillation was not to fix it­ self in the neighborhood of the direction of anisotropy of the support, for exam­ ple, but the variation of its azimuth as a function of time, presented itself as an oscillation that appeared to be very regu­ lar, at least at first sight." In certa in cases, the shift of the az­ imuth appeared to be considerable, and might have reached 100 grades. Thus, the choice of experimental crite­ ria that Allais kept for this series of ex­ periments, appears to be somewhat un­ usual and difficult to discuss, because the reasons fo r such a choice are not given in detail, except in a short sub­ chapter that comes later in the book­ Overview of the paraconical pendulum apparatus used by Allais. pp. 171-182. Fortunately, a second volume has restore equilibri um. In fact, in the con­ to the azimuth of the plane of oscilla­ been announced, which will be perhaps trary case of the Foucault pendulum, tion, with a precision on the order of a more explicit. A summary of this book is where the plane of oscillation turns rela­ tenth of a degree. The pendulum was provided us in the second part of the tive to the Earth (theoretically, remaining then stopped and released again after 6 table of contents of the present volume. unchanged with respect to the fixed minutes, in the plane of the last observed Several Periodicities Seen stars), a torsional force develops in the azimuth-and this was done night and The results of this first series of experi­ suspension wire that causes perturba­ day, during observation sessions during ments show the existence of several pe­ tions in the experiment. one month. riodicities, of which an analysis has been Nothing of the sort is produced in the Actually, all of the experiments of the made by statistical methods. The princi­ case of Allais's pendulum. There, the ori­ first series (during a four-year period), pal periodicities of 24 hours, and 24 entation of the plane of osci Ilation de­ were done with a so-called anisotropic hours and 50 minutes, correspond to .pends, in principle, in the case of the pendulum. This is similar to the one de­ waves K1 and M1 . in the theory of tides. "isotropic" pendulum only upon the scribed above, except that in the These are thus classified as luni-solar by structure of the inertial-gravitational anisotropic (unlike the case of the the author. What is remarkable, is their field-Coriolis effects having been taken isotropic), the rotation of the plane of os­ amplitude. into account. cillation was not totally free, but was One knows, in effect, that the field of Allais's experiments were conducted limited to 210 grades [400 grades equal solar and lunar gravitation must play a from 1953 to 1960, in a laboratory in the 360 degrees.] Moreover, the support for role in the movement of a pendulum at basement of the Iron and Steel Research the system was made in such a way that the surface of the Earth, but according to Institute (lRSID) at Saint-Germain, and, a slight difference in its elasticity oc­ Newtonian theory, later corrected and starting in 1958, in a subterranean quarry curred in two perpendicular planes. updated by relativity theory, these effects (under 57 meters of rock) in Bougival. Thus, a slight force tending to restore would be very slight, and not of the mag­ The photographs of the experimental equilibrium did exist, and this tended to nitude found by Allais. This is one of the apparatus are not very clear, and a good turn the plane of oscillation to an az­ reasons that his experiments are so inter­ series of drawings would have been imuth of 171 grades, counting clockwise esting. much better. Nonetheless, its description from due north. Pages 118 to 136 provide us with cal­ is sufficiently detailed. As a result, whenever the pendulum culations concerning such phenomena, In order to minimize the causes of er­ was released in a plane along an az­ looked at from the standpoint of classical ror which might have come from the ir­ imuth other than 171 grades, the pendu­ physics. Then comes an extremely short regular wear on the ball-bearing, it was lum's motion would have a slight ten­ discussion of the possible causes of er­ changed regularly. The same is true for dency to describe a very flattened ror. The only cause proposed, and then the platform on which it rests. ellipse. Thus, it was the major axis of this refuted, concerns the possible defects in The pendulum was released every 20 ellipse which became the basis for mea­ the level of the platform on which the minutes from a position of rest by burn­ surement. suspension ball-bearing rests. This is per­ ing a string. Its movement was observed It was the variation of the azimuth, as haps discussed a little too summarily, for 14 minutes, through a sight calibrated a function of the time, and the orienta- but it will be taken up again in the final

84 Summer 1998 21 st CENTURY BOOKS mensional representation, intrinsically FCi IPS£ TOTAI.� QE SO[ £/1. all JO J(JIN f�S� speaking.2 The reported anisotropy, therefore, wou Id seem to be gravita­ AZII1//T.1 08S£/iVEj /)(1PEN/) (Ji E PAAA C()Nl qV£ tional, rather than inertial, because it Q// c8 J(JIN�ONA(J fel'.!(JII.I.Ei 4'" seems that the gyroscope is not affected. Z6 JUIN ZS JUIN 30 JUJN 1 JUILLET .�. £C� /PS E' In the second phase of his experimen­ c·.j. \ tation, Allais wants to determine in a rig­ orous manner, the direction of spatial

�t-; anisotropy manifested, without having to � worry about the anisotropy of his pendu­ � lum, whence he turned this pendulum 1ro ; I -�--f�-,-----,f----- � 1-----�*-�-':--_+___1 110Q into one that was completely isotropic; � I � that is, without any equilibrium-tending � effect in any chosen plane of oscillation. � This required installing some equipment, 160' 1-++------� 1------7-I�_\"_'t__t-tt.__t 160; quite large and heavy, that was tested � immediately in a series of correlating ex­ � periments. The results he obtained, cor­ � roborated the earl ier ones. "{ The measurements carried out during ______-t- _D �_'lJ_lJt__'_d._'_�_/�_'_(;,_'_ipt_ _'_+_""----'--_t_..._,; ; 150 the eclipse of 1959, for example, made it possible to confirm that one effect of eclipses, is to rotate the plane of oscilla­ LEGENDE tion of the pendulum towards the Moon _____ Azimuts observes de 20 minutes en 20 minutes and the Sun (p. 316) . . Courbe symitrique de la (ourbe en trait plein de gauche par rapport au 30 juin 0" In general, there would exist at any AZIMUTHS OF PARACONICAL PENDULUM OBSERVED DURING moment, a preferred direction towards TOTAL ECLIPSE OF THE SUN, JUNE 30, 1954 which the plane of oscillation of the pen­ During the 1954 total eclipse, Allais observed that the plane of oscillation of dulum would tend to displace itself, and his pendulum turned sharply by 15 grades, and then returned to its previous this direction would vary with the course azimuth. of time, as a function of the astronomical conditions of the moment. chapter. However, the similitude of the eclipse in question (the total eclipse of The Consequences of His Work results obtained at Saint-Germain, and at June 30, 1954), for example, the plane of Thus, these results taken together Bougival in the "Blanc Mineral" quarry, oscillation of his pendulum turned would ind icate the existence of an 60 meters underground, shows that we brusquely by 15 grades, only then to re­ anisotropy of physical space, where the must exclude a host of other potential turn to its previous azimuth. An analo­ direction is variable over time, but culprits. gous effect was noted during the eclipse whose mean direction would be oriented In this regard, and to broaden the dis­ of Oct. 2, 1959. East to West. cussion, I would pose the fo llowing Inertial-Gravitational Equivalence Allais has provided us with a detailed question: How is it possible, that the gy­ In the conclusion to his chapter on the description of these different observa­ roscopic compass, in such widespread anisotropic suspension pendulum, Allais tions and calculations, a description use today, seems not to have shown any­ analyses the arguments posed against which takes the form of laboratory re­ thing to date, that is at all similar to AI­ him. He then draws from the results ob­ ports, the study of which, one must say, lais's findings? Is it then that the luni­ tained, the conclusion that inertial space is quite arduous and detailed, because it . solar effect on the pendulum, found by is anisotropic. requires specialist technical knowledge Allais, does not perturb the gyroscope, Here lies, its seems to me, a problem beyond that of the average reader, or even though the two instruments are of interpretation. Is it a question of iner­ even a scientist. supposed to have in common, the capa­ tial anisotropy, or of gravitational As for these minutiae in the exposition bility of serving as an angular inertial ref­ anisotropy? According to general relativ­ of each element of the results, we must erence plane? What must one conclude ity, one is forced to think of inertia and perhaps attribute them to a desire for from that? gravitation in the same breath-that is rigor, perhaps somewhat exacerbated by If there was still some doubt about the the famous principle called equivalence, the opposition that he found within the reality of the effects observed by Allais, between gravitation and inertia. We for­ scientific community. In this regard, AI­ the remarkable facts that occurred dur­ get that, even from the point of view of lais tells us an anecdote, not lacking in ing two eclipses of the Sun, even though relativity, the equivalence is strictly 10- flavor. He cites the fo llowing passage the author appears to minimize their im­ cal.l On an astronomical scale, the from a rejection letter sent him by Jean portance, bring out an element worth mechanisms which correspond to these Leray: noting to the results of his research taken two phenomena must be diffe rentiated, "The publication of your notes, wher­ as a whole. During the course of the first because they do not have the same di- ever that might take place, will cast

BOOKS 21 st CENTURY Summer 1998 85 Hence, these results and their final inter­ there again, the experiment came down pretations are delivered to us in crude to measuring the velocity of light, in two form, without its being made easy for us perpendicular directions. However, un­ to appreciate, critically, their validity. It like the preceding experiments carried is clear that Allais wants to be believed out at Mount Wilson-and he insists on on his word. You have to keep reading this point-here the observations were his book, and then further on, when he carried out, in a completely continuous is talking about the experiments of Es­ manner, to all azi muths, and at every clangon and Miller, you discover some moment of day and night, over long pe­ developments whose particu lars, had riods of time. Thus, he considers these they figured at the head of the chapter in experiments more decisive, than those of question, would have made it much brief duration, which were used for the more comprehensible. confirmation of the isotropic propaga­ That is the major defect of the book, tion of light. otherwise very original and interesting: Allais then applies himself to a scrupu­ The cart is often put before the horse, lous study of the results, the which per­ and in order to read the book more eas­ mit him to isolate the period icities not ily, and with pleasure, you have to go perceived by the authors of the observa­ hunting in later chapters, for what should tions, in particular, a semi-annual and have been laid out in the fi rst, as a pre­ annual periodicity in sidereal time, not liminary. noticed by Miller. Allais tells us that it was the experi­ Beginning with these analyses, Allais "The new data deduced from mental work of Esclangon, as much as notes the great coherence that exists [these] experiments . . . that of Miller, which led him to the con­ between the observations of his pendu­ appear equally incompatible clusion of a dissymmetry of optical lums, the optical observations with with the theories of the pre­ space. telescope sights, the observations of Es­ The first, published in 1928, concerns c1angon, and the interferometric obser­ Relativistic period, and with 40,000 measurements made in the vations of Miller-a coherence whose the Special or General course of a series of 150 observations, principal characteristic is that there ex­ Theory of Relativity. " made by day and by night. The experi­ ists a very strong correlation with the ment involved alignment of a horizontal position of the Earth in its orbit. -Maurice Allais wire and its mirror image, sighted Allais concludes from this, that any through the telescope at the Strasbourg theory that rests on foundations which doubt onto the methods which you em­ observatory. This series of observations are incompatible with the temporal pe­ ploy, not only in the physical, but also in was carried out first in the direction riodicities and patterns that he estab­ the economic sciences; in this sense, northeast, and then northwest. A system­ lished (Relativity Theory, for example), their publication might be useful." atic difference was found in the readings must be rejected, and that the possibil­ Allais adds acerbically: "I wonder in the two directions, a diffe rence which ity of determ i n i ng the position of the what his reaction was when I was depended upon the mean sidereal time Earth in its orbit, by purely terrestrial awarded the Nobel Prize in economics." of the period of observation, and which experiments, would fo llow from what We must admit that the notes rejected corresponded to a sinusoidal fluctuation has already been demonstrated experi­ for publication by Leray, concerned a with a period of 24 sidereal hours. The mentally. very particular subject, whose technical conclusion to be drawn from these ob­ Conclusion approach seems to be only perfectly un­ servations, thus, would be that space is Space must thus be considered as en­ derstood and mastered, by specialists in optically anisotropic. dowed with an anisotropy caused by the topographical geography, or by a few Dayton Miller's Experiments stars and the solar system, with the result astronomers or opticians: "The devia­ The interferometric observations of that, contrary to what is now believed, tions of optical sights and collimating Miller proceed from the same philoso­ the velocity of light wou Id not be the lenses." phy. They were carried out between same in all directions. The differences If one were to judge it by the manner 1925 and 1926 at the Mount Wilson Ob­ noted would be as much as on the order in which Allais expounds his method servatory in California. They were all in of 10- 5 , that is, about 3 km/sec. (It and his results at the beginning of Chap­ the tradition of the celebrated experi­ should be mentioned, that that velocity, ter 3, Leray might perhaps have been ments of Michelson and Morley. Hence, is within the range of error in measuring somewhat right in being reticent. Indeed, their aim was to determine if it were pos­ the speed of light, foreseen by A. Kastler, Allais does not include an explanation to sible to experimentally discern a transla­ for example.) teach us the techn ique that he uti I ized, tion of the Earth with respect to the ether, So, if we agree with the author, these or the reasons behind it; but, above all, by using interferometry to measure its conclusions would impose a return to neither does he give us anything that velocity. Allais does tell us, this time very the conception of an intermediary mi­ might justify the manner in which he was explicitly, the methodology and results lieu, that is to say the ether of Fresnel, of able to interpret the results obtained. of these researches, demonstrating that Faraday or Maxwell-but with this dif-

86 Summer 1998 21 st CENTURY BOOKS ference: that one should consider the would lead to a major scientific revolu­ medium as itself being able to be the lo­ tion. cus of relative motion. We await with impatience the appear­ Did You Miss? This is clearly an affirmation which ance of the second volume of this work. goes wholly against the reigning con­ Remi Saumont is a research director Maurice Allais on cepts of current physics. At this time, in emeritus at INSERM, Fra nce's main fact, the ostracism of the anti-relativists medical research institute, in Paris. The "The Experiments of has no parallel, except for the ostracism fo rmer leader of its biophysics labora­ Dayton C. Miller (1925- tory, he is now working on physical and that formerly was applied against the 1926) and the Theory of original proponents of relativity. mathematica l questions. One of his Nevertheless, even if Maurice Allais main research interests is dimensional Relativity" and were wrong-which merits discussion, analysis and the theory of measurement. "On My Experiments in because it involves experimental facts­ His review fi rst appeared in the French­ Allais's book is of great interest, if only language Fusion magazine, Jan.-Feb. Physics, 1952-1960" because of the wealth of the author's 7998, p. 47. It was tra nslated into Eng­ In erudition. One must hope that this great lish by Marielle Hammett Kronberg and work will have a distribution commen­ Rick Sanders. surate with the importance of the prob­ Notes ------st lems that it raises, and that the dead­ 1. See M. A. Tonnelat, Les principes de la tMorie SCIENCE21 CE & TECHNOLOGYNTURY weight of "scientific correctness" wi II electromagnetique et de la relativite, Paris: Mas­ not, in this case, become a hermetically son. 2. Remi Saumont, "The Generalization of the Laws Spring 1998 sealed cover for the book. If Maurice of Physics," ("La generalisation des lois de la Allais turns out to be right, his work physique") Fusion, No. 49, Jan.-Feb., 1996. Single copies $5 ($6 foreign)

Order from: 21st Century P. O. Box 16285 The Past Is Prologue: Wa shington, D_C. 20041 Knowing Space History SAVE YOUR COPIES OF The Literary Legacy of the Space Age Michael L. Ciancone 21st CENTURY Houston: Amorea Press, 1998 These custom-made titled cases THE LITERARY LEGACY' Softcover, 70 pages, $20 and binders are ideal to protect your valuable copies from damage. They're designed to hold two years' issues (may vary with issue sizes), constructed with reinforced board ith the launch of Sputnik in Octo­ and covered with durable leather­ ber 1957, the space age began. likematerial in blue, title is hot­ stamped in gold, WBut for decades before 1957, men of vi­ cases are V-notclted for easy access, sion and imagination had visualized binders have special spring what this new field of activity would re­ mechanism to hold individual quire, and what it might mean for rods which easily mankind. snap in. BINDER Before the postwar craze of science MkhHI L Clancone fiction, works of what Ciancone calls Caes: 1-$7.95 3-$21.95 8-$39.95 "speculative non-fiction" provided stim­ Binders: 1-19.95 3-'27.95 8-$52.95 ulation for many young readers. Some 21s1 Cenlury Science & TechnolOQy Jesse Jones Induslries. Dept 21 C of these readers, decades later, would 499 Easl Erie Ave.. Philadelphia. PA 19134 Enclosed Is$ lor __ Cases; find themselves leading the world's e r -po -s t-ag-e :1=�.���:��� �� caS91 space programs. Many of the early pio­ binder (US lunds only). PA residents add 6% sales neers wrote fictionalized accounts of tax. ity. It lists publications in all European Print space exploration themselves, to win languages, and also includes juvenile Name'______public support for this new adventure of books. Overall, it is an extremely valu­ Address'- -"7No"' ;;-;.P o'"'. ;;-::-;:9ox N""u =mbe P space. able resource for specialists in history, ":-; ::":"..�... -- cny'______This annotated bibliography of the for enthusiasts of space exploration, and legacy of the space age covers the tech­ for those who are curious to know where SlalelZlp,______CHARGE ORDERS (Minimum Am Ex, Visa, MC, DC accepted. Send ca d name,$15): ', Exp. date. nical and the literary history of the years our ideas today came from. r CALL TOLL FREE 7 days, before space exploration became a real- -Marsha Freeman 24 hours 1-800-825-6690 ___ SATISFACTION GUARANTEED__ _ BOOKS 21 st CENTURY Summer 1998 87 BOOKS RECEIVED AMERICAN Creative Evolution, by Henri Bergson. Mineola, ASTRONAUTICAL SOCIETY Einstein's Theory of N.Y.: Dover Publications, 1998. Reprint of BOOKS ON SPACE 1911 edition. Paperback, 407 pages, $12.95. Relativity vs. Evolutionary Ecology Across Three Trophic Prospects for Interstellar Travel, By Levels-Goldenrods, Gallmakers, and Nat­ J. H. Mauldin, 1992, 390p, Hard Cover Classical Mechanics ural Enemies, by Warren G. Abrahamson and $50. Arthur E. Weis. Princeton: Princeton University The book reviews most of the seri­ by Paul Marmet Press, 1997. Paperback, 456 pages, $29.95. ous published literature on interstellar University of Ottawa, Canada Naked to the Bone-Medical Imaging in the travel and is a source book for profes­ Twentieth Century, by Bettyann Holtzmann his book demonstrates that Kev/es. Reading, Mass.: Addison-Wesley, sional and amateur scientists and engi­ 1998. Paperback, 378 pages, $18.00. neers, educators and students seeking to classical physics can explain study a problem that integrates many Three-Dimensional Geometry and Topology, Tlogically all the observed phe· fields. The book also advancesthe litera­ Vol. 1, by William P. Thurston. Princeton: nomena attributed to relativity. Princeton University Press, 1997. Hardcover, ture with new ideas and findings and pro­ For the first time, you will find a 31 1 pages, $39.50. vides novel tools for understanding the Trigonometric Delights, by Eli Maor. Princeton, scope of the problem. Extensive bibliog­ rational explanation of length N.J.: Princeton University Press, 1998. Cloth, raphy. Index. contraction, time dilation, and si· 236 pages, $24.95. Working in Orbit and Beyond: The multaneity. Also, a new demon­ Five Golden Rules: Great Theories of 20th­ Century Mathematics-And Why They Mat­ Challenges for Space Medicine, Ed., stration of Lorentz equations, ad· ter, by John L. Casti. New York: John Wiley & D. B. Lorr, V. Garshnek, C. Cadoux, 1989, vance of the perihelion of Sons, 1997. Paperback, 235 pages, $16.95. 188p, Hard Cover $22.50, Soft Cover Mercury, equivalence prinCiple, Interpreting the Quantum World, by Jeffrey Bub. $17.50 pseudo-black holes, etc. New York: Cambridge University Press, 1997. Topics covered are: the differences Hardcover, 298 pages. in normal physiology and adaptation to Hardcover, 200 pages, U.s. $30 Physical Chemistry-A Molecular Approach, zero gravity, the special hazards of life by Donald A. McQuarrie and John D. Simon. and work in space, their countermea­ Newton Physics Books Sausalito, Calif.: University Science Books, sures, and future challenges in space 2401 Ogilvie Road 1997. Cloth, 1270 pages, $76.00. medicine. Gloucester, Ontario AURA and its U.S. National Observatories, by Frank K. Edmondson. New York: Cambridge Canada, K1 J 7N4 University Press, 1997. Hardcover, 367 pages. BOOKS ON MARS For comments, send E-mail: History of the International Atomic Energy These volumes provide a blueprint [email protected] Agency: The First Forty Years, by David Fis­ for manned missions to Mars and a cher. Vienna: IAEA, 1997. Hardcover, 550 pages. continued presence on the planet's surface, including what technology is International Atomic Energy Agency: Personal Reflections. Vienna: IAEA, 1997. Hardcover, required, and what kinds of precursor 331 pages. missions and experiments are required. The Code of Kings-The Language of Seven The Case for Mars III, Strategies for Sacred Maya Temples and Tombs, by Linda Exploration, Consists of two volumes. Schele and Peter Mathews. New York: Scrib· Ed., C. Stoker, 1989 ner, 1998. Paperback, 418 pages, $40.00. Part I, General Interest and Over­ view, 744p, Hard Cover $37.50; Soft Cover $27.50. Magazine of PartII, Technical, 646p, Hard Cover NEW MILLENNIUM ENERGY $35; Soft Cover$25. To order these books, (24hrs, 365 days) SUBSCRIBE NOWI The Case for Mars II, Ed., C. P. McKay, please call (800) 962-6651 (Ext. 3800) • CotD FtmoHINEWE#I!ROY or visit us at http://www. booksnow.com 1985, Second Printing 1988, 730p, Hard SOURaj ·OVElt-UHlN DElt'PCEJ Cover $30; Soft Cover $20 • Low ENERO'f TRAN$JI!UTAllONI • ZfRo.POlNr ENERGV The Case for Mars I, Ed., P. Boston, • EtlERGINO CO... ..,£RC.IAL J. A'''UCATIONSIPA�Nrs 1984, Second Printing 1987, 348p, Hard • tHVfSTI.tfHr OI't'O'UVHlrlff • NEW PM"'" Cover $45 • RAOWAlTE REtiED1ATIOH Coming in • LArnT IN'ORMATION FRO'" The NASA Mars Conference, Ed. D. B. RUflJtat CEH1tltJ AROUNO 21st CENTURY THt GLOlJt SCIENCE & TECHNOLOGY Reiber, 1988, 554p, Hard Cover $25; Soft Cover $15. • Should the Laws of Gravitation Be Reconsidered? ORDERING INFORMA TION by Maurice Allais All orders must be prepaid by check or

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88 Summer 1998 21 st CENTURY BOOKS