PROF. DR. BEKiR KARLI6A

A CIVILIZATION PHILOSOPHER

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AL-FARABI A CIVILIZATION PHILOSOPHER

Cover Design/Page Setup Biilent Avnamak

Edition/Volume Uyum Ajans / Ankara

1st Edition, April 2016 ISBN: 978-605-9342-32-2

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Istanbul International Association For Civilization Studies Publications (M l P AlO T +90 216 350 33 49 www.med-ar.org • [email protected]

A ll rights belong to the editor. PROF. DR. BEKIR KARLIGA Chief Advisor to the Prime Minister and Chairman of the National Coordination Committee (Turkey) for the Alliance of Civilizations

AL-FARABI A CIVILIZATION PHILOSOPHER

ESKISEHIR TURKIC WORLD FOUNDATION AND ISTANBUL INTERNATIONAL ASSOCIATION FOR CIVILIZATION STUDIES PUBLICATIONS (MED-AR)

AL-FARABI

An old view of Носа Ahmed Yesevi Mausoleum in Turkistan

6 PREFACE

Abu Nasr Muhammad ibn Muhammad ibn Tarhan or Tur- the classical system entirely by reclassifying die sciences so as han ibn Uzlug al-Farabi, known in Medieval Islamic World to include Islamic sciences, instead of using the classification as Muallim-i Sani, and in Medieval Latin World as Magister of sciences known as Trivium-Quadrivium which had been Secundus, namely second and greatest teacher of philosophy originally passed from Ancient Greece to Rome and thence to after Aristotle, is undoubtedly the symbol personage of the Christian Scholasticism, and would place philosophy of civili­ Turkic World, establishing leader of philosophical thought in zation in a crucial position for die first time in die new sche­ Islamic World, and one of the few philosophers who woke the ma of sciences diat he had established. Upon the philosopher ’s Western World from the Scholastic slumber it had fallen into. death, who grabbed attention with the pupils he educated as much as his works in areas of Philosophy, Theology (Kabm), As well as being the pioneer of philosophy of civilization with Logic, Music, Ethics, State, Political philosophy and idea of his works titled The Virtuous City (al-Madina al-Fadila), Civ­ Civilization, his work on Logic has been further extended by il Politics (al-Siyasat al-Madaniyya) and On the Philosophy of his pupils in Bagdad and has been turned into die reference Politics (al-Fusul al-Madani), he is also one of the founding fa­ source tor the prominent thinkers, artists and writers especial­ thers of modern political science. ly in die era named as Islam Renaissance, i.e fourth century In the beginning of the golden age of Islam civilization, the AH. great Turkish sage and philosopher has not only authored His system of Logic has also become a primary foundation for works in numerous topics ranging from theology to metaphys­ Methodology, which was founded in seventeenth century and ics, from ontology to logic, from ethics to political philosophy, was amongst the primary agents in the formation of modern from physics to astronomy, from psychology to musical the­ science and thought. Conversely, bodi Kalam and late period ory, but also passed Ancient thought on to middle ages and Islamic school of thought with emphasis on Sufism present ba­ to modern times with his profound philosophical knowledge. sic premises which succeed philosophy of al-Farabi. The ma­ jority of the system of thought of the great scholar al-Ghazali Al-Farabi’s system of thought is eclectic. On one hand, he was and of his successor Fakhruddin Razi -a well-known scholar of attempting to reconcile Aristotelian philosophy, which he was jurisprudence (fujh) and interpretation-which had emphasis strictly committed to, with Plato’s opinions; on die odier hand on Kalam, is once again related to philosophy of al-Farabi. In­ he attempted to reinterpret die fundamental issues of Theist deed, it is certain that the maratib-i wujiui, namely the theory Hellenistic philosophy, which was die mainstream philosophi­ of stages of being, on which Ibn Arabi’s philosophy of Wujud cal attitude of the era, dius he wanted to build a new and novel is based upon, is also related to al-Farabi’s theory of Being and system of thought (Islamic thought) based on the belief of ab­ Emergence. solute Tawhid conveyed by Islam. Al-Farabi’s influences on Western Islam world are .flso tre­ The unrivaled philosopher, who had tried to learn, be aware mendous. Avempace, Ibn Tufail and Averroes, who are ma­ of, recognize and understand die universal thought closely by jor representatives of the Andalusian thought, have not only journeying from steppes of Central Asia to cultural capitals of spread al-Farabi’s ideas in Muslim Spain, they enabled these Islamic world of die era, such as Bagdad, Aleppo, Damascus ideas to go beyond Pyrenees and reach deep inside Continen­ and Cairo approximately a thousand years ago, would change tal Europe.

7 AL- F ARAB I

In short, we would not be exaggerating if we were to state that It is apparent that al-Farabi is a great world philosopher who the tradition of Islamic thought in its entirety is a continuation illuminated not just Turkic or Islamic worlds only during and extension of the outlines of al-Farabi’s ideas. his era, but the entire world from east to west in every era. As for al-Farabi’s influence on Western world, although not as Through both the works he authored and ideas he developed, prom inent as on the Islamic world, we can state that it was al­ and long lasting influences in the east and west, the great phi­ most as important, and it has been of great importance during losopher is also one of the major theorists of the thought of the Jewish and Christian Middle Age and it survived to this civilization, which is needed by today’s world that is writhing day to some extent. Al-Farabis ideas have been influential in a great depression. on Jewish thought through Jewish religious and philosophi­ The Turkmen descendant, who was bom and raised along cal scholar Maimonides; and on Latin world through Alber- the path of Silk road caravans where a large civilization in­ tus Magnus and his pupil Saint Thomas. Upon Maimonides’ heritance which had grown in Central Asia since the era of recommendation to read some works by al-Farabi in a letter Alexander the Great bearing civilization, and who has ob­ he wrote to his pupil Samuel ibn Tibbon, Jewish interpreters served and familiarized with a major portion of the quarter living in Southern France have translated a great portion of of inhabited world, than called “rub’u maskum had a chance his works to Hebrew. Some among these interpreters have to get himself acquainted with the cultural accumulation of even considered themselves pupils of al-Farabi. Today, we can universal civilization which had arrived at the cradle of civili­ read some of al-Farabis lost original Arabic works through zations - Mesopotamia, basin of Tigris and Euphrates - and these Hebrew transcriptions or translations. Likewise, many then probably went to Egypt from there. Christian interpreters, who have taken up Islamic science and Considering the origin and historical background ot die word thought, have also translated al-Farabi’s works to Latin, either civilization, we can state diat a philosopher ot civilization is ex- directly from Arabic or from Hebrew interpretations. It has acdy what al-Farabi is. Therefore, we can consider al-Farabi as been mentioned by many fair researchers that Western world die herald and founding tadier ot global humanitv and peace had woken from its Scholastic slumber and Renaissance had attempt ot die century - die Alliance of Civilizations protect, started in the end of this translation effort, which apparently which has been established under United Nations widi 12~ took almost three hundred years.1 participant countries, and which is со-chaired by then Prune This influence, despite diminishing until eighteenth century, Minister, now President Recep Tayyip Erdogan. Indeed, has survived until today. Especially his ideas on philosophy of al-Farabi is a unique philosopher, who strived to construct die politics, of state and of civilization would be inspirational for foundation of universal thought of civilization m all his book*, the researchers of Jewish origin who stood up against Fascism especially in the three major works we mentioned previously during World War II. Among these researchers we must men­ (al Madinat al-Fadila, al-Siyas.it al Madaniyya and Fusul al tion one of the ideologists of Neo-conservatism: Leo Strauss. Madani). After approximately 1200 years, he authored a marginalia on Naturally, back in al Farabis time, the term civilization was the comment al-Farabi wrote on Plato’s Republic (a comment not used in the same sense as it is used today Any topic in on a comment) thus became a contemporary al Farabi com the scope of'the term civilization, which can despite lacking mentator who upheld the famous Medieval tradition of scho a clear cut definition . be put as the essence and sum of lughei lia and commentary. activities of humankind in general terms have been thorough ly studied by al Farabi. 1. For a detailed review, see Bekir Karliga, Islam Dtiftim оіиіи Pul1I in funccsi'ne Etkilcri, I, pp. 205 ff.

8 A CIVILIZATION PHILOSOPHER

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9 AL-FARABI

Turkistan Map in the 17th Century (from Kdtip Qelebi's work named Сіһдппйтд)

1 0 CHAPTER ONE

HIS LIFE, WORKS, PHILOSOPHY AND INFLUENCE

11 AL-FARABI

A library located in Hu Ivan around Baghdad (from Hariri's Makdmdt)

12 A CIVILIZATION PHILOSOPHER

LIFE

According to sources of Classical Islamic thought, Abu by sea. Another branch originating in Merv would reach Nasr Muhammad ibn Muhammad ibn Tarkhan (or Tur- Istanbul through Qazvin, Tabriz and Trabzon. Yet another khan) ibn Uzlugh al-Farabi, was born around 871 AD (the branch followed the route of Tabriz, Erzurum, Sivas, Kay­ exact date is unknown), in Turkestan (in the village of seri, Konya and Eskfrehir, crossed the Dardanelles, and ex­ Vesi<;, 70-80 km away from the city of Otrar which lies in tended towards Europe over the Balkans. the basin of Syr Darya, and approximately 180 km west The start of the Silk Road bears traces of the Confucian of the Shymkent which is situated in the south of modern Taoist Shintoist culture dominant in China and of the Kazakhstan) which had become an important center of Buddhist culture prevalent in Central Asia. Towards culture and education of the Samanid Era. Turkestan, we come across remnants of Manichaeism, Built in the open and fertile flatlands along the river Syr Zoroastrianism and Mazdeism. There existed Nestorian Darya, city of Farab was an important center of education Christians, albeit few, to the west. Thence, one would enter and culture on the Silk Road. Sources state that al-Farabi’s the basin of Islam culture. father was the commander of Otrar castle. Situated 8-10 Sacred sites of every culture existed on this road used by km away from the modern city of Otrar and placed in the great trade caravans. world heritage list by UNESCO, ancient Otrar was one of the major cities in Central Asia with its fortified castle, One important sacred site of Zoroastrianism was Grand Mosque named Juma, marketplaces, bazaars, inns Khwarazm area, and another one was Azerbaijani region. and baths. During the time of al-Farabis birth, Otrar was Cities of Kokand, Tashkent (§a$) and Ilak lied along the at a very critical position on the historical trade routes, lat­ Fergana Valley. Here, sacred sites of Mani religion, which er known as the Silk Road. consists of a mixture of Zoroastrianism, Buddhism and Christianity, existed alongside Zoroastrian, Manicheist, The Silk Road originated from China’s than capital Ch’an- and Mazdeist beliefs. gan (Xi’an), and passed through Tung Huan, the western gate As Jean Paul Roux put it: “Central Asia is a center of civili­ of the Great Wall of China. From there, one of its branches zation. It is one of those Special lands that give rise to strong reached Merv through Main Kurgan of Turkestan, Hotan, schools of thought, prodigies, science and arts. The founder Yarkant, Kashgar and Balkh. Another branch crossed the of Mandeism, which is the oldest surviving religion in the Taldamakan Desert, and reached Merv through Turpan, world, and Zoroaster, whom we lost track of in the dark Uriimqi, Talas, Otrar, Tashkent, Samarkand and Bukhara. ages, were both born on these lands. Buddhism emerged Situated in die center of Khorasan, Merv constituted one of from unchartered waters of India and, here formed its the prim ary meeting points of the Silk Road. thought patterns, code of conduct and Lamaist aspect. Hel­ One of many branches of this civilization dispersing from lenistic and Hindu ways of thought merged here and gave Merv, followed the route of Nishapur, Damghan, Gorgan, birth to Greek-Buddhist art. While the followers of univer­ Qazvin, Hamadan, Mosul, Nusaybin, Urfa, Gaziantep, sal religions were slaying each other elsewhere, they were Rakka and reached Antioch. From there, it reached Rome living in great harmony on these lands and have taught us a

13 AL FARABI

lesson in tolerance. Serindia civilization, whose name is as­ basin which have now fallen to ruin. City of Otrar never sociated with the union of the elegant and elaborate Sogdia, recovered after being besieged and demolished by Mongols China (Seres, land of silk) and India for a good reason, took upon killing of Genghis Khans trade convoy of 450 people root here. Greatest scholar of the Islam world, al-Birum; un­ by Muhammad II of Khwarazm in 1218. It is said that this precedented master Ibn Slna, known as Avicenna to Euro­ event was the most significant reason for Genghis Khan's peans; Hadith (way of the Prophet) compilers who formed decision to direct his assaults from east to west of Asia and the Sunni sect; the first Persian poet of importance, Rudaki; on the devastation he caused in Islamic states. Timur has Ferdowsi, who authored his famous work Shahnameh in crossed his army over ice covered Syr Darya and stayed at Ghazni; and the first astronomer of modern times, Ulugh Otrar during his military expedition against China and fell Beg; all emerged from Central Asia. Not to mention the ill and passed away in the coasts of Aksu River. names of numerous cities still ringing in our ears, although many fell to ruin: Balkh, Bukhara, Samarkand... Al-Farabi received fine education in this city of his birth, and learned his native language Turkish, as well as Arabic Genghis Khan, Timur and Babur, the conquerors who es­ and Persian, which were the common language for science tablished the "Steppe Empires” as Rene Grousset elegant­ and culture in the Islam world in those days. Moreover, ly stated, were born on these lands and returned to these it is rumored that he acted as Qadi for a while, however lands no matter how far they ventured. Their last sights as information regarding this is insufficient. they passed away were the sceneries of Central Asia. There are locations of Spectacular beauty in Central Asia: We observe that al-Farabi, who left his homeland to deep­ en his knowledge, first went to Bukhara. We do not know Lakes of Band-e Amir, which are atop the Afghan moun­ when he arrived at Bukhara, how long he staved there or tains and are covered by blue sky, Grand Mountain Xinji­ when he departed therefrom. Bukhara, built on the banks of ang, shores of Issyk Kul where avalanche falling from Tian Shan mountains pile. These lands harbor humble trea­ Zeravshan River, had long been an important religious and sures: narrow valleys, where the leaves of still seemingly cultural center of Central Asia. According to Narshakhi, young poplar and beech trees rustle, and tombs covered Bukhara consisted only of keep (Kuhouii:). urban k**eh with purple and white iris flowers of the spring. Howev­ ristan) and suburban (nihiJ) areas. Registan was located at er, Central Asia is a land of desolate and rugged plains. In the center of the city. Promoted as "home to the great, keep broad waves, sand hills reach stone piles; stone piles reach of the state, Kaaba of science, great venue where wholais ot the nostalgic steppes, which are as monotonous as the the time meet” by the famous Islam historian Abu Mans music Borodi composed for them, and steppes extend to ur Saalibi, Bukhara, became a prominent cultural and sci grand peaks of at least 7000 meters high, each of which re entitle center, especially during the Samanid era. The great sembles a naturally formed ziggurat that extends its hand library built by Nuh II ofSamaniddvnasty(Nuh ibn Mans to the skies."1 ur) and known as SihtiIiIM ,il Hiknui kept many handwritten copies ol the most famous scientific works ot the time The Many events that changed the course of history took place famous physician and judge Avicenna (Ibn Si*i

14 A CIVILIZATION PHILOSOPHER

An Arsito Miniature Made in the 13th Century (from ibn Fatik's work named Muhtaru'l-Hikem, Topkapi Palace), Istanbul that Avicenna plagiarized the works here, and then burned with silk and spices, reached Khorasan through Transox­ down this library so that no one would take notice. iana and reach Anatolia through Persia, thence set course towards Europe and Africa. These caravans were not only Sources state that al-Farabi went to Samarkand from Bukhara, and after expanding his knowledge and experi­ carrying wares and goods, but also bringing the rich sci­ ence here, moved on to Merv and Balkh. entific and cultural treasures of the East to their destina­ tions. Therefore, Khorasan and Transoxiana region, where At the time of al-Farabis arrival, Samarkand, which Turks and Persians lived, were the gathering point for dif­ also served as capital to Samanid Empire, was one of the ferent cultures and became a constantly renewed synthesis prominent scientific and cultural centers of Transoxiana of civilizations. (Mawarannahr) region. The region between Amu Darya and Syr Darya rivers, called Land beyond the River by With the advent of Islam, many scientists and religious Turks and Mawarannahr in Islamic sources, had long con­ scholars appeared in this region harboring ancient cultural stituted the main route of Silk Road caravans. Trade cara­ heritage. Among them, are Imam Bukhari, al-Nasa'i and vans departing from Far East Asia and China, and loaded Imam at-Tirmidhi, who authored three of the six Hadith

15 AL-FARABI

collections which are the resource of Islam, that are second thought, and on the other hand desired to establish con­ only to Quran. Similarly, Abu Mansur Maturidi, the great nections between Hellenistic philosophy and poly’theist scholar of principles of Aqidah, with which Hanafi school Greek thought, in which such approach was materialized is affiliated, was also from these lands. Famous scholar and monotheist Islamic thought. of Mathematics, al-Khwarizmi, who named the science We do not possess any information on al-Farabi’s affilia­ of Algorithms along with Abd al-Hamid ibn Turk, Abu tion with "House of Wisdom” (Bayt al-Hikma), founded al'Wafa Buzjani, al-Khujandi and Alfraganus - pioneers of by al-Ma’mun, during his stay’ in Bagdad. Indeed, classical positive sciences in Islam world, also appeared in the same sources do not mention al-Kindi, the founder of House of region around the same time as al-Farabi. In the famous Wisdom among the people he was tutored or influenced book titled History of Science written by Sarton, who was by. Al-Farabi himself gives no mention of al-Kindi also. the greatest science historian of the century, one century is Besides, tradition of philosophy al-Farabi relied on was named after the peerless scholar al-Blrtmi, who was yet an­ Plotinus-Porphyry Ne^orian-Sabian Neo-Platonism from other famous Turkish and Islamic scholar from the region. school of Alexandria, whereas tradition al-Kindi relied on The primary objective of al-Farabi was to travel to Bagdad, was Greek-Roman-Assyrian Neo-Platonism from school which was the political, administrative and cultural capital of Athens. of the Islamic world, and to thoroughly learn the univer­ Al-Farabi most probably had to depart from Bagdad sal knowledge and philosophy which was very lusty here in those days. Finally, at a time past his forty’ years of age, due to political turmoil of 941-942 and head to Aleppo, he arrived at Bagdad, also called garden of justice (Bagh-i and was received kindly in the palace of Hamanid ruler Dad) and land of peace (Dar al-Salaam). While attending Sayf al-Dawla, who was a respected statesman, sovereign the lectures of the most prominent linguists of the time, around Aleppo at the time and who valued scholars great­ Ibn Sarraj, he also took lessons on Philosophy and Logic ly. According to sources, al-Farabi kept his humble wavs ot from Yuhanna ibn Haylan, who was a NeStorian Christian life, despite his predisposition to luxury and being honored and the one of leading translators and commentators in by great hospitality by the ruler. Bagdad. It is stated in sources that due to al-Farabi had a short, Some sources report that upon Yuhanna ibn Haylan’s re­ thin and beardless appearance, he never gave up his Turkic turn to Harran, al-Farabi also went to Harran and had a clothing indigenous to Central Asia. chance to acquaint himself with the ancient astronomy It is unknown to what extent the legends on al Farabi re traditions of Persia, India, Babylon and Chaldea. fleet his true personality, however some ot these are mean Al-Farabi, who returned to Bagdad from Harran and ingtul in terms ot emphasizing the profound knowledge ot stayed there for around twenty years, had a chance to the thinker on philosophy and music. study Neo-Platonism, the dominant school of Philosophy The legend that he knows more than seventy language and Logic of the period, along with Plato and Aristotelian takes place in the palace ot Aleppo ruler Sayf al Pawla, thoughts in detail. Here he authored most of his works. and is related to his first reception in the ruler s palace Ac On one hand, al-Farabi attempted to relate Plato with Ar cording to legend, when the ruler asks al Farabi to take a istotle, therefore rational philosophy with metaphysical seat during lus reception in the Palace, he asks w hether it

16 A CIVILIZATION PHILOSOPHER

A View from Otrar Fortress, Kazakhstan is “the seat I am supposed to take or the seat you are sup­ Sayf al-Dawla asks in awe "do you know that language as posed to take?” In turn, ruler tells al-Farabi that he should well” and in response al-Farabi tells him that "I know more “take the seat he is worthy of" and al-Farabi left the crowd than seventy languages” to take a seat beside Sayf al-Dawla, and further, he pushed Later, al-Farabi started discussions with the scholars in the the ruler to the side. Annoyed such attitude, the ruler tells council, and virtually defeated every single one of them with his company in a language that he thinks al-Farabi would his responses to the questions they asked. Thereon, scholars not understand (possibly Kurdish) that he would ask this of the council fell silent and started listening to al-Farabi, unruly old man some questions and have him removed and then took their books and started taking notes. During from his presence it the replies are to be unsatisfactory. a musical performance in Sayf al-Dawlas presence, al-Farabi Al-Farabi who hears these words of the ruler tells the ruler did not enjoy the music being performed and he first played to show a bit of patience, for the end of the deal is of im­ a joyful piece, making everyone laugh and then a sad piece, portance. Surprised to see that al-Farabi understood him, making everyone weep, and finally a slow piece, making ev-

17 AL FARABI

A View from Baghdad In early 20th Century

eryone fall asleep. Once they were asleep, al-Farabi took his native language Turkish, he can knew Arabic and Гегмап leave from the council. well and comprehended Greek, Assyrian and Sogdian.

Ibn Khallikan states that the philosopher who explained the Al-Farabi left lus comfortable life in the Hamanid palace influence of different musical scales on human spirit in his in Aleppo and travelled first to Damascus and then to Egypt which was under the rule of Ikhshuiid dynasty ot book Kitab al-Musiqa al-Kabir, namely the Great Book of Mu­ Turkish origin, however, could not stay here for long and sic al-Farabi was the inventor of zither (qanun), which is one returned to Damascus. of the prominent instruments in Eastern music. Al-Farabi who spent the last days ot hi' life in Damascus, Even though it is claimed that he knows seventy languages, and m Rajah month ot Hijri year t.W (December 9SO A D \ it is obviously this is an exaggerated statement. However, at the age ot SO he passed away here. Ruler Savt al Pawla considering the fact that the philosopher provided Greek, also attended his funeral prayers and he teas buried in the Assyrian, Persian and Sogdian equivalents of Arabic words cemetery outside Bill’ ill Sugfm with state ceremony His and terms in some of his works, we can say that besides his grave is thought to be moved to its current place.

18 A CIVILIZATION PHILOSOPHER

WORKS

The number of works attributed to al-Farabi differs in istotle, al-Farabi and Avicenna further says that al-Farabi’s history of classical Islam. Q_adi ibn Said who told that the works were mostly popular in Damascus region. He says philosopher of Muslims was al-Farabi in real terms em­ that only approximately twelve works of him were seen in phasizes the content and significance of his works rather Khorasan region he belongs to and records names thereof.2 than listing those works.1 Ibn Abl Usaibia who provides the most comprehensive in­ Zahiriiddin Beyhakl on the other hand who told four great formation about the life and works of the thinker notes the philosophers came to the world and they were Plato, Ar­

1. Qadi ibn Said, Tabakat al-Utnam, 137-140, (ed., Hayat Bu Alvan), 2. Zahiruddin Bayhaki, Tarihu HukamAi'l-lslam, 30-31 (ed., Muham Beirut-1985. med Kurd Ali), Damaskus 1988.

A View from el-Mustansiriyye Madrasa in Baghdad

19 AL FARABI

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A page from Al-Farabi’s Oeuvre

names of 113 works of al-Farabi who he defined as "perfect In the works of Ibn JuljuT and Sijistani1 who provide sig philosopher and virtuous imam? nificant information mostly about antique philosophers Ibn АІ-Qifti who is one of the last and most comprehen­ we find no information about al-Farabi. sive sources of information about classical Islam thinkers In modern bibliography studies conducted on al-Farabi, told that he was "indisputably philosopher of Muslims" it is revealed that the number of works ot this great think and notes the names of approximately seventy works of er is a lot more. Indeed, while late Ahmet Ate? mentions al-Farabi in administration to information understood to around ll’O titles'; 180 titles are given in the work titled be cited from Qadi Ibn Said.3 4 *

N. Ibn |ul|iil, 1 ill’ll 1,1 Г ill Alibku н а .11 HiA.im.i ted, Fu.id SawivO c airs' 1955. 3. Ibn Abi Usaibia, Uyun al-Anba fi Tahakdt ыі Atibba, (->01 MW iv Si|istAnl, Minihil’iil’ Nimbi a I Hilm.i, to»! Puglas Morten Punlop) 4. Ibn al-Qiftl, IkhbAr al-Ulama bi Alibii al I lukainl, ( ’aim, no ilalc New York 1974. given. 7. Ahmed Atof, llimloun Sayimi, p 73

20 A CIVILIZATION PHILOSOPHER

“Farabi Bibliografyasi" (Bibliography of al-Farabi) by f. 7)10 11 Two copies of Hebrew translation of Risala fi exception­ Miijgan Cumbur, ismet Binark and Nejat Sefercioglu.* al al-Akl performed by Samuel ibn Tibbon and Calonymos Here we will content ourselves with briefly introducing ben Calonymos have been available in Paris (Bibl. Nat. Hebr, only some of the most significant works of the philosopher. 185, £ 151 ve 125, £ 63) up to date.11 1. Risala fi al-Akl: 2. Kitab al-Milla: Arabic title: "Makala fi Maani al-Akl" "Makala fi al-Akl” In this work, which states that the terms Nation, Sharia and "Kitab al-Akli wa al-Ma’kulat"; Latin translation, “De and philosophy are synonymous, the main focus is on the Intellectus; Hebrew translation, Ma’mar be-Sekel we- relationship between religion, philosophy and jurispru­ ha-M uskal” dence. Al-Farabi first provides the etymological and terminolog­ 3. K itab al-M abadi: ical meanings of the word “mind" in Risala fi al-Akl, fol­ While mentioning al-Siyasat al-Madaniyya, Ibn Abi LTs lowed by what the public understand from this concept, aibia states that this work is also called12 1314 “M abadi al-Maw- what theologians mean with this word and finally explains jiadat” but adds that there’s also another work titled el- how and in what context Aristotle uses the word in his Mabadl’ al-Insaniyya“‘\ It may be thought that these two book Posterior Analytics and in section six of his work are different works, considering two separate Hebrew titled Nicomachean Ethics. Subsequently, al-Farabi, along translations and titles have survived. with his own views on the topic, gives detailed explanation, This work has been translated to Hebrew by an unknown on how Aristotle mentions four kind ot mind in his work translator. Seven copies of this translation are present in De Anima (On the Soul), consisting of Agent Intellect, Oxford (Bodleiana, I; Canon, 17), Munich (234) and Par­ Potential Intellect, Acquired Intellect and Actual Intellect is (Bibliotheque Nationale, Hebr., 189; 893; 930; 1054) li and provides detailed information about those minds." braries. Based on the aforementioned Oxford copies, the This work has been translated once to Latin and twice to He­ translation in question was published in Leipzig in 1844 brew: approximately eleven copies of die Latin translation ti­ within the Hebrew Almanac of 5610.u tled "De Intellectus" by an unknown translator have survived 4. Uyxin al-Masail: Latin translation «Fontes Questio- in Western libraries: Parks (Bibliotheque Nationale, Latin, num »: 6443, f. 197; 8802, f. 74; 16602, f. 107; 16613, f. 90), Vatican In this title, where the guidelines of al-Farabis philosophy (Latin, 21S6, £ 74: 4426, f. 1), Oxford (Bodleian, Digebianus are exhibited with aphorisms, it is first told that knowledge 217, f. 176; Bibl. Collegii Orielensis, 7, f. 199), Graz (Bibl. Uni- is divided into two, namely imagination and depiction, and versitatis, 482, f. 230; Admontensis, 487, f. 59), Munich (Bibl. Baviera, Pumlica CLM. 8001,1.121), Olisipionensis (Bibl. Nat. F. G. 2299, £ 135), Erlangen (Bibl. Universitatis, 210; Inn. 379), 10. M. Threse dAlverny, Avicenna Latinus, Archive d'Histoire Doctrinalt ct Littiraire du Moyen Age., XXVIII, XXX, XXXI, XXXIII, XXXV. 11. Moritz Steinchneider, Die Hebraischen Oebersetzungen des Mit- telters und die Juden als Dalmetscher, 161; M. Bouyges, op. tit., XV-XVII). 8. Miijgan Cumbur, Ismet Binark and Nejat Sefercioglu, Farabi Bibliog- 12. Ibn Abi Usaibia, op. a t, p. 609. rafyast, I, p. 52. 13. Ibn Abi L^saibia, op. cit., p. 608. 9. Farabi, Riuila fi al-Akl, pp. 3-12. 14. Abdurrahman Badawi, op. at., II, p. 495.

21 AL FARABI

then the importance of separating the existence of beings as Necessary and Possible is emphasized and thence theory t ^ ^ CaP^ ** f-ч* intellects and emergence, which is cosmological and par­ tially epistemological, is stated. 15 *17 JittbflfrV ^ іДіііМ/y l uA -#uuJ^4ky^b ’ Ш One copy of this manuscript of unknown translator is present in Vatican Library (Latin, 2186, f. 46) K U br.^Ji ,K b^->-:>W ^ ^ 'W ^^U^ii»' Four copies of the Hebrew translation done by Todros ■**« iA»»W « Todrossi can be found in Oxford (Bodleian, Michael, 332), Paris (Bibliotheque Nationale, Hebr., 1023), Taurinensis (150), Vatican (Hebr., 274) libraries. 1 V >«M ' І)Д£Л-Ц4Д,іУ^\е*ІЬ*>-^' {Я^Ч**ІУ ^ 5. Maratib al-Ulum. Latin translation: «De Ortu Sci- an tiaru m » : This work, which is recorded1" as above only by Ibn al- 4^1>'>xW ^ ч^М <іисн*к>^ u*#L4t#b Vj Qifti -of all the sources of classic Islam thought, has been о**УАУ-*-Чі> c W v translated to Latin and possibly Hebrew in Middle Age, оЬчаииЦддЗ^^ and has been used extensively in Western world. However, this work and Ihsa al-Ulum are mixed up. S%~ulAjL*$tyJ№J ЛУй^ MU ^V 'J *^1' Five copies of this work, which was translated to Latin as -*AWU “De Ortu Sciantiarum' by Gerard de Cremona, have sur­ vived to this day in various libraries in Europe: Paris (Bibl. v^aL^'Ji^^4^iL»uw ^v^v^ Nat. Latin, 6443); Naples (Bibl. Nat. VIII, E 14, t. 33) - Ш& ■ J' in this copy it is stated that the work has been translated » • I in Toledo by Gerard de Cremona from Saracen language (Arabic): “Translata a Magistro Gerardo Cremonensi in --\ AilbAki'o» Toledo de Sarracin to in Latinum. Deo Gratias. Amen'; Venice (Bibl. Sancti Marci, 3264, t. 55), Graz (Bibl. Fiat rum Praedicatorum, 151, f. 46; also f. 132), Olisiponensis (Bibl. Nat. F. G. 2244, t. 104V This translation has been .'■ai.Ab^rtir m 11 ң' { frM »> i1>U

15. FAr.ibi, L/yibi ii/MitsJil, 1 cuien ISA' lli. M .C ruz H onuniicr. el Fonte> Questlonum Jo Abd \,» m Al FAribi (Archiveil'liHtoirc Po,fnMiile rf 1 iff rnmv ,li< Mown Ajj XW XXVI, И*т iijjji t pp. 303-323). <-*>■ C v 4 _ _niJ* Яг^ - i , 17. Moritz Sti’insehneiiler, op. > if . p So Convey,-,! by i Biwkolnwnn, CiAI.. (Arable train, . IV), p 14~. АІчІиггдһтЛп Radwvi, op ,-if 11 Щ k..i!-' -VtiL p. 445. IS lbil ,il ijilli. Ilil’ih ill I'/.ini.l Іч AliKlf .il Hnk.im.i, p IS* Manuscript Copy of ATFarabi's book named Tahsilus Safldc, (Top l1'. M I JAIvoronv. Aivbiw ,1 Hnfonr l\vfnn

2 2 A CIVILIZATION PHILOSOPHER

published by Beaumker as "Al Farabi, iiber den Ursprung 9. Falsafatu Aflatun: Latin translation: “Philosophiae der Wissenschaften'.’3'’ Platonis”: Moritz Steinchneider mentions a Hebrew translation of This work which has been written to explain Plato’s phi­ this work, but gives no account of where it is.20 21 losophy as the title suggests has been translated both to 6. Risala fi ma Yanbaghi an Yukaddama Kabla Taal- Latin and to Hebrew: the Latin translation the translator lum al-Falsafat: (Hebrew Translation: iggeret be-Sittur of whom is unknown was published by F. Rosenthal and Keriat ha-Hokmot) Richard Walzer within the series "Plato Arabus in London Two copies of Hebrew translations of this work record­ in 1943.26 The Hebrew translation by Schemtob ben Joseph ed22 as "Kitabun fi al-Ashya allati yuhtaju an Tu’lama Kabl ben Falqueras has reached today within his work titled Re­ al-Falsafat" by Ibn Abi Usaibia which was believed to have sell ith ha Hokma.27 been written as a guide for those who want to study philos­ 10. Talhisu Nawamisu Aflatun: ophy are still in libraries of Parma (R., 458) and Munich This booklet, which is a summary of Plato’s work titled (Hebr., 308)23 Laws, has grabbed great attention in Western world and 7. Javabun li Masaila Suiia Anha: contemporary thinker Leo Strauss has reinterpreted this Recorded24 as “Javabatun li Masaila Suiia anha wa hiya booklet as it will be explained later. Salasun wa ishruna Masala” by Ibn Abi Usaibia, this work 11. Falsafatu Aristotalis: is composed of 23 questions posed to al-Farabi about Logic Subjects of Aristotelian philosophy, apart from ethics and and Philosophy. politics, are discussed in this short booklet. In some catalogues, it is stated that this work has been translated to Hebrew by Todros Todrosi, however we have 12. al-Jamu Bayna Ra’yay al-Hakimayn: no account for whether it survived or not.25 Written in order to reconcile Aristotle and Plato’s views, 8. al-Masa’il al-Falsafiyya: this work informs about the three main issues of conflict between the two philosophers. Also called al-Masail al-Mutafarrika, this work consists of short responses to 43 questions on philosophy and logic 13. Kitab al-Huruf: issues. Within this work, also mentioned as "Kitabun fi Aghra- di Aristo fi Kulli Makalatin min Kitabihi’l-Musamma hi al-Huruf veya el-Ibana an Garadi Aristotalis fi Kitabi Ma Ba’d al-Tabia’( al-Farabi recites certain sections of Aritot- le’s book Metaphysics. Although Ibn Abi Usaibia reports2* 20. Clement Beaumker, Liber Al-Farabii De Ortu Scientiarum (wit­ that al-Farabi has another work titled "Kitab al-Alfazi wa hin Al Farabi, iiber den Ursprung der Wissenschaften, VIII), Munster 191b al-Huruf’,’ it is debatable whether these two works are the 21. Moritz Steinschneider, op. cit., p. 89. same. 22. Ibn Abi Usaibia, op. cit., p. 609. 23. Moritz Steinschneider, op. cit, 160. Conveyed by C. Brockelmann, GAL., (Arabic trans., IV), 149: Abdurrahman Badawi, op. cit., II, 26. Richard Walzer, EL, El-Farabi entry. 494. 27. Schemtop ben Josehp ibn Falaqueras, Reschith ha HoLnia ( Publ., Mo 24. Ibn Abi Usaibia, op. cit., p. 608. ritz David), Berlin-1902. 25. M. Cunbur et al., op. cit., p. 7). 28. Ibn Abi Usaibia, op. cit., p. 608.

23 AL-FARABI

Five copies of its anonymous Flebrew translation are in Ox­ Four manuscripts of its Hebrew translation are present in ford (Bodleian, 10 Qu, Folio, 128-129), Paris (Bibliotheque Bislisches (77), Steinschneider, (22), Munich (307), Vati­ Nationale, Hebr., 915; 989), Kauffmann, 26 (10), Leipzig can 49, F. 105) libraries.34 (Hebr., 40) libraries.29 30 17. al-Alfaz al-Musta’mala fi al-Mantik: 14. Al-Sima al-Tabu li Aristotalis. Latin translation: This work, in which al-Farabi’s fundamental views on Log­ “Librum Aristotelis de Naturali Auditu» ic are stated, is not listed in classical sources. Recorded41 by Ibn Abi Usaibia and Ibn al-Qjfti, this title 18. Fusulun Yuhtaju ilayha fi Sinaat al-Mantik: whose original Arabic manuscript is lost, has been translat­ ed to Latin as “Distinctio Sermonis super Librum Aristotelis In this work, also known as 'al-Fusulu al-Hamsa” the five de Naturali Auditu” by Gerard de Cremona and two of these universal concepts (Species, genus, differentia, property, Latin translations are in libraries of Spain (Bibl. Columbina, accident) that the persons who have started to read Logic 5, 6, 14, f. 1) and Austria (Graz, Bibl. Universitatis, 482, f. are mentioned13. 133).31 Seven copies of the Hebrew translation of this work are 15. Risala fi Mahiyyat al-Na£si: still present in Oxford (Bodleiana, Michael, 76; Bisliches, This work where the nature of the Soul is explained was 77), Munich (297; 307), Petersburg (Firk, 636), Tauriensis translated to Hebrew from Arabic by Isaac ben Shealtiel (Pey., R, 224, N„ 211), Folio, 3 7 * in Rome, possibly in 1284. Of this translation, around 15 19. Kitab al-Muhtasari’s-Saghir fi al-Mantik: handwritten copies have survived in various libraries of Europe: Berlin (112), Oxford (Bodleian, Reggio, 43), Lon­ Since it was recorded as "Kitab al-Muhtasar al-Saghir Һ don (Beyt ha-Midrash, 43), Munich (120), Paris, (763; 930; al-Mantik ala Tarikat al-Mutakallimin’ by Ibn Abi Us- 986), Parma, (R., 1390 (2)), Petersburg, Firkovitsch (438), aibia3, this short writing on logic must be a discussion of Tauriniensis (157), Vatican, 252; 294; 297; 340; 374.32 This relationship between theology and logic. translation was published by Edelmann within Hemdah Two copies of its Hebrew translation of die work survived Gemzah in Konigsberg in 1856.33 in Paris (Bibliotheque Nationale, Hebr., 333; Orel, 107).v' 16. al-Tawtia fi al-Mantik: 20. Isa£uji: In this work, serving as an introduction and preparation As in the eponymous work of the famous Hellenistic on science of logic, al-Farabi explains the position and im­ thinker Porphyrins, al-Farabi explains the five universal portance of science of logic among other sciences. concepts (species, genus, differentia, property, accident) in this work as well. 29. AbdurrahmAn Badawl, op. cit., II, p. 495. 30. Ibn Abi Usaibia, Uyuti al-Anbd, II, pp. 138, 140; Ibn al-Qjfti, Ililulr 34. AbdurrahmAn Radawi, op. cit., 11. p 494 al-Ulamd, p. 184. 35 a! Fir.ibi, ,il Tawtia li .<1 Mantik (Fd Kotik el Acorn), pp i>3 “3 31. M. T. dAlvereny, Archive d'Histoire Doctrinale el Litteraire iln Moyat 3to.Abdiirrahin4n Badawi.i»/' «it.. 11,493; M ont: Steinschneidei op at Age, XXXIII, p. 312. p. 1 V Conveyed by C Broekelmann, GAI (Arabic trans IV). p 32. Moritz Steinschneider, op. at., p. lt>2. Conveyed by (' Broekelmann, 139. GAL., (Arabic trans., IV), p. 147; AbdurrahmAn Badawl, op. oil., II, 37. Ibn Abi Usaibia, op. cit.. p 14'° p. 494. IS. Moritz Steinschneider, op cit., p “ I Conveyed bv 1 \ Sham>i 33. Ahmed Ate?, el FArAbl’nin Hserlerinin Bibliyogralyasi, (Hcllctai, XV, Al Farabi's IYcatise on Certain Obscurities in Rodks I and 1 ucli LVII) p. 185. lies Flenients (/oiiniiil i»f һкиміі Siiottcc VI), p 32

24 A CIVILIZATION PHILOSOPHER

Two copies of its Hebrew translation are present in Paris (Bibliotheque Nationale, Hebr., 898; 917).3q

21. AI-Ta’lik ala Isagiijl: к Т Recorded as "al-Imla fi Maani Isagujl” by Ibn Abi Usaib- ia39 40, and consisting of the commentaries on the aforemen­ tioned work, this work has one surviving copy of its He­ Ж brew translation (Munich, Hebr, 210). 41 22. Risala fi Tafsiri Kitab al-Madhali fi Sinaat al-Man- tik. Latin translation: "Liber Introductorius in Artem Logicae Demonstrationis”: This work is sometimes attributed to al-Farabi and to someone named Muhammad at times, who is introduced as al-Kindi’s student. One copy of this work’s Latin translation titled “Liber In­ troductorius in Artem Logicae Demonstrationis” has sur­ vived in Vatican (Latin, 2186, f. 71). Albino Nagy has pub­ lished this translation in Munich in 1897.42 23. Kitabu Katigoryas: In this work known as Kitab al-Makulat, al-Farabi investi­ gates the subject of categories, which constitutes one of the main sections of classical logic. Two copies of its Hebrew translation survived: (Munich, Hebr, 30743 ve Paris, Bibliotheque Nationale, Hebr., 917, F, 108).44

4

39. Abdurrahman Badawi, op. i it., II, p. 494; Jacques Langhade, Le Kitab al-Hataba dAl-El-Farabi (Melanges de l’Universiti Saint-Joseph, XLII, p. 66, footnote 3. 40. Ibn Abi Usaibia, op. cit., p. 609. . ± Vf iijyJl - ***~“’ (f) 41. Moritz Steinschneider, op. cit., p. 13. Footnote 2. Conveyed by C. Brockelmann, GAL., (Arabic trans., IV), p. 139. 42. A. Nagy, Beitmge zur Geschichte der Philosophic M itt el Alters, II, V, pp. \\\ 41-64, Munich-1867. Conveyed by C. Brockelmann, GAL., (Arabic trans. IV), p. 141. 43. Moritz Steinschneider, op. cit, p. 13. Conveyed by C. Brockelmann, GAL., (Arabic trans., IV), p. 140. Manuscript Copy of Al-Farabi's work named et-Tenbihti ala 44. Abdurrahman Badawi, op. cit., II, p. 494. Sebili's-Saade, (Kutubhne-i Mi$kat), Tehran, Iran

25 AL-FARABI

24. Shaerhu Kitab al-Makulat: Four copies of its Hebrew translation of this work survived In this work, which was recorded by Ibn Abi Usaibia in various libraries of Europe (Oxford, Bodleian, 402; Par­ as “Sharhu Kitabu Katigoryas li Aristotalis ala Jihar al- is, Bibliotheque Nationale, Hebr., 917 (5); 928 (5); Vienna, Ta’lik”45, Aristoteles’ aforementioned book of categories is 112)50. explained through notes. 29. Kitab al-Burhan: Two copies of its Hebrew translation of the work are pres­ As the title suggests, this work is an extensive scholium of ent in Munich (Hebr, 307) and Escurial (Hebr., 612) li­ Prior Analytics section of Aristotle’s’ work titled Organon. braries.46 Although Abdurrahman Badawi has stated that tins work 25. Kitab al-Ibara: had been translated into Hebrew by Jehuda ben Tibbon, In this work, which was recorded by Ibn Abi Usaibia as whether it survives is not mentioned.'1 "Sharhu Kitabu Barirminyas li Aristotalis ala Jihad al- 30. Kitab al-Jadal: Ta’lik”47, Aristoteles’ book "Peri Hermenias” is explained Two copies of Hebrew translation of this work, which is through notes. stated as the scholium of Sophistical Refutations section One copy of its Hebrew translation has survived in Paris of Aristotle’s Organon42, is the scholium of Topics section (Bibliotheque Nationale, Hebr., 917, E, 134)48 of Aristotle’s’ Organon are present in Vienna (Hebr.. 1121 26. Sharhun li-Kitabi Aristotalis fi al-Ibara: and Munich (Hebr., 29 (6)) libraries.4! As the title suggests, this work is the scholium of Prior An­ 31. Kitab al-Safsata: alytics by Aristoteles. Recorded as “Kitab al-Mawadi li l-Mughalata” bv Ibn Abi 27. Kitab al-Kiyas: Usaibia44, this work is the commentary on Topics section of Aristotle’s Orcanon. This work, recorded as "Sharhu Kitab al-Kiyas li Aris­ C* totalis wa huwa al-Sharhu al-Kabir" by Ibn Abi Usaibia, is 32. Muhtasar al-Mughalata: a major scholium of Posterior Analytics from Aristoteles’ As the title suggests, this work is summary of the previous Organon, in which theory of analogy is discussed. book. Two copies of its Hebrew translation of this work are still 33. Sharait al-Yakin: in Paris (Bibliotheque Nationale, Hebr., 917, F., 143; 898).4” In this brief booklet, al-Farabi describes the conditions and 28. Kitab al-Kiyas al-Saghir: parts of certain knowledge. A transcription of the Arabic This work is a summary of the section Posterior Analytics original in Hebrew alphabet of this work, which was pub of Aristoteles’previously mentioned work titled Organon, in which theory of analogy is discussed.

50. AbdurrahmAii Badawi, op cit.. 11. p. 44a 45.Ibn Abi Usaibia, op. cit.,p.608 51. Abdurrahman Badawi, op. of.. 11. p 49a 46. Moritz Steinschneider, op. cit., p. 13. 52. Ibn Abi Usaibia, op cit.. p oOS 47. Ibn Abi Usaibia, op. ciL, p. 608. 53. M om ? Steinsi hnoider, op .u p 5iv c oim-ved bv v Biwkolmann. 48. Abdurrahman Badaw!, op. cit., II, p. 494. (iAi ., (Arabic trails IN’), p l id Abdurrahman badawi. op , к 11 49. Moritz Stenischnridcr, op. cit., p. 30; Abdui i alimAn H.ul.iwi, op. i it., p. 494. II, p. 494. 54. Ibn Al’i Usaibia. op. cit.. p oOS

26 A CIVILIZATION PHILOSOPHER

lished by Miibahat Kiiyel, is present at the end of a manu­ script in Paris (Bibliotheque Nationale, Hebr., 303).'' m Its Hebrew translation of unknown source is also present in Paris (In Bibliotheque Nationale, Hebr., 917 (2)).56 34. Kitab al-Hitaba fi’I-Mantik: Latin Translation: “Declaratio Compendiosa Supra Libris Rhetoricorum Aristotelis" This work, which begins with descriptions of rhetoric and related essential concepts such as persuasion, opinion, cer­ titude and doxa, provides historical and logical informa­ tion on the use of these concepts, and emphasizes the role 1* and importance of syllogism in rhetoric.57

This work has been translated into Latin as "In Rhetori- ^ри іри ъ^іі cam” by Hermannus Allemagnus. The copy of this trans­ lation, which is in Paris (Bibliotheque Nationale, Latin, {М0> 16097, f. 188) was published under the title “Declaratio doW elk c/jV Ь Compendiosa Supra Libris Rhetoricorum Aristotelis” in Venice in 1484; and subsequently published again in Ven­ ice in 1515 under the title “Rhetorica Aristotelis cum Fun- dattissimi Artium et Theologiae"58 35. Risalae ft Kawanin al-Shi’r: In this short booklet, al-Farabi mentions the fundamental ideas of Aristotle on poetics. 36. Sharh alMustaghlak min Musadarat al-Makalat Ш1 »; al ula wa’l-Hamisa min Uklidas: Al-Farabi explains sections one and five of Euclid’s book -I, r < s r r The Elements. ik

55. Salomon Munk, Melanges tie PhilosophicJuive et Arabe, pp. 351-352. (-)A 5 iijjiI ^LL^JI u*d\. u k j l Ц І 4 - M 5b. Miibahat Kiiyel, El-Fdrdbinin $eraitu’l-Yakin’i, p. 13. \ 57. Farabi, Kit&bu’l-Hitabe (publ., Jacques Langhade, Melanges de I’Uni- ‘' 4 versite Saint-Joseph , XLI1I, 3), pp. 87-177. W 58. Conveyed by Ahmed Ate;., in el-Farabi nin Eserlerinin Bibliyograf- yasi (Belleten, XV, LVII) 182 from A. Nagy, Notizia Intomo alia Re- Manuscript Copy ofAl-Farabi’s book named Introduction to Logic t orica d'Al Farabi, 11, pp. b84-691. (el-Medhal-isaguci), (British Museum), London

27 1

AL-FARABI

39. Al-Daavi’I-Kalbiyya: In this short booklet, al-Farabi gives concise and interest­ ing explanations on fundamental problems of philosophy. 40. Risalat Zinun al-Kabir: Titled after Aristotle’s student, the Great Zeno, this short work contains 6 problems about philosophy of religion. 41. Risala fi Isbat al-Mufarakat: Al-Farabi attempts to prove the existence of celestial minds, which are assumed to be present beyond the moon in a state of abstraction and are responsible for the motion of celestial bodies. 42. Risala fi al-Hala: In this brief work, al-Farabi attempts to clarify whether there is void in the universe. 43. Risala fi al-Vahidi wa al-Vahdati: Based on the number One, which is ranked in first order of the numeric scale which did not yet include zero, the Details of the Lute said to be Invented byAl-Farabi problem of Unity is investigated. 44. Kitab al-Musika al-Kabir: This work has been translated into Hebrew by Moases ben Tibbon in 1270, and two copies of manuscript have sur­ Although Kitab al-Musika al-Kabir stated to have been vived in M unich (Hebr., 36; 290).59 * written by 930 upon the request of Abuja far Muhammad ibn Kasim, vizier of al-Karhi al-Razi-Billah. Abbasid Ca 37. Al-Nukat fima Yasihhu wa ma la Yasihhu min Ah- liphate was designed as two volumes in order to complete kam al-Nujum. the works written in the field of music till the era of Farabi, Al-Farabi explains the essential rights and wrongs about we have no information about whether it was completed. the configuration of stars. Only six copies from the first volume has reached today.' 38. Al-Ta’likat: The work published bv Cattas Abdulmalik Hasaha and 101 short anecdotes on different subjects of philosophy Mahmud Ahmad al Hifhi on the basis of I eiden, Koprulu are included in this work. and Princeton copies1'1 was translated into French by Ro

Ml. Six copies ot Miisik.1 al K.ibii air known provided two ol them .lie in Turkish libraries (Koprulu, AM; R.ij^h Pa^a ,md lour ot them are abroad in (Madrid Riblioteoa N.uional, M l, Milano 59. Moritz Steinschneider, op. cit., p, 50; Conveyed by ( . Broi kelinann, Ribliotera Ambrobiana, .'SA I eiden Universiteits bibliotheek. v''] GAL., (Arabictrans,, IV), p. 144; AbdurrahmAn badawi, op. til.. II, t»51; Princeton I'niveisity I ibrarv, liairtt, 1'SS-t V p. 495. til. Cairo 1%7.

28 A CIVILIZATION PHILOSOPHER

dolphe d'Erianger and printed in La Musique Arabe.62 In 45. Kitab al Ika: the section of the first volume of the work titled al-Madhal In the introduction section of Kitab al-Ika, the second ila Sina'at al-Musika, description, classification and types work written by al-Farabi on music it is stated that the is­ of modes and creation of instruments, introduction to sues mentioned in Kitab al-Musika would be discussed in acoustic; highness and deepness of sound, natural sounds, more detail herein/’3 tones and types in lute are discussed. 46. Kitabu Ihsai’l Ikaat: In addition, in the second section subjects including creation It is considered that the last work written by al-Farabi on of the sound, highness and deepness of the same, tones, octave, music was "Kitabu Ihsai’l-Ikaat” Because at the beginning degrees and types of sorts are discussed. Later scales and types of the work reference is made to Kitab al-Miisika al-Kabir thereof, serial rules ika and types thereof are emphasized. The and he repeats the information about ika in Kitab al-ikaat philosopher who tries to give information about lute and tarn- in general terms. boura following that firsdy discusses chords, scale and frets of lute and then comprehensive information about Baghdad tam- Al-Farabi mentions about the reason for writing this work boura, Khorasan tamboura, mizmar, sumay, rabab ve mi'zaf is and mentions about the method he would follow briefly given. At the end of the work, he discusses the issues of musi­ the introduction section of the work and then explains Ika cal composition, watching and passing rules as well as ika and and basic concepts on Ika. it types, lyrics and properties thereof, performance of musical And he states at the end of the work that Ishak al-Mawsili composition. mentioned about this science before him. He gives tine name He not only transfers the ideas of Greek authors about mu­ of the work of Ishak al-Mawsili named "Kitabun fi ta’lif al- sic and states that the information about the music inherited Nagham” which is lost today and states that it had been the from the Greek to the Islam world and makes certain correc­ most valuable source written up to then on that subject. tions on music theory. Toward the end of the book, he tries Furthermore he states that al-Kindi transferred the ideas of to give more comprehensive information about lute which is Ishak al-Mawsili about ika as they are without researching known to be the instrument with which easiest applications accuracy thereof and for this reason he made mistakes and can be performed with reject to audial system. Within this strictly criticizes him. Furthermore he states that certain framework the frets on die lute were indicated in the form false ideas of al-Kindi were repeated in the work of Mansur of tables and frets and chord systems of Khorasan and tam- ibn Talha al-Tahiri named “Kitab al-Munis” Although it was bouras were explained in detail. considered that those two works were the same in the past, 63 This work of al-Farabi who is understood to be a good per­ former is accepted to be the most comprehensive and sys­ tematic work written on music theory in Islamic and West­ ern world. As a matter of fact the influence of al-Farabi 63. Kitab al-ika, the copy between 160b- 167a foils of the script numbe is clearly observed in all musical works from Avicenna to red 1878 in Topkapi Palace Ahmet III Library has reached today Носа Abdulkadir-i Maragi. as a whole. Kitab al-ika was completely translated into German by Eckhard Neubauer in 1968 and published in Oriens journal with the name “Die Theorie vom Iqa I. (jbersetzung des Kitab al-Iqiat von Abu t>2. Riris 1930,1; Paris 1935, II, 1-101. Nasr Al-Farabi"

29 AL FARABI

since two different scripts have reached today it has been 48. Kitabun fi Ilm al-Mizaj: understood that Farabi wrote two separate works on ika.64 This work, which is not listed among the sources of clas­ 47. al-Fusul al-Majmua: sic Islamic thought, has been translated into Latin as “De Although this work, which is thought to be comprised of Tempore” by an anonymous translator and one copy of select sections o f‘Arau Ahli’l-Madmat al-Fadila” or "Kitab this translation is still present in Oxford (Bodleian, 6605) al-Mille” is not found in classical Islamic sources, three today.66 copies of it have survived in Oxford library (Bodleian, 178 49. Kitab al-Makayis: (6); Michael, 77, Kauffmann, 26).65 Four copies of the Hebrew translation this work, which mentioned by Ibn Abi Usaibia under the same title , have 64. Kitabu Ihsai'l-Ikaat located between 59a and 89b foils of the journal survived in various libraries of Europe: Munich (Hebr., in Manisa Provincial Public Library registered with the number of 1705 has reached today as one copy. 630), Oxford (Bodleian, Hebr., 402), Vienna (Hebr., 130), This work of Al-Farabi was completely translated into German Paris (Bibliotheque Nationale, Hebr., 133 V ' by Eckhard Neubauer in 1994 as a whole and published in Oriens journal with the name of Die Theorie vom lqa II. Ubersetzung des Kitab Ihsaal-Iqaat von Abu Nasr Al-Farabi. 66. C. Brockelmann, GAL., (Arabic trans.L p. 148. 65. Moritz Steinschneider, op. cit, p. 89. Conveyed by C. Brockelmann, 67. Ibn Abi Usaibia, op. cit.,p. 609. GAL., (Arabictrans., IV), p. 143; Abdurrahman Badawi, op. cit., II, 68. Moritz Steinschneider, op. cit., p. 89; Conveyed by C. Brockelmann p. 495. GAL., (Arabic trans., IV, p. 144.)

A Pythagoras Miniature Made in the 13th Centuiy (Fiom Ibn Fatik's walk named Muhtdru'l-Hikcm. Topkapi Paloi e). v \'\ .

30 A CIVILIZATION PHILOSOPHER

PHILOSOPHY

Philosophy of al-Farabi, who is among the founding think­ are in motion and that the force which provides this motion ers of Islamic thought, begins with Metaphysics, which should be the a soul (Soul-Mind-Intelligence) that enables examines the reason of being, the God -the creator of such motion. being- and titles of God. Thence, the thinker, who com­ Al-Farabi, who thinks that beings of sublunary worlds are mences on the topic of emergence and creation of beings of material constitution, and as a natural consequence, that are composed of substance and abundance, by God, are subject to generation and decay, primarily due to the which is isolated from substance, plain, One and Unique constitution of the sublunary worlds, which are made of (Vahid-Ahad), seeks an answer to how beings of substance the four primal elements (air, water, earth and tire), name­ came to emerge from a non-material creator. He wants ly the basic building blocks of matter, states that it is the to find a consistent and extensive explanation about the Active Intellect, plain as the God, which sets the beings emergence of plain and non-material beings without con­ of sublunary worlds into action. Thereby, the theory of tradicting the insight of monotheist creation, which com­ Intellect -non-material, plain yet coexisting with matter- prises the first part of the question. He must explain in emerges, which makes up backbone of al-Farabi thought. such a way that the first being to emerge from God, which Within the context of theory of intellect, al-Farabi later is plain, non-material, One (Vahid) and Unique (Ahad), seeks and answer to the question of how the organization should similarly be non-material, plain, non-abundant of the material world is governed by such plain intellect, One and Unique being. namely the mind, while still being subject to the well-ac­ a-Metaphysics cepted laws. The basic analysis of al-Farabis philosophy, known as theory of cosmological intellects, would later Also influenced by Aristotle, al-Farabi attempts to ex­ become a fundamental argument of the Peripatetic school. plain that this first being that emanates from the God is the Mind, and that the mind, which is supposed to think b-Epistemology (The Problem of Knowledge) (reason) by its nature, thinks both of its creator God and Since the subject is on mind and intellect, questions on of itself, thus bringing forth the beings of the supra-lunar how the mind functions and how the resulting phenom­ universe, which are named aether (Esir) due to their con­ enon of knowledge occurs will be raised inevitably. This is stitution of a plain substance and to systemize the issue. because the human intellect conceptualizes the material objects by abstracting them of their matter, perceives them The thinker who assumes that celestial bodies are present so, and stores and appropriately uses them in due time. along with minds in the supra-lunar universe, thus tries to Given as a rudimentary postulate that no one but God has answer how the intangible and plain being, which is the the power to create anything, how could the phenomenon backbone of the problem, brought forth visible, tangible be­ called knowledge come to pass in al-Farabis thought? ings of material constitution without losing its properties. The thinker, who utilized the theories of Psychology (Soul), At this point, theory of epistemological intellects, which is Cosmology (Astronomy) and Nature (Physics), which he the second section of al-Farabis thought, comes into play. borrowed from Aristotle, reports that the celestial bodies On that note, al-Farabi defines the matter using Poten­

31 AL-FARABI

tial Intellect, which perceives matter as it is, and designs Al-Farabi, who first divides the intellect as Theoretical and various categories and devices of thinking (reasoning) Pradical in this context, also examines the Theoretical in­ such as Acquired Intellect which has the power to relate tellect under three categories which are Potential intellect, with Actual Intellect that abstracts it from its matter and Actual or habitual intellect and Acquired intellect, respec­ turns it into perceivable material and Active Intellect that tively. Above all these is the Active (Agent) Intellect, which performs the act of perception. Thus, he comes up with a enables the realization of the phenomenon of knowledge. quite original explanation on how knowledge was farmed, The system operates as follows: Potential intellect ab­ which was sufficient for his time and would be reiterated stracts the forms of object from their material and con­ for a long time after him. vert it into concept. Noumenon, while could be potentially According to al-Farabi, the function of the mind is mani­ intellectualized before it could be known by the potential fested in two different fields and with two different mean­ intellect, are actually intellectualized upon knowing by the ings. Thus, he differentiates (epistemological) intellect actual intellect. Once such noumena are actually known, which is a mechanism that allows us to know the object knowing it becomes a habit for the mind. Therefore, Actu­ by abstracting it from its material quality, from (cosmo­ al intellect is also called Habitual intellect. logical) intellect, as a mechanism which is operative in ev­ Two kinds of noumena exist: one is its existence ingrained erything from the formation to operation of the universe. in objects before it was known (Material-Concrete! and So, he evaluates the intellect that produces knowledge and the other is its existence ingrained in die mind alter be­ the intellect that ensures orderly operation of the universe ing known (Spiritual-Abstract). Once the mind abstracts separately. these noumena from their material and knows diem, the First of all, al-Farabi investigates how human intellect can process of knowing is complete. Hence, die mind becomes abstract a material object and converts it into a non-ma­ capable of knowing not only the material objects but also terial state. The philosopher, acting based on Aristotle’s objects abstracted from their material, and that stage is the distinction of intention and ad:ion, reports that something stage of Acquired intellect. Once Actual intellect, which in the state of intention would require the intervention of conceives noumena that are abstracted from their materi­ another force in order to turn into adion, and that with­ al i.e. objects, attains the ability to perceive different forms out external intervention, nothing could rise into a state (abstraction), it becomes Acquired intellect. According to of adion from a state of intention on its own. Therefore, the philosopher, celestial intellects are noumena that nev human intellect that is in a state of intention, cannot pro­ er had substance and never will, i.e. abstract beings The duce knowledge by itself. The power to transform it from range of intellects belonging to man i- limited at the stage the state of intention into the state of adion should be in of Acquired intellect. perpetual adion so that it can also transform human intel­ Once man reaches the stage of Acquired intellect, his intel­ lect from the state of intention into the state of adion. Tht* lect fuses with Active intellect, then, Allah (SWT), V icto­ power, which is in perpetual adion, and which converts rious and Almighty, reveals him through Active intellect the intellect -that is the human facility of knowledge from Thus, if through Acquired intellect, Active intellect passes intention to adion, thereby enabling it to acquire knowl­ on what was imparted on it (inspiration) by miglitv and edge, is the Active Intellect. absolved Allah, first to Passive intellect of man and then

32 A CIVILIZATION PHILOSOPHER

relays it to his power of Imagination. Therefore, man who Al-Farabi begins to explain the rules of formation of orga­ can know completely through the (inspiration) which was nized knowledge, where we come across logical knowledge passed from Active intellect to Passive intellect, is called a as the tool for accurate thinking after explaining the for­ philosopher or sage. The man who heralds immediate par­ mation of knowledge (phenomenon of knowing). One of ticular happenings through inspiration, and warns of what the most common and perfect aspects of al-Farabi philos­ is to come in the future, is called a Prophet (herald).”1 ophy is the discipline ot classical Logic, which he took over from Aristotle and enriched and methodized. Thus, according to al-Farabi, the Prophet and the Philos­ opher are the two people who deserve to be the head of c-Views on Logic the virtuous city. Both acquire the laws and legislations The most remarkable and persistent - both in the Islamic required to preserve the order in the society through a world and in the Medieval Latin or Hebrew worlds, ab­ connection with the Active intellect. For the Prophet, stract subject of al-Farabi’s thought after intellect, soul and such connection occurs through power of Imagination, spirit, is the discipline of Logic and his successful com­ whereas for the philosopher it occurs through power of ments on Aristotelian logic. the mind, i.e. through research and analysis. However, the source for both is the same. Nevertheless, what the proph­ According to al-Farabi, while producing knowledge, hu­ et states through prophecy and the knowledge acquired man mind first creates concepts, and then comes to con­ by the philosopher through the mind do not contradict, clusions using these concepts, i.e. postulates. Language is but complete and support each other. Then, the source of an external conversation, whereas Logic is an internal con­ religion and philosophy are the same and it is the Active versation. Therefore, rules of grammar dictate the means intellect. The only truth is what emerges and spreads from of understanding within a society Speaking that language, the Active intellect, and that which inspires and overflows. whereas Logic dictates the rules on the activity of thinking for all mankind. Al-Farabi not only provided solid termi­ Al-Farabi, thus exhibiting the intimate relation between nology for Logic, but with his explanations and comments, revelation and philosophy, later tried to reconcile the views also turned it into the foundation of scientific method. of the idealist philosopher Plato and of the realist philoso­ pher Aristotle. According to him, the truth is unique and With the help of work done by previous Aristotle com­ both Aristotle and Plato depict this one truth in different mentators, he brought important innovations to the field phrasing and methods. Since both philosophers depict the of Formal Logic and paid Special attention to the theory of truth, it is possible reconvene the seemingly different ideas Analogy and Proof, which were not elaborated by previous they describe using different terms at different times and commentators. His analyses in this field would be a basis under different conditions at a common ground, thus cre­ for all Logicians to come. It's of note that concepts and ate a common view in terms of philosophy. propositions, which are important topics of logic, which Al-Farabi who attempts to unite the views ot both philos­ was methodized by al-Farabi, do not appear in Aristotle’s ophers in this manner also attempts to draw parallels be­ works. tween Islamic thought and Hellenistic thought. d-Ontology (philosophy of being)

Al-Farabi attempts to form his views on being within his 1. FArabi, Ar.hi Alii al-Madinat al-Fadila, pp. 85-87. own systematic of Logic, and without disrupting the cos-

33 A L-FAR А В I

mic integrity of the universe or ignoring causality. Since a connection between supra-lunar worlds and subluna­ philosophical knowledge, which is also a being, is the ry worlds, or between the celestial world and the human knowledge of being, it is universal knowledge that allows world. On the other hand, al-Farabi reports that every­ us to conceive being as a whole. Therefore, any knowledge thing in the universe is made of Hyle and Form. Substance put forth by the philosopher, which he derived from Logic, and Form are mutually essential, without one the other is supposed to conceive and compass being as a whole. cannot exist. Substance is in a passive state and accepts the shape it is given, Form on the other hand, is in an active Being the most general concepts human intellect can con­ state and shapes the substance. ceive, being cannot be defined, because definition is com­ posed of Species and differentia. Since there is not a more Just as in Aristotelian philosophy, the topic of universals universal concept to encompass being, defining it is not are of significant importance also in al-Farabi s philosophy possible either. Any effort to define this simple and plain of being. Al-Farabi, who divides being into two as univer­ concept would just stimulate the mind and would not be sals and individuals, names the individuals which form anything but a recursion of the known. the substance existence first substance, because these are objects our senses first perceive directly. The universals, Therefore al-Farabi starts mentioning being from most which are the building blocks of our knowledge and are perfect being, the “First Being” (God), which is of the high­ acquired by our mind as a result of abstraction, are called est rank, and descends to the simplest and least perfect Pri- second substances. Being of immaterial nature, second ma materia (Hyle), which is of the lowest rank. At the first substances are not subject to change. level among ranks of being is the being of God, which is the highest being human intellect can conceive, and at the In al-Farabi thought, Being is divided into two as Neces­ second stage reside the celestial minds (minds dissociated sary and Contingent. W hen we sj>eak of being in general, from matter). Al-Farabi calls these secondary beings. He we state that being is either Necessary, Contingent or Im­ reports that the number of these is equal to the number of possible. celestial spheres, and mentions nine intellects correspond­ Necessary Being is also divided into two as Necessary bv- it ing to nine celestial bodies according to Cosmology. Later self and Necessary-by-other: the being which does not known as theory of Intellects, would not only be embraced require any other cause in order to exist and maintain its by all Islamic philosophers, but also form the basis of Me­ existence is called Necessary-by-itself. Its non existence is dieval Latin and Hebrew thought. inconceivable. Indeed, assuming its non-existence is log According to al-Farabi, including the Active Intellect, the ically impossible. The absolutely necessary is only Allah number of intellects totals to ten. Each of these intellects (SWT). Being, which is Contingent in its essence but is emanate from the previous intellect and are the cause of contingent relative to other is called Necessary by-other. the next intellect. The thinker claims that these are alive We call the being, whose existence depends on others and correspond to angels and spiritual beings. Moreover, Contingent being. We can think of both existence and he presents the Active Intellect as Gabriel or Holy Spirit. non existence of Contingent being. Such thinking does Just as Gabriel provides a connection between prophets, not lead to any logical contradictions. All beings, except each of whom are humans, the Active Intellect provides Allah, are Contingent beings.

34 A CIVILIZATION PHILOSOPHER

Impossible beings are those whose existence is never pos­ of cosmological intellects. According to this, God is One sible. and Unique and is excluded of all substance, the universe e-Theory of Emergence and Cosmological Intellects on the other is of substance and abundance. So, how did

We have previously stated that al-Farabi attempted to beings composed of abundance came to be from One and explain God’s relation with the universe through theory Unique God?

A Library in Hiilvan around Baghdad in the 13th Century and the book readers (from Hariri's Makdmat)

35 AL- F ARAB I

First and foremost, al-Farabi initiates a Special theory named theory of Emergence in order to emphasize the fun­ damental difference -that contradicts with the perception of pure Unity of Islam- between absolute, excluded and eternal God, who is the One and only and unique, there­ fore cannot be conceived fully by human intellect power, and Contingent beings (universe and those in it), which can be perceived by man’s perception, is of substance, came to be in time, and has the quality of abundance.

According to this, since God, who is the source of all good­ ness, glory and perfection, is not dependent on anything, expects nothing of lower beings, and thereby does not have a motive about their actions. Therefore, God’s thinking of being is sufficient cause for being to emerge. God who is absolute, knows of itself and of all that came to exist; not only is It known by all beings, but also It knows itself and is aware that it is known. Hence it is called both intellect, that which knows and that which is known.

God’s self-knowing is sufficient cause tor being to emerge. The first intellect of non-substance emanates through God’s self-knowing. Such intellect is a necessary being in relation to Allah, and is a Contingent being in essence. Sec­ ond intellect, emanating from first intellect’s knowledge of God, knows that it is a Contingent being, hence the soul and substance of first sphere emanates. Third intellect, em­ anating from second intellect’s knowledge of God, knows that it is a Contingent being, hence the soul and substance of second sphere, namely the sphere of stars emanates.

According to this theory, every intellect forms another in tellect and a celestial sphere along with its soul. This goes on for seven planets, which is the number of planets than known in the solar system, and ends with the Active in­ tellect, which is the intellect of the moon sphere. The Ac

*• • « , tive intellect, which is the tenth intellect, is assumed to be

Miniature of certain Greek Philosophers Made in the 13th Century (From Galenos'Arabic Book of Macunlar)

36 A CIVILIZATION PHILOSOPHER

the reason for all generation and decay in the sublunary Therefore time, which is composed of moments and is of worlds.2 continuous nature, can only exist with motion. Space, on the other hand, is an abstract concept and cannot be per­ Al-Farabi, who attempted to apply this theory to the Cos­ ceptible. However, for every substance there is a place it mic system, establishes his system according to Cosmol­ yearns to reach, and it is called the Locus in Peripatetic ogy, which is well-accepted since Aristotle. According Islamic Philosophy. to this, universe is composed of sublunary and supra-lu- nar worlds. Motion in the supra-lunar worlds is circular f-Views on the Soul motion, which is the perfect motion, therefore there is Following Aristotle, as well as using the common term no change here. There is one element in the supra-lunar spirit (Rouh), al-Farabi prefers the term Soul (Nafs), which world, which is thinner-than-air Aether. In the sublunary is more extensive than spirit and includes all biological, worlds, all beings are made up of the Four Elements, con­ physiological and psychological activities. Just as in Aris­ sisting of air, water, earth and fire. totelian tradition, he describes the Soul as the first ability The motion of the celestial spheres, which are the first of the natural organic substance that is form of force.’ This beings in the sublunary worlds, is circular and they are in description would be valid for long time in Medieval Islam constant rotation due their desire and fervor towards the and Christian thoughts. Creator. The Four Elements are formed because of the fric­ According to al-Farabi, Soul is a plain essence, indepen­ tion between these spheres during the rotation. There is dent of the body, and consists of the forms of the body. (still) no place for void in the universe. The elements have As in the entirety of his system, al-Farabi who strives to four separate qualities: warm, cold, wet and dry. From the combine Aristotelian perception of the soul with Platonist mixture of opposing qualities, rocks, metals, plants and an­ perception of the soul, divides the Soul into three as Vege­ imals emerge. tative, sensitive and intellective. Vegetative Soul is the one During the period before the discovery of gravity, these with the nutritive, augmentative and generative powers cosmological approaches based on Aristotelian physics common to all living beings. In addition to these, Sensitive were considered valid in every field. Soul, has the powers of action and sensing. He reports that the most developed part of the Soul is the intellective soul, Based on Aristotelian physics, al-Farabi divides motion which is the center of powers of knowledge and intellect, into two as voluntary and involuntary. According to him, and he calls this '‘thinlcing/sf>eaking Soul" This view on the the motion, which transpires as generation, decay, trans­ Soul, which al-Farabi tried to methodize, would later be lation, increase-decrease and transformation, is motion put into excellent structure by Avicenna, and would be the along a linear or circular path. dominant view in the W ebern thought up to 18,h century, According to the thinker, who views the problem of Space and in the Islamic thought until today. and Time within this scope, motion occurs in time.

2 . Farabi, al-Madinat al-Fddila, pp. 61-62. 3. Farabi, al-Masail al-Falsafiyya, p. 108.

37 AL FARABI

Toledo School of Translation where ATFarabi's works are translated into Latin

38 A CIVILIZATION PHILOSOPHER

INFLUENCE

Al-Farabi who is indisputably the founder philosopher of Farabian thought was continued by Abu Zakariyya Yahya Islam philosophy has influened almost all of the thinkers ibn Adiy (d. 974), the Jocabian Christian philosopher who following him to some degree. Even saying al-Farabian attracted attention particularly with his studies related to philosophy is an extended annotation or footnote of the Logic after his death. We do not have much information entire Islam philosophy is not an exaggeration. He created about Yahya ibn Adiy. However, Ibn Abi Usaibia states a small model of the great Islamic thought universe of the that he was famous with copying books in Baghdad and future with his works he authored in the fields of Philos­ was criticized by Ibn al-Nedim, the author of famous el- ophy, Theology, Logic, Music, Ethics, State, Philosophy of Fihrist. Upon this, he defends himself and says he did not politics and notion of Civilization. Since those who follow do anything requiring condemnation and copied approx­ him developed and extended each subject that al-Farabi imately 100 foils of scripts in one day and night with hard discusses, no specific school following him arose and each work.1 thinker took something from him to some degree. As we Ibn Abi Usaibia cites an interesting anecdote about his stated before, the influences of al-Farabi were not exclusive interest in books: T saw the annotations of Alexander of for Islamic world but the original ideas of the great philos­ Afrodisias written on Aristotle’s books of Physics and Sec­ opher sustained their influences during Middle Ages via ond Analytics in the heritages of Ibrahim ibn Abdullah, Christian Latin and Jewish thought and survived to the the Christian translator. They proposed me to sell those metropolises of todays Western world, two annotations for 120 dinars. I went to find the money. a- Influences of Medieval Islamic, Christian and Jewish W hen I turned back, I was informed that they sold the two Thoughts works to someone from Khorasan for 3.000 dinars togeth­ The intellectual movement started by al-Farabi developed er with certain books.”1 2 in a short time in Eastern Islamic world and most of them Abu Hayyan al-Tawhidi who was given grammar lessons lead to start of a period expressed as "Golden age" later in by Abu Said al-Slrafi, the famous philologist and philos­ Islamic thought with the contributions of philosophers of ophy lessons by Yahya ibn Adiy and Sijistani earned his Khorasan and Transoxiana origin. living by copying books as well. He explained many events Although those who were trained in al-Farabi sphere which he witnessed and which reflects the thought scene failed to create a school in his name, many of the leading of the era and carried the predominant understanding of philosophers of post-al-Farabi era were the students of his the era to later periods in two-volume works named al- students. These include prestigious scientists and philoso­ Imtau wa 1-Muanasa and al-Mukabasat particularly in­ phers such as Abu Sulayman al-Sijistani who was lectured cluding his ten-volume work named al-Basair wa -Zahair. by Yahya ibn Adiy in Baghdad, Abu Hayyan al-Tawhldi, The great Islam philosopher and physician Avicenna is un­ Abu Rakr al-Kumsi, Isa ibn Ali ibn Zur’a, Ibn al-Samh, Ibn doubtedly al-Farabi’s greatest successor and follower of the Al-Hammar, Abu Muhammad al-AruzI. 1. Ibn Abi Usaibia, Uyuti al-Anbafi Tabakat al-Atibba, 106 (pub. by Ni zar Riza), Beirut no date. 2. Ibn Abi Usaibia, op. cit., 106.

39 I

AL FARABI

Peripatetic tradition he started. Avicenna states in his own We observed in the detailed research we conducted on autobiography that he tried to develop his knowledge of this interest work that a great section of “al-Birru wa al- philosophy reading Aristotle’s works on Logical and Natu­ Ism" was compiled exactly from al-Farabi's work named ral sciences but he did not understand anything although he al-Tanbihu ala Sabil al-Saada' exactly, and some part of read his book titled Metaphysics, finally he repeated it forty it was compiled again from al-Farabi’s work named Fusul times and memorized but still he failed to comprehend the al-Madanf’ by selecting, cutting and combining various subject and he felt deaerate for this reason. He states that paragraphs and sections. Again according to our detection, as a result of a strange coincidence, a bellman tried to sell a al-Birru wa al-Ism” is one of a few works in which Avicen­ book crying while he was passing through bibliopoles mar­ na recorded his name personally among the oeuvre which ket one day in the afternoon, he did not want to purchase is a big to ta l.7 8 the book since he thought that this subject was unclear but On the other hand, the basic theses of recent Islam­ when the seller told him to purchase that book and that ic thought tradition predominated by both Kalam and it would be useful for him and it was very cheap due to fi­ Tasawuf (Mutaakhkhirun) are continuity of al-Farabian nancial problems of its owner and that he would sell it for philosophy. Great part of Kalam dominated thinking sys­ three dirhams, he purchased the book and realized that this tem of Imam Ghazali, the great scholar and Fahr al-Pdin was al-Farabi s book on Aristotle’s Metaphysics, he returned al-Razi, the canonist and glossator who traced him L* con­ home fast and read the book and understood easily since he nected to Farabian philosophy. had memorized Aristotle’s book and he gave charity to the Kinahzade, one of the significant thinkers of Ottoman era poor in order to thank for this.3 establishes a great section of his work named Ahlak-i Akzi Avicenna who mentions about al-Farabi in many of his on al-Farabi’s ethic philosophy and Civilization thought works says as follows in his work named el-Mubahasat: and sometimes cites from him saving ‘hakim-i tadil “W hen it comes to Abu Nasr al-Farabi, one should believe Muallim-i sani, Bu Nasr-i Farabi? him with great respect. He does not walk together with Al-Farabi’s influences on Western Islam world are also other communities in a square. He is more valuable than tremendous. Avempace, Ibn Tufail and Averroes. who are the leading ones of the previous ones.”4 * major representatives o f the Andalusian thought, have not According to our detection, Avicenna was influenced by only spread al-Farabis ideas in Muslim Spain, they enabled al-Farabi reading his works beyond admiring him and ad­ these ideas to go beyond Pyrenees and reach deep inside opted the notes making the same form of book. And this Continental Europe. indicates how he adopted al-Farabi’s ideas. The classical sources mentioning about Avicenna's life note that he wrote a work named al-Birru wa al Ism when he was 21-22 upon the request of a canonist of Khawarizm 5 Farabi, itlTiiMiihu iihi 8,iM >W Sait,I,I (pub In Saluban HalitatV 1А' 148; 205-208. named Abubakr al-Barki. iv FAr.ibi, fimi! ill M.i.Iiim (pub bv M PunlopV 103 1 tv 7. tor more intormation see Hekit karliga. l ’n \,'im,ti< baited І|Іц,|ц,л іГіічі Sitiil / м , ;iiv,|4 и,n fonts (Avicenna and his Heritage!. -1 3 5 ,1 ruven University Press, Belgium .44'.' 3. Ibn Abi Usaibia, op. cit., 438. 8. Knuh'Aiic Ab t, elebi. UiMi Al.li, (transliteration Fahn Unan! 4. Ibn Sina, al-MubAhai&t, 375 (pub. by Mubsin ВШгіег) Tehran I i IT. Ankara .'014.

40 A CIVILIZATION PHILOSOPHER

A teacher giving Applied Astronomy and his students

It is observed that Ibn Bajja took notes in sections of Isa- and Unity treaties of the philosopher as well. Ibn Bajja bas­ guji (Vr., 6-45), Perihemenias (Vr., 45-48), Theorems (Vr., es his masterpiece named Tadbtr al-Mutawahhid where he 71-98), Categories (Vr., 111-Г24) of al-Farabis Logic oeu­ expressed his basic philosophy on al-Farabi's works named vre particularly in a journal found among Escurial scripts al-Madinat al-Fadila, al-Siyasat al-Madaniyya and Fusul dated 1269 and num bered 6Г2.'1 al-Madani where al-Farabi’s ideas of civilization can be Ibn Bajja who states that al-Farabi provided very import­ found. And his ideas about joining and happiness are usu­ ant information about issues related to morality in his ally based on al-Farabi's ideas on this issue. Nevertheless, work named Risalat al-wada as well cites from Intellect Ibn Baj ja never mentions about the name of Avicenna.10

9. Macid Fahri, Rasdilu Ibn al-lUdhiyya, lb-17, Beirut 1991. 10. Macid Fahri, op. at., 23.

41 AL-FARABI

Since Averroes, the great Islam philosopher constructed Al-Farabis influence on Western world is no less than his his philosophical and scientific paradigm more frequently influence on Islamic world. It will be correct to discuss on the idea of rearranging Aristotle philosophy which was those influences as two sections namely Jewish Hebrew the predominant thought of the era correctly and the same thought and Christian Latin world. Al-Farabi’s ideas have as original tried to revive realist and rationalist Aristotle been very influential on Jewish thought through Jewish philosophy to replace Neo-Platonist, emanation and theo- religious and philosophical scholar Maimonides. Jewish sophical Peripatetic philosophy prior to him. At that point thinkers attempted to express al-Farabi s ideas by means of he criticizes Avicenna as much as and even more violently him. Since Ibn Maymun (Maimonides) paid significance Imam Ghazali whom we know that he criticizes. Never­ particularly to his ideas about Logic, Hebrew thinkers were theless, he both rejects the ideas of al-Farabi on certain more frequently interested in his ideas about Logic. Even it works of whom he wrote annotations11 but also adopts is stated that Ibn Maymun (Maimonides) said: “When it most of his ideas about Logic, Metaphysics, Ethic and poli­ comes to the works related to logic, it is sufficient to study tics. He makes many references to him particularly includ­ merely the works of Abu Nasr el-Farabi. All of his works ing Tahafut al-Tahafut and Fast al-Makal. are perfect and excellent. Those works should be examined Averroes who attempts to explain the issues discussed by and researched. Because he is a great man.! Plato in State dialogue usually performs comparisons with It is observed that the ideas of the philosopher whom we al-Farabis understanding of city and civilization. We can see to have been influential in Latin world through Alber- observe that most of the issues he expresses are al-Farabis tus Magnus and his pupil Saint Thomas were common in ideas although he mentions his name very rarely. Western world till eighteenth century although this influ­ Averroes provides information about civilized sciences be­ ence diminished gradually. fore annotating summary of Plato’s state dialogue. Within Upon the beginning of translations from Arabic to Lat this framework, he states that the subject of this science is in in the Middle Age, nine of the works of al-Farabi, who voluntary acts emanating from person and its principle is was the focal point of western researchers and one of the will and selection as expressed by al-Farabi as well. Later he philosophers that attracted the attention of the world as states that this science was divided into two sections and far as we know- were translated to Latin and twenty-seven one was habits, voluntary acts and good habits and the oth­ were translated to Hebrew. Today we have the chance to er is incorporation of those characters in the human and read some works of al-Farabi the original Arabic copies ot establishes parallelism between the city and human body as which were lost only front 1 atin and Hebrew translations al-Farabi does. Furthermore, he repeats his idea Specifying or from Arabic text- written with Hebrew alphabet. that al-Farabis human perfection is of four types namely Wlule Western world had a chance to know al Farabi in theoretical and mental virtues, intellectual namely scientific detail upon these translations, it i- not possible to say that virtues, ethical virtues and plastic arts.11 12 lus recognition could compare to that ot Avicenna or Aver roes. However, al Farabis influence on Hebrew scholars 11. See. Bekir Karliga, Bati'yt aydinlatan Islam М ут ігіі Ibn Rufil, b \

Istanbul 2014. I t Mom** Maimonido (M u m Ibn MevmunV 7?i< ьш.Л fe« H* ГУтр 12. Ibn Rushd, al-Daruri /І al Siydsa, Mulitasaru Kittibu til Siydst1 h Afitt liwrii, (ti . Salomon I'nu'v liiri*. 1 \ 1, c'hicago 1 oivion 0 4 'v iui tun, 72-74 (Translation from 1 lebrew into Atabii Ahmol >.ibl.m), r.itor, lVlvr.ih 1 Bl.uk, l.n.ibi (Scvvut Мим-ми N.im Olivci 1 oc Beirut 1998. man, m Islam /•Vbcfcm limbi), I ,.' '0

42 A CIVILIZATION PHILOSOPHER

and intellectuals, has been greater than that of these two scholars. Famous Jewish scholar and Rabbi Maimonides valued him greatly as we mentioned above, hence turning him into a trend among Hebrews, and resulting in adop­ tion of al-Farabi as a teacher among Jewish scholars, b- Al-Farabi Studies of Today шкщ Al-Farabi is one of the philosophers who have not lost his popularity for many centuries. Al-Farabi who was frequently discussed between 11th -17th centuries in the uin&m Western world as an active philosopher began to attract western researchers’ interest again from mid-nineteenth ODiettr century after a break of two centuries. The researches related to Islamic philosophy which had m m been in great silence in Islamic world at the end of Taha- fut discussions started to revive from the first quarter of the twentieth century sometime after its beginning in the W est though slowly. Aimable Jourdain’s article discussing the references made by Guillaume dAuvergny and Roger Bacon to al-Farabi while mentioning about Latin translations of Aristotle’s works is т г а ш і щ ш ш ш deemed to be the first of the studies on this subject.14 This was Latin translation of one work of Al-Farabi followed by die study of Auguste Schmoelders named Docu­ ment from Arabic Philosophy. Schmoelders published Arabic Academy publications is still a significant source which is original and Latin translation of two works of al-Farabi named currently valid.11' "Fi ma yanbaghi an yukaddama Libia taalum al-falsafa" and “Uyun al-masail” in his doctorate dissertation which he wrote Steinchneider who sustained his studies about al-Farabi s in Latin.15 translations to Hebrew in the Middle Age made compre­ hensive explanations particularly about al-Farabi’s works The work of Moritz Steinchneider who concentrated on translated to Hebrew in 1893 in his work titled "Hebrew al-Farabi s Latin and Hebrew translations named “Al-Farabi translations and Jewish translators in the Middle Age” (Alpharabius)" published in 1S69 by Petersburg Empire which has not been passed over yet in his field.16 17 Salomon Munk allocated a section to al-Farabi for the first time in his work named "Selections from Jewish and Ar- 14. Aimable Jourd.iin, Recherches critiques sur lage et engine des traducti­ ons Latins d'Aristote et sur commentariesgrecs ou arabs employes par les 16. Moritz Steinchneider, Menwire de lAoademie tmperule des Scien docteurs scolaslques, 112 and cont., Paris 1819. ces, Seri VII, Vol. XIII, Petersburg, 18b9. 15. Auguste Schomolders, Docimtewbi Philosophia Arabum, 125-134, 17. Moritz Steinchneider, Die Herbraesichen ubersetzungen des nuttelal- Bonn 183b. ters und diejudgen als dolmestebcr, Berlin 1893.

43 AL FARABI

abic Philosophy” published in 1857 and attracted the at­ Arabic text of nine works of al-Farabi was published in Egypt tention to the influences of the philosopher on Mois Mai- for the first time without criticism in Hijri 1325 (Anno Do­ monides and Albert the Great.18 mini 1907).25 Ten booklets of him not included herein was F. Wustenfeld provides information on al-Farabis works published by Dairat al-Maarif al-Osmaniya in India (Hyder­ translated from Latin in his article named "Works trans­ abad Deccan) in Hijri 1245 (Anno Domini 1926)A lated from Arabic to Latin from the eleventh century” Through critical publications started later, some of the published in 1877.19 works of the great philosopher were published by Mau­ J. Forget researches the influences of al-Kindi and al-Fara- rice Bouyges, Osman Emin, Francesco Gabrielli, Franz bi on the Latin in his article named "Influences of Arabic Roashental, D. M. Dunlop, Mubahat Kuyel, Avdin Saydi, Philosophy on Scholastic philosophy” published in 1894.20 Muhsin Mehdi, Macid Fahri, Gattas Abdulmelik, Mu­ hammad Selim Salim, Alber Nasri Nader, Fevzi Mitri Carra de Vaux allocated an extensive section for al-Farabi Neccar, Ca’fer Alu Yasln and Sahban Halifat. in his seven-volume work named "History of Islam Philos­ ophers” which was completed in 1921.21 When it comes to the researches related to al-Farabi in the Islamic world, first of all Ibrahim Madkours doctorate Rudolphe d'Earlenger translated famous Music book of thesis which took its place in al-Farabi’s Islamic philoso­ al-Farabi to French and published in 1930.22 phy schools was published in 1934.; Madkour attempted It is observed that special sections are allocated for al-Fara­ to reveal significance of al-Farabi in Islamic philosophy in bi in the books published under the titles of Arabic phi­ his work related to Islamic philosophy which he authored losophy, Islamic thought and Islamic Philosophy from the later.28 twentieth century. In line with this, the attempts of criti­ On the other hand, Muhsin Mehdi who dedicated his life to cized publications of al-Farabis works and translation of the subject of al-Farabi both made critical publication ot cer­ the same to modern languages started firstly in the West, tain works of al-Farabi " and discussed and assessed ideas ot then in the Islamic world. al-Farabi about political philosophy in detail in his work titled Dietrici who made the first attempt about publication of Establishment ot political philosophy in Islam.' al-Farabis works published certain small booklets of the The works conducted in our country who participated in philosopher between 1890-189223 and Arabic original of this caravan most recently include firstly al Farabi trea "al-Madina al-Fadila" in 1895.24

18. Salomon Munk, Melanges de Philosophic Juivc cl Arabe, Paris 1857 25. Ma/miiatim mm Miui/iufilt al laidbi, Mafkial al Saida. Cairo 1325 19. F. Wustenfeld, Die ubersetzungen werke in dcs Lateinischc scil deni XI 2tv Farabi, RumIi/ (pub.. Dairetu'l Maantil OsmamvveV Havdaribid. jahrhundert, Gottingen 1877. Dekkan 1345. 20. J. Forget, rlnfluemce de la Philosohie Arabe sur la Philosophic Sco 27. Ibrahim M.ulkour, la Phi,e dal Fumbi dam I F.ole riuI«*oplu.ju« Mu latique (Revue Neoscola1. Kitab 23. Friedrich Dietrici, al-Samarat al-Mardiyya\i bad al Rasdil al Idhlbiv ill Mi (la tea Nustbim LDmL Beirut 19t>8 Al A j/й.' al Musta mala fi ya, Leiden 1890. al Miinhk, Beirut l'H>8. kilabal Hitnif, Beirut I4w* 24. Friedrich Dietrici, Ғ.ігЛЫ, Ardu ahli al Madinali al lildila, I eiden 30. Muhsian Malnli, I a Fmiilalnm de la Philosohie РЫііп/а, ем Idam 1895. (Translation into French by 1 rancois ГаЬЬаП, Paris 2l44>

44 A CIVILIZATION PHILOSOPHER

cle of Aydin Sayili on the place of Al-Farabi in the history DECONSERVANDA ot Turkish thought1'; Nihat Kekliks valuable studies on б ONA VA LET VD1NE, Al-Farabi Logic36 Miibahat Kuyel’s Book where he dis­ Liber ScholaeSalernitan*. cussed being thought of Aristotle and Al-Farabi' ; publica­ tions of Hilmi Ziya Ulken on Islamic thought 4\ Particularly as a result of the studies which started from 1950 and conducted by Ahmed Ate*, Natiz Dantenian, Aydin Sayili, Miibahat Kiiyel, Huseyin Atay, Mehmet Aydin, Ahmet Arslan, Mahmut Kaya brought certain works of al-Farabi Oeuvre into Turkish although not com­ pletely. c- Farabian Influence Today 1. Etienne Gilson Etienne Gilson, famous French historian of philosophy who brought significance of Medieval thought into the agenda again in the twentieth century and revealed the impossibility of comprehending contemporary thought • m 4- without having knowledge about Medieval thought DE A NI-МЬР rfTH E M A TIS, E T • 4 through objective assessments emphasized significance rtmtdiji (juiLufdjm gcneralibm . ot Islamic thought in addition to Medieval Scholastic СЛРУТ /• thought in terms of contemporary thought. Gilson who \ is one ot the most remarkable and scholar of our centu­ African Konstantin in Salerno city of Italy while he is reading the ry with his works in the fields of both Medieval Christian works translated from Arabic and Islamic thought and esthetic and philosophy of reli­ gion was trained by the famous philosophers of the era in­ tise authored by Mehmed Ali Ayni Bey31, the article titled cluding Victor Brochard, Gabriel Seailles, Victor Delbos, "Two Turkish Philosophers, Al-Farabi and Avicenna” au­ Lucien Levy Bruhl and Andre Lalande. thored by Ismail Hakki of Izmir32; the article on “Turkish Gilson who emphasizes significance of al-Farabi thought par­ Philosopher, Al-Farabi” authored by $emsettin Giinaltay33; ticularly emphasizes the Theory of Intellects who deeply af­ Al-Farabi clause authored by Adnan Adivar for Islam En­ fected al-Farabi’s Medieval Jewish and Christian thought. cyclopedia and later published independently;34 the arti­ After discussing al-Farabis Theory of Intellects in detail in

31. Mehmed Ali Ayni, Farabi, Istanbul 1332. 35. Aydin Sayili, Farabinin Turk tefekkur tarihindeld yeri, (Belleten, XV, 32. tzmirli Ismail Hakki, Iki Turk filozofu, Farabi ve Ibn Sina (Da- 57), Ankara 1951. гй'1-Ғипйп Edebiyat Fakiltesi Metmuasi), Istanbul 1927. 3fc>. Nihat Keklik, Islam Manttk tarilu ve Farabi Mantigi, Istanbul 19t>9. 33. M. $emseddin Giinaltay, Turk filozofu Farabi (Diiru'l-Fumin Edebi­ 37. Mubahat Tiirker Kiiyel, Aristoteles ve Farabi'nm vurlil ve dufunce bg- yat Fakiiltesi Mecmuasi), Istanbul 1922. retileri, Ankara 1974. 34. Adnan Adivar, Farabi, Istanbul 1947. 3S. Hilmi Ziya Olken, La Pen see de I'lslam, Istanbul 1953.

45 A L- FARAB I

his article titled Greek and Arabic Sources of Augustinism Jannie David. Leo who was interested in Zionist politics which was transformed into Avicennaism (Les Sources Gre- in his education period was later interested in philoso­ co-Arabes de lAugustinsme Avicennisant) he published the phy. After studying in Marburg, Freiburg and Hamburg Latin text titled “Liber Alpharibii De intellects et Intellecto” universities, he had Doctorate of Philosophy with Ernest of the work titled Risala fi al-Akli wa al-Ma’kul in manuscript Cassirer, famous Kantist philosopher. Meanwhile he con­ numbered 8802 found in Latin section of The Bibliotheque tinued to attend Martin Heidegers lectures. He went to nationale de France.39 England in 1934 and was employed in Cambridge Univer­ According to Gilson, al-Farabi developed the Theory of sity one year later. Intellects which Aristotle attempted to explain in his work When Hitler Fascism spread in Europe, he migrated to named De anima and attempts to make connections be­ USA in 1937 and was employed in Columbia University, tween ideas of Aristotle and Plato on soul on one hand department of history. and between the understanding of God in Greek thought Strauss who was employed in Chicago University as a Pro­ and Tawhid understanding of Islam on the other hand and fessor of Political Science from 1949 to 1968 was retired mentions about six types of intellects.40 from Chicago University in 1967, continued to lecture in Gilson who states that al-Farabi’s Theory of Intellects has Saint John’s College in Maryland Annapolis till his death two significant points, first of these is the discrimination on 18th December 1973. he makes between Active Intellect and the God. He even Strauss who is loyal to Antiquity and Medieval philosophy reveals that the first motor of Aristotle (Muharrik-i Aww- tradition was closely interested in Aristotle, Plato, al-Fara­ al) was completely different from the God. This approach bi and Ibn Maymun philosophies. which would be systemized by Avicenna and influenced Strauss attempted to develop a new political philosophy Medieval Christian philosophers very much.41 and politics on the basis of al-Farabi s al-FaAila The second significant issue introduced by al-Farabi to the (Virtuous City/State) inspired by Medieval thought, bv history of thought is mufarik intellects category he plac­ al-Farabi and Maimonides, the famous Jewish philosopher es between the God and us. Thus the philosopher calls us under al-Farabi’s influence. He not only did this but also for joining with the God raising us over mental miraj and selected to develop a thought alternative to the modem scale of intellects. Thus beyond pure thinking stipulated by thought through esoteric explanations based on Talmud’s classical Aristotelianism, he takes to mystical joining with comments. Active intellect and brings with the institution of prophe­ Strauss who attracted attention with his new approaches cy outside Peripatetism.42 on political regimes and tyranny criticized modern liberal 2. Leo Strauss ism forgiving too much space for individual freedoms and Strauss who was born in 1889 in Hessen state of Germany defended classical Platonist state idea. was the son of a Jewish family named Hugo Strauss and The interesting thing is that Strauss who could -peak Ara bic as well became a contemporary al Farabi commentator 39. Etienne Gilson, les Sources Grcco-Arabes tie I'Augustiiisrnc Avieentii sant, 1-160, Paris 1986, making comments by authoring annotation on a summary 40. Etienne Gilson, ibid., 5-6. that al Farabi wrote on Plato’s work named 1 aws after a 41. Etienne Gilson, ibid., 36-37. period ol longer than one thousand year. 42. Etienne Gilson, ibid., 37-38.

46 A CIVILIZATION PHILOSOPHER

Leo Strauss who stated that we have to develop another philosophical approach other than Western thought states in the introduction section of the work named "La Perse­ cution et l’Art d’Ecrire" that the information that could be submitted by first sociologists of Sociology of Knowledge to us at first hand usually had to be limited to the infor­ mation they have in the nineteenth century and early twentieth century. He said "Whereas we are required to turn our face to other directions or horizons in order to comprehend compulsion of philosophical sociology” and added as follows: "As a matter of fact the author of these words (Strauss), oriented to Medieval Jewish and Islamic philosophy and became acquainted to phenomena requir­ ing philosophical sociology.”43 According to him, the interesting contrast between cur­ rent level of comprehension of Christian Scholasticism and the level of comprehension of Medieval Jewish and Islamic philosophy arises from the following in the last analysis: The best analysts of Christian Scholasticism believed that their own position was correctly correct in philosophical terms. Whereas the best analysts of Medieval Jewish and Islamic philosophy paid effort to attribute value beyond historical association for their beliefs.44 Leo Strauss who says "In order to realize the radical dif­ ference between Medieval Christian Scholasticism and Medieval Jewish and Islamic philosophy, it will be proper to start with the difference encountered in literate texts" states that the part of this difference particularly related to practical and political philosophy and adds the follow­ ing: “The place occupied by political philosophy of Aristo­ 1647th edition of book of Selenographia showing Ibnu'l-Heysem tle and Cicero and Rome Law in Christian Scholasticism and Galileo together was replaced by Plato’s book of The State and The Laws in Islamic and Christian philosophy. While Plato’s book of fifteenth century; those books were translated to Arabic The State and The Laws reached to the West only in the in 9th century. The two great Islam philosophers wrote an­ notations to them. Al-Farabi wrote annotations to Plato’s 43. Leo Strauss, Ln Persecution et I'Art d'Ecrire, 32 (Translation into Fren­ Laws and Averroes de wrote annotations to State dialogue. ch: Arnaldo Momigliano) Paris 2003. 44. Leo Strauss, op. cif., 33.

47 AL-FARABI

Ibn Maymun, the greatest philosopher of Medieval Jewish interpret their apocalypse as a perfect political order as the philosophy revealed that al-Farabi whom he defined as the perceived so.”47 greatest philosopher trained by Islamic world and the sec­ Strauss who compared prophets to philosophers after that ond greatest authority following Aristotle was influenced said they could imagine the shariah maker prophet estab­ by Plato’s State and philosophy was wholly at the level of lishing the perfect order as a philosopher of the first order political philosophy. in all terms rather than an ordinary completely simple per­ According to what Cristopher Colmo states, Strauss sus­ sonality of the first order. Their lawmaker prophet could tained al-Farabi surveys for twenty years from 1935 to be accepted as the philosopher king or someone who has 1957 mostly because he was the vanguard of Ibn Maymun the top perfection of a philosopher king. In this case, the and developed rationalism different from modern ratio­ philosopher king or the communities ruled by the philoso­ nalism.45 pher king were the subject of Platonist politics rather than Al-Farabi’s work particularly recommended by Ibn May­ Aristotelian politics.4® m un (al-Siyasat al-Madaniyya) was composed of two sec­ Strauss particularly emphasizes al-Farabi s style and ap­ tions. The first section was on the God and universe and proach in the summary of Plato’s work named The Laws. the second section was on city and state. The author named According to him, in the brief summary of al-Farabi relat­ his work as political ruling (al-Siyasat al-Madaniyya). The ed to Plato’s work named The Laws, he attempts to explain name of a similar work of the same author was named The how this book should be read, which method should be ideas of the people of the virtuous city (Ara ahl al-Madina used to read and analyze Plato’s texts consequently using al-Fadila). In a manuscript which I saw personally it was stories and metaphors. stated to be a political work. It is very meaningful that Al-Farabi states in this work that the persons he names as al-Farabi was not as famous as Avicenna and Averroes "judgment owner” who has gained the habit of discrimi­ among Christian Scholastics.”46 nating and gaining useful things gained this characteristic According to Strauss, one should take into consideration by making observation and assessing their observations the radical differences among Islam, Judaism and Christi­ properly; and this creates correct universal judgments on anity in order to comprehend those outstanding differenc­ the basis of many observations relate to special situations. es better. Apocalypse that Muslims and Jews understand According to him, 'creating universal judgments on the is a law (Torah/Shariah) rather than a belief. Depending basis of many special observations is native in humans. For on this, this is not a dogma but a social order in the end example if any person tells the truth once, twice or very for Muslim and Jewish philosophers when they think on frequently, it is judged that he is a true person or a person the apocalypse. Yes, correct is something which does not who always tells the truth. Nevertheless, this sort of judg only regulate actions but also thoughts and convictions ment is not always correct though natural. Judgment own­ and which encumbrances everything. Consequently, the ers observe the tendency to make generalizations which philosophers who are loyal to their Laws/Shariah could are not fully definite and assess this judgment properly Ami on the basis of this assessment, they take action look mg through what is useful. They sometimes act in an ex 45. Cristopher Colmo, Theory ;inil Practice: ЛІ lai.ilus I’l.ito, Revised (American Political Science Review, 8(->, 4), 466. 47.1 to Strauss, op. «it., 35. 46. Leo Strauss, op. cit., 34. 48 I со Strauss, op.«it.. 3v

48 A CIVILIZATION PHILOSOPHER

A View from Bukhara Fortress

isting manner and lead to people to make a false judgment and took a bell in his hand pretending to be drunk late at that the people will always act in this manner.”4'1 night and took his way toward one of the gates of the city. According to Strauss, al-Farabi clarifies this idea with a W hen the guard asked “who are you, what do you want',’ he story in order to make it understood better. Accordingly, pretended to be drunk and said “I’m the person who you there was an ascetic person who wanted to make asceti­ want” The guard thought that the man ridiculed him and cism, devotion anti modesty a habit in the past and re­ did not prevent him to go. Thus the ascetic person both stricted the desires of the soul for this purpose, preferred avoided to lie and escaped easily. something giving pain to something giving pleasure inten­ In this example, al-Farabi states that the ascetic person tionally. And there was a ruthless ruler where he lived. who owns judgment but special judgment acted with the This ruler had hostile feelings for him. The ascetic person stipulation of what is useful for him and wanted both to who realized this thought that the ruler would give harm protect himself and to achieve his purpose. In order to to him and wanted to leave the place he lived and escape protect himself and be able to escape he was required not and started to make escaping plans. Meanwhile the rul­ to be recognized. He needed to exhibit a different behavior er ordered for catching the ascetic person and controlled for this purpose. Indeed the behavior expected from him all gates of the city in order to prevent him to escape. The is not escaping by pretending to be drunk. But he had an ascetic person found suitable garments to leave the city 49 attitude which he was not accustomed in order to secure himself and escape and be freed. Nevertheless he did not 49. Leo Strauss, How Farabi Read Plato's La us (Translation into Tur­ w ant to lie clearly but actually told a lie tricking the guard. kish: Burhanettin Tatar, Siyasi Hermondtik), 137, Samsun 2000.

49 AL-FARABI

Telling this story al-Farabi wanted to indicate that a reality spired with good-hearted feelings. Laws contain a doctrine which is very dangerous for some people can be expressed which claims to be correct, namely valid all the time. Each safely using a suitable method and one may not be mistak­ serious reader of the Laws has to face with this claim. In en clearly by doing this. the Middle Ages, each Muslim reader faced with it. Mus­ Indeed this event was given as an example for an assessment lim reader may have done this in minimum three ways: about Plato’s writing style. Because Plato thinks all informa­ He may claim that Plato was completely deprived of the tion can be explained using an ambiguous style that could guide provided by apocalypse and may reject his claim. It have different meanings rather than explaining the same the purpose is not completely rejecting Islam, Plato’s stan­ to all with the fear that they lose their quality or abuse the dards may be used for judging or criticizing special Islamic same. Plato uses a style full of implication, allusion, meta­ institutions. He may claim that he can live in conformi­ phors and figures in his works rather than a clear and plain ty with Islam and only the correct standards determined style. by Plato and indicate mental validity of Islam in terms of For this reason al-Farabi wanted to reveal and explain cer­ both content and source on this ground. tain ideas of Plato who wanted to express indirectly by at­ According to Strauss, al-Farabi well knew that there were tempting to annotate his work named Laws. significant differences between Greek law and Islamic law. Plato indicates philosophy as the mandatory and sufficient As a matter of fact he says the following toward the end of condition of condition. And al-Farabi’s Summary defends the second section: “Art of singing was very significant tor that happiness will mostly realize by obeying divine rules the Greek. Lawmakers paid full significance to it. This art or the Gods. While Plato's philosophy is silent about the is very useful indeed...’ And in the second section which God, gods, afterlife, shariah and divine rules; Farabi’s Sum­ immediately follows it, he states that the same institution mary frequently mentions about these issues. Briefly, the was used with a poem of rules and rejected with another relation between Plato’s philosophy and the Summary re­ poem of rules and explains the conditions that this differ­ flects the relation between philosophy and theological law ence cannot be rejected. And at the end of the sixth sec as the relation between worlds which are completely dif­ tion, he says it has always been mandatory to protect the ferent from one another. musicians but this protection was better “in those times' To summarize, there is great difference between the things According to Strauss, al-Farabi knew that there was no that al-Farabi tells clearly and the things that Plato tells difference between Greek law and Islamic law in other sit clearly. It is impossible to tell the place where the report nations which are not less significant. For instance, as he which al-Farabi often accepts to be correct with reject to notes toward the end of the last section, Plato discussed Plato's ideas ends and where his own explanations start. It the problem of whether any man who knows nothing but cannot often be said that al-Farabi certifies Plato's ideas. laws and does nothing hut laws require is virtuous or not We begin to understand this character of the Summary and says there are still serious disputes between human when we think an irritating example of complete differ beings" in this regard. entiation of al-Farabis expression from liis own example. As a result, Strauss s,iys "Here we do not need to say anything Laws is not a hook the content of which the reader can tin about the Summary. We admin' the easiness ivvealed by A1 derstand without being exposed to change or use to be in Farabi about Platonist speeches.

50 A CIVILIZATION PHILOSOPHER

Necmeddin Kubra Social Context, Kohne Urgent Turkmenistan

3. Richard Walzer Greek philosophy in Rome University. Meanwhile he de­ Richard Walzer who was born on 14th July 1900 in Berlin veloped his knowledge of Arabic and worked on booklets was a member of a Jewish family. After receiving his bache­ of al-Kindi together with Guidi. lor’s degree and doctorate in Friedrich Wilhelms Universi­ When fascism grew stronger in Italy, he had to feel the ty, he instructed there on philosophy. Walzer who thought compulsion of leaving Rome and settling in England in that the fields of language, history and thought cannot be 1938. Walzer who lectured in Oxford Oriel College with discussed independently from one another realized signif­ the support of Sir David Ross, expert of Aristotle philos­ icance of Arabic sources in philosophy. After he met Paul ophy deepened his researches on Islamic thought here E. Kraus, he attempted to reveal the connections between making use of Sir Hamilton A. R. Gibb’s comprehensive classical philosophy and Islamic thought. At the same time, knowledge. he married to Sophie, cousin of Ernst Cassirer, one of the Walzer who returned to his country following the Second leading philosophers of German idealist school and became World War was granted the title of honorary professor his relative. from Hamburg University. He was elected as a member When Nazi oppression on the Jewish increased, he migrat­ of British Academy in 195b. He resigned from Oriel Col­ ed to Rome following Helmut Ritter’s recommendations lege in 1962 and continued with his academic studies in in 1933 together with his family and started to instruct on St. Catherine College until he was retired in 1970. He at­

51 AL FARABI

tempted to establish correlations between Greek philos­ He went to Chicago in 1948 and started to study on Ara­ ophy and Islamic philosophy on one hand, he attempted bic and Islamic philosophy. He became close friends with to establish correlations between Islamic philosophy and Arnold Bergstrasser, Yves Simon, Nabia Abbott, Seth Be- Medieval Christian philosophy on the other hand. Walzer nardete and Allan Bloom who were in Leo Strauss' team. died on 16th April 1975 in Oxford. He was granted PhD (Doctor of Philosophy) title with his He provides information about translation movement, dissertation titled Ibn Khaldun and Philosophy of History7 birth of Islamic philosophy and al-Kindl and al-Farabi in in 1954. Mehdi who continued his academic studies in var­ his work titled Revival of Islamic Philosophy (Leveil de la ious universities as guest scholar returned to his country in philosophic islamique, Paris 1971). 1957 and lectured in Baghdad University, faculties of Law, In addition to critical publication of certain works of al- Science and Arts. He was transferred to Harvard Univer­ Kindi, he published al-Farabis work titled Plato's philoso­ sity in 1969 and here he was commissioned as Chairman phy and sections (Falsafatu Aflatun wa Ajzauha), Al Fara- of Center of Middle East Studies and Near East Languages bius: De Platonis Philosophia (London 1943) together with and Civilizations Chair till 1996. Franz Rosenthal. On the other hand, he published Arabic Mehdi who conducted researches in various academic in­ translation of Galen’s works on medicine together with stitutions of the world in this period mostly concentrat­ Paul Kraus. ed on Medieval Islamic, Jewish and Christian thought Walzer attempted to restart the tradition of al-Farabi com­ and particularly on philosophy of politics and al-Farabian ment with his work titled (Al-Farabi on the Perfect State, thought. He performed edition critics of many of al-Fara- Oxford 1985) which is the review and English translation bi’s works and conducted significant studies particularly on of al-Farabis work named Mabadi’u Arai Ahl al-Madinat the subjects of virtuous city7 (al-MaJina al-FadtLi) Civilized al-jadila. Walzer who provided significant information politics (al-Siyasat al-Madamyva). He reassessed al-Farabi’s about al-Farabis philosophy of ethic and politics in the state, politics and civilization thought particularly with his introduction section of the work introduces the text to­ work named Al-Farabi and the Foundation of Islamic Po­ gether with writing sources and attempts to explain and litical Philosophy which he published in 2001.' comment al-Farabis text. Mehdi who was criticized bv certain researchers due to 4. Muhsin Mehdi his attempt to explain Islamic thought and particularly al-Farabian philosophy with esoteric comments under the Muhsin Mehdi was born on 21' June 1926 in Karbala in a influence of Leo Strauss attempted to determine the place family told to belong to Ahl-i Bayt (People of the House). ot al-Farabi in Islamic, Christian and Jewish thought using After he graduated from Beirut American University modern methods rather than being under direct influence where he studied Business Administration, he was inter ot him and particularly wanted to show significance of eSted in philosophy. He returned to Baghdad in 1447 ami al Farabis philosophy ot politics and civilization in terms lectured on economics in Baghdad University for one year. ot present time.

SO. I'liiii'lrs Rulterwoth, m Moinorum ( Vi.ib, S. ю і.о ,im.< PIuLko/'Iin Vol is. 11008) i 142

52 CHAPTER TWO

CONCEPT OF CIVILIZATION

53 AL-FARABI A CIVILIZATION PHILOSOPHER

I. CONCEPT OF CIVILIZATION

In order to be able to understand al-Farabi’s thought of 4. Civilization, meaning development, education, enlight­ civilization better, it is useful to review the meaning and enment, edification, intellectualism, geniality, culture, cus­ historical course of this term. toms and traditions. As it is known, term of civilization refers briefly to a sum of 5. Civilize, meaning to enlighten, to intellectualize, to edu­ social, cultural, political, intellectual, institutional, technical cate, to edify and to gentrify.' and economical accumulations that are due to city, urbani­ According to Clough, if a group of people produce aesthet­ ty, and urban life, levels and opportunities. The origin of die ic and intellectual works of high standards and can provide word is associated with Cite, Civis which means city, state and physical and social security to its members, than it can be society in Latin. The word of Civil and Civilization were de­ qualified as civilized.3 4 56* rived from this origin. And the word of madani (civilization) used in Turkish was derived from the word of Madina mean­ Tylor, on the other hand, describes civilization as the ad­ ing city and the term of Madinat al-Nabi which means the vanced level of culture in which arts, sciences, and political city of Prophet and the word of madani was used in Islam and life are very well developed.^ Arabian world at the beginning but then die term of Hadara Gordon Childe presents social stratification, specializa­ under the influence of Ibn Khaldun. tion, cities, large populations, development of mathemat­ 1. Concept of Civilization in Western thought ics and literature as the key features of civilization."

The term civilization, civilization in French, derives from Just because the term civilization came to use in Western either civitas in Latin, meaning “city” and civis, meaning literature in 18th century does not mean that its content resident of a city; or from civi/is, meaning related to the was shaped in this century. Civilization is not only a phe­ resident of a city. As far as we know, the word “civilization” nomenon that has surfaced with the first human but also has first been used in French by Voltaire (1694-1778) and its content has been discussed in human societies since Mirabeau (1749-1791)1. It has later come into use in En­ very ancient times, albeit using different phrases and ex­ glish around 1770.: pressions. However, the context and concept of the word civilization is different in today’s sense. There are five terms about civilization in use in English: For 200 years, until the mid-20th century, the word civ­ 1. City, meaning town. ilization was considered under a hegemonic, imperialist, 2. Citizen, meaning resident in a town. colonialist and Eurocentric approach as either a developed

3. Civility, meaning grace, courtesy, urbanity and amicable 3. Urdang, Vie Oxford Thesaurus, p. 62. manners. 4. Clough, The Rise and Fall of Civilization, p. 3. 5. Tylor, Primitive Culture, p. 1. 1. Elias, Vie Civilizing Process, p. 32 (Uygarltk Siireci in Turkish, transla­ 6. Childe, What Happened in History, p. 117. (In Turkish, Turkish trans­ tor, Ender Ate$man, lleti$im Yayinlari, Istanbul 2000.) lation, Alaeddin $enel ve MeteTuncay, Odak Yayinlari, Istanbul 2. Huntington, Vie Clash of Civilizations, p. 41. 1974)

55 ■

AL-FARABI

or an advanced state of societies or a stage of it, or a mode the other being a method of thinking about reality and a way of development. Being civilized is described as getting rid of knowing * of savagery, being educated on life sciences, being enlight­ Hence, civilization was understood at two levels: In singular ened, progressing, refining and being domestic, and civiliz­ form, it described the universal milieu of human conditions ing of non-WeStern societies, who are considered Barbar­ and the course of transformation witnessed by mankind ians, was considered a birth right of Europe. Indeed, the throughout history; and in plural form it described the iden­ French who invaded Algeria in 1839, claimed they brought tities of various societies or cultures.9 civilization and Victor Hugo, the author of Les Miserables, claimed that forced civilization of uncivilized societies by While French and English authors developed a term of the French was a necessity of civilization.7 civilization with meanings of an advanced stage of devel­ opment and a standard to be followed by other societies, W estern powers that ruled the world in 18th and 19th centu­ German thinkers made a distinction of "civilization" and ries, tried to impose their claim that Western civilization "culture” In fact, German authors, thinkers, philosophers was the pinnacle of human progress to the whole world. In and historians emphasized the uniqueness of German cul­ this regard, they presented the term civilization as the ac­ ture. According to them, every nation had their own civi­ complishments of Europe in fields of architecture, paint­ lization and culture. Therefore, civilization became plural ing, literature, sculpture, music, philosophy, science, aes­ due to their contribution.10 * thetics and intellect and as the effects of these on the social and physical milieu. It is apparent that modernist thinkers, who deem Europe equivalent to civilization and consider values of Europe as Therefore, Chandler thinks that the term civilization has a measure of civilization, have persistently used the term lost its former prestige and reports that accepting the ex­ civilization in singular form.11 However, western intellec­ istence of many civilizations results in two approaches re­ tuals who noticed such prejudice as the research on cul­ garding the term civilization: tural anthropology of peoples and civilizations outside Eu The first approach is that European civilization is no lon­ rope progressed, gave up on their persistence of using the ger the “ideal" but is an ideal among many other ideals, and term civilization in singular form. Hence, the singular use that it became a civilization coexisting with other civiliza­ of civilization gave way to plural use as civilizations. tions. W ith his work titled Tlie Civilizing Гпчч\<>, Norbert Elia> i> The second approach is that perception of the civilization one of the thinkers who consider the notion of civilization phenomenon as the pinnacle of human progress gave way to within western tradition of science. According to Elias, an approach of perceiving it as a cultural identity that distin­ "civilization encompasses various phenomenon, types guishes one society from another and that indicates metlv of manners, progress of scientific knowledge, religious ods of organizing that society. In other words, civilization gained two different meanings, one being the novel method S. Chandler, fVn’nd civilization: TV World's Кчи Gtraf Streams ef Cm!) of organizing societies within a socio-economic system, and In’ii: Their Achievements, Then Differences. and Then Future, iv l. 4. Ahdolnutik, The c'mli:.ilii’n,if Orientation m (lie Mating Hu new Wind, 5/1-2. 7. Danielle Jean, Sommes Nous les Grees du Monde? (I a Guerre ties 10, Wemner, IV denary of Hu History of Ideas, p Dieux), 5, Lc Nouvcl Observateur (I lors Seric) Janvier, 200? 111 hmtington, I be Clash a| r'mJr.-aln’Hs. p 41

56 A CIVILIZATION PHILOSOPHER

Bezeklik Bin Buda Caves, Turfan, North Turkistan thought and tradition. It states the type of dwelling, the perceives civilization as the highest cultural configuration of way men and women live together, form of legal punish­ people and the broadest level of cultural identity that distin­ ment and the means of food production.1’ guishes humans from other living Species.14

According to Elias, notion of culture essentially describes According to Huntington, nation states are out of date. intellectual, artistic or religious phenomena in German; There is a need for a broader concept to ease the work of and within its English and French use, the term civiliza­ policymakers. Yet, there is an agreement among civilization tion describes a process or at least the outcome of a process, researchers on the existence of fundamental proposals on and something which is in constant motion and progress. the nature, identity and dynamics of civilizations. There­ It purports works of art, books, and religious or philosoph­ fore, most researchers agree that civilizations are the most ical systems that depict the ingenuity of a people.12 13 extensive cultural beings. Hence, no portion of civilization can be fully understood without referring to the encom­ In concert with Elias’ notion ot civilization, Huntington passing quality of civilization. Civilizations are transient, considers civilization as a higher cultural being. Huntington but they are the most persistent of human unions, they live 12. Elias, Tiie Civilizing Process, 3. 13. Elias, ibid., pp. 4-5. 14. Huntington, op. fit,, p. 43.

57 AL FARABI

long, they develop and adapt. They are in motion; they rise progress on arts and sciences, and where it has the capacity and fall; they unite and divide; and they also perish. to deal with at least some of the order, security and activity problems of political, social and economic institutions in a Huntington, who apparently aims to justify the hegemonic complex society”1 perceptions by changing the world agenda with his thesis "The Clash of Civilizations” combines civilization with re­ Edgar Morin, contemporary French philosopher who as­ ligion, as the main defining characteristic of civilizations: sesses culture as "the integrity of values and beliefs of a spe­ "The most important of the objective factors that describe cial community" and civilization as “knowledge, science and civilizations is usually religion... In history of mankind, techniques” that can be transferred from one community civilizations of note have been virtually identified with the to another says: "Great challenges that show themselves in major religions of the world to a great extent.”15 our century arose from development of our civilization and threatens the foundations of this civilizations. Any civili­ German philosopher of history, Oswald Spengler, claims zation completely defined with its material, cognitive and that civilization is the decline of advanced cultures. Spen­ scientific components have insufficiency w hich is difficult gler names the social and intellectual structure of a great to understand. nation or empire at its golden age as "culture" He defined the deep-seated, static period after the golden age as “civ­ We well know that comfort, highness of living level, ex­ ilization” tension of lifetime, social protectionism, development ot hygiene conditions, freeness and entertainments ot private Famous English civilization historian Arnold J. Toynbee, life, bathrooms, refrigerators, telephones, televisions, high on the other hand, considers the world history as a series of Speed trains, aircrafts are the success ot our civilization. sequential cultural entities. He, however, mentions each of Nevertheless, these are at the same time tilings that irritate these entities throughout history as “civilization” He bases those who are deprived ot them. the distinction between civilizations and primitive societ­ ies on a mostly quantitative basis. According to him, prim­ In our most modern cities, we see marginalized persons, cor­ itive societies “are relatively short lived, and are confined rupt suburbs, shanty houses, ghettos, insecure regions and un­ to a relatively smaller geography and consist on relatively employed persons. However, these are thought to have been smaller number of people.”16 marginalized temporarily; it is believed that our civilization will internalize them gradually and it is not thought that the) Contemporary civilization historian Edward McNall are intensely exposed to the results ot this civilization Solu­ Burns, who attempts to make a Eurocentric definition of tions have become problems in the so called developed world culture and civilization, reports that every culture has dis and will become a problem in other regions ot the world and tinctive qualities and that it is possible to say that some shall aggravate the problems at global scale.’ ' cultures are more advanced than other, and states: "We can say that there exists a civilization superior to another I ater he continues a> follows: In Western civilization, eleva civilization. Therefore we can state stat a culture deserves tion of living level became gangrene through diminishing ot the word civilization when it reaches a level of progress life quality. Discomfort lives within comfort a> a parasite. So, where writing is in common use, where there is significant 17. I ilw.tril MiN.ill Burns. WV'trni i mli.Mfb'iiv (Лги fusion au,i (Vii 15. Huntington, op. (it., pp. 43-4-4. fulluir, I, pp. .’1 New York I'VS lb. A. J. Toybee, A Study of History (ed, П. ( . Somerwell), I, p 15 IS 1 ilg.ti Morin Sami Nair, I'nr JVlilujur ,1c r mfivnlion, 1.'t

58 A CIVILIZATION PHILOSOPHER

Bam City Fortress, Iran die thing that seems to provide general and irrevocable ad­ “Historie Generate des Civilizations" which he edited and vance of civilizadon became a problem in die same context. states that: "The term civilization could rank amongst sci­ According to Freud, each civilization grows up its reasons for entific terminology at a very late period, only in 18,h cen­ disappearing in it due to disease of civilization. The symptoms tury. Moreover, not only what it meant exactly was not of disease peculiar to our civilization revealed a new disease defined perfectly, but also its content was not rich enough of civilization and showed itself. Evils of our civilization are for a long time. really the evils that reveal the opposite of individualization, This new term, which is an antonym for Barbarism, has monetarization, development, technicization, comfort. been phrased by the Rationalist philosophers, popular au­ Maurice Crouzet emphasizes how definition of term of thors of the 18,h century and their successors, as a very im­ civilization made by nineteenth century rationalist philos­ portant system and collection of devices that could bring ophers is generalized and adapted to the history as a whole peace, order, happiness, enlightenment and intellectual in the foreword to the great work of seven volumes titled and literary progress of mankind. In that regard, it is stat­

59 AL-FARABI

ed that the term civilization depicts a state which is ideal, Maurice Crouzet, who mentions the development of con­ real, rational, causal, and teleological at the same time.”19 descending civilization perception in France, goes on like this: “We see that many civilizations existed in the past and Maurice Crouzet states that 19th century focused on this long history of mankind. Each one of these had a political European view and ingrained it to minds and caused to be thought and system, financial and technological level of recognized by the world, and says "Developments in sci­ life, producing power; various religious opinion and capa­ ence and technology have provided Europeans with such bility to form a network of social relations with its artistic financial energy that in admiration, they deemed their reflections. This discipline, which discusses these systems own civilization superior and nobler than all previous civ­ under the title of civilization history', should never em­ ilizations. Therefore, 19th century began considering the brace the narrow and strict theories put forth under the European civilization as the most outstanding civilization. name of science.”22 Moreover, gradually it believed that it possessed the right to impose this view on the whole world. Eventually, it em­ In its broadest meaning, civilization describes a complex braced this opinion, and set off to take steps in applying it. structure consisting of the habits and opinions acquired in time by people living in a society'. It is die sum of mankind s Europe’s self-confidence, however, did not make it to this experience, and the essence of its gains and accomplish­ century. Pessimist statements repeated by authors such as ments in every field. “civilization crisis” “civilization at peril" “requirement of reevaluation of civilization" indicate the imminent end of It seems that civilization in the broadest sense expresses a this perception.”20 collective integrity of every must-do put forth by man, sci­ ence, technic, art, aesthetic beauties, man’s ways of regard­ Crozet, who states that the idea that European civilization ing and relating to itself and others, his values, his ideas etc. is the only civilization is no longer valid, states that: “To­ day, we must set aside the perception of a single and unique Factors such as race, religion, language, climate, nutrition civilization that claims to be unmistakably superior, and and geography play a role in the formation of civilizations. accept the existence of various civilizations. Prominent Since civilization is a universal phenomenon that devel­ scientist, historians and sociologists now accept the certi­ oped alongside mankind; it is a common structure made tude of it, and embrace the view opinion that every human up of the contribution of all societies, cultures and religion, society has a civilization and order Specific to it, and that it is a synthesis, a composite, we can compare civilizations even the primitive, savage societies have a civilization. to a river in constant flow, and the universal accumula­ By the same token, it is an approach in which the need to tion of civilization, which is the joint work of mankind, to disapprove the strict and narrow opinion which claims the oceans. Streams which flow down the mountains and that civilization had one unique history is accepted with carry the underground water to rivet's are like cultures. certitude.”21 Therefore, cultures merge and form civilizations. Civilira lions merge and form the common universal heritage of mankind. Every society, every culture can produce civili 19. Maurice de Crouzet, Histoire Generale dcs Civilisatons, I’.u is llU4\ zation. After all, cultures which have not reached the level (Arabictrans, Tarih al Hadarat al Amm, Beirut 200b) I, p. 17. 20. Maurice de Crouzet, ibid., I, p. 17. 21. Maurice de Crouzet, ibid., I, p. IK. 22. Maurice ile Crouzet, ibui. I. p. IS

6 0 Buda Statue in Bamyan, Afghanistan to form a civilization, cannot form holistic, extensive and Our great linguist Translator Asim Efendi ascribes the permanent structures and survive for a long time. following meanings to the word Civilization, which is discussed in Kamus -the most extensive Arabic-Turkish 2. Concept of Civilization in Islamic thought dictionary- under the base Mudun: “Mudun describes a The word civilization, which is thought to be derived front state of settling in the meter ofKuud. (The name) Medina the word “madina” that is based on “mudun" and that originates here, and it means coming to the city...Al-Za- means “city” in Arabic, is considered to be related with the makhshari ascribes “Baida" to a small town and “Madine” dayn (din) infinitive which also has meanings of “admin­ to a large town.”24 istrating" (al-siyasa) and possessing. The words “Madani”, Asim Efendi reports that sixteen towns and cities arc “Madaniyya” and “Madini” mean “urban, resident of a called Medina in Arabic, but only those from the city of the city.

23. Lisiin ill-Ar,ib, M PN and PYN entries. 24. Miitercim Asim, Ktinnh Translation, IV, p. 760.

61 AL- FARAB I

Prophet are called “Madam” (civil), contrary to “Badawi” According to al-Farabi and many Muslim scholars to fol­ (Bedouin), and the others are called “Madini”25 low, mankind cannot survive alone. Man can achieve com­ petencies particular to his kind, only through a mutual di­ As a term, the word civilization is closely related to the vision of labor formed within a social structure. Thus, man phrase “Madlnat al-Nabi” which means city of the Prophet, cannot establish a city or civilization on his own. In order and describes settled life (Hazari) in contrast to nomadic for him to establish a city or civilization, a social structure life, and urbanity (civilized) in contrast to Bedouin life. that is advanced for its time must be present. As it is well known, the name of the city Medina was Yesrib Structures such as family, neighborhood and ullage cannot in the pre-Islamic era. Alter the Prophets transmigration provide the man with the competencies that would bring (hegira) from Mecca to Medina, it was called “Madlnat the happiness he yearns. Broader structures, namely na­ al-Nabi'' meaning city of the Prophet. Later, the words civ­ tions, ummahs, cities and states, are necessary for this to il and civilization were derived from this. Thus, one could happen. have aimed to emphasize that after his Hejira, the Prophet of Islam not only established a city, but also established a As a matter offact, Islamic world has known, recognized new civilization, and that being from Medina would re­ and used the term civilization -as an equivalent of “civi- quire being urban and civil. tas”~ and various derivatives of the term since the 9* cen­ tury. Subsequently, from this word, the word “Tamaddun” has been derived, meaning becoming urban or becoming civ­ The Great Islamic thinker al-Farabi has not only authored il. During the translations which started in 8th century, there three separate books by the very same name, both the word “Polis” meaning “city or city state” in Greek was also has he written a brief commentary on Platos dialo^e translated as Medina; and the word “politeia” meaning "The Republic” In his work titled ‘al-Madinat al-Fadila’, “state and administration of the state” was translated as al-Farabi mentions the virtuous city and from virtuous “al-siyasat al-madaniyya” In that regard, the term civil city, he progresses to virtuous society, and from virtu­ gained both political and social content. As a matter of ous society to virtuous state. In his work titled ‘ Fusul al fact, drawing inspiration from the expression “political MadanI* his opinions on state administration are given in creature” (zoon-politikon), which Aristotle used for de­ short sections. In his work titled 'Siyasat al Madaniwa. scribing this aspect of man, Islamic thinkers reported that where he used the word literally, he deals with metaphvsi man is a naturally civil being (al-Insanu madaniyyun bi’f- cal foundations of state administration and of civilization tab’). in some sense.

By extension, the classification of sciences titled"IIm al Ibn Khaldun, on the other hand, often uses the word cm Madam” “Ilm al-Siyasa" and “Ilm al-Siydsat alMadani lization in contrast to nomadic life. He describes the word yy a" which are named for the first time by al Farabi and civilization al liadara which corresponds to the contem­ which are about politics, social sciences and administrative porary meaning ol the word. Moreover, lie uses the terms sciences, began to appear. "aI umran" for civility and al tamaddun’ for urbanity

While the Arab world initially used the term Tnadaniyat’ to correspond to the term civilization m Western world. 25. Mutercim Ант, KAmAs Translation, IV, />. 7Ы1.

6 2 A CIVILIZATION PHILOSOPHER

A View from Bamyan Valley, Afghanistan

after the second quarter of 20th century, they preferred us­ by their nature they had to obtain those that benefited ing the term “Hadara” derived from the base “hadariyya” them and avoid those harmed them, and in doing so, with which as used by I bn Khaldun. power of desire, each took what belonged to someone else, with power of fury he rejected those who opposed him", While the concept of civilization in Islamic though has mentions that conflict or war, or at least secret grudges and been embraced as it is during the rise of the Ottoman Em­ hostilities would occur as a result. According to him, this pire, we observe that some major differences in approach situation conflicts with the principles of civility, gathering, appear after 17th century. establishing cities and environmental planning. Therefore, For instance, “Tafkopriilii-Zadc, who was one of the promi­ the divine will considered it necessary to make laws and nent scholars of the era and who stated that since mankind, rules containing all these people. These laws would not be * as a whole (class, nation, individual) is naturally civilized, 2b. Tajkopri-zide, Mi'yar al-Ilm, I, p. 432; Mittah al-Saida, I, p. 38ь.

65 AL-FARABI

in a way where they applied to some and did not apply to Arabs would submit to the rule of the state and uprisings others, and they would not include one society and exclude would come to an end.29 the other, but they would rather accept all nations and so­ Namely “Since you pay effort to take your way to proce­ cieties at the same level, together, balanced and equally."27 dures of civilization which means educating people and The view of Tafkoprulii-Zade seems to be rather close to protecting the order and the entire Islamic world is subor­ the contemporary perception of civilization. Following his dinated to the honored Sultan who established the world footsteps, Kinali-zade Ali Efendi uses the term “tamaddun" by religion and sharia, it is very clear that judgements (civilizing) instead of "madaniyat” and states that this is thereof will be implemented in entire Arabia country in a “Tavaif-i muhtalifa wa umam-i mutabayyinanin ictima-i short tim e and easily.” amma wa talluf wa intizamindan ibarat'.’28 In other words, Therefore, a new and magical concept (civilization), which he describes civilizing as "the state of order in which the was previously unaccounted for in the Ottoman literature, social constructs of different groups and nations reconcile’.’ namely the word of civilization was included in our po­ W ith this description, Kinali-zade seems to be indicating litical literature, so that the conflict in Arabia, which was the Ottoman social model, in which people of different re­ considered to be bound to us by religion and sharia, would ligions and nations lived together. be resolved with ease, and attitude of Europe, who did not While the words “madaniyat) “tamaddun” and "mutamad- consider us amongst them, but rather considered us an din" were already in use in Turkish, they were not com­ eternal rival, towards us would change. mon. The word of "madaniyat” to correspond to the word Our famous poet $inasi considered Mustafa Re<;id Paulu’ the Great Mustafa Re^id Pa$a, stated in his letter which (prophet of civilization) and likened his era to Asr-i Saa went as 'As I stated in my presentation I submitted to you dat” (century of bliss): previously, it is particularly known by everybody that es­ teemed §ehin$ahl is young but has the intelligence and “Newton cannot measure your intellect and benevolence, wisdom for issues related to ruling." And emphasizes sig­ Plato cannot comprehend your justice and insight, nificance of civilization as a new term and stated that re quirements of civilization were desired to be implemented Is it proper to call you Prophet of Civilization.' by the Sultan and if they are implemented all Muslims and Essence of your body makes the ignorant bloom.

20. Rej.it Kayn.ii. Mii'Mfii Rrjif I'.iv.i w Г.імпш.н, p 44. Ankara 1088 UV Conveyed by bayrain К іЧ Іа іп а п in the M'nunai Mustafa Refill l'a 27. Tafkdpri-zAdc, Mi’yAr al-Ilm, I, p. 432. ja’mn Pans Selhiikleri, Mustala Refill Paja veddnem i'p ~3 from 28. Kinali-z&de Ali, AhlAk-i ЛШ, III, p 2 (Ilm i t.wlbir i Madina Air hive ilu M inister ill'' Allaire' I trang^res. Purguo .Іеч uniont' Science of Urban Administration), Cairo 1833. ot Mi‘nn'iro>, Volume, p. 44

64 A CIVILIZATION PHILOSOPHER

Emin Носа Minaret, Turfan, North Turkistan

You are immediately the pride of civilization of the world, “living in a pleasant state of welfare and order upon fully utilizing the science, sciences, engineering, technology and The children of the time consider your arrival as time of commercial goods.”32 Bliss.” Yusuf Akyura, an advocate of Turkism ideology, describes In the French-Turkish dictionaries written during Re$ld the term civilization with its broadest meaning as "way Papa’s years in Paris, this word was ascribed the meanings of life” in his work titled "Оу Tarz-i Siyaset" According to of "familiarity, reformation of morals; teaching of ways him, “madaniyat” (civilization) means "way of life! Howev­ and manners, training, humanity; elegance”51 er, the notion of "life” must be considered in a most liber­ This term, which gradually gained popularity, was ex­ al and far-reaching meaning. All m anifestation of life, all plained by one of our first linguists, $emseddm Sami, as physical and non-physical happenings must be included

31 Tuncer Baykara, Seminar on "Mustafa Re$id Pa$a'mn medeniyet an- layiji, M u sta fa Rent'd Га$а ve don cm i, pp. 49-50, Ankara 1987. 32 Kiiimis-i Tiirki, Medeniyet entry.

65 AL-FARABI

in that notion. Thus, civilization includes all aspects of life such as literature, art, religion, mythology, national ethics, from ways of study and investigation to style of fashion.33 manners, and ways of dressing, grooming, cooking and eat­ ing. The author of one of the most extensive dictionaries of philosophy penned in the Republic era, Mustafa Namik Germans prefer using the term culture “kultur” instead of (Janki, explains the term as: “Civilization, being of tran­ the term civilization. German thinkers, describe culture sitive quality, is the sum of social happenings which Spe­ as a collection of Special information of uncertain quality; cialize in religious, ethical, aesthetic, technical or scientific whereas, they assess civilization as the outcome of objec­ aspects, and which are shared by all individuals of a wide tive science and technics. community or of numerous interconnected communi­ According to them, civilization can be numerically mea­ ties. A m ention of "civil nations” is also made, just like the sured and can grow and multiply in time. Therefore, reli­ mentions of “field of civilization'! “strata of civilization” and gion, philosophy and arts are not in the scope of civiliza­ “languages of civilization’.’ W hat are meant by this are - in tion but in the scope of cultures. addition to particular or collective people- the superiority of science and technic, and the intellectual contrast of its According to Ziya Gokalp, civilization is the sum of all social devices to those of nomadic tribes. Moreover, local financial, religious, legal and ethical ideas. Culture on the civilizations, in which more or less in related individuals other hand, which he depicts as “Hars” (kultur) is the sum that discover economical, intellectual and moral talents, of all religious, ethical and aesthetic emotions. The special are mentioned.”34 form a civilization takes within a certain nation is called "kultur” or "hars” in his words. Civilization is internation­ It must be noted that Crania grounds this on the progres­ al whereas cultures are national. Civilization can pass on sive (terakki-perver) which was the predominant ideology from nation to nation but culture cannot. Civilization can of the time, positivist perception of civilization. be altered but culture cannot. The principles of civilization 3. Civilization-Culture Relationship spread through intellect whereas culture spreads through inspiration and intuition. There are various approaches on the relationship between civilization and culture. The word “kultur”came into Turk­ According to contemporary civilization history author ish from the word “culture” which meant crop and agricul­ Edward McNall Burns: "The stages of progress ot man­ ture in French. Figuratively, it means the plantation of the kind so far is called “culture This word is commonly used soul and idea, and its education, schooling and correction. for describing societies or periods, which had not vet been introduced to writing and whose levels ot accomplishment It is true that culture, which is believed to have around 300 are rather primitive. However, this term has other mean descriptions, bears different meanings depending on the ings. It is sometimes used about accomplishments in in context. tellectual or artistic fields, tor literature, music, philosophy According to American anthropologists, culture is a way and for science. It is also used by some historians to do of life in which man can express himself and others can scribe the complex ideology, accomplishments, traditions relate to him. Culture contains all reflections ol social lile and features of a nation or empire in a certain era

33 Yusuf Akcura, 0«,' Tan-t Siy&scl, p 3, Istanbul 1028 34 Mustafa Namik (,’anki, Biiyuk /г/sc/c / iigali, I, p 173

6 6 A CIVILIZATION PHILOSOPHER

A View from Old Hive

Every community has its own culture but not necessarily complex and interweaved causes. Among these, especially civilization. Civilization is a feature peculiar to advanced geographic circumstance and climate conditions stand out. communities, and is not present in primitive communities. In addition, the roles of economic opportunities, contact Indeed, one can speak of Indian or Inuit culture, but not with different cultures, oppressions such as war and terror of their civilization. Culture is present in every society, civ­ can never be overlooked. On this topic, Burns states that: ilization on the other hand, is present in certain societies. "What reasons lie behind the emergence of civilizations? Civilization is a higher-level union of cultures. W hat factors are in place in the progress of civilizations? 4. Rise and Progress of Civilizations W hy do some civilizations reach higher levels of progress Different factors are uttered about the birth and progress compared to others? The research of the answers to these of civilizations. Majority of historians are of the opinion questions are within the primary field of interest of so­ that it would be incorrect to relate this to one cause. Both cial scientists. Some think that the geographic factors are the rise and collapse of civilizations are the result of many the leading factors. Others emphasize other factors such

67 AL FARABI

as economic resources, nutrition resources, contact with vorable to mankind. There are ruins of former towns and other civilizations, etc. In general, the existence of various cities in these regions where water is scarce today. There causes are accepted and the one which is believed to be are ancient paths crossing the deserts which does not give worthy of most emphasis is stressed. passage now. There are bridges passing over river beds that have been dry for years. The most well-known evidence on The most interesting theories about the rise of superior the cultural importance of climate change is about Mayan culture is possibly the ones under the geography section. civilization. Mayan civilization has bloomed in Guate­ Among these, the most prominent one is theory of climate. mala, Honduras and the Yucatan peninsula of Mexico The theory of climate, which was advocated by important between 400 and 1500 AD. Paper production, invention thinkers in the past, including Aristotle and Montesquieu, of zero, perfection of the solar calendar and development was best described in the writings of American geographer of a partially phonetic writing system is amongst Mayan Ellsworth Huntington. Ellsworth Huntington acknowl­ accomplishments. Mayans constructed a magnificent city, edged that other factors are important, but insisted that gained great success in astronomy and reached high stan­ neither in antiquity nor in modernity, no nation could dards in sculpture and architecture. Most of this civiliza­ reach the highest level of culture without the influence of tion is now in ruins. There is no doubt that many factors climate. Huntington describes the ideal climate conditions including deadly wars between tribes contributed to its as the climate where the average temperature did not often premature end, but it is very likely that climate change fall below three degrees or rise above seventeen degrees. took part in the end of this civilization. These magnificent However, temperature alone does not bear much impor­ city ruins are surrounded by virgin forests where malaria tance, humidity is also very important and an average hu­ is at large and agriculture activities are very’ difficult. It is midity of 75% is required. Moreover, the weather should not likely that Mayan civilization, or any other civilization not me monotonous; hurricanes and storms that cause could ripen under such circumstances.'4' changes in the weather condition should occur frequently and drastically enough to clear the air and to provide the Edward McNall Burns mentions another factor which is sudden temperature changes that is necessary revive and just as important as climate: revitalize the mankind. ”35 "There is also the theory of soil exhaustion in conjunction Later he adds as follows: "Much can be said in favor of with the theory of climate. A group of modern environ­ the theory of climate. It is certain that some portions of mentalists have proposed this theory as both the sole rea the earth can never cradle a superior civilization under son for the decline and tall ot great empires ot the past and present atmospheric conditions. These regions are either as a universal threat towards current and future nations. too hot, too humid, too cold or too arid. The region be­ This theory can at best be a partial theory, because it does yond North Arctic Circle, the great deserts, India, Cen­ not include a theory about the rise and progress of civi tral America and Brazilian forests possess such conditions. lizations. Those who propose this theory, however, think Some tough regions of Asia, Africa and America show that a superior culture can bloom in almost any environ clear signs that they once went through periods more la ment that is no ruined by mankind. According to them.

35. Ellsworth Huntington, Civilization ami ( 'Іііпаіс, V'1 edition, pp 220 I ilwiini McNall Bums KVa cm С тіі.міі.чк fit,и Hivf.'n ,m,f 7b,-n 223. I'ultiirr, I, p New York 1'4'S.

68 A CIVILIZATION PHILOSOPHER

Afak Носа Mausoleum, Kashgartsy, North Turkistan the great deserts and arid regions of are not natural, but lower people they left behind gradually faded away in stag­ are artificially created by mankind as a result of errone­ nation and inertia. However, the fate which grasped those ous grazing and agriculture techniques. Environmentalists who were left behind could not be helped. The whole of discovered countless evidence on wastefulness and neglect the nation was responsible for the pillage of the forests, for which ruined regions such as Mesopotamia, Palestine, projecting ore from the soil, and for grazing their animals Greece, Italy, China and Mexico. Magnificent civilizations until the grass was depleted. One ot the tragic consequenc­ that once bloomed in these countries were doomed to per­ es ot this was the intermittent floods and dry periods, be­ ish for the very simple reason that its soil could no longer cause the forests which regulated the flow of rain and snow provide enough food tor its people. As a result, the smart were no more. Meanwhile, the superficial soil layer on the and enterprising citizens immigrated elsewhere and the hillsides which were planted in succession and in excess,

69 AL-FARABI

was dragged away by wind and rain into the rivers and deur” in recent years either. However, Greece today cannot subsequently flowed into the sea. Considering that 2.5cm compare to its forefathers. If effect of topography once aided of soil layer takes around 300 years to form, the soil had rational thinking, confidence in success and the happiness taken irreparable damage.”37 due to success once, than how come that effect is no longer helpful today? On the other hand, the facts that a long and 19th century English historian Henry Thomas Buckle stat­ sinuous shoreline is of value for the development of com­ ed that the surface topography of the earth was the main merce, and thereby it provides an important advantage for factor behind the progress of nations and divides the prime spread and adoption of knowledge cannot be denied. ^ environments of mankind into two: Edward McNall Burns states that the latest theory pro­ 1. Environments that stimulate the imagination posed on the origin of civilizations is Toynbee’s ‘The Chal­ 2. Environments that develop the mind. lenge Hypothesis” and adds: “According to this theory, the Buckle gives India as an example of the first case, because primary causes behind the emergence of superior cultures here, nature possesses “a surprising grandeur" and it in­ are conditions of hardship and difficulty. Such conditions timidates man and emphasizes his insignificance. Natives constitute a challenge that motivates people to both over­ torment themselves and invent harsh and gruesome gods. come these conditions and to have more energy for new They are pessimistic and fatalistic people, they deny the accomplishments. This challenge could be in the form of value of life and they reject the man’s capacity to under­ a desert, a virgin forest, a rugged topography or infertile stand and harness the world. lands. The first of these was a challenge for Jews and Arabs, and the last was a challenge for the natives of the Andes. Buckle gives Greece as an example of the second case, be­ Such challenge could be in the form of a defeat in battle cause here, nature is ordinary, and “less menacing to man” or even in the form of captivity. Therefore, Carthaginians Buckle argues that such environment promotes the prog­ were prompted to establish a new empire in Spain after ress of mankind, gives rise to optimism and makes man their defeating in the First Punic War; captives from the trust the power of his mind. Therefore, Buckle believes it East who were under Roman captivity, strengthened and is not surprising that Ancient Greece gave rise to one of spread their religious heritage to such an extent that they the most respected civilizations of the world and some of broke Rome’s resistance. greatest critical thinkers of the time.”38 It is usually correct that the bigger the challenge, the equal­ Me. Neil Burns states the scarcity of the phenomenon which ly great the accom plishment is . however there are certain would confirm the theory of topography and adds "A histo­ limitations to this. The challenge should not be at a very rian who would admit that the shoreline or the height of the serious level, otherwise it deals a crushing, annihilating mountains had undergone change within known history is blow to anyone who attempts to face it.’ “ hard to come byf According to him, “The number of harbors in Greece is no less compared to what it was in times of Peri According to Burns, majority of historians believe that rise cles. M ount Olympus has not reached its "surprising gran of civilizations can be explained based on complex causes. Not just one cause but a combination of various causes must 37. Edward McNall Burns, op. at., I, p. 24 38 . FI. T. Buckle, The History of Civilization in I'nglantl, 2'"1 edition, pp to . I dwaiil Mi N.ill Burns, op . it,, 1, p 2 t 93-106. 40 Edward McNall Burns, op at . I, p ?iv

70 A CIVILIZATION PHILOSOPHER

ismail Samani Mausoleum, Bukhara, Uzbekistan be considered. Leading among these factors are geograph­ by the stimulation of progress occurring elsewhere. His­ ic and economic factors due to a favorable climate, fertile torians often emphasize the importance of dense popula­ lands, access to proper harbors and abundance of mineral tions in small regions and the importance of new accom­ resources. Existence of opportunities for exchange of ideas plishments and processes in the development of superior with people of similar level of accomplishment is also con­ cultures. Historians also admit the importance of the in­ sidered an important factor. fluence of religion in the transition from primitive life to Civilizations do not bloom in middle of nowhere. That is civilized life. It is believed that the earliest forms of social probably why there were underdeveloped regions in Aus­ order bore religious purposes. Besides providing the earli­ tralia, New Zealand and South Africa before the arrival of est legal laws and ethical systems, religion most probably Europeans. These regions were favorable in terms of cli­ constituted the foundation of philosophy and science as mate and resources, but they were too far to be affected well. Men of religion constitute the earliest educated class

71 AL FARABI

in history, and it is believed that writing systems were orig­ Mesopotamia not only builds civilizations, but also builds inally invented by them."41 nations and states. Sumerians and Akkadians fuse and form a new civilization. The kingdom of Sargon and Ham­ 5. Birth Time and Place of Civilization murabi's code merge and float down the canals which wa­ The issue of when and how civilization rose should be dis­ ter the plains of Mesopotamia. The Aramean and Assyri­ cussed alongside the causes of it. Although some argue that an assaults could not annihilate the civilization established the earliest civilization was born in Egypt, and some argue by the Semitic people. that this happened in Mesopotamia, the latest data sup­ Hermes of Babylon, passes the esoteric tradition of Egypt port the view that civilization appeared at an earlier time to Mesopotamia. Mathematics, mixed with Numerology; in the Tigris-Euphrates basin, i.e. Mesopotamia. Either Astronomy, intertwined with Astrology; Chemistry7, con­ way, the birthplace of civilization is one end of the Fertile cealed by Alchemy; and Medicine accelerated by sorcery Crescent. constitute the scientific pantheon of Babylon. Thus, Bab­ It is known that the first civilizations appeared in Egypt, ylon is decorated with Ziggurats and its hanging gardens. Mesopotamia and Indian Peninsula. The first examples of Not only languages but also seeds of civilization disperse in civilization blooming in the Nile Delta of Egypt progressed all directions from the famous tower ot Babylon. Eventu­ upstream, spread into Africa and created the Spectacu­ ally the irresistible fate carries out its verdict and the wave lar monuments in Heliopolis, Giza, Memphis, Thebes and of Persians coming from east demolish this tower and bury Luxor in the process. Joining with the mind of Hermes of it under the sands. Egypt, the religious tradition represented by prophet Idris Edward McNall Burns provides the following explanation established the geometry of the Pyramids. about where and how civilizations first appeared, and ho\« The deserts watered by the Tigris and Euphrates trans­ geography and climate influenced the rise and tall ot civi­ formed into fertile lands and provided life sources and lizations: boons of civilization to mankind. The dough of civiliza­ "Which of the civilizations of the antiquity is the earliest is tion, which was kneaded in the Tigris-Euphrates basin, en­ still a topic of heated debate. Some researchers think that riched the intellectual world of mankind and the march of Egyptian civilization is the earliest whereas a great deal ot civilization, originating from the plains of Mesopotamia, experts claims a similar argument for the Tigris-Euphrates kept its East-W est course and embellished our lives. basin. These two regions are the geographically most pre Another view is that the first civilization appeared with ferred zones within the region called the Fertile Crescent' the Sumerians. Sumerians first invented writing and then The Fertile Crescent is a wide region, which swept from ertablished cities. Cities of Eridu, Ur and Uruk of the Low the northwest ot Persian bay to shores ot Mediterranean, er Euphrates basin form the milestones of civilization. I he and almost to Egypt, and which contained tortile lands glorious Royal Palace of Mari reflect the power of the As The Fertile Crescent forms a semi circle around the Ara Syrians who took over. And Ashurbanipal alters the «.lest i bian Desert. Artifacts found here, which are undoubtedly ny of Nineveh. from antiquity, are much more in number compared to those found in other regions ot Near Fast Besides, at the early date ot .1000 BC, when the rest ot the world pursued 41 . Edward McN.ill Burns, op. cit., I, p, 77.

72 A CIVILIZATION PHILOSOPHER

a life in ignorance, the progress in fields of art and science reached an unrivaled pinnacle in both regions. If the foun­ dations of this progress were indeed laid elsewhere, it is odd that they completely disappeared. On the other hand, there is no knowing what archeologists of the future might discover with their shovels.”42

Edward McNall Burns' predictions proved to be right, and with the discovery of Gobeklitepe, mankinds inventory of civilizations decreased from 7^-8^ millennia BC to 10-11th millennia BC.

Me. Nell, who mentions the importance of geographical factors among various reasons behind the emergence of earliest civilizations in the Nile and the Tigris-Euphrates valleys, says that both regions have the advantage of ex­ tremely fertile lands within confined zones and adds that:

"Although the Nile Valley was 1200 km long, it was only 16 km wide at places and its maximum width did not ex­ ceed 50 km. The entire Nile delta was smaller than 16000 square meters, which was more or less the size of State of Maryland of the United States. Both sides of the very deep, moat-like canyon dug by the river over centuries, are sur­ rounded by rocky slopes that ranged between 30-40 me­ ters to 300 meters in height. The ground of the canyon was covered with rich alluvial soil and its thickness reached up to 10 meters in some places. The soil was so incredibly fertile that the same plot could be harvested three times a year. This wide and fertile canyon constituted the farmable region of Ancient Egypt and a population of a few millions had gathered here. During the Roman period, the popula­ tion of the valley was around seven million and during the period of Pharaohs the figure was not much different. Be­ yond the rocky slope, however, there was nothing but des­ ert: the Libyan Desert to the west and the Arabian Desert to the east.

Samerra Ulu Mosque inAl-Fdrabiera 42. Edward McNall Burns, op, cit., I, p. 28.

73 AL FARABI

Similar conditions were observed in the valley of Ti- October. The complete absence of malaria in Upper Egypt gris-Euphrates. Just like in Egypt, these rivers provided and the lack of knowledge on malaria in the shore regions excellent opportunities for reaching inner regions. It of­ bear great historical importance. The direction of the pre­ fered plenty protein sources with multitudes of fish and vailing winds is also an advantageous factor that cannot water bird Species. Since the valley was surrounded with be labeled insignificant. The wind blows from the north, arid lands, dispersion of the people to a large region was thereby against the flow of the Nile for more than three prevented. As a result, just like in Egypt, the people turned quarters of the year. As a result, the problem of transpor­ into a compact society, where the exchange of ideas and tation is greatly simplified. Owing to the wind blowing in discoveries was easier. As the population grew, there was the opposite direction to the flow of the river, transporta­ an increasing need for institutions to ensure social con­ tion upstream is not much different from transportation trol. Institutions concerning administration, schools, legal downstream. In ancient times, this factor must have con­ and ethical laws, production and distribution of property stituted a great advantage for enabling communication be­ can be listed among these institutions. Meanwhile, as liv­ tween people living hundreds of kilometers away. ing conditions got more complex and artificial, a need for It is understood that the climate conditions in Mesopota­ recording the accomplishments and for developing new mia are not as favorable as those in Egypt. Here, summer techniques appeared. As a result, writing was invented, is more relentless, humidity is higher and tropic diseases metal casting was discovered, mathematical operations cause great losses of life. Even though the scorching winds were introduced, astronomy was developed and founda­ from the Indian Ocean debilitates people, those wands tion of physics was laid. W ith such accomplishments, civi­ blow' right on time to ripen the fruit of the date tree. One lization was put to its first great test."43 of the greatest reasons behind the inhabitation of the val­ Edward McNall Burns, who states that the Tigris-Euphra- ley, w'hich is between the two rivers, by a large number of tes valley and the Nile valley acTed as an incubator for the people is the excellent yield of date which was the main progress of civilizations, evaluates the climate conditions nutritional resource of the Near East. Due to the melting in both regions and says that: of snow on the mountains to the north, there were annual floods in the Babylonian plains, similar to that in Egypt. “Climate conditions took great part in both regions. The Because of these floods, the soil gained humidity and was atmosphere of Egypt is dry and it is revitalizing. Suffocat­ covered with a layer mud of extraordinary fertility. How ing discomfort felt during summer in the countries that ever, it must be noted that the water conditions in Mes lie further north is not felt here even on hottest days. The opotamia were not as favorable as those in Egypt Floods average temperature in winter varies between 13 degrees turned into disasters at times, and this factor left its scars in the delta and 18 degrees in the valley. 'I he average tem on the progress of culture. perature in summer is 28 degrees and rarely does it reach 50 degrees, but the nights are always cool and humidi Tine most important of geographic influences is the lack ty is very low. Outside the delta, precipitation is next to of precipitation in both regions, which stimulated entre nothing, but this lack of humidity is balanced out by the preneurship and creative capabilities. Despite the annual flooding of the Nile, which happens annually from July to floods from the rivers, there was not enough humidity left in the soil to yield plentiful crop, l ew weeks after the re 43. Edward McNall Burns, op. < it., I,)». 28. cession of water, the soil wus petrified once again due to

74 A CIVILIZATION PHILOSOPHER

sunlight. Therefore, irrigation was necessary to fully utilize methods, artistic motifs and elements ot a writing system the fertility of the soil. As a result, complex dams and irri­ that is undoubtedly ot Mesopotamian origin. Such early gation canals were set up 5000 years ago both in Egypt and arrival of these discoveries from Tigris-Euphrates valley to in Mesopotamia. The mathematical ability, engineering Egypt irrefutably shows the long history of the Mesopota­ capability and the social collaboration that are required to mian civilization, but does not prove that it is older than realize such projects have been used for other purposes as the Egyptian civilization. The aforementioned discov­ well, thus civilization was born."44 45 eries were not copied blindly, on the contrary, Egyptians adapted these discoveries to conform to their own culture. According to Edward McNall Burns, "Until recently, most The only conclusion that can be safely drawn in the light historians considered the Egyptian civilization as the earli­ of such evidence is that both civilizations are ancient and est civilization. This assumption was based on the conclu­ that to a great extent they progressed in parallel.”'*4 sions drawn by James H. Breadsted and Alexandre Moret, the two leading Egyptologists of the world. However, the As I stated before as well, with the discovery ot Gdbeklite- evidence dug up between the two wars of the 20th century pe these views changed and using various scientific meth­ were believed to indicate Mesopotamian influences in the ods it was proven that the earliest artifact ot civilization Nile Valley as early as 3500 BC. This influence was appar­ that reached today appeared 12000 years ago in Upper ent in examples such as use of cylinder seal, construction Euphrates basin of Mesopotamia.

44. Edward McNall Burns, op. cit., I, p. 29. 45. Edward McNall Burns, op. cit., 1, p. 29.

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A CIVILIZATION PHILOSOPHER

II. AL-FARABI’S NOTION OF CIMLIZATION

Undoubtedly, the most important and most interesting sec­ will lead him to happiness, and once acquired, he must strive tion of al-Farabi thought, which concerns the current events to preserve it. Only those who form a habit and competence closely as well, is the section we can label as philosophy of of being virtuous, and diose who lead a balanced life by ab­ civilization. Al-Farabi is not only the pioneer of the philoso­ staining from inappropriate behavior can be happy. Virtuous phy of civilization with his works titled The Virtuous City behavior, as Aristotle put it, is justice which means the mid­ (al-Madinat al-Fadila), Civil Politics (al-Siyasat al-Madaniyya) point of extravagance and miserliness (golden mean). This is and On the Philosophy of Politics (Fusiil al-Madarti), he is also can only be attained through wisdom. among the founding fathers of the modern political science. According to al-Farabi, happiness of both individuals and so­ Naturally, in order to address al-Farabi’s philosophy of civili­ cieties is possible by having the following four virtues: theoret­ zation, his views on the main components that constitute his ical virtues, intellectual virtues, ediic.il virtues and practical concept of civilization must be mentioned. On that note, one virtues: must first examine the thinker's view on happiness. Accord­ ingly, it is necessary to scrutinize the subjects of virtue, virtu­ Theoretical virtues: express all kinds of knowledge of physical ous society, virtuous city and virtuous state, and to reveal the and abstract beings, and in addition, die knowledge about God original aspects of al-Farabi’s notion of civilization in conjunc­ as the ultimate and highest principle of being. tion with todays approach on civilization. Intellectual virtues: are the effort in searching for that which Human element, which is the focus of all happenings, is at the is good and pleasant. Moralists and lawmakers must definitely core of al-Farabi’s system of thought. To him, die happiness of possess this virtue. Moreover, the Activity of searching and ex­ man is die primary goal. Therefore, the thinker first attempts hibiting that which is useful and beautiful in arts and in practi­ to explain what happiness is, and dien mentions die structure cal life is also the product of intellectual virtues. of ethics diat would make man happy, and later deals with a Ethical virtues: are the man's effort in searching that which is system of state based on diis structure of ediics, in odier words good, right and pleasant, during which he abstains from any ex­ with philosophy of politics. travagance in the actions he performs with his own will. According to al-Farabi, man is created to be happy. Some Practical virtues: are the self-discipline and self-improvement search for happiness in physical pleasures, some in fortune, of man on subjects he has a talent for. and some in power. Actually, die most real and exalted happi­ ness is the one arising from enlightenment by knowledge. This Theoretical virtues are the field of metaphysics, in which die only becomes possible through maturing of the human mind knowledge of beings that are intellectually perceived is ac­ and making a connection widi die Active Intellect. Surely, not quired. Some of this knowledge is innate, and one does not everyone can attain such happiness. Only prophets and philos­ know how he acquired them. These are the knowledge of pri­ ophers can achieve diat. mary principles. Some, on the other hand, are acquired later According to al-Farabi, every man is equally prone to good and on through these principles. As for the intellectual virtues evil by birth. Hence, he must acquire the virtuous attitude that which appear as a result of correct use of die power of thought,

77 AL-FARABI

they can temporarily or permanently benefit a family a soci­ Theory of justice. According to this, mankind who desires ety a state or even everyone. happiness by nature, has observed that the most important el­ ement for happiness was justice, thereby pursued ajust system, While ethical virtues can be relatively beneficial and good, and thus appeared the idea of state. they can also be automatically and truly beneficial and good. Those that are truly good and beneficial are the virtues that Al-Farabi who first divided human societies as fully dev eloped coexist with other virtues and that are embraced by everyone. and underdeveloped societies, also attempts to deal with de­ veloped societies under three categories as Small (City), Me­ Practical virtues are acquired after they are taught by the state dium (State) and Large (Empire). As for underdeveloped so­ or society. The teaching can be through persuasion and ma­ cieties, he studies them in four sections consisting of Family, nipulation or through oppression and coercion. The task of the Street, District and Village societies. administration is to perform education through use of both The thinker, who later deliberated on the forms of cities and methods by virtuous and qualified people, thus to grant the states, divides states in two as virtuous states and those that above virtues to its citizens. are not. He mentions that the virtuous state has only one form According to al-Farabi, a virtuous life can only occur in an ide­ whereas non-virtuous state can be observed in tour different al society. Ideal society, on the other hand, can only come to forms. He deaLs with those in tour different categories as the life under an ideal way of administration, which is composed Perverted state, the Mistaken state, the changing state and the of virtuous individuals. An ideal administration corresponds Ignorant state. Moreover, he states drat six different forms of to a healthy and well-functioning system of state. At this stage, the Ignorant state exist. He argues drat in order to determine which of these categories a certain administration falls into, al-Farabi, who investigates the source of the idea of state, men­ the administrative staff s perceptions of right, justice, ethics tions four different approaches: and humanity almond with die intellectual and ethical qua] Ontological approach: According to this, mankind has ob­ ities of the head of state. served the existence of a perfect system in the universe he lives According to al-Farabi, a virtuous state resembles a healthy or in, and wanted to establish a similar system to govern their re­ ganism. In an organism, every organ has a certain duty and it is lationship with each other. The idea of state originated so and the heart that ensures their cooperation. Also in the virtuous civilization was thus shaped. state, the functioning of the administration depends on the Organic approach. According to this, mankind has observed head (president). For that reason, heads should possess certain the systematic function within his own body, and decided that qualities so that they can administer virtuously. Above all. the a similar arrangement would be appropriate in his society, thus head of the virtuous state should have a healthy and perfect the device called state appeared. build. He must have quick wits, strong memory, abilities of perception and evaluation, elegance of expression and lan Theory of creation. According to this, since human nature, guage, and a passion for knowledge and science: he must not which is innately civilized, despises chaos and anarchy and be overly passionate about earthly pleasures, must j\>ssess die supports the system, it wanted to make (his system prevalent virtues of righteousness and honestly, must К' solid and tbnd in social life as well, resulting in the origination ol the idea of of Ins honor, must be especially diligent in being just, must be state, determined, courageous contented and generous.

78 A CIVILIZATION PHILOSOPHER

He who possesses these twelve fundamental qualities is not only an ideal head of state, but also reaches the position of a universal leader, who can construct a virtuous society, which al-Farabi calk "Imam" or “Rais” (Chief).

Al-Farabi is well aware that all these qualities cannot fully be present in a single person. Hence, he thinks that the idea of a virtuous state should be accepted as an idea, and states that at least the head of state should definitely possess these six qual­ ities: He must possess wisdom, a knowledge of the laws made by his predecessors, a notion of law so that he can make laws and regulations, a superior intellect and capability of persua­ sion to provide solutions to new problems and a strong wall and determination at times of war.

If, according to al-Farabi, all these qualities are not combined in one person, the state can be administered by two people (co-presidents), one possessing wisdom and die other possess­ ing the remaining qualities; or by a committee of six, each of whom possessing one of die above listed qualities.

Widiout doubt, al-Farabi has utilized Plato’s notion of state in his own opinion of die state. About die administration of the state, just like in every section of philosophy, he -due to his method- not only united Plato’s ideal state and Aristode’s aristocratic (elitist) state views, but ako considered the foun­ dations of Islamic belief and tried to design a way of adminis­ tration diat к composed of a combination of diese three. The head of state, whom he labeled as “first Chief” or “Imam” is a person who collects the superior qualities of kings, philoso­ phers and prophets.1 A page from the Latin translation ofisaguci book from the Therefore, al-Farabi not only suggests a model state different Complete Works of Aristotle than Greek City states, but ako attempted to show' the fun­ In order to correcdy understand al-Farabi’s notion of civili­ damental principles for establishing and sustaining great em­ zation, we wall assess and analyze hk works on the subject of pires. Indeed, in ancient Greece, beyond the family or the city, civilization one by one. And we wall attempt to reveal how his there was no notion of state or United States. views can contribute to the formation of a healthy concept of civilization, which is direly needed by mankind today. 1 . Farabi, al-Madinat al-iadila, pp. 117-174; al-Siyasat al madaniyya, pp. 69-107.

79 AL-FARABI

1. Ihsa al-Ulum 4. Physical and Metaphysical Sciences. Natural and super nat­ ural sciences were included in this section. The brief booklet, authored by al-Farabi, and previously men­ tioned as Classification of Sciences (Ihsa al-Ulum), has attract­ 5. Civilized sciences: Ethics, Politics, Fiqh ( jurisprudence) and ed great attention not only in Islamic world but also in Medie­ Theology were listed in this section. val Latin and Hebrew worlds. Al-Farabi, who stated that the main purpose in classification In Classification of Sciences, al-Farabi first made a new classifi­ of sciences is to know how to make use of each science, said: cation of sciences that included the Islamic sciences, hence laid ‘ Thus, whatever man desires to accomplish through science, the foundation of a new system of philosophy instead of the he does so not blindly or mistakenly, but through knowing and classification of sciences called Trivium-Quadrivium, which observing. With the help of this book, everyone can make a was passed on from Ancient Greece to Rome, and then to comparison between sciences and find on which one is more Christian Scholasticism while he was methodizing his theory superior, more useful, clearer, more solid, stronger, and which of knowledge in Farabi Ihsa al-Ulum. one is lax or weaker.”4

In this work, al-Farabi presents a diagram of new sciences in­ The novel and most important section in al-Farabi s classifica­ stead of classical sciences classification which has been valid tion in sciences is the one he mentioned as “Civilized scienc­ from the Hellenistic period.2 3 es’’ He explains what he means by civilized sciences as such: “W hen it comes to civilized sciences it is a science which in­ This work by al-Farabi brought important innovations to the vestigated the types of volitional deeds and actions the moral Latin world, which did not allow any other science except character and habits that cause these to occur, and die goals those in listed Trivium during the Middle Ages. As Hen­ in doing diem, along with how diey should be present in man ri Corbin put it: In this title, "which had great influence on and how dieir ranking should be according to die w av diev are the classification of sciences in the Webern Scholasticism'4 present in man."' al-Farabi gathers sciences under five main sections depending on the importance of their subjects, the certainty of the evi­ He later states that die goal of civilized sciences is die attain­ dence they utilize and practicality. He dealt with each of these ment of happiness in die true sense. He states diat. unlike pop separately and introduced the major and minor disciplines of ular belief, this does not merely consist ot prosperity, generos­ science each included: ity and physical pleasures, but it is beauty and virtue, and it is not fully attainable in this world, but only in the afterlife. He 1. Linguistic sciences: including grammar and syntax states that true happiness is only possible after distribution and 2. Logic: including eight sections of Organun. common use ot the above trails among cities and societies and 3. Mathematical sciences: al-Farabi called these Educational that this can only be possible under the directorate ot a leader sciences. In this section Arithmetic, Geometry, Optics, As Al Farabi who reports the imjv*rtance ot the leader to pm tronomy, Music and Mechanics were included. vent these traits from vanishing, mentions that this requires gift and talent, thus leaders are gifted and talented people, and polities are the deeds done by these gifted |\'ople 2. Detailed information was given on the content of (lie work in the section of "Concept of Civilization" see p. b'2 80. <1 Farabi, llimlei in S.ivinu, Tm ki-b trails Ahmet Atej, Istanbul H8t>

3. Henri Corbin, Islim Irlsefesi Tarilti, p. 1Ы; l, ( Лnawat i, Intnuliu S . Farabi, <>/>., it, p. 118. turn 4 la Thiologic Musulmanc, pp. 10b II! b . Farabi, of’, tit, pp. 118 1 t'V

8 0 A CIVILIZATION PHILOSOPHER

Al-Farabi, who reports the presence of different forms of lead­ ership, states that the leadership, which harnesses and fortifies that which is true happiness, is virtuous leadership; and alle- giant to this leader are the virtuous cities and communities living within these cities are the virtuous communities. In con­ trast, ignorant leaderships mistakenly consider things which are not truly happiness as happiness and reinforce traits and behaviors which enable it. He states that there are many kinds of it and that they are called under different names depending on the goals they pursue.7 89

According to the philosopher, who reports that virtuous lead­ ership can only be acquired through learning the universal laws (norms) or through mingling with people, observing for an ex­ tended period of time and maturation and specialization, the leader can become a virtuous leader as a result of extraction of theoretical knowledge through experiment and observation*

Al-Farabi, who also mentions the opportunities granted to man by the notion of civilization as a result of the above men­ tioned virtues, says "Civilized philosophy brings forth the uni­ versal laws (norms) in the deeds that are observed and willing­ ly done, and in the abilities acquired”'1 and lays the foundations of new philosophy of civilization.

He reports that philosophy of civilization is divided in two: A View from Hariri's office one that can distinguish true happiness from those which are mistaken for happiness; and the odier that can distinguish vo­ cussed, and the other teaches science of Kealam (dieology), litional and popular universal tilings (universal norms of be­ which gives man the explanatory power by confirming the havior), deeds, morals and habits from each odier and assign commands of die creator and showing the error of die man’s the ones which are virtuous and ones which are not. views on him. He mentions that a person can have profound knowledge on both jurisprudence and dieology, but adds that The thinker, dius telling us how a virtuous city or state and the scholars of theology have other aspects. leader administrating diis state can have a wall that establish­ es a civilization, states that philosophy of civilization has two The work was translated to Latin three times and to Hebrew main sections, first of which teaches die science of Fiqh ( juris­ once. The first Latin translation of Ihsau al-Ulum by Domini- prudence), in which beliefs, ideas, deeds and behaviors are dis- cus Gundissalinus was quite incomplete. This translation which was included in the work named "De Divisione Philoso- 7 . Farabi, op. fit, p. 119. phiae” which is the compilation of the mentioned translator 8 . Farabi, op. fit, p. 120. 9 . Farabi, op. fit, p. 121.

81 AL FARABI

was published by Guilemus Camerarius in 1638 in Paris with Furthermore Hebrew translation of some parts of Ihsa al- the name of‘Alpharabii Philosophii Opusculum de Scientiis'.'10 * Ulum is available in the work named “Reschith ha Hokma” (Introduction to Wisdom) authored by Schemtob ben Josehp The same translation was re-published in 1903 by Ludwig ibn Falaqueras.16 Baur in "Gundissalinus, De Divisione Philosophiae” published in volume IV of “Beitrage zur Geschichte der Philosophie des 2. Ara Ahl al-Madina al-Fadila Mittelalters’.'11 It is understood that al-Farabi started to compile this work in Gerard de Cremona translated this work to Latin for the Baghdad and completed it in Damascus but he renewed the second time with the name of “De scientiis’’ or "De Divisione work and re-arranged the titles when he was in Egypt, namely Scientiarum’’ Four copies of this translation survives in Paris, two years before his death. There are different ideas and ex­ (Bibliotheque Nationale, Latin, 9335, Pp. 143v-151v), Wig- pressions in classical sources about the name of the work. As a orniensis (Bibl. Capituli, Q 81, f. 85), Austria, Graz (Bibl. matter of fact, Ibn al-Qifti, one of Islamic thought historians Universitatis, 482, f. 222. In this manuscript al-Farabi’s name states that al-Farabi authored two unique works on theolog­ is mentioned as ‘AlFarabi vel Abunazir” and it is noted that ical and civilization sciences and one of them was al-Siyasat the translation was performed by Gerard de Cremona); Graz al-Madaniyya, and the other was al-Sirat al-Fadila-1 It is un­ (Bibl. Monastrii, 578, Folio, 27. Al-Farabi’s name is recorded derstood that Ibn al-Qifti or the copyists recorded the name of similarly in this manuscript as well) libraries.12 This translation al-Madinat al-Fadila as al-Sirat al-Fadila by mistake. .Although was published by Gonzalez Palencia in 1933 in Madrid.13 the subject of both works is almost the same, it is observed that their expressions and contents were different1' This work was The third Latin translation of Ihsa al-Ulum was attributed to translated into Western languages only in die previous centu- Avendauth (John of Seville) and published with the name of “De Scientiis” by abovementioned Guilemus Camerarius in *У- Opera printed in 1638 in Paris.14 Al-Farabi, who discusses die 'opinions of die people of the vir­ tuous city” in diis work takes notice of two important subjects, When it comes to Hebrew translations of Ihsa al-Ulum, the which first form die virtuous city and subsoquendv enable work was firstly translated to Hebrew by Calonymos ben die construction of civilization: One of these is related to our Calonuymos of Arles in Spring 1314. Three copies of this knowledge about God and universe (Theology and Cosmolo­ translation survived in Munich (308) and Parma (R., 458; gy) and the other is the system of city and state which must be 776) libraries.15 established inspired from cosmos. Hie philosopher thinks diat the virtuous system of state and city, established with these two issues under consideration, would ultimately transform 10. M. Cunbur, op. cit., p. 19. 1 ]. P. M. Bouyges, Notes sur Ics Philosophes Arabes Connus lies I .itins into a civilization. au Moyen Age (Melanges de la Faculti Orientate de I'Universiti1 Sii int-Joseph), 50. 12. Ahmet Ate$, op. cit., 50; M. Cunbur, op. cit., 20. 13. C. Brockelmann, GAL., (Arabic translation, IV), 146. llr M onti Strinsclincidcr. Al ІііііІІч, J o Лі.ііччічч ГІиҺъорһи -n ISO 14. Alpharabii vc tustissimi Aristotelis Inter Prelb. Opera Omnia i/ur I alma cited by I' Brockelniann, GAI., (Arabic trails IV). 14c Lingua, Translatus Avendehut, Published by, Guilemus C.imer.ii ius, 17. Ibn Al Qifti, lliKn ill l i/oiiii Iч iiMsit ill M i i I c h m . IS t Paris 1635. 18. Pet ailed informal ion about the content of the work was given in the 15. AbdurrahmAn Badawl, Histoire tie la Philosophie en Ishhn, II. 494 section of "Concept of Civilization*

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J A CIVILIZATION PHILOSOPHER

His book titled "opinions of the people of the virtuous city” begins directly with Theology without any introduction. It seems that al-Farabi wants to underline the impossibility of establishing a virtuous city i.e. a healthy civilization, without a consistent and extensive perception of divinity. Next, he men­ tions the positive qualities of the First Cause, and explains why it cannot be depicted with negative qualities.19 * As for divinity, he points out the existence of God, whom he calk the "First Cause” (al-Awwal), that it exists automatically and does not depend on another cause, that its existence is eternal and ex­ empt from any deficiency, and thus he begins his book.1’

He states that the first cause (al-Awwal) is not only imma­ terial, but also does not depend on any material thing, that material things absolutely have a form, God on the other hand is excluded from form, and that every form is required to have a substance. He thus attempts to place the Islamic belief of pure oneness (Tawhid) in a new systematic struc­ ture (philosophical form), far away from the polytheistic an­ thropomorphic approach of Ancient philosophy.

According to al-Farabi, since the First cause (al-Awwal) is not material and is the only cause of material existence, than by essence, it must have a non-material constitution. More­ over, since its judgment alone was absolute in the universe, A lesson In the madrasa for this judgment to occur, it is required to be a being that possesses an abstract intellect which can still function in the fully comprehend and perceive it. In order to do so, our in­ material world. Due to the fact that it is not like the beings tellect should also diverge from substance/1 we perceive through our organs of cognition, its possession Next dealing with the subject of how the One and Only cre­ of an intellect cannot be comprehended through our intel­ ator, which has nothing in common with the visible forms of lectual structure either. Thus it must both be the Intellect, being and generation, creates material beings, al-Farabi intro­ the one that knows and the one that is known. Since all duces the theory of emergence, which he tried to develop dis­ these qualities are wholly present within it, it does not cause similarly to theories of Ancient Cosmogony and Cosmology. abundance. Considering that the first cause (al-Awwal) pos­ Since the first cause (al-Awwal) к the cause of existence of sesses an absolute ability that is abstracted from substance, all beings, the emergence of beings from God constitutes the our intellect, which is intertwined with substance, cannot backbone of al-Farabis system. 19. Farabi, op. at, pp. 39-40. '20. Farabi, Ara Ahl al-Madma al-Fadila, pp. 37-38; publ., Albert Nasri Nader, Beirut 198b. 21. Farabi, op. at, pp. 46 ff.

83 AL FARABI

According to al-Farabi, all beings on earth receive their ex­ of material structure; and that some are not actually known in istence from God. The beings that emanate from God are essence, i.e. are material things, and explains how these can be immaterial essences. However, in forms of intellects and ce­ known and conceptualized.25 lestial bodies, the circle of emergence gradually descents from Once the intellectables (noumena) emerge in the human mind immaterial to material and from superlunary worlds to sub­ or intellect, the desires of thought, deliberation, circumspec­ lunary worlds. Since emerge means a spontaneous overflow tion, memory and in-depth comprehension and the willing­ and spread (advance) of sorts, it does not cause any deficits ness to attain things that he previously knew are surfaced. in God. Due to the fact that there is only one element in the Thus, will and volition are formed. These give man the desire superlunary world, generation and decay are irrelevant here. to Specialize, and that is happiness. Happiness is the existen­ Sublunary world, on the other hand, is composed of four ele­ tial sufficiency and maturity of the human spint in absence of ments, thus elements transform into each other and through substance. According to him, happiness is not some means to this transformation, genesis of plants, animals and humans is an end, but is something good that is desired for its own sake. necessary.22 There is nothing more valuable or important beyond happi­ M an is at the pinnacle of levels of generation, because in man, ness for man to achieve. The actions that hmder happiness are the intellect and the mind, which are composed of the four ele­ themselves evil and horrid actions. The situations and abilities ments having material structure and immaterial structure, are arising from these actions are of deficiency, disgrace and infe­ combined. The human intellect has the power to potentially riority.26 know the material and immaterial intellectables (noumena), i.e. has power to perceive and comprehend. There is a need for The thinker, who then discusses die subjects of dreams, rev­ the intervention of an external force in order to realize this po­ elations and angels that bring die revelations, lists diese as a tential or to actually know intellectables (noumena) which are preliminary to explain die main axes constituting ideal city. potentially known. al-Farabi calls this force - which he partial­ He states diat mankind has to live in communities by nature, ly borrowed from Aristotle- the Active Intellect.23 because it is impossible tor man to attain die expertise and ma­ turity, for which he innately yearns, on his own, and diat he has Dealing with the powers of human soul next, al-Farabi states to collaborate within a community, and diat human commu­ that first the power of nourishment, than power of senses, nities arose from this necessity. subsequently power of imagination and ultimately power of Speaking/thinking surfaced in man. Later, he attempts to ex­ The thinker, who then progresses on to the topic of diversity ot plain how these various forces unite in harmony and shape the human communities, first separates the communities in two material and intellectual life of man.24 as those which are competent and those which are not. Then he divides the competent communities into three as large, me Al-Farabi, who thence discusses how the power of imagination dium and small. He reports that laige communities are those functions and explains how intellectables are envisaged in the present in all habitable regions ot the world, and defines the power of imagination, states that some intellectables are actual community of a nation or an uniniah in a prosperous region intellect and are actually known in essence, therefore are not ot the earth as a medium community; and the community ot city people present in a region where an unimah has lvsided as 22. Farabi, op. cit, pp. 66 ff 23. Farabi, op. cit, pp. 70 ti 25. Farabi, op. i if, pp. 101 tl 24. Farabi, op. cit, pp. 87 ti 26. Farabi, op , if, pp. 105» ll

84 A CIVILIZATION PHILOSOPHER

small community. He states that incompetent communities in contrast, are those composed of a people of a village, a district, a street or a household.

According to the thinker, a city is a portion of an ummah’s habitat, and an ummah is a portion of all habitable regions of the world; the village is the servant of a city, district is a section of the city, street is a section of the district and household is a section of the street. Therefore, the highest competence (re­ finement) that leads to highest good (benevolence) can only be attained in the city and is not possible in lower communities/

According to al-Farabi, who attempted to contemplate a virtuous world and a design of civilization, a virtuous civi­ lization 1200 years ago, thinks that the establishment of a virtuous world is possible through establishing a circle of A view from Al-Fdrdbfs Grave located today in Babus-Sagir the virtuous (Ummah). He states that circle of the virtuous Cemetery in Damascus is only possible through building virtuous communities. If there is cooperation in a city on subjects that can lead to virtuous city is formed. According to him, since the people of true happiness, than that city is a virtuous city (al-Madinat the virtuous city share die common grounds of knowledge and al-Fadila). Likewise, if people gather with purpose of coop­ virtue, their actions will be in concert as well. In time, these eration to attain happiness, than this is a virtuous gathering actions will embed virtuousness into dieir character. If the fol- (al-ijtima al-fadil). If all cities gather together to cooperate lowinggenerations keep up with diese habits, diey will elevate for attaining happiness, than they comprise a virtuous um­ to a higher point compared to previous generations. Thus, dis­ mah (al-ummat al-fadila). Only then is it possible to build a tinct, yet similar groups are formed. This is a process which virtuous world (al-Ma’mdrat al-fadila).Thus, the virtuous provides some sort of genetic continuity which enhances die state can only be realized when nations of the world gather diversity, quantity and quality of happiness. According to the with the goals of cooperation and attaining happiness. thinker, this common character is die connection between Al-Farabi, who found an analogy between the city and the hu­ previous and future generations.29 man body, draws parallels between the body and head of man Since the behavior of the people of unvirtuous cities is ill and and die head and president of die virtuous city, and based on lowly, the mood of those living there is also ill and low. The diis, he lists die qualities necessary in die head of a virtuous illness of their moods increases as long as they insist on and city. keep up with their ill behavior and eventually they get de­ The philosopher, who then commences on to introduce the pressed and fall ill. Since they are ill in spirit, they make a habit cities contrary to die virtuous city, delves into die subject by of things that are bad and ill, and they are disturbed by those explaining how die common character of the people of the 2728 which are virtuous and good, which diey do not even want to

27. Farabi, op. cit, pp. 117-1 IS. 28. Farabi, op. cit, p. 118. 29. Farabi, op. cit, pp. 134-139.

85 AL-FARABI

think about. “Just as some patients do not notice their illness, mun recommends Samuel ibn Tibbon to read this wotk in suppose they are healthy and upon the reinforcement of this a letter, Moses, son of Samuel ibn Tibbon (ben Samuel ibn supposition, do not follow the advice of any physician, some Tibbon) translated this work into Hebrew in 1248 with the people also do not notice the situation they are in, on the con­ name of“Sefer ha Tehillot HannimsaoC5 This translation was trary, believe that they are in great condition do not listen to printed in the book named “Sefer ha Asif "published in 1850 in advise and do not reject the ideas of any leader, teacher or London by Z. Philippowsky.34 guide.”30 31 Thus, the illness of the society and city and of the ad­ Al-Siyasat al-Madaniyya begins with the statement that there ministrations governing them goes on. are six kinds of causes of being and they are composed of six Al-Farabi, who lists the common features possessed by the levels. The First Cause is at the first level, second causes (al- people of the virtuous city after mentioning the Ignorant, Sawani = Intellects) are at the second level, the Active Intellect Perverted and M istaken cities, i.e. administrations, and states, is at the third level, the Soul is at the fourth level, the Form is tells that the First Cause (God) and knowledge of its quali­ at the fifth level and the Substance is at the sixth level. Next, ties are prominent among the common features of the people al-Farabi gives information about beings that are present at of the virtuous city. Additionally, man must know the quali­ each level. ties of the abstract beings, which compose the foundation of Al-Farabi dwells on die First Cause (al-AwwaP m al-Siyasat al-Farabi’s cosmology, of the Active Intellect and of the celes­ al-Madaniyya (Civil Politics); states that the First Cause can tial bodies. Moreover, man is required to know the qualities never suffer from deficiency in any way, and that there can be of the objects, their ways of generation and decay; stability, no other being more valuable and more perfect than its exis­ order, justice (balance) and wisdom in natural objects; exis­ tence; and emphasizes diat it cannot be dissected or divided tence of man, what spiritual powers man possessed, and how and it is literally One and LTnique, Omniscient (Alim) and he came to possess will and volition; the traits of the first chief, Wise (Hakim). Next, he tells diat joy and pleasure of knowing and how revelations occurred. After stating the condition of die First Cause cannot be compared to anything, and gives ex the virtuous city, how its people attained happiness; and stat­ planations on die names it will be called by. Subsequently, he ing in contrast, why the people of the unvirtuous city were begins narrating how beings came to emanate from it. unhappy, and that some of them would undergo pain and suf­ fering in the afterlife, and some of them would be condemned Al-Farabi, who moves on to beings in die sublunary world to nihility, he attempts to explain virtuous nations how they from celestial bodies and on to communities ot man from can acquire knowledge of the demise of unvirtuous nations." plants, animals and beings which can diink and those cannot, states diat mankind can only meet its essential needs and real 3. al-Siyasat al-Madaniyya ize its superior states when they live in a community, lust like This work that al-Farabi is thought to have written toward the in al-Madinat al Fadila, he divides human communities into end of his life is called with the names of "al-Siyasat af Madam three categories as large, medium and small: he reiterate- that yya” and "Mabadl al-MawjOdat’.’32 * Probably because Ibn May

book, more detailed information was given at 'civilization Con 30. Farabi, op. cit, pp. 140-141. cept" chapter. 31. Farabi, op. cit, p. 146. ii.C . Brockelmann, l»AL„ (Arapya yev IN’), 14.' 32. АЬй Nasr аІ-ҒйгйЫ, al-Siydsat al-Madaniyya (publ., Favzi Mitri 34. Ahmed Ate}, el l .ii.ibi nin 1 -orlcunin Bil'livogratva-i, ( BWLioi \\ al Najjar Beirut 1993) preface, 14 13. Regarding the concept of the I V III ISO.

8 6 I A CIVILIZATION PHILOSOPHER

a large community is a community of many nations in collab­ Al-Farabi, who then moves onto die subject of happiness just oration, a medium community is a community of ummah and as in al-Madinat al-Fadila, mentions that happiness is the ab­ a small community is a community encircled by the city, and solute good and that good is divided into two as voluntary and that these communities are competent (kamil) communities.1' involuntary, and diat happiness is die highest competence due to the tact that attaining happiness is mankinds ultimate goal. According to al-Farabi, cities are at the first stage of social com­ petencies. A competent community of people is composed of According to al-Farabi, happiness is possible when the Active various ummahs. There are two natural properties that distin­ Intellect provides man with die first noumena, which are die guish two ummahs: One is the natural morals and the other first knowledge. Naturally, not everyone are bom with a dis­ is natural qualifications. There is also a third thing that distin­ position ready to embrace the first noumena, because by their guishes ummahs from each other, and that is language, which nature, men grow and develop possessing different powers and is manmade and has influence on natural formations.4’ talents as individuals. Some, by nature, never acknowledge the first noumena, whereas some -such as lunatics- acknowledge The thinker, who dwells on the reasons for divergence of um­ diem inappropriately, and some acknowledge them appropri­ mahs next, reports that the environment and climate the um­ ately. Those with sound human nature are the latter, not the mahs live in as well as the food they eat and the agricultural odiers. Therefore, it is only diem who can attain happiness. 44 methods used to acquire the food are influential in this regard, and these shape morals and qualifications. He states tin at the The tiiinker who gives information on various human natures environmental conditions and celestial bodies are influential next, states that not everybody can know everything, and con- in the maturing and becoming competent of man's morals sequendy not everyone can attain certain happiness, and that and qualifications, but adds that the most influential cause of in order to attain happiness, man is dependent on others’ assis­ competences is the Active Intellect. The Active Intellect pro­ tance and leadership. According to him, someone who leads vides mankind with tine power and elements of how to attain something is die head of that thing. The first head (Chief) is other competences. This element is the first sciences and first a person possessing eminent and superior nature, and whose intellectables (noumena), which appear in die thinking region soul has reached die level where connection widi die Active of die soul. Such knowledge and intellectables (noumena) are Intellect is possible. For the ancients, a true king is a person given to man by the Active Intellect. It is aLso die Active In­ possessing this trait. The person who is said to receive revela­ tellect diat provides die Soul widi die power of sensing, and tions (Prophet) must also be him. Man can only be honored the power to desire (al-kuwwat al-nuzuiyya) which develops by revelation if he reaches this level, because diere are no more due to power of sensing and in which emotions of desire and intermediaries between him and the Active Intellect.’" hatred manifest. The will forms from the combination of these According to al-Farabi, people administered by such a Head two. W itii his will, man can go towards happiness or unhappi­ (Chief) are virtuous, good and happy people. If such people ness; he can do good or bad deeds, he can tend towards beauty gather in the form of an ummah, than a happy ummah arises. or ugliness.,r 353637 If such people gather togedier in a settlement under the lead­ ership of this chief, dien diat settlement is the virtuous city. If, on the other hand, they are gathered in not one but in many 35. Farabi, op. cit, p. 69. 36. Farabi, op. cit, p. 70. 38. Farabi, op. cit, pp. 74-75. 37. Farabi, op. cit, pp. 71-72. 39. Farabi, op. cit, pp. 78-79.

87 AL FARABI

different settlements, and governed by different administra­ are prominent; despotic community, in which tyranny reigns; tors other than this Chief, then those who reside in this settle­ and free (democratic) communities, which are made up of free ment are peculiar, yet virtuous people. They might be in differ­ and united cities in this regard. After explaining the reasons ent settlements either due to the lack of a city to gather them for formation of these communities, he lists the traits of the together, or due to the fact that they had to leave such cities heads governing these communities in detail.42 because of enemy invasion, plague, draught or other reasons.441 Al-Farabi, who then mentions the mistaken cities, reports that Al-Farabi then moves on to the subjects of mood of the people people of the mistaken cities have embraced certain principles of the virtuous city, who he mentions in al-Madinat al-Fadila, and that they follow a dream and vision of happiness based on and of how such mood is passed genetically from generation these principles, and additionally they know and acknowledge to generation. Here, he extensively explains the points he listed the actions necessary to realize this, but they do not perform there. Although the subject of both works is similar, the ex­ such actions, instead, embracing the same attitude as ignorant pression and style is enriched with various examples. communities, they follow their desires and whims. Just like ig­ norant cities, in addition to having various forms and having The thinker who divides the cities that are opposite of the people with behavior no different than that of ignorant cities, virtuous city into three categories as ignorant, mistaken and mistaken cities also have same morals as ignorant cities. He perverted, adds arriviste cities, which he calls growing cities, to adds that these two cities are only different with respect to this categorization. By the term growing, he means the harm­ their opinions and principles and dierefore people of the mis­ ful weeds and briars that grow in a field on their own and in­ taken city can never be happy. tertwine with vegetation. Arriviste communities are commu­ nities of bestial nature which spontaneously appear within the As for perverted cities, while their people embrace different virtuous city. “People of bestial nature are not only uncivilized, principles and ideals than die people of aforementioned ig­ but can never constitute civilized communities. On the con­ norant cities, diey are in pursuit of happiness odier dian true trary, some of these are like domestic animals, some are like happiness, and since diey love and adopt a different notion of wild animals and some are monsters. Furthermore, there are happiness, diey can never attain happiness.45 some among them who alone or in groups, take shelter in die The diinker, who finally mentions die arriviste cities diat grow moors just like wild animals; and there are also some who take like weed in virtuous cities, lists six different models of cities ot shelter close to the cities. There are some among them who eat this kind. He ends his booh bv reporting that none of these ar­ only raw meat, or graze on grass in the moors, or hunt just like riviste cities can form a healthy city, people ot this d ty cannot wild animals.”40 41 establish a wide community consequendy they will disappear Next, al-Farabi reports that the people of ignorant cities are civ among the masses of any city.44 ilized, but their cities and civilized communities vary in form. 4. Fusiil al M adani He mentions the mandatory community, in which necessities are met; oligarchic communities, in which money and fortune Fusul ill MaiLini (On the Philosophy of Politics) i> another ot are the purpose; community of pleasure, in which insignificant al Farabis works which is solely on the subjects on civilization things are valued; aristocratic community, in which the elites

42. •'.»I'rtl'l, 4»/>. < It, pi . 8 8 if 40. Farabi, op. cit, p. 80. 44. .ii.ibi, op i if, pi 1 0 ) 104. 41. Farabi, op. cit, p. 87. 44. .u .ibi, op. i if. p| . 104 107.

8 8 A CIVILIZATION PHILOSOPHER

and philosophy of politics and civilization. Fusul al-Madani which is composed of 9445 or 10046 aphorisms and published by Dunlop47 was translated to Hebrew in 15th century by Jo­ seph ben Schemtob.48 49 The thinker who aims to explain the views of past philosophers on the administration and planning of cities/states, on the reformation of the behavior of its peo­ ple and on providing ways to lead them to happiness, begins his book by telling his views on the Soul. According to him, a physician who wishes to cure the body needs to know of gen­ eral and particular illnesses occurring to the body, and of the ways to treat these and of the actions that would restore all functions of body. Similarly, an urban (civil) person or a ruler who wishes to treat the spirits needs to know of the people, individually and in groups, and of the virtuous and unvirtuous behaviors manifesting amongst them, and must remove evil amongst the people of the city and replace it with goodness, and needs know of ways to ensure the continuity of this situ­ ation.44 After providing brief information on objects, and sections and powers of the soul, al-Farabi moves onto the subject of virtues: Al-Farabi's Oeuvre, Suleymaniye Library he first divides virtues in two as moral virtues and intellectual city. The discipline which allows the unveiling of such is die art virtues; then he starts explaining how the soul obtains virtues of urbanity (civility) and profession of ruler ship.50 and evil. At this stage, he dwelLs on the importance of balance. According to him, just as the physician, who practices die art Here, al-Farabi proposes a notion called "art of civilization” (al- of Medicine, is the person diat finds and reveals the balance in sinaat al-madaniyya) which bears a meaning well beyond its nutrition and treatment, die person who finds and reveaLs die time. Thus, he emphasizes that being civil requires being ur­ balance in morals and behaviors is die governor or ruler of the ban, but travelling to or residing in a city is not sufficient to be­ come urban, and diat diis is an art, a craft which brings along certain talents and qualities.

45. Farabi, Fusiil al-Madani, 103-172; Ed., D. M. Dunlop, Al-Farabi’s Ap­ According to him, with city or household, the ancients did not horisms of the Statesman, Cambridge-1961. only refer to a settlement, but referred to .ill that was encom­ 46. Farabi, Fusulun Muntazaa, 23-102. Ed.., Fawzi Mitri Najjar, Beirut 1993. passed with that settlement and also implied how settlements 47. Farabi, Fusiil al-Madani, 172. should have been. Settlements bring out various behaviors and 48. Moritz Steinschneider, op. cit., 158; Furthermore, D. M. Dunlop, habits in man. For instance, the leather or fiber tents of die Fusiil al-Madani edition foreword (Translated to Turkish by Ha- desert bring out the persistence and watchfulness of die people nefi Ozcan), 19. 49. Farabi, Fusulun Muntazaa, pp. 25-26, publ., Fawzi Mitri Najjar, Be­ irut 1993. 50. Farabi, ibid., p. 39.

89 AL-FARABI

living there, and even develops skills of entrepreneurship and of civilization stating that the works performed by the human gallantry. Solid and sheltered settlements, on the other hand being included four virtues different providing forever happi­ leads to development of feelings of irritation, trust and cow­ ness in the world and afterlife if realized explains each after ardice. Al-Farabi who states that governors must pay attention stating that they are theoretical, intellectual and ethical vir­ to this issue draws parallels between city, household and hu­ tues. He states that he meant by theoretical virtues the scienc­ m an body.51 es the main objective of which is devising the beings and the contents thereof definitely. According to him, some of those The thinker, who then mentions various forms of cities, gives sciences are native in human beings. The individual cannot a summary of his views on cities and administrations, which even be aware of when, where and how' he obtains these. These he narrated in al-Madinat al-Fadila and al-Siyasat al-Madani- are the knowledge of first principles. And some are obtained yya in detail. Moving on to the sections on power of thinking, by thinking, researching and learning/' al-Farabi tells his views on theoretical and practical intellect In regard to theoretical intellect, he mentions science and wis­ The philosopher who continues to examine the issue of how dom; and mentions some fundamental concepts and notions the knowledge of those first principles is obtained later transits about practical intellect. While explaining these subjects, he to ontology from there. After mentioning four phases of be­ always draws a parallel between physician and city adminis­ ing he gives information about types of being and principles of trator.52 being. Al-Farabi who discusses human philosophy (Anthro­ pology) later explains what perfection, the basic purpose of In the remainder of the book, he discusses the subject of the existence of human is and how to access this, what obstacles virtuous city and in contrast to his two other works, he starts preventing perfection are and how they can be avoided. He by listing the organs constituting the virtuous city. The thinker, states that science providing this is civilized sciences. '' who then moves on to the subjects of justice and cruelty, also briefly mentions warfare. After the problem of being and issue According to al-Farabi, civilized science is die knowledge of of good and evil, he discusses the subject of happiness. things providing each individual of die people of die city in die form of civilized communities (Madina) to achieve happiness The thinker, who expresses his opinions on the First Cause as much as dieir natality allows. Human luiderstands dianks (al-Awwal) and divine favor towards the end of the book, goes to diis science that civilized communities and die dungs arising back to the subject of politics and draws attention to the differ­ from togetherness of civilized communities in cities (Madina) ences between virtuous politics and ignorant politics. After tire all resemble the community ot substances in die universe. Hu benefits of theoretical philosophy, he moves on to the subject man becomes aware ot the tact that all ot the diings that die of intellectual virtues, briefly lists his aforementioned views, cities and religious communities ow n are as the whole ot the and ends his work. things that the universe has again thanks to this science.' 5. Achieving Happiness (Tahsil al-Saada) lust as there is a principle at die beginning in the universe and Al-Farabi who begins this work of his where we observe that other principles follow' it; other beings arise from those princi *5455 he tried to associate Platonist ethic and Islam ethic concept as it was the case in his previous works lie allocated lor the issue 5.V ЛІ Farabi, Idhsil •«/.» SiUuLi, p IW, (Fit . c'atri AluvasuO Beirut 1992. 51. Farabi, ibid., pp, 40-41. 54. ЛІ Farabi, ibid . p. 122 140 52. Farabi, ibid., pp. 50 ft. 55. ЛІ Farabi, і1ч<1. p. I ll 14.’

90 I A CIVILIZATION PHILOSOPHER

pies and other beings from them and the beings range extends then those virtues become convenient tor law making pow­ to the last being in the being; similarly there is a first principle er. It those virtues are found and revealed from diings which where the religious community or city unites and it is followed have joint benefit tor all religious communities or one religious by other principles. Later the city dwellers (the civilized) come community or a city but change in a short time, then diose vir­ and they are followed by other tracing them in humanity. As tues become convenient tor taking temporary measures diat a result, it is observed that analogues of all things existing in could be applied tor a certain period of tim e.' the universe do exist in the cities as well. This is the theoretical After explaining how to obtain and learn intellectual virtues, perfection. You see that this perfection contains four types of al-Farabi transits to the subject of practical virtues and prac­ knowledge using which the nations and city people access end­ tical arts. Then, he begins to explain how rulers should make less happiness. After achieving this, the only issue remaining virtues dominant in the societies diey administer.4' is realizing the four virtues in question actually in accordance with the conditions stipulated by theoretical tilings in nations Al-Farabi who states some part of nations and city people are and cities.56 special (hawas), and odiers are common (awam) says Ilk Rais (Primary Ruler) is die special of фесіаі (hass al-hawass). For Al-Farabi who transits from here to the issue of intellectual education and training of the common, die majority of nations virtues states that it is an intellectual virtue to find and reveal and cities, methods of convincing and making dream are used. something more useful for a virtuous purpose. According to For people on die way to become special (hawas), definite him, finding and revealing something more useful for a ma­ methods providing beings to be devised and based on proof licious purpose cannot be deemed virtue although it is an in­ are used.5'1 tellectual action, it is necessary to find another name for that. Finding and revealing virtuous things which have joint ben­ According to al-Farabi the oldest science, the science which efit for all religious communities or one religious community aims at the most excellent and the top perfection and die most or a city in die best way is only possible through intellectual advanced happiness that humans can reach was common virtue. TliLs is both an intellectual and a civilized virtue at the among the supposedly Chaldean, the local people of Iraq. It same time. The diing which has joint benefit for all religious was inherited by the Egyptians and the Greek. And finally it communities or one religious community or a city sometimes reached to the Arabs by means of Assyrian. While everydiing continues for a long time and is eliminated in a short time at that contains this science was written in Greek language orig­ odier times. inally, dien they were translated to Assyrian language and to Arabic. The Greek named this science Wisdom or the greatest The intellectual virtues through which die thing which has Wisdom in its absolute meaning. And diey meant to select joint benefit for .ill religious communities or one religious and love the greatest Wisdom. And they called obtaining it community or a city in die best and most useful manner are science and making this proficiency Philosophy and die per­ eidier long lasting and permanent or short term and tempo­ son having it Philosopher. With the word of Philosopher, they rary (changeable). If intellectual and civilized virtues are found meant the person who selects and loves the greatest Wisdom. 5758 and revealed from diings which have joint benefit for all reli­ gious communities or one religious community or a city and which continue for centuries or which change in a short time 57. Al-Farabi, ibid., p. 151 tit. 58. Al-Farabi, ibid., p. 178. 5b. Al-Farabi, ibid., p. 142-143. 5?. Al-Farabi, ibid., p. 181.

91

к AL FARABI

They thought philosophy contained all virtues. They named it reached today in Paris (Bibl. Nat. Latin, 6286, £ 21)63, Brugges as the science and m other of science, art of art.60 (Bibliotheque Municipale, 424, £, 300-307) and Austria (Bib- Hotheque des Cistercienses, 152, £ 7S)64 libraries. Al-Farabi who repeated at the end of the work his ideas about philosopher, ruler (malik/king) and imam emphasizes the The last two scripts were published by Dominique Salman in concepts of real philosopher and fake philosopher. He states 1940.65 And two copies of Hebrew translation which is anon­ that all those three concepts had the same meaning and all ymous have reached today in Oxford (Bodleiana, Michael, 77; terms that the Muslims used in this regard related to this Kauffrnann, 20).66 concept. He stated that if the theoretical and practical virtues Al-Farabi who tries to show' the w'ays of achieving happiness mentioned in this book natively existed in the lawmaker him­ in this work following the work of (Tahsil al-Saada) where self it would be called Philosophy and if it existed in the people, he examines the issue of achieving happiness briefly says that it would be called Religion (Nation) and that was the real phi­ happiness can only be achieved through mind and knowledge losophy and philosopher.61 Accordingly, being happy (al-Saada) is a purpose desired di­ The thinker who later mentions about superstitious, fancy, rectly by all individuals. Any person who takes the way tow ard fake and empty philosophers and philosophies states that happiness with his own efforts does so since he knows it is ‘per­ the happiness they define are also fake and empty and real fection’.’ No other words are required in order to explain that philosophy comes to us by means of Aristotle and Plato. For this is the case because this Lssue is automatically clear. On the this reason, he ends his work stating that he would examine other hand, humans desire all purposes, all perfections only philosophies of both philosophers section by section and in­ because it has goodness in it Depending on thus it is beyond dicate they joined on the same point.62 Nevertheless he does doubt that goodness is effective in all purposes and perfections not discuss this subject here but he writes three independent but happiness is one of them as well.l' works named “al-jam’u Bayna Ra’yayi’l-Hakimayn’,’ "Falsafatu Humans desire happiness not only because it ls good but abo Ail a tun" and Falsafatu Aristotalis” about the same subject. as it is the best among goods and it Ls die most w onderful ot 6. Methods of Achieving Happiness (al-Tanbihu ala Sabil die perfections that humans want to obtain. Furthermore, al-Saada) since we see diat we do not need any other thing when we are happy, we accept that it is the most preferable, the biggest and As it can be understood from its name, al-Farabi tries to show the most perfect good? Considering that happiness is in such a the ways that take individuals and societies to happiness in the position among good things and at the top ot humanistic per world and afterlife in this work. Three copies of Latin trans­ lation of this work which is the best of his works in which al-Farabi philosophy is best exhibited in terms of both ethical philosophy and understanding of civilization considered to 63. M T. dAlvercny, Arvhiir d'Histoiir IXvfrmuI, <-( 1 iftrnurr ,h< Mown Ар, х н а э н have been performed by Dominicus Gundissalinus or Gerard C>4. Manuel Alonso, IVadiuviones del Aivediano Pomingo Gundisalvu de Cremona with the name of "Incipit Liber Felicitis” have (Al-AmUus, XII, 2, Madrid 1447), 320. t>5. P II Salman, Rtchtnlw* de ПіЛТчрс Аиосммггг Млһ<ч«і<\ \ 11 V> 48, Paris 1940. 60. Al-Farabi, ibid., p, 181-182. w>. Abdurrahman Radawi, op. nt„ II, 49S. 61. Al-Farabi, ibid., p. 187 101. 67. Al Farabi, id TanbUiu id,i Sitbil id Sihuhi, p .'27, (Fd . i atn Aiuva 62. A) Farabi, ibid., p. 191-196 sin), Rierut 1942.

92 A CIVILIZATION PHILOSOPHER

A View from Samarkand

Lections, the person who wants to obtain it is required to know standing, listening and looking. Secondly, they are praised or die ways that provide happiness.68 ridiculed due to spiritual effects happening to the soul includ­ ing sexual desire, pleasure, joy, anger, fear, desire, mercy, jeal­ Some part of die situations of the person in his life leads to nei- ousy. Thirdly, they are praised or ridiculed due to failure to ther praising him nor ridiculing him. And some lead to either discriminate the good and the bad using their minds.'' praising him or ridiculing him. W hen it comes to happiness, die person is neidier praised nor ridiculed. Because humans For this reason al-Farabi thinks that it should firstly be ex­ may be exposed to praising or ridiculing due to one of the fol­ plained how actions can be beautified, how spiritual effects are lowing diree situations in all stages of their lives: Firstiy, they made as they should be and how the power of discrimination are praised or ridiculed due to anybody actions such as sitting, could be obtained. b8. Al Farabi, ibid., p. 229. 69. Al-Farabi, ibid., p. 230.

93 AL-FARABI

According to him, good and nice acts arise either automatically Al-Farabi who tells later what good morality is and which ac­ or unwillingly as a result of compulsion in humans. However, tions can be deemed good morality tries to show the ways of such good acts do not make humans happy. Humans become achieving good morality. He states that it is necessary to avoid happy only for works they perform voluntarily.70 71 from extremity and find a middle course in order to beautify morality and the method applied in medicine should be ap­ W hen good morality and “mental power” unite, human vir­ plied here exactly and says: "Just as a doctor tries to pull the tues arise. Thus we become really good and virtuous, the way fever of the body to a point determined as middle point in the we follow become a virtuous way and all our behaviors be­ art of medicine when it increases or decreases, we are required come such behaviors worth to praise. to detect our positive or negative points in morality issues and Later al-Farabi begins to research how good morality becomes pull them to the middle point determined in this booki”“ a habit in humans and how we can internalize the right. And So, how will we know that we have pulled our morality to the he particularly states that by habit he means making correct middle point? We are required to look through whether we and nice things habits that cannot be left or can be left hardly. 1 easily fulfill die actions we list here short. If we can perform According to him, good morality is achieved through learning an action we list short, we can think that we are on the middle just as it is the case with different arts. For example, calligra­ point75 phy is only learnt by being trained by calligraphy masters. In We see diat certain persons have die power of good dimking order to be a master of calligraphy it is necessary to develop (jawdat al-raviyya) and a strong will (kuwat al-arimal and we good writing act and make it a habit. Since the ability is in the made it a habit to call diose people as really free people. And humans natively before he becomes a master of calligraphy, we made it a habit to call those people who lack die power of it becomes actually possible while it was potentially possible. good thinking and a strong will people with animal nature Similarly, good morality becomes actually possible while it was (al-Insan al-bahimi). potentially possible since it is in the humans natively before obtaining good morality. The evidence of achieving morality A id we certainly call die persons who have die power of good through habits is the situation arising in cities. Rulers make thinking and who lack slaves. people of cities good people by getting the habit of performing According to al-Farabi, since the nice is of two tvpe> one ot good actions.72 73 which is knowledgev and the other is bodi knowledge «. and ac So, perfection of human is ethical perfection. The situation tion, art of philosophy is of two types as well. The first one of the action that provides achieving ethical perfection is just enables humans to obtain knowledge about the things which like the situation of the action that provides perfection of the humans cannot perform and this is called theoretical pliiksso body. Perfection of the body is being healthy. Health should be pliy. And die second one enables humans to obtain knowledge protected when achieved and gained when one is deprived ol about the things which humans can perform and can perform it and good morality should be protected when achieved and well and this is called practical philosophy or civil philosophy one should try to gain it when it lacks. ' Ilius al Farabi opens the door of a new approach by revealing the relation between philosophy related to practical Ivh.mois 70. Al-Farabi, ibid., p. 231. and the concept of civilization. 71. Al-Farabi, ibid., p. 234-235. 72. Al-Farabi, ibid., p. 236-237 74. Al F.n.ibi, ibid., p. 244 73. Al-Farabi, ibid., p. 237-238. 78. Al Farabi, ibid., p 24tv

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Theoretical philosophy on the other hand contains three types us only through philosophy art, it can lie concluded diat only of science: First of these is Mathematics; the second is Phys­ philosophy can take us to happiness mandatoriiy. We can ics and the third is Metaphysics. Each of those three sciences achieve this only dirough good thinking (jawdat al-raviyya) covers a being type which is characterized by being known. So ability. And we can achieve good thinking ability by means of the beings which are only characterized by being known have power of perceiving the right through mental power. three types.76 Al-Farabi who mentions about die significance of thinking According to al-Farabi, Civilized philosophy has two types: power then states that die most special goodness of human Ls One is the knowledge of nice acts and morality that nice acts the power of derising, consequently die power of devising is emanate from and the knowledge of obtaining things that die basic character which makes humans human. He under­ make good morality a habit and virtue for us and these are lines the relation between devising and talking (oration) and called moral arts. The second contains die knowledge of things states that perfection of talking power realizes with Logic, for that provide obtaining nice things among the city people or this reason logical thinking is the first step on die way of reach­ having the power of obtaining and protecting and diis is called ing happiness. After underlining significance of words in Log­ Political philosophy. ic, he ends the work mentioning about die relation between Logic and G ram m ar.8 Considering that we can only achieve happiness when we make good things a habit and good dungs become a habit for

77. Al-Farabi, ibid., p. 257. 76. Al-Farabi, I bid., p. 256. 78. Al-Farabi, ibid., p. 259-264.

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Al-Farabi's Oeuvre

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Madkur Ibrahim, La Place d'al-Fdrabi dans I’Ecole Philosophique Steinschneider M., Al-Faraln, des Arabischen Philosophcn, Leben Musulmane, Paris 1934. und Schriften, St. Petersbourg 1869- II Bash, Amsterdam Mahdi Muhsin, Alfarabi Against Philoponnos, (Journal of 1966. Near Eastern Studies, 26, 233-260), 1967. Strauss, Leo, How Farabi Read Plato's Laus, Turkish transla­ Mahdi Muhsin, Alfarabi et Averroes: Remarques sur le Com- tion, Burhanettin Tatar, Al-Farabis Style of Reading Plato’s mentaire dAverrroes sur la Republique de Platon, (Mul­ Laws, (Political Hermeneutic, 139-158), Samsun-2000. tiple Averroes: 91-103), Actes du Colloque Internationale, Stroumsa S., Al-Farabi and Maimonides on the Christian Phil­ Paris 1978. osophical Tradition, (Der Islam, LXV1II, 263-287), 1991. Mahdi Muhsin, Alfarabi, (History of Political Philosophy, 182- Sweeney Michael J., Aquinas on Limits to Political Responsi­ 202), Chicago 1987. bility for Virtue: A Comparison to Al-Farabi, (The Review Mahdi Muhsin, Al-Farabi’s Imperfect State, (Journal of the of Metaphysics, 62/4, 819-847), 2009. American Oriental Society, CX/4,691-726), 1990. Sweeney Michael J., Philosophy and Jihad: Al-Farabi on Com­ Massignon Louis, Notes sur le Texte Original Arabe du "De intel- pulsion to Happiness (The Review of Metaphysics 60/3,543- lectu" d’al-Farabi, Paris 1986. 572), 2007. Michot J., Tables de Correspondance des "Ta'liqat” dAlFarabi, des "Ta'liqat” dAvicenne et du “Liber Aphorismorum” Ttiliicii Suleyman- Aydin Ibrahim Hakki, Certain Additions dAndrea Alpago” (Revue de Synthese, XV, 231-249), 1982. to Al-Farabi Bibliography, (Turkish Culture Researches, XXXIII/1-2,255-286), 1995. Netton Richard, Al-Farabi and his School, London 1992. Rescher Nicholas, Al-Farabi: An Annotated Bibliography, Pitts­ Ulutan, Burhan, Al-Farabi Philosophy, Turkish World Researches burgh 1962. Center, Istanbul 2000, Sayili Aydin, Al-Farabi and His Place in the History of Woerther Frederique, L'lnterpretation de l’Ethos Aristotel- Thought, (Belleten, XV/57), Ankara 1951. icien par Al-Farabi, (Rethorxca, 26/4), 392-416, 2008. Shiloah A., The Theory of Music in Arabic Writings, Miinchen Zimmermann, F. W., Al-Fdrabi's Commentary and Short Treatise 1979. on Aristotle’s De Interpretatione, Oxford 1981.

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He was born in 1947 in Besni county of Adiyaman. He received lessons of Qur'an al-Karim and Arabic from his father. Later he studied Arabic, Persian and religious sciences in classical style in Urfa and Diyarbakir madrasas. In 1968, he was graduated from Mara$ Religious Vocational High School. In 1972, he was graduated from Istanbul High Institute of Islam and from Istanbul University Faculty of Letters, Department of Philosophy In 1977. He started his academic life in 1977 as Philosophy and Logic Assistant in Istanbul High Institute of Islam. In 1980, he was granted the title of Philosophy Doctor. When this institution was transformed into Faculty of Theology, he became Assistant Professor in 1983, Associate Professor in 1987 and Professor in 1993. He continued his translation activities when he had started with the name of Akif Nuri Mustear when he was a student of Religious Vocational High School until he became Professor. He translated approximately forty works particularly including Fi Zilal al-Qur'an and Ibn Kathir interpretations from Arabic to Turkish. Professor Bekir Karliga who spent a large part of his life for reconstruction of PROFESSOR BEKiR KARLIGA Islamic thought tradition have instructed for approximately thirty years in Marmara University Faculty of Theology the lessons of Islamic thought, introduction to Islamic thought, influences of Islamic thought on Western thought, contemporary Islamic thought and Ottoman thought at Bachelor's, Master levels and managed many Master, PhD theses. After he retired in 2008 voluntarily, he established Civilization Studies Center (MEDAM) in Bah<;e§ehir University. Later he was assigned as United Nations Alliance of Civilizations Turkish Coordinator in the capacity of Prime Ministry, Chief Consultant. "Civilization Documentary of River Flowing Westward" prepared by Professor Bekir Karliga who has mostly concentrated on studying in the fields of thought, civilization and East-West relations paying effort for five years was awarded by the Presidency with 2013 Culture-Art Great Award. Mahya Publications decided to publish all works of Bekir Karliga collectively. Up to date his works named "Religion and Thought", "Religion and Civilization", "Tunisian Hayrettin Pasha, A Reformist Islam Philosopher” have been published within this serial. First of all, his works named "Influences of Islamic Thought on Western Thought", "Global Humanity Development", "Introduction to Islamic Thought" and "Creation of Ottoman Thought" will be published within this serial.

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