american academy of arts & sciences

winter 2013 www.amacad.org Bulletin vol. lxvi, no. 2

Academy Inducts 232nd Class of Members Class speakers: Penny Pritzker, Margaret J. McFall-Ngai, Steven H. Strogatz, Maureen E. Mahoney, and David Blight

Challenges to American Institutions Karl Eikenberry, Judy Woodruff, Martin Baron, Diane P. Wood, Norman J. Ornstein, Philip Bredesen, and Alex S. Jones

ALSO: Academy Commission Sponsors Regional Forums on the Humanities and Social Sciences The Lincoln Project: Excellence and Access in Public Higher Education The Modern Concept of Substance Francis Amory Prize Symposium: Advances in Reproductive and Medicine Upcoming Events

MARCH MAY 18th 8th Cosmos Club, Washington, D.C. House of the Academy, Cambridge Reception for Washington Area On Energy Academy Fellows Introduction: Richard A. Meserve , President, Carnegie Institution for Science APRIL Speaker: Steven Chu , Secretary of Energy, 18th U.S. Department of Energy (outgoing) House of the Academy, Cambridge MAY The Third Wave of Immigration Featuring: 9th Douglas Massey , Professor of Sociology, City Reception for New York Area Jorge G. Castañeda , former Secretary American Academy Fellows of Foreign Affairs of Mexico; Global Distinguished Professor of Politics and Latin American Studies, New York University

For updates and additions to the calendar, visit http://www.amacad.org/event.aspx.

Reminder to Members The Annual Fund

his year’s Annual Fund will close on March 31. Chair of the Board Louis Cabot Tand Development and Public Relations Committee Chair Alan Dachs hope to surpass the record $1.6 million raised last year. Your gift to the Annual Fund helps support Academy projects, publications and the website, outreach, meetings, and other activities for members in Cambridge and around the country. Every gift counts toward reaching our ambitious goal. If you have already made a gift to the Annual Fund, thank you. If not, we urge you to par - ticipate by March 31. For assistance in making a gift to the Academy, please contact the Development Of½ce: [email protected]; 617-576-5057. n Contents

Presentations

2 2012 Induction Ceremony Class Speakers

12 Challenges to American Institutions

29 The Modern Concept of Substance

35 Francis Amory Prize Symposium: Advances in Reproductive Biology and Medicine

Projects and Activities

46 Regional Forums on the Humanities and Social Sciences

50 The Lincoln Project: Excellence and Access in Public Higher Education

51 Examining U.S. Energy Policy

53 Nuclear Power in Southeast Asia

54 From the Archives

Updates on Members

55 Noteworthy

59 Remembrance

Clockwise from top left: Steven H. Strogatz, Maureen E. Mahoney, Judy Woodruff, Patrick C. Walsh, Annette Gordon-Reed, Richard Freeman, Robert J. Birgeneau, and Karl Eikenberry presentations

2012 Induction Ceremony Class Speakers

On October 6, 2012, the American Academy inducted its 232nd class of Fellows and Foreign Honorary Members at a ceremony held in Cambridge, . The ceremony featured historical readings by Daniel Day-Lewis (actor), new member Bonnie Berger (mit ), and Tom Leighton (mit and Akamai Technologies). It also included presentations by ½ve new members: Steven H. Strogatz (), Margaret J. McFall-Ngai (University of Wisconsin- Madison), Maureen E. Mahoney (Latham & Watkins), David Blight (), and Penny Pritzker (psp Capital Partners and Pritzker Realty Group); their remarks appear below. The ceremony concluded with a memorable performance by Thomas Hampson (baritone).

romantic ? Not the word you were thinking a clear idea of your future. How about being of? Come on, we’re a very romantic bunch! a doctor?” And I want to tell you a love story from my “Well, I really like math.” own life to show you something of what I “Now hold on a second, why don’t you mean. I have a feeling that it will connect to take all the pre-med courses next year, when the experience of many of you here today. you’re a junior. It would be much easier to As a kid, I always loved math, but my fam - take biology and chemistry now rather than ily couldn’t really understand that. “You like later, and it doesn’t commit you to being a math and science, you should be a doctor,” doctor. Besides, you might actually like the they would say. “You could do anything with science.” medicine, and some parts of it are even I thought this was a good argument, and mathematical, like radiology.” (“And you so in my junior year, I took freshman chem - have such nice hands,” my mother would istry, freshman biology, and organic chem -

I want to thank the citizens of the for your trust in us. By supporting agencies like the Na - Steven H. Strogatz tional Science Foundation through your taxes, you Steven H. Strogatz is the Jacob Gould Schurman give us the most precious gift we could ask for: the Professor of Applied Mathematics at Cornell chance to do what we love and to follow our hearts – University. He was elected a Fellow of the Amer - ican Academy in 2012. and imaginations – wherever they may lead. We will do our best to pay you back by contributing in our own A Mathematical Love Story small ways to the welfare of this country and the world. hen you think about , Wphysicists, chemists, astronomers, add.) Despite all kinds of compelling argu - istry (which supposedly depended on engineers, and computer scientists, what ments, none of them really convinced me freshman chemistry as a prerequisite) in one adjective comes to mind? 1 How about until I got in a car one day with my big addition to all the math courses I had to take brother Ian, the lawyer. It was my sopho - as a math major. Those three science courses 1 Some of the content of these remarks ½rst ap - more year of college, and we were driving put me in the lab three days a week–some - peared in , The Calculus of Friend - home for Thanksgiving. thing I was not good at. My organic chem - ship: What a Teacher and a Student Learned about Life while Corresponding about Math (Princeton, “What are you thinking of doing?” he istry teaching assistant hated me; I was N.J.: Princeton University Press, 2009). asked. “It’s getting to be time for you to have always the last one to leave, and the ta

2 Bulletin of the American Academy of Arts & Sciences, Winter 2013 induction 2012

didn’t hide her frustration: “What’s wrong had been lifted. It was a moment of truth, with you? This is just like cooking.” But I and I never looked back. I’m very thankful had never cooked. that I had such a good mother, and that I Needless to say, I found my junior year to was able to ½nd my passion by denying it for be dif½cult. When I got home for spring a while. vacation, my mother took one look at me So that’s my love story–a story about my and said, “There’s something wrong with love of math and my mother’s love for me. you. Your face doesn’t look right.” Now, thirty-three years later, here I am and “What do you mean?” here you are. I have a feeling that most, if not “Your face looks wrong,” she continued. all, of you love your ½elds as much as I love “You look unhappy. What’s the matter?” mine. And on this wonderful occasion, I want “I don’t know. I don’t think my face looks to say thank you to all the parents, families, that bad.” and friends who have let us do what we love. “You seem like you’re very unhappy.” I also want to thank the citizens of the “Well, I’m working very hard,” I said, United States for your trust in us. By sup - “and I have all these labs.” porting agencies like the National Science “I don’t think that’s it. What about next Foundation through your taxes, you give us year when you’re a senior, what courses are the most precious gift we could ask for, you going to take?” which is the same gift my mother gave me: I explained to her that because I switched the chance to do what we love and to follow to pre-med very late, I had to take vertebrate our hearts–and imaginations–wherever physiology, I had to catch up on biochem - they may lead. We will do our best to pay you istry, I had a senior thesis to prepare, and I back by contributing in our own small ways had to ½t in the English courses that pre-med to the welfare of this country and the world. students are supposed to take. “It looks like it’s going to be a very busy © 2013 by Steven H. Strogatz year,” I said. “And what really makes me sad, now that you mention it, is that I’ll never be able to take quantum mechanics with my schedule being so full.” My mother, who had not gone to college, asked, “What’s quan - tum mechanics?” “Quantum mechanics! I’ve been reading about this since I was little–Niels Bohr, Heisenberg, Schrödinger, Einstein! I now know enough math that I could actually understand what they did and wouldn’t have to rely on verbal analogies or metaphors. But I’m never going to be able to learn those things because I’ll be in medical school cut - ting cadavers.” We sat quietly for a bit until she turned and caught the look in my eyes. “What if you could say right now, ‘God damn it, I love math and physics! I’m not going to be a doc - tor, I’m going to be the best math professor I can be.’” And just like that, I burst out cry - ing thinking about this freedom that she gave me. It was as if a tremendous weight

Bulletin of the American Academy of Arts & Sciences, Winter 2013 3 presentations

accumulation of large data sets of dna reside on the palm of the hand, the wrist, sequences, biologists were in for a huge sur - and the axle of the arm are different from prise. Beginning in the early 1990s, they one another, and each maintains essentially started to realize that their notions of the the same composition day after day, month form and function of the biosphere were after month. flawed. At that time, most biologists divided In the last decade, biomedical research has life into ½ve kingdoms: animals, fungi, plants, also determined that the microbes that protists (single-celled nucleate organisms), evolved with us, and live in and on our bod - and monerans (smaller single-celled organ - ies, dramatically influence our metabolic isms without nuclei, such as bacteria). The pro½les; that is, the molecules shed by these molecular data, however, were calling this microbes are present in surprisingly high conceptual framework into question, and as concentrations in body fluids, such as blood. the twentieth century came to a close, a new What is remarkable about these ½ndings is organization of the biosphere was recog - the recognition that each and every cell of the nized. The data were demonstrating beyond human body that is serviced by the circula - a shadow of a doubt that the vast majority of tory system–in other words, the vast major - Earth’s biological diversity exists within the ity of the body–is, and throughout human microbial world. Currently, the tree of life is evolution has been, influenced by the activi - Margaret J. McFall-Ngai divided into three main branches, or ties of our normal microbial partners. Margaret J. McFall-Ngai is Professor of Medical domains: the Bacteria, the Archaea, and the The evidence of microbes’ profound influ - Microbiology and Immunology at the University Eukarya, all of which are principally micro - ence on our overall health is accumulating at of Wisconsin-Madison. She was elected a Fellow bial; the animals, plants, and fungi are very a ½erce pace. Strong data now demonstrate closely related and occur as a cluster of small that maintaining our microbiota in balance of the American Academy in 2012. twigs on a single branch of the Eukarya. is critical for everything from brain develop - Another key revelation came in the late ment and behavior, such as our sleep cycles, A Revolution in Biology: The 1990s. The biomedical community had to maintenance of healthy weight and Microbial World Front and Center begun to apply these dna sequencing meth - immune function. Taken together, the hun - ods to identify the human microbiota: that dreds of studies done in the last ten years ntil relatively recently, most biologists is, the microbes that normally associate with show that our health depends on the main - Uconsidered microbes to be of two sorts: our bodies. Biologists knew that we have tenance of dynamic yet stable partnerships pathogens, compromising the health of ani - microbes with us, but they did not have a with thousands of microbial species that live mals and plants, or environmental organ - way to study what they are or what they are with us from shortly after birth until death. isms that break down materials in soil, doing until these sequencing approaches We also now know that pathogens are often seawater, and other habitats. In addition, the provided a new path to that knowledge. This members of the normal microbiota that “go number of microbial species was thought to endeavor, coming soon after the ½rst human to the dark side” when the body’s homeosta - be comparatively small–fewer even than genome was sequenced, led in recent years sis is out of balance. In other cases, these the number of species of snakes, for exam - to one of the National Institutes of Health’s pathogens are closely related to members of ple. Because of these assumptions, microbes major road map initiatives, the Human the normal microbiota but are impostors, were generally not considered central to Microbiome Project. The discoveries in this fooling the host into thinking that they are basic biology, and most biologists did not arena were striking and transformative. Not friend rather than foe. factor them into their thinking about their only did scientists ½nd a vast diversity of In view of this daunting complexity, biol - particular research focus. microbes in association with the human ogists are developing ways to approach the In the 1980s, molecular biologists devel - body, the data obtained in these studies basic questions of how we establish partner - oped the capability to use gene sequences to showed that the consortia of microbes live ships with microbes, how we maintain them study the diversity and structure of the bio - in site-speci½c, stable communities. For in balance, and how these healthy alliances logical world. As the story unfolded with the example, the bacterial communities that respond to infection by microbial pathogens.

4 Bulletin of the American Academy of Arts & Sciences, Winter 2013 induction 2012

As biologists often do, they look for simple but instead trigger events that promote tissue expanding population; and (iv) maintaining experimental systems that serve as models invasion. In fact many, if not most, microbial that population’s health. At the foundation for understanding more complex systems. pathogens may similarly behave like impos - of each challenge is the microbial world, a For example, research with fruit flies has pro - tors, using the same molecular language as fact that compels us to integrate microbiol - vided tremendous insight into the basic prin - the host’s bene½cial bacterial partners. How - ogy more fully with other ½elds of biology, ciples of animal development. Studies of the ever, the outcome is different because the lan - removing the intellectual silos that are molecular and cellular language between ani - guage is used in a different way, much as how reflected in the narrow focus of university mal and microbial cells are highly amenable a friendly interchange and an argument may departments, professional societies, and to such approaches because not only are they use the same words, but differently or with a funding agencies. Consider this one con - ancient, they are also highly conserved. different intensity. crete example: while introductory biology I’ve been privileged in my career to be The results of these studies designed to textbooks have extensive coverage of involved with the development of such a understand human-microbial partnerships microbes as tools that have revealed the model system for the study of animal- promise to transform approaches to all basic principles of , the microbe interactions. The association that I aspects of biomedicine; however, the typical 1,000 +- page introductory biology study involves a marine animal that has the ½nding that the responses are evolutionarily text has only a couple of dozen pages advantage of naturally associating with only conserved is important in the larger arena. devoted to microbes as organisms. A good start to refocusing the ½eld of biology would be to structure an undergraduate biology The results of studies designed to understand curriculum with the microbial world as the human-microbial partnerships promise to transform starting point for each and every topic. In short, no scholar should leave college with approaches to all aspects of biomedicine; however, an undergraduate degree in biology without the finding that the responses are evolutionarily a ½rm understanding of microbiology. This kind of revolution will not come eas - conserved is important in the larger arena. As with ily. It calls for unprecedented levels of collab - humans, it is likely that all animals and plants rely oration and openness among biologists, and people are resistant to change. However, for their health on coevolved partnerships of varying because the idea of the centrality of microbes is a more accurate vision of the biological intimacy with members of the microbial world. world than what we have had until now, I believe biology will undergo this dramatic one microbial species. The binary nature of As with humans, it is likely that all animals revolution in the coming years. One of my the association provides simplicity and high and plants rely for their health on coevolved most cherished mentors has a philosophy resolution to our studies. Recently, we have partnerships of varying intimacy with mem - about controversial discoveries; he feels that found that the same molecules that these bers of the microbial world. their acceptance has three phases: 1) it’s not bacterial symbionts use to trigger normal tis - I have focused here principally on sym - true; 2) it’s true, but it’s not important; 3) it’s sue development in their host also trigger bioses, but we are becoming aware that the important and I knew it all the time. Depend - development in distantly related animals like critical roles of microbes are much more ing on the current position of a particular humans. These results underscore the con - extensive. If we fail to incorporate a new biologist within the ½eld, an individual will servation of mechanisms underlying symbi - understanding of the centrality of microbes, ½nd herself or himself somewhere along this otic partnerships across the animal kingdom. we do so at our own peril. The U.S. National spectrum. But I predict that as compelling Perhaps more remarkable, some pathogens Research Council recently published A New data continue to accumulate, these revolu - have evolved to subvert this host-symbiont Biology for the 21st Century , which identi½es tionary ideas will take their rightful place conversation by inappropriately presenting four critical societal challenges: (i) promot - within the discipline of biology. these same molecules to tissues they seek to ing a sustainable environment; (ii) meeting invade; they appear to be normal symbionts growing energy needs; (iii) feeding an © 2013 by Margaret J. McFall-Ngai

Bulletin of the American Academy of Arts & Sciences, Winter 2013 5 presentations

Let us be content with the blessings of Supreme Court justices who decide cases based on their study of the law whether we like the outcome or not. And when the Court issues divided opinions in cases where unity was paramount, let us ask why the dissenters did not put down their pens.

some commentators have been quick to lence. One hundred congressmen signed a herald a Fellow of this Academy, Chief Jus - proclamation denouncing the decision as a tice John Roberts, for joining with the “clear abuse of judicial power.” What if the Democratic appointees on the Supreme justices had permitted their very real fear of Court to uphold the constitutionality of public disrespect for the Court to dissuade core provisions of the Affordable Care Act. them from striking down segregation laws? It has been said that the Chief Justice was Just as in Brown , if a majority of the Court “inspired by a simple noble leadership believed that the Affordable Care Act was Maureen E. Mahoney impulse at a critical juncture in our history” unconstitutional, it was their duty to invali - Maureen E. Mahoney is founder and member of to resolve the case through a bipartisan date it. From the standpoint of a justice’s the Supreme Court and Appellate Practice Group compromise. He supposedly sacri½ced his obligations, there is no difference between in the Washington, D.C., o f½ce of Latham & own view of the law in order to protect the an unconstitutional law that segregates Court from public criticism and charges of schools and an unconstitutional law that Watkins, LLP . She was elected a Fellow of the partisanship. But I do not share the view requires Americans to purchase products American Academy in 2012. that Chief Justice Roberts voted to uphold they do not want. Both must be struck down. When Compromise is More a statute that he believed to be unconstitu - This conception of the Court’s constitu - tional, and I would ask others to pause and tional duties does not leave it powerless to Pernicious than Polarization: reflect before they join this chorus. As a combat the perception of partisan decision- The Special Role of the nation, we must take care to look for com - making. This is an important concern for the Supreme Court promise in the right places. Court in every era. But there is no need to Let me ½rst explain why compromise on sabotage the Constitution to address that he founders of this Academy understood the issue of a statute’s validity would under - problem. The appearance of partisan align - Tthat a democracy cannot thrive without mine our constitutional structure. Supreme ment could be erased through the revival of leaders practiced in the unifying art of com - Court justices are not politicians. They are a historic practice: justices in the minority promise. John Adams warned that “the great - not supposed to resolve cases through horse- could hold their tongues when unity is est political evil under our Constitution” trading behind the Court’s velvet curtain. As important for the country. Chief Justice would be the “division of the republic” into the Federalist Papers explain, federal jurists Marshall, another Fellow of this Academy, two political factions. In his farewell address, are given life tenure to insulate them from explained that it was his custom to acquiesce George Washington similarly instructed that public criticism so that they will have the silently in the Court’s opinions when he it is the “duty of a wise people” to bridge our “fortitude” to decide cases based on their failed to persuade four other members of the differences because polarization leads to the best reading of the law. It is important for all Court to adopt his view. Other justices often “ruin of public liberty.” of us to remember that the Supreme Court’s followed suit to promote respect for the Two centuries later, political leaders with decision to strike down segregation laws in Court’s opinions. This practice also explains the wisdom and courage to compromise are Brown v. Board of Education was met with how the Court secured the ½nal vote needed seldom seen. This probably explains why public outrage, massive de½ance, and vio - for unanimity in Brown . Silent acquiescence

6 Bulletin of the American Academy of Arts & Sciences, Winter 2013 induction 2012

is a legitimate form of compromise because intention to emulate the leadership style of justices have no constitutional duty to dis - Chief Justice Marshall. But if Chief Justice sent. But they do have a duty not to cast the Roberts was emulating Marshall, he would deciding vote to uphold a law that they not have bargained to uphold a statute that believe is unconstitutional. he believed to be unconstitutional. Roberts Against this backdrop, we should be reti - has told us that, in his view, Chief Justice cent to embrace the view that Chief Justice Marshall was “not a deal maker, not a bro - Roberts bargained to uphold the health care ker”–just an extraordinary leader who act in order to protect the Court from public could forge consensus through persuasion. criticism. And the available facts suggest It is imperative for our nation to end the that he did no such thing. We can ½rst look polarizing partisanship that threatens our to his own explanation of the proper role of future, and we are right to demand and a jurist. As he testi½ed during his Senate reward leaders with the courage to compro - con½rmation proceedings, “about the worst mise. But the resolution of judicial proceed - thing you can say about a judge” is that he ings through deals forged by politicians in did not “apply the law to [determine] what black robes would lead–in the words of our the result should be.” He pointed to the deci - ½rst president–to the ruin of public liberty. sion in Dred Scott as a historical example of Let us be content with the blessings of the disastrous consequences that can ensue Supreme Court justices who decide cases when the Supreme Court is not constrained based on their study of the law whether we by legal principles and instead attempts to like the outcome or not. And when the Court resolve a public controversy in the “way that issues divided opinions in cases where unity it [thinks is] best for the nation.” was paramount, let us ask why the dissenters Nor is there suf½cient cause to doubt the did not put down their pens. Chief’s adherence to his beliefs in the health care case. Careful review of his opinion © 2013 by Maureen E. Mahoney reveals that his disagreement with the dis - senters was quite narrow. It centered on competing interpretations of Supreme Court precedents relating to the weight that should be given to the labels Congress attaches to taxes and penalties. Whether his legal analysis was right or wrong, it was suf½ciently well reasoned to support the conclusion that he genuinely disagreed with the dissenters on a close legal question. That conclusion is not undermined by the fact– reported in the press–that he may have ini - tially voted to invalidate the statute. The Chief Justice’s opinion relies on several precedents that were not cited in the govern - ment’s briefs on the taxing power, which suggests that he changed his view as he became more immersed in the law. Some choose to ignore this straightforward expla - nation because Roberts has expressed an

Bulletin of the American Academy of Arts & Sciences, Winter 2013 7 presentations

We can garner enormous pleasure and joy from doing history; but in learning it, if we really face it, we also can encounter enormous pain, even terror from history. As in personal memory, so also in the collective memory that historians assemble, resist, narrate, and interpret, the past is that thing we can - not live without, but also sometimes the thing we cannot live with.

the narrative, the drama of the story ; and on from the fact that we carry it within us, the other, the reasons why people did what are unconsciously controlled by it in they did, thought what they thought, created many ways, and history is literally pres - what they created, destroyed what they ent in all that we do. It could scarcely be destroyed–in other words, the explanation otherwise, since it is to history that we David W. Blight or interpretation . However my students react owe our frames of reference, our iden - tities, and our aspirations. David W. Blight is the Class of ’54 Professor of to my eccentric reading of this quote, it American History at Yale University. He was always moves me to feel just how old, how For Baldwin, the non½ction voice–the Jere - elected a Fellow of the American Academy valued, how indispensable and alive my craft miah–of the civil rights movement, if Amer - in 2012. really is not only to the humanities, but to icans ever really began to learn and face their our entire world of knowledge. past with slavery and racism, they would be We can garner enormous pleasure and joy entering into “a dialogue with that terrifying The Pleasure and Pain of History from doing history; but in learning it, if we deity . . . called history.” Most Americans do really face it, we also can encounter enormous not wish to see their history as a terrifying he opening sentence of the oldest book pain, even terror from history. As in personal deity, a source of painful, un½nished lessons Tof history in Western civilization has memory, so also in the collective memory that and challenges; collectively, we prefer a pro - always inspired me. I read it aloud at the historians assemble, resist, narrate, and inter - gressive, triumphal history, the grand narra - beginning of every class I teach, whether the pret, the past is that thing we cannot live with - tive of a problem-solving people, a nation, as undergraduate lecture course or the gradu - out, but also sometimes the thing we cannot someone once put it, born perfect, and which ate research seminar. In Herodotus’s The live with. “History,” Robert Penn Warren then launched its career of improvement. History , he declares: “I, Herodotus of Hali - once warned in a single line of poetry, “is the In this country we will likely forever strug - carnassus, am here setting forth my history, thing you cannot resign from.” Like Warren, gle as on this teeter-totter between such that time may not draw the color from what one of my other favorite writers, James Bald - opposite views of history–the one bracing, man has brought into being, nor those great win, never stopped probing the nature of the restorative, redemptive, inspiring, and the and wonderful deeds, manifested by both past, the irresistible if at times debilitating other authentically tragic, chastening, and Greeks and Barbarians, fail of their report, hold that history and memory can have on any yet also potentially redemptive and inspir - and, together with all this, the reason why thoughtful person’s consciousness. “History,” ing. One view demands bright horizons they fought one another.” Many have tried said Baldwin in a 1965 essay, from the vantage of a World War II victory endlessly to improve on this, but here, parade, John Trumbull’s painting The Decla - is not merely something to be read. Herodotus captures the dual nature and pur - And it does not refer merely, or even ration of Independence , Emanuel Leutze’s pose of learning, knowing, and writing his - principally, to the past. On the con - mural Westward the Course of Empire Takes Its tory: on the one hand, the color, the deeds, trary, the great force of history comes Way , or Lincoln’s signing of the Emancipa -

8 Bulletin of the American Academy of Arts & Sciences, Winter 2013 induction 2012

tion Proclamation. The other view suggests had planned, until the Nazis captured, You who celebrate bygones, we look from the vantage of perhaps the imprisoned and tortured him, and ½nally Who have explored the outward, the surfaces of hold of a slave ship, the Union and Confed - shot him in an open ½eld with twenty-six the races, the life that has exhibited itself, erate dead heaped in piles at Antietam or other French patriots in June 1944. But in Who have treated of man as the creature of pol - Gettysburg, the eyes in the photo of a child that text he left, Bloch could write under itics, aggregates, rulers and priests, I, habitan of the Alleghanies, treating of him as worker in an American factory, or a woman these circumstances with such a sense of he is in himself in his own rights, who cannot feed the children gripping her humor. “A good cataclysm,” he said, “suits Pressing the pulse of the life that has seldom exhib - apron in the depths of the Great Depression. our business.” Moreover, he wrote so mov - ited itself, (the great pride of man in himself,) Tragedy and triumph, pain and pleasure– ingly about the “pleasure” of what all of us Chanter of Personality, outlining what is yet to be, we have in½nite supplies of both views in do. “To anyone who is not a blockhead,” he I project the history of the future. our history if we look for them. declared, “all the sciences are interesting; If we seek the unpleasant, or even the hor - yet each scholar ½nds but one that absorbs Historians should answer Whitman and rible or embarrassing in the past, it does not him. Finding it, in order further to devote say, really? You think as poet you are the necessarily deprive us of history’s pleasures himself to it, he terms it his ‘vocation,’ his only one who can get to where you get in the of discovery, of illumination, of simply ‘calling.’” human predicament? Just watch us try, practicing the craft. After the historian To Bloch, history “has its peculiar aes - Walt! Nathan Huggins (one of my mentors) died thetic pleasures. The spectacle of human Neither poets nor historians can ever in 1989, I wrote a retrospective essay on the activity which forms its particular object is, stand alone in exploring, using, and explain - whole of his life’s writings, which were more than any other, designed to seduce the ing the past. Since all memory, however largely in the ½eld of African American his - imagination–above all when, thanks to its painful or pleasurable, is in some way pre- tory. Just for curiosity, I looked at his entry remoteness in time or space, it is adorned lude, we have to chant together. in Who’s Who , where I found this wonderful with the subtle enchantment of the unfa - statement about why he was a historian. “I miliar.” Ah, Bloch seemed to be saying, the © 2013 by David W. Blight ½nd in the study of history,” wrote Huggins, wonderful pastness of the past, as it also “the special discipline which forces me to becomes available and familiar to our imag - consider peoples and ages, not my own. . . . ination. Then, beautifully, while writing It is the most humane of disciplines, and in under what seem unbearable pressures, he ways the most humbling. For one cannot urged historians never to forget that they ignore those historians of the future who are writers . “Let us guard against stripping will look back on us in the same way.” our science of its share of poetry,” he Humane and humbled : I have always believed warned. “Let us also beware of the inclina - both are good and proper elements of a true tion, which I have detected in some, to be scholar’s temperament. ashamed of this poetic quality. It would be One of the best, and certainly most heroic, sheer folly to suppose that history, because books ever written on the historian’s craft it appeals strongly to the emotions, is less (by that very title, The Historian’s Craft ) was capable of satisfying the intellect.” Bloch that of Marc Bloch. The great French histo - deeply understood the pain and pleasure of rian of feudalism and other broad subjects, knowing and doing history, as well as the Bloch, a veteran of World War I, fled from marvelous joy of transforming research into his professorship at the Sorbonne into hid - writing. ing in Strasbourg after the fall of France to Let me end by using another of my heroes the Nazis in 1940. He began writing his mas - to make this point. Walt Whitman wrote a terful meditation on the historian’s art in short poem entitled “To a Historian.” I read 1941 as he also joined the French resistance. it as Whitman’s challenge but also invita - Chased further into hiding, he ½nished per - tion to historians to dare to join him in his haps only about two-thirds of the book he enterprise.

Bulletin of the American Academy of Arts & Sciences, Winter 2013 9 presentations

became a licensed pharmacist. He attended skills necessary to succeed in the twenty- law school at night, received his J.D. at age ½rst-century economy: English and reading thirty, and opened a law practice. That prac - as well as science, math, engineering, and tice grew into a family ½rm that eventually technology. diversi½ed into corporate and real estate I’ll share with you, by way of example, investing, the business in which I have been some of the progress we have made in actively involved for the past two decades. Chicago. We have agreed with our teachers This process goes by many names: social to extend the school day so that elementary mobility, economic opportunity, and, most school children have an hour and ½fteen frequently, the American dream. We must minutes more of learning each day. And we now recognize–and remedy–the fact that have lengthened the school year by ten days. the American dream may not hold the same We have linked teacher evaluation in part to promise for young Americans today. student achievement. We are giving parents Our educational system is failing the very more and better schools to choose from by kids who need it most. I have spent the last adding ½ve science, technology, engineering, decade immersed in education issues: look - and math high schools, and increasing the ing for ways to improve student perfor- number of International Baccalaureate mance, creating new training programs for schools. These are ½rst steps toward improv - Penny Pritzker principals to run our most challenging ing the quality of educational opportunity Penny Pritzker is Founder, Chairman, and Chief schools, and promoting skills training after that we offer our young people in Chicago. Executive O f½cer of PSP Capital Partners and its high school. In May of last year, Mayor Beyond high school–and beyond Chicago– af½liate, Pritzker Realty Group. She was elected Emanuel appointed me to Chicago’s Board we need to recognize a changing reality: of Education. Between my work on the nearly half of America’s undergraduates, a Fellow of the American Academy in 2012. school board and my many years in busi - thirteen million students, attend commu - ness, I have seen the education crisis now nity colleges. Skills for America’s Future, an Critical Investments for America’s from several angles. organization whose advisory board I chair, Future: Education and Skills Even in this tough economy, with so many brings together community colleges with people looking for work, three million jobs businesses, local governments, and other o me, our responsibility as Americans is stand open because employers cannot ½nd training organizations to provide unem - Tsummed up in a story–a story that is workers with the skills they need to do the ployed workers and students with the uniquely American, but by no means unique. job. The demands of a global economy skills that today’s businesses need. This Like most families, mine came here from require that our schools do better, and that effort to bridge the skills gap is helping indi - somewhere else. When my 10-year-old we, as leaders, insist on equal access to a qual - viduals make the most of themselves–and great-grandfather arrived in Chicago from ity education for all of America’s children. strengthening our economy in the process. czarist Russia in 1881, this Academy was In Chicago, the nation’s third largest pub - There are as many different paths to the already 101 years old. True to its founding lic school system, four out of every ten stu - American dream as there are people in this mission, the Academy had presided over a dents fail to graduate from high school. room. But one thing every journey has in century of great American scholarship and Those young people have a dif½cult road common is educational opportunity. My advancement. The progress of knowledge in ahead. Nationally, the unemployment rate grandfather, my father, and especially my the United States was well under way. for those without a high school diploma is mother used to tell me over and over again: But my great-grandfather was an immi - 12 percent, versus 8.8 percent for those who “There are two things no one can take grant. He spoke no English and had no have one. For college graduates, the unem - away from you: your education and your money. He taught himself English by reading ployment rate is about 4 percent. reputation.” the newspaper and studying dictionaries. We have to do more than keep our kids in They may not have known it, but they To make ends meet, he sold newspapers, school–though that is necessary. We must were echoing one of the Academy’s earliest worked as a tailor’s assistant, and even also ensure that our schools are teaching the members, Benjamin Franklin. He said, “If a

10 Bulletin of the American Academy of Arts & Sciences, Winter 2013 induction 2012

Even in this tough economy, with so many people looking for work, three million jobs stand open because employers cannot find workers with the skills they need to do the job. The demands of a global economy require that our schools do better, and that we, as leaders, insist on equal access to a quality education for all of America’s children. man empties his purse into his own head, no man can take it away from him.” Education is the great portable wealth that this Acad - emy has nourished since 1780. As I said at the beginning, my family’s story is not unique. I refuse to accept a future in which stories like ours are a thing of the past. Thank you for the opportunity, and the honor, of joining this august academy. I leave you with the hope that twenty, ½fty, or a hun - dred years from now, we will say that our efforts gave the children of this century the opportunity to do the same. n

© 2013 by Penny Pritzker

To view or listen to the presentations, visit http:// www.amacad.org/events/ Induction2012.

Bulletin of the American Academy of Arts & Sciences, Winter 2013 11 presentations

Challenges to American Institutions

Institutions of Democracy and the Public Good

After we hear from the ½rst group of pan - he United States always faces chal - elists, we will invite observations from those Tlenges, but they are particularly acute who are part of our mass media. We will now. They are not just ½scal challenges, but then turn to a direct discussion of media and social challenges as well. They are about , after which those from the ½rst whether we can create a vibrant workforce group, who themselves are affected by the for the future, given an economy that is not coverage and the nature of the media, will be recovering very easily from deep down - given a chance to comment. turns caused by recent ½nancial crises. We have a remarkable group of panelists. They are about immigration and about Diane Wood, who is a federal judge on the whether we can integrate into the popula - Seventh Circuit Court of Appeals, also has a tion a substantial group of people, many of long and distinguished career as a law pro - whom have been in the United States for fessor, which she continues in addition to decades but have been here illegally. They her judgeship. Phil Bredesen, a problem- are about how to deal with an aging society, solving, popular, and successful former in which people are not just getting older governor of Tennessee, was before that but living longer. a problem-solving, popular mayor of In the forty-three years that I have been Nashville. Karl Eikenberry, now at Stanford immersed in Washington politics, from one Norman J. Ornstein University, was U.S. Ambassador to end of Pennsylvania Avenue to the other, I Norman J. Ornstein is Resident Scholar at the Afghanistan during one of the most chal - have never seen things as dysfunctional as American Enterprise Institute for Public Policy lenging times for the nation and the world. they are now. The kind of political system Research. He was elected a Fellow of the Ameri - He also served for thirty-½ve years in the that the framers created was not designed to can Academy in 2004 and is Chair of the Acad - U.S. Army, rising to the rank of Lieutenant be smooth and easy; it was meant to be con - emy’s Stewarding America project. General. Alex Jones, who heads the Shoren - tentious and dif½cult. But today the level of stein Center on the Press, Politics and Public polarization, partisan and ideological, is of Policy at , has had a long a very different character than when I ½rst ur panel this morning has two parts. On career in journalism and has authored sev - arrived in Washington in 1969. Divisions Othe one side, we have Judge Diane eral marvelous books based on his work at then were over the Vietnam War, but they Wood, Governor Phil Bredesen, and Ambas - and other places. Judy were not along strict party lines. Some of the sador Karl Eikenberry, each of whom will Woodruff is known to many of us for her strongest supporters of President Nixon’s comment on challenges facing American work as a television news anchor, currently approach to Vietnam were conservative institutions, including the judiciary, our polit - at PBS NewsHour . I met Judy in 1976, when Democrats, mostly from the South; and ical process and government in general, and she came from Atlanta to cover what was some of the most ardent opponents were American diplomacy and the military. On the then an obscure campaign by a governor moderate Republicans, like Mark Hat½eld of other side, Judy Woodruff, Alex Jones, and named Jimmy Carter. She moved on to a Oregon and Jack Javits of New York. Before Marty Baron–each a distinguished member career in journalism that is one of the most Vietnam, there had been deep divisions over of the press–will discuss challenges for respected in our time, especially in the area civil rights. Those who have read Robert American journalism, whether in print, of broadcast journalism. And Marty Baron, Caro’s masterful works on this subject will on-air, or online. editor of The Globe , has had a distin - know that while Lyndon Johnson was a great We have decided to bring all the panelists guished career with a variety of newspapers, national hero, progress on civil rights never together as one group because many of the including The , where he also could have been made without prominent challenges faced by one side either overlap served as editor; The New York Times ; and Los Republicans, like Everett Dirksen of Illinois or interact with challenges on the other. Angeles Times . and Bill McCulloch of Ohio, who fought

12 Bulletin of the American Academy of Arts & Sciences, Winter 2013 challenges to american institutions

against conventional wisdom in their own If that were the only set of problems, we full-blown whenever there are economic party to make those things happen. The might be able to weather them, but it is clear dif½culties, and it then moves out to other strongest opponents of moving forward on that some of the polarization is more than institutions beyond the governing ones. civil rights were, again, conservative Demo - partisan or ideological; it’s now tribal. You Right now, we have a crisis of con½dence and crats in the South. can imagine many areas where we could ½nd legitimacy across almost all our major insti - The parties now are much more uni½ed. common ground and come together across tutions, partly driven by scandals–whether There is no longer a center, a prominent ideological and party lines: think of the in religion or education or sports–that taint and vibrant part of the progress seen in ear - Simpson-Bowles Commission or the Rivlin- our view of leaders. Other than the military, lier eras. The parties are vehemently oppo - Domenici Commission. But in a tribal no institution has faced scandal yet still enjoys a great deal of con½dence from the We have a crisis of confidence and legitimacy American people. This situation makes it dif½cult to reach consensus or make deci - across almost all our major institutions, partly sions with broad bipartisan support. We can overcome some of the dif½culties driven by scandals that taint our view of leaders. that are endemic in the political process if Other than the military, no institution has faced we have leaders that Americans can trust, leaders from outside the fray who provide scandal yet still enjoys a great deal of confidence some of the glue to hold things together. But from the American people. This situation makes without them and without that kind of lead - ership, it becomes even harder to act it difficult to reach consensus or make decisions because action means requiring people to accept policies that may involve short-term with broad bipartisan support. pain for the promise, often ephemeral, of a longer-term gain. sitional, which would work just ½ne if we atmosphere, where it is not about what the Asking these things of the American peo - had a parliamentary system or parliamen - ideas are, but rather who is expressing them ple has become more dif½cult in the wake of tary culture–but we have neither. In a par - (“if you’re for them, we’re against them”), developments such as the 2010 Citizens United liamentary culture, where a majority acts you run into a larger problem. And this decision, in which the Supreme Court held and the minority vociferously opposes, problem is not limited to Congress. It has that you cannot have corruption if political everyone accepts the legitimacy of those metastasized out to many states and has contributions are independent of campaigns actions. In our system, when a majority acts begun to infect other institutions, including or candidates. However, the SpeechNow deci - over the vehement, uni½ed opposition of a the judiciary. Indeed, it has begun to move sion, made by the D.C. Circuit Court of minority, half the country sees those into the general public as well. Appeals soon after Citizens United , blew a actions as illegitimate, and consistent We must add to this problem another ele - hole through the notion of independence. efforts are made to delegitimize them. We ment of our culture, populism, which is built The combined effect of these rulings has saw a lot of that in the ½rst two years of the into the dna of America. Our framers intensi½ed concerns over judicial elections. Obama administration, but it was mild looked at government and at the accumula - While it may take a lot of money to influence compared to what we have had the last two: tion of power in institutions with a jaundiced a presidential election or a Senate campaign, a system of divided government, because of eye, and Americans have grown up with that it does not take a whole lot of money to sway the separation of powers, with a minority mindset. It is a strength of our system that we a judicial election. party that votes in unison, leading to near do not automatically convey enormous Direct challenges to judges began in Iowa gridlock. That is no easy–or good–way to power to individuals or groups, which can over the issue of same-sex marriage, but the run a political system. lead to tyranny. However, populism emerges problem has spread to Texas and many other

Bulletin of the American Academy of Arts & Sciences, Winter 2013 13 presentations

states. The New York Times recently ran an The judiciary is a differ - editorial about Americans for Prosperity, a group formed by David and Charles Koch ent kind of institution. that has been very active with regard to judi - Judges are not legisla - cial elections. In Florida, the group is target - ing three state supreme court judges who are tors in black robes. up for retention. Florida’s governor has promised that if the judges are removed, his They are charged with picks to replace them will have very different doing something differ - viewpoints. I just came from Kansas, where a judge has been targeted. Americans for ent, which is to decide Prosperity has also focused on state legisla - what the law dictates tures, trying to remove moderate Republi - cans and replace them with more con - in a particular instance. servative Republicans. As recently as the 2009 Caperton case, The Court said that the restriction was not involving a mining company’s attempts to permissible because it violated various free influence a judicial election in West Vir - speech rights. Now we have Citizens United , ginia, Justice Anthony Kennedy wrote for Diane P. Wood which indicates that judicial elections are the majority that he was appalled by the Diane P. Wood is a federal judge on the U.S. Court like all other elections. idea. Now, post- Citizens United , we see mas - of Appeals for the Seventh Circuit and a Senior Lec - I have spent a lot of time traveling the sive efforts to have money change state and turer at the Law School. She world, talking to foreign colleagues about municipal judicial elections. how important it is to have an independent was elected a Fellow of the American Academy in Judge Wood, could you reflect on what judiciary: a body of people who decide cases 2004 and serves as a member of the Academy’s this means and whether there is anything objectively and who are not dependent on Council, Trust, and Midwest Regional Committee. good about it. campaign money, or bribes, or other kinds of ½nancial contributions. Citizens United ½nd very little good about it. The Caperton does not seem to be a recipe for that inde - I case involved a state supreme court judge pendence and objectivity. who received $3 million (you can decide for Moreover, the judiciary is a different kind yourself whether that’s a big or small number) of institution. Judges are not legislators in from a company that had been handed a $50 black robes. They are charged with doing million judgment against itself. That judgment something different, which is to decide what was on appeal to the West Virginia Supreme the law dictates in a particular instance, or Court. The U.S. Supreme Court decided that maybe to measure a statute against the Con - this transgressed the fundamental principle stitution to see if it passes muster. Recent that judges are supposed to be independent. trends may lead the public to believe that The Court held that the judge who received the judges are not sticking to that task–and may money should have recused himself. lead judges themselves not to do so. For So that’s one thread of this, but I want to example, there are some troublesome statis - throw in a second one. In 2002, the Supreme tics about the length of criminal sentences Court decided a case, Republican Party of Min - meted out by state elected judges in the nesota v. White , in which it held unconstitu - period leading up to an election. That should tional a state canon of judicial conduct that cause all of us to be very concerned. forbade candidates for judicial of½ce from announcing their views on disputed issues.

14 Bulletin of the American Academy of Arts & Sciences, Winter 2013 challenges to american institutions

Norman Ornstein ization. Many states today seem to have embraced a strong reactionary trend. In Ten - Governor Bredesen, you served at a time nessee alone, we have recently seen the when, at least in your state of Tennessee, the introduction of bills to make sure that Sharia focus on problem-solving transcended some law never becomes law in the state. We of the partisan differences. You were a Dem - attempted to establish our own currency, so ocratic governor in a state with a signi½cant that when the federal government collapsed, Republican coloration. As you look at Ten - we would be ready. And there must have nessee today and talk to your former col - been a template going around for “guns in leagues, how much do you think the po- [½ll in the blank],” because innumerable larization and tribalization that I talked such bills were ½led. about has metastasized out to the states? It is important not to let this devolve into hand-wringing: “The barbarians are sacking Washington! What are we going to do?” The reality is that this kind of reaction is always with us; it’s a facet of our psyche in this country. For a long time, we had politi - cal leaders from both parties who were good Philip Bredesen at managing it. Franklin Roosevelt, Dwight Philip Bredesen served as the 48th Governor of Eisenhower, and John Kennedy, who saw Tennessee from 2003 to 2011. He was elected a themselves as 52 percent presidents, under - Fellow of the American Academy in 2012. stood that part of their job was to manage these other forces in society. That has been much less true of recent presidents. Neither here is no question that some of it has Reagan nor Clinton (at least not in his ½rst Tmoved out into the states. The polariza - term) nor George W. Bush was like that. tion in Tennessee is not as strong but is grow - They all thought of themselves as 60 percent ing steadily. I served for eight years, the last presidents. And Obama so far has continued four of which were starting to move toward the pattern.

When we consider the reasons for our problems, we may want to start by asking not only how our institu - tions have failed to provide what so many citizens apparently want, but also how our political leaders have failed in the task of managing unruly impulses.

what Washington has become. The ½rst four, Managing these other social forces is part though, were not. I managed to get all my of being a leader in a democracy like ours. budgets passed–including the last one, When we consider the reasons for our prob - which was a very tough budget–with sub - lems, we may want to start by asking not stantial majorities on both sides of the aisle. only how our institutions have failed to pro - What I see happening now is different; vide what so many citizens apparently want, maybe it’s the precursor to extreme polar - but also how our political leaders have failed

Bulletin of the American Academy of Arts & Sciences, Winter 2013 15 presentations

in this task of managing these unruly Norman Ornstein impulses. I mentioned the idea that some people are lamenting that the barbarians are You raise a good point that I think we will sacking Washington. The barbarians, come back to on some level. What happens though, are always out there. They sacked when voters are extremely unhappy with the Rome because Rome eventually made it pos - state of things and are looking for people to sible for them to do so. Don’t blame the bar - hold accountable? Unlike in a parliamen - barians, blame Rome. So we must ask: what tary system, they do not have an easy way of is it about our institutions that is not meet - ½guring out who to hold accountable; and ing the needs of people, and therefore allow - even when they do, given the system we ing these forces to come into play? have, it may not make much of a difference. However, let me divert from this for a bit to talk about the one institution that seems to have that larger level of respect: the U.S. military. Every year, I visit the Army War College in Carlisle, Pennsylvania. I come away feeling so good about the experience, in part because of what I see in terms of how they are training the next generation of mil - itary leaders. The focus is not simply on making war, but on stepping back and look - ing at larger societal and historical perspec - tives. There is a conscious effort to place the military within the civil society. In your experience, Ambassador Eiken - berry, how much does that help explain why people view military leadership and our troops in a different light than other institu - tions, and also in a very different light than we did twenty-½ve years ago?

16 Bulletin of the American Academy of Arts & Sciences, Winter 2013 challenges to american institutions

At a time when we have lost confidence in many of our institutions, the military helps satisfy our need to reclaim some ill-defined “American values” of the past.

for that. Second, if we look at who is coming international reputation, and the welfare of out of today’s military, we see men and our forces. My third concern involves the women who have learned standards and dis - political ownership and accountability of cipline and who have received a high degree our armed forces. For many years now, we of technical training and quality education. have had an all-volunteer force, not a con - The leadership and management skills that script force. Are the bonds between our mil - our soldiers, sailors, airmen, and marines itary and the American people being frayed develop while serving are highly valued. And as a result? As I walk through airports, I will third, the military is seen as a repository of often see an American citizen stop a uni - American values. At a time when we have formed American soldier, shake his hand, lost con½dence in many of our institutions, and thank him for his service. Sometimes I Karl Eikenberry the military helps satisfy our need to reclaim wonder if the subtext is “thank you for mak - Karl Eikenberry is the William J. Perry Fellow in some ill-de½ned “American values” of the ing it possible for me not to serve.” International Security at . He past. Thomas Friedman and Michael Man - Dexter Filkins, previously of The New York That Used To Be Times The New Yorker is the former U.S. Ambassador to Afghanistan delbaum, in their 2011 book and now at , has done Us , talk about how, before the game begins some ½rst-class reporting on Afghanistan (2009–2011) and a retired U.S. Army at some sporting events in the United States, and Pakistan. He was interviewed by npr Lieutenant General who also commanded the there is a spotlight put on a group of soldiers. after the publication of an especially power - U.S.-led coalition forces in Afghanistan (2005– They argue that it is almost as if a spotlight ful piece he wrote about where we are 2007). He was elected a Fellow of the American is being put on an American museum, some - headed in Afghanistan. He was asked, “Why Academy in 2012. thing that has been lost. is it, with all the money we’ve spent in Having said this, I’ll mention three con - Afghanistan, that we aren’t getting better very year, Gallup polls show that the . First, the U.S. military is an extraordi - results?” He paused and then replied, “Well, E U.S. military is rated by the American narily expensive enterprise. Our defense you have to consider that in a place like people as one of our nation’s most respected budget dwarfs that of any other nation; Afghanistan, when we’re trying to do devel - institutions. In 2011, 78 percent of Americans indeed, it is larger than the next ten biggest opment work or military work, it’s like indicated that they had a great amount of defense spenders combined . Forty-½ve per - building an outpost on the moon.” We con½dence in the military. (Second was cent of global defense spending is by the U.S. would of course admire any force–volun - small business, at 64 percent.) Compare this military. That level of expenditure should teer or draft–trying to build an outpost on to Congress, whose rating has been going lead us to revisit President Eisenhower’s the moon. But I would argue that it is only down in recent years and is now at 12 per - concern about the military-industrial com - because we have a volunteer force that cent. U.S. military: 78 percent; Congress: 12 plex. Make no mistake, there is huge corpo - harder questions are not being asked–such percent. What explains this difference? rate interest behind the U.S. military, as well as, why are we trying to build an outpost on I believe there are three reasons. First, the as huge political interest. A second concern the moon in the ½rst place? military is looked at as the institution that is the unintended consequences that arise provides the shield for the American people. from the frequent use of our military. It is a The United States is a global power, and our powerful institution with great capabilities, military is doing very dif½cult things every and thus we employ it frequently. But that day in far-off places. So it gets rightful credit has consequences in terms of foreign policy,

Bulletin of the American Academy of Arts & Sciences, Winter 2013 17 presentations

Discussion Afghan soldiers and policemen, wouldn’t Norman Ornstein there have been a congressional hearing by Norman Ornstein now? Wouldn’t the American people have In 2008, the fundamentalist religious group demanded a hearing? Focus on the Family released a report spec - A series of sex scandals has recently rever - My second point has to do with accounta - ulating about what the year 2012 would be berated through the military academies and bility within the military. The wars we are like if Barack Obama won the 2008 elec - other places. In the past, we have had ques - ½ghting right now are the kind that may drag tion. The report included a section on how tions about misuse of funds and bloated on for many years. They are also wars taking the repeal of Don’t Ask, Don’t Tell would budgets. As we go through our current place in the context of 24/7 communications, doom society and the military. The com - period of ½scal retrenchment, there are where anyone with an iPhone can capture plete lack of discussion following the end questions about whether military spending something that in the past probably never of Don’t Ask, Don’t Tell suggests that entails taking money away from other would have been widely shared or remarked Focus on the Family was not only mis - things. Might the American people have a upon. We are in a new era in terms of guided, but completely off the mark. What different reaction to the military once the accountability of our senior leadership. Gen - are your observations of how the military wars end and people have time to reflect? eral Charles Krulak, the Commandant of the has handled this change? Our enormous respect for the military rela - Marine Corps in the late 1990s, wrote an arti - tive to other institutions has not been con - cle called “The Strategic Corporal.” He Karl Eikenberry sistent throughout the nation’s history. We argued that in today’s world, the misconduct have witnessed hostility and backlash of a corporal–a junior, noncommissioned It was a set of norms that changed over time. before. Do you see any signs that we might of½cer–could have strategic consequences Our younger of½cers and noncommissioned go from a 78 percent approval rating to a for a military campaign. Think about the of½cers reflect mainstream America on this somewhat lower ½gure? How signi½cant is recent example of an American sergeant who issue, and they are perfectly comfortable it to people within the military to have this reportedly went outside his forward operat - with it. strong standing with the American public? ing base and killed sixteen Afghans. At what point do strategic commanders have to take Norman Ornstein Karl Eikenberry responsibility for the missteps of strategic corporals, and at what point must they go I want to turn to the broader subject of Two points about what is going wrong. The back to the president, the commander-in- polarization and the courts. I was at a panel ½rst involves the issue of oversight: that is, chief, and admit that a strategy being pur sued at Yale Law School a few years ago, on the congressional oversight of the military as is too high-risk? When the U.S. president has occasion of the ½ftieth anniversary of well as the media’s role in examining our to apologize publicly three times in one Brown v. Board of Education . Six former military in order to bring problems to month, as he did in March 2012, for the mis - clerks to justices from Brown talked about light. I would reiterate that some of the conduct of our armed forces, then neither he how the justices believed that their deci - problem here relates to the disconnect nor our country is being well served. sion would have an earth-shaking effect on between the volunteer force and the As we end our combat operations in society, and therefore unanimity in the greater society. For example, in the last Afghanistan, I believe that there will be decision would be important not just for year, more than ½fty American and coali - some reevalution of our armed forces by the the Court and its integrity but for society as tion ( nato ) soldiers have been murdered American people. We look at our forces very a whole. It wasn’t silent acquiescence on by their purported allies from the Afghan differently when we are at war than when we the part of a minority. army and police forces. To date, there has are at peace. Diane, how do you see political polariza - been no serious congressional hearing on tion affecting judges today? There is a per - the topic. Let’s suppose that a draft army ception that you can predict the behavior of could do in Afghanistan what the volunteer judges based on who appointed them, more force is doing. If we had a draft army there so than by the nature of the cases they are and there had been more than ½fty Ameri - considering. This view seems to taint our can and nato soldiers dead at the hands of opinion of the entire judiciary, from the

18 Bulletin of the American Academy of Arts & Sciences, Winter 2013 challenges to american institutions

Supreme Court on down, and it affects over - ment. Or one could contrast this view with Day O’Connor, who had a somewhat differ - all public con½dence in the courts. another that says judges should follow the ent view of these issues, had been an elected old fashioned, common law approach of politician, the last such member of the Diane Wood incrementalism, taking a small step here, a Court. In contrast, a majority of the Warren small step there, and waiting to see what hap - Court had been politicians before serving as Since the time of Brown , a huge archive of pens. Sadly, judges do not have a better crys - justices. We see this problem now at almost materials has become available, showing tal ball than anyone else, and when courts try all levels of the federal judiciary. exactly how the justices came to that deci - to write too broadly, the law of unintended No doubt, part of the reason why judges sion. Each justice reached the conclusion consequences visits with a vengeance. That’s either come out of the academy or move that it was the right decision, and so not only in part what we are seeing with Citizens from one level of the judiciary to the other is were they unanimous in Brown , they were United . Nobody was talking about Caperton or because it is easier to predict how they will unanimous almost through the 1950s, up the judicial speech case in Minnesota. Some - rule from the bench, as opposed to a politi - until Cooper v. Aaron in 1958, when each jus - one either needs to connect the dots much cian who would perhaps be more concerned tice famously published under his individual better or needs to stick to an incrementalist with continuing his legacy for many years name. After that, unanimity began to fall off. approach–which takes me back to the issue after serving. Could you reflect on whether it would be better if the judiciary had a wider The effort to find common ground has been deval - range of people drawn from other profes - sions, including, but not limited to, politics. ued. Nobody thinks a thing of dissenting opinions, sometimes very sharp ones. Diane Wood It is very helpful to have judges from a vari - The norm of coming together as a unani - of unanimity. If you take only a small step, it ety of backgrounds, and there are a number mous Court is about ½nding common is sometimes easier to get everyone marching of ways to secure a diversity of experience. ground; it is not “I’ll vote for you in this case in the same direction. Some people are involved in their commu - because you’ll vote for me in the next case.” The problem has not affected the lower nities, whether they have been working as In my experience, that never happens, and I courts as much because we have mandatory prosecutors or judges or academics; other don’t think it happens at the Supreme Court. jurisdiction. The dissent rate is about 3.5 per - people have focused on other kinds of Nevertheless, the effort to ½nd common cent in the lower courts, compared to some - things. In our court, the Seventh Circuit, we ground has been devalued. Nobody thinks a thing like 35 percent at the Supreme Court. have former prosecutors, former district thing of dissenting opinions, sometimes The lower courts have to take all cases, a judges, and some notable academics. Some very sharp ones. People write concurring greater number of which have fairly clear people have served in the executive branch; opinions when they are so moved, and it answers. It does not matter which president other people, not. Collectively, we bring a deprives us of a sense that there is a clear appointed the judge; he or she is going to fair amount of experience to the table. answer in the law. Chief Justice Roberts, dur - understand the case the same way. But one of the reasons why diversity of ing his con½rmation hearings and in some experience seems to be diminishing at the subsequent speeches, expressed the hope Norman Ornstein Supreme Court level is the con½rmation that he might be able to bring back a greater process, which is an aspect of our system tradition of unanimity. This lasted for about The Citizens United decision, which was writ - that is close to broken. It’s very distressing a term, but once the Court started grappling ten by Justice Kennedy, is breathtakingly to me personally. Our court has had a with more dif½cult cases, it evaporated. naive about what happens in the real world vacancy for three years. How can that be? One could say that the role of judges is to of politics and the real world more generally. We are just a court of appeals in the mid - “get the Constitution right,” no matter how That must partly be because you have a jus - dle of the country, and yet highly quali½ed much is broken in the process, and no tice who has never been in that real world. people are refusing to allow their names to matter what it does to the judiciary’s rela - His entire life has been cloistered, whether be considered for judgeships. Whenever tionship with the other branches of govern - in law ½rms or the judiciary. Justice Sandra there is a district court vacancy, Senators

Bulletin of the American Academy of Arts & Sciences, Winter 2013 19 presentations

Public officials must be able to convey that they have a genuine regard for and understanding of the issues that are important to the people they serve. We must resist the elitist insider game that politics has become in this country. If we aim for these goals, our leaders will generate public confidence despite differences in background, party, and ideology.

Dick Durbin and Mark Kirk in Illinois put Philip Bredesen together a committee, and people can sub - mit résumés to the committee. But people I’m not quite as discouraged about the issue are not sending in their résumés because of the popularity of people in public life. It is they do not want to go through the perfectly possible for our leaders to conduct con½rmation process. They view the themselves in a way that leads to approval process as polarized, lengthy, and intru - from the public. The trick is to approach the sive. So who is left to con½rm? Somebody task with a fundamental respect for the points who has been cloistered, or someone who of view of all people. If you come into of½ce has never said anything. These are not and suddenly identify as a Democrat or people who have been living in the real Republican and then sign on to whatever the world. It is very troublesome, and we at orthodoxy is, you will not get that kind of least need to acknowledge that we have respect. But if you approach the job by saying, created a very unsatisfactory bar for some - for example, “I know none of those tea party one to pass before he or she can move into people will vote for me, but they have some the federal courts. points. Their issues about the size of govern - ment and the role of states ought to be dis - Norman Ornstein cussed. I don’t like the context in which they are coming up, but they are valid points.” Phil, could you reflect on the American peo - Public of½cials must be able to convey ple’s low approval rating for Congress and that they have a genuine regard for and the challenge it poses. Have governors, state understanding of the issues that are impor - legislators, and mayors fared better than tant to the people they serve, who are the Congress? Is the problem getting bigger? voters and taxpayers. We must resist the elit - ist insider game that politics has become in this country. If we aim for these goals, our leaders will generate public con½dence despite differences in background, party, and ideology.

20 Bulletin of the American Academy of Arts & Sciences, Winter 2013 challenges to american institutions

All we can do is try to Philip Bredesen

ask tough, appropriate I think it has something to do with approach - questions on both sides ing leadership positions with a bit of humil - ity and honest regard for the fact that and see where it lands – someone from the right wing of the tea party, and even that is not for instance, or the left wing of the Demo - cratic party, has something to say. Despite always satisfying. disagreement over speci½c proposals, there will often be enormous tolerance or even support when the public understands that we do not do a very good job of covering the you are trying to solve a problem and move rest of the judicial system. forward in an honest and cooperative way. Finally, I want to pick up on Governor Consider the question about the relative Bredesen’s remarks about how our leaders role of the states and the federal govern - can either inspire or undermine public ment: how far should the power of each con½dence. What can a leader speci½cally extend? Today, the tea party and others are do or say to rise above the extraordinary insisting on an open discussion of this topic. Judy Woodruff division that we have today? Although states rights have historically been Judy Woodruff is Co-Anchor and Senior Corre - thought of in the unfortunate context of seg - spondent for PBS NewsHour. She was elected a regation, the issue is a legitimate one that Fellow of the American Academy in 2012. ought to be talked about by smart people in this country. When I was overseeing the Medicaid ’m very proud that every few days or so on changes that we had to make in Tennessee, Ithe NewsHour , at the end of the program, it was extraordinarily disruptive. I had sit- we list the names and pictures of those who ins in my of½ce, 24/7 for six months; I had a have died while serving in Afghanistan (orig - group of Democrats visit me and say that I inally it was both Iraq and Afghanistan). But would be a footnote in Tennessee history, I’m increasingly struck by how those who that I wouldn’t be reelected and wouldn’t have taken their own lives do not show up on even be able to win the primary when it that list. While we are starting to hear more came around. Well, I ended up setting a about it, all of us in the media need to do a record in the next election, and I believe that better job of dealing with post-traumatic was because citizens are perfectly prepared stress disorder. It goes to the question of the to reward what they see as an honest effort all-volunteer force, as Ambassador Eiken - to accommodate different points of view, to berry discussed, and how multiple deploy - respect different points of view, and to solve ments affect the lives of people who problems. That, to me, is the path to success. otherwise are very dedicated. They are doing this for their country, but also sometimes to Norman Ornstein get an education. Repeated deployments may be something more than they can handle. Given our modern methods of communica - In terms of the judiciary, I wish there were tion and media, I disagree with you to some a better way for the media to get a handle on extent. I wish that our leadership could tran - what the courts do. We have some fantastic scend some of the larger challenges and reporters who cover the Supreme Court, but problems that we face, but we now live in a

Bulletin of the American Academy of Arts & Sciences, Winter 2013 21 presentations

world without the kind of public square that If the newspapers in this we had thirty or forty years ago, when we had only a few sources of communication country do their job and and a shared set of facts. Our world is more give the people in their polarized now, and it is not just because of partisan media, which we have had in many communities the news other eras of American history. Rather, our challenges are intensi½ed by a mix of factors they value and need, that extend beyond simple partisanship, they will find a way to including: the breadth, depth, reach, and immediacy of the 24-hour news cycle; the stay afloat. fact that people can easily shun sources of information that do not reinforce what they Today, the media include many different know or believe; the fact that it is much eas - forms of communication, all of which have ier to perpetrate lies, with no hope of fact- a hand in shaping who we are as a culture. In checkers ever catching up; the opportunity the 1960s and 1970s, as Norm mentioned, for ampli½cation that is inherent in social there was one set of facts that we learned media; and the willingness, in an era of trib - from Walter Cronkite and the network news alization, to demonize people and leaders. Alex S. Jones shows, which got their fundamental frame - The challenges also relate to the fact that Alex S. Jones is Director of the Joan Shorenstein work from a few institutions like The New the business models have changed. Fox Center on the Press, Politics and Public Policy York Times . You don’t need me to tell you that News, for example, has developed a business and the Laurence M. Lombard Lecturer in the it is a very different situation now. model that brings in more net pro½ts with Newspapers have a special role in society. Press and Public Policy at the Harvard Kennedy an audience of 2.5 million people at any (I’m from a newspaper background, so per - School. He was elected a Fellow of the American given time than what the three networks can haps I’m prejudiced.) Their focus is local, and Academy in 2011. make combined, with an audience of 30 mil - they work to identify the commonweal in a lion people. Newspapers, struggling to community. This is one of the reasons why, attract readers, have had to turn to Web want to look at it from a slightly different despite what you have heard about the news - models, which so far are proving dif½cult to I perspective because I was struck by what paper business, the vast majority of newspa - make ½nancially feasible. Thus the wall that Ambassador Eikenberry said about the dif - pers are now making an operating pro½t. The presumably exists between the news staff ference between a volunteer army and a newspapers that have gone out of business and the business staff is challenged every draft army. I was the last part of the Ameri - were, for the most part, the second newspa - day by increasing pressure from commercial can male population that was subject to the per in a town. People have generally under - interests. In addition, journalism’s watch - draft. I served in Vietnam, and I came to stood that the institution of the newspaper is dog role is being challenged because there is believe that the most democratic thing that very important to the social fabric, not only no easy (or affordable) way to support the happened in our country was forcing a group because it tends to be an objective source of work of investigative journalists as well as of men who had nothing whatsoever in news but because it is the news utility. those who focus on congressional delega - common (except that they were all shaved Broadcast or local television has never been tions and local or state politics. and naked) to go through basic training willing to take on the same kind of reportorial So let me start with you, Alex; pick any of together and get to know each other. With role as newspapers have. One exception is the those challenges and reflect on it. I imagine the loss of the draft army, we also lost one of NewsHour , which has been a bastion of even- that your perspective is shaped not only as the ways we became more mindful of other minded reportage and commentary. To my someone who studies the journalism and kinds of people. We live in cocoons now that astonishment, one of our presidential candi - media enterprises, but also as someone who insulate us not only from facts we do not dates has publicly said that if he is elected, he teaches a generation of people looking to like, but also from people who are different will cut off funding for pbs . That’s astound - enter the profession. from us. ing to contemplate as another piece in this

22 Bulletin of the American Academy of Arts & Sciences, Winter 2013 challenges to american institutions

puzzle of the media’s role in shaping who we Discussion described as opinion journalism, is expecting are and what our values are. the moderator to pick up on their point of That said, I think Governor Bredesen is Norman Ornstein view. They expect us to ask the questions that onto something when he urges us not to lose will elicit the answers they want to hear. our minds about something that is much My collaborator Tom Mann and I have taken In the past, viewers and listeners would more complicated than just the dif½culties journalists to task for what we call “the sin of write letters to network ombudsmen and of the newspaper business, for example, or false equivalence.” Groups on the left and the individual correspondents. Now we actively even the Citizens United decision. Think right are ready to pounce anytime they think solicit audience responses, and they flood us about how much public opinion in this they are being treated unfairly. As a response with email messages and online comments. country has changed on the issue of homo - to our criticism, I received an email message In many ways, it is terri½c that we hear from sexuality, for instance. This was an abso - from a veteran reporter covering Congress so many members of the public. On the other lutely radioactive issue when I was a child, who said, “You don’t understand, it is our job hand, I sense that many of these people write but now our nation seems to have accepted to report both sides of the story.” I replied: “I because they want us to weigh in on their the fact that homosexuality exists and that it thought your job was to report the truth. side. The left wants us to weigh in on the left; should be accepted, even that same-sex cou - Sometimes there are multiple sides of a story, the right wants us to weigh in on the right. ples should be allowed to marry. To me, this sometimes there aren’t.” Judy, how worried All we can do is try to ask tough, appropriate demonstrates just how fluid these kinds of are journalists about this problem? Is there questions on both sides and see where it things are when you get to where people live. any way out of the dilemma? lands–and even that is not always satisfying. We have a new, digital world to adjust to. In The concept of “truth” is tricky because one this new world, people can reinforce their Judy Woodruff side will say that it sees the truth this way, and own judgments, their own preferences for the other side will say it sees the truth another what is truth, by relying on broadly de½ned It troubles us to different degrees, and I think way. For instance, you could state that the fed - media sources whose information may come it depends on where you sit and what news eral de½cit is $1.6 trillion, but somebody might from all different kinds of places. But at the organization you are with. We think about it ask, “How did you get that ½gure?” Then you same time, people can change their minds as every day at the NewsHour as we consider enter a never-ending discussion about num - well. They changed their minds about what how to address the main stories of that day. bers that leads you down a rabbit hole. the reality was in Iraq. They changed their For example, you could argue that a story on minds about gay rights. It may be messy, but immigration has ten sides, not just two. But Norman Ornstein it is a good-faith process of ½guring out what if we are not turning the entire program over they think and what values they want to to immigration, and thus have only nine or Over the last ½fteen years or so, public sup - espouse. The future will undoubtedly be com - ten minutes for the segment, we try to ½gure port for doing something about climate plicated–there will be things to argue about, out the two spokespeople on either side (or change has declined. I would argue that a to correct, to change and improve–but I do maybe sometimes it’s three or four) who will good part of the reason for that is because not think that the future will be catastrophic. give a full sense of the argument. news shows will feature one voice from the Newspapers in particular will not go out I think what you are getting at, Norm, is a 99.5 percent of scientists who have reached of business. They will not be as they were in problem that I see in all the media at different consensus on what is happening in the the past, but they will still be there–and not times. It is the sense that if you put two people world and one voice from the 0.5 percent just because publishers want to keep them, out there and then let them argue, you are who haven’t, and then inevitably will treat but because communities want them. If the going to learn something. That’s not always them as if they are equal. My guess is that if newspapers in this country do their job and the case because if they are simply repeating we had a debate today about whether the give the people in their communities the the party line on each side, then you haven’t world is flat, a news show would ½nd the 0.5 news they value and need, they will ½nd a really advanced understanding. So it does percent of scientists who think the world is way to stay afloat. require probing and pushing on the part of flat. And then we would begin to see skepti - the interviewer. But the audience, which is cism in the broader public about whether already on the edge of its seat, and which is the world is not flat. accustomed to seeing what is more accurately

Bulletin of the American Academy of Arts & Sciences, Winter 2013 23 presentations

Judy Woodruff Newspapers are the pri -

What we try to do when we begin a discus - mary source of original sion on a topic such as climate change is say, information in any local “99 percent of scientists, according to this respected society, that respected institute, community, and there is and this respected think tank, say X; but there is still a group arguing Y.” We will put more reporting happen - two or three people on the program, or we ing at the local level than will do a report in which we interview several people, and we try to put the arguments in at the national level. context. But believe me, no matter what you do, you hear from a very loud and unhappy climate change is because the mainstream other side. Just recently, there was a develop - media, which is what I believe you are refer - ment in terms of climate change research, ring to, has framed the issue as “half the sci - and a respected scientist who had been on entists say this, and half say that.” Any the skeptical side moved to the other side. objective evaluation of what mainstream We tried to explain the background and put media has done in this regard would show everything in context, but there were still Martin Baron that we have not presented it as half and half screams from the skeptics saying that we had Martin Baron became Executive Editor of The by any means; instead, what is at play here not given their side enough attention. Washington Post in January 2013. Previously, is an alternative media that is at least as pow - We can and should reflect what the public he served as Editor of . He erful, if not more powerful, than the main - says, but we still have a job to do, which is to stream media. By alternative media , I mean was elected a Fellow of the American Academy report the news and try to reflect as many websites, blogs, social media, and other in 2012. different sides of an argument as possible. ways that people communicate with each We can’t collapse every day in anguish other and pass along information to each because not every person is happy with what e endeavor to ½nd the truth and tell it other. Many people ½nd these forms of com - we are doing. Wto the public honestly, honorably, and munication more persuasive and more cred - accurately. But the public sees these things ible than what they read in mainstream Norman Ornstein from a different perspective. A recent Pew media. And what you ½nd in alternative study revealed that something like two- media, to an even greater degree than what Marty, could you comment on this issue thirds of Republicans believe that Fox News you ½nd on cable news, is a lot of provoca - speci½cally from the perspective of newspa - tells the truth accurately and fairly, while tion and a lot of fabrication. That should be per journalism. only a third of Democrats believe that to be a far greater concern to the American public the case; and two-thirds of Democrats than the issue of balance and bias. believe that The New York Times tells the truth, whereas only a third of Republicans believe that. We can tell the truth as we ½nd it–and I think that is what we ought to be doing– but the public may view our results quite dif - ferently, depending on their preexisting points of view. Moreover, the public these days is drawn to media that present news af½rming their preexisting points of view. I take issue with your point that the reason why there is a difference of opinion about

24 Bulletin of the American Academy of Arts & Sciences, Winter 2013 challenges to american institutions

Discussion erally larger than that of all those other cover their congressional delegations. They media outlets combined. Several years ago, may try to cover them from their home - Norman Ornstein Pew studied the question, how does news town, but they typically do not. Many of happen? Where does it come from? Who these same newspapers have eliminated or What are The Boston Globe ’s rivals? Is it the originates the stories? Focusing on the city sharply cut back coverage of their state leg - Boston Herald ? Politico? Is it the various and of , Pew determined that 95 per - islatures and their governors. After I left The sundry blogs in some of these alternative cent of original stories came from newspa - Miami Herald , where I had served as editor, media that you refer to? Has your view pers in the city. the paper combined bureaus with the St. changed with regard to your rivals? Petersburg Times (now the Tampa Bay Times ). Norman Ornstein There are fewer people covering the legisla - Martin Baron ture and the governor in the state of Florida, used to have a stringer or and that is a matter of great concern. It has changed. In the past, the primary rival a reporter go to every school board meeting At the local level, institutions like school would have been the other newspaper in in the counties around D.C. They do not do boards, courts, and police departments town. But you have to de½ne what you mean that anymore because they cannot afford it. require not only day-to-day coverage but by rival . Do you mean rivals for getting sto - How severe is the challenge to journalism’s also deeper investigative reports. Many ries and information, or do you mean a rival watchdog role, whether at the level of the newspapers no longer have the resources to for revenue? Those are two different things. school boards, which now have no one do that. Some others, much to their credit, Many people have interpreted the decline of watching them (unless they are televised), continue to do that kind of work, and if you revenue for media outlets as a decline in or in Congress, where we no longer have look at who receives the Pulitzer Prizes from audience, but in fact we have seen a dramatic reporters digging into the transactions of year to year, you see that many local papers increase. The Boston Globe now has an online individual members. are still doing very important and coura - audience of six to seven million unique visi - geous work investigating their local institu - tors per month. That’s an extraordinary Martin Baron tions. But a lot of that work is tremendously number that we never would have had with expensive. At the Globe , for example, we ini - a print paper alone. People around the coun - We are tremendously challenged. Many tiated the investigation into the cover-up of try and the world now have access to infor - large metropolitan newspapers have elimi - sexual abuse within the Catholic Church. mation in the Globe . nated their Washington bureaus over the That cost us well over $1 million in one year, Today our greatest rivals for revenue are last ten years, which means that they do not and that’s probably a minimum of what it websites such as News, Facebook, YouTube, and Yahoo. These sites are increas - ingly going after not just national advertisers but local advertisers, too. In terms of com - petition for information, I’m always tempt - ed to say we have no competition; but we do of course have competition from other news outlets. Newspapers are the primary source of original information in any local commu - nity, and there is more reporting happening at the local level than at the national level. Most investigative reporting, for instance, happens at the local level, and a newspaper typically has a reporting staff far larger than any other media outlet in its community. In fact, the newspaper’s reporting staff is gen - Judy Woodruff and Alex Jones

Bulletin of the American Academy of Arts & Sciences, Winter 2013 25 presentations

Many people in our country still do not have access reporters there and to keep them safe. The same has been true in Afghanistan; I to technologies that would allow them to get news couldn’t say how many reporters are really online, yet they might be able to pick up a newspaper covering Afghanistan anymore. It is a func - tion of revenue and money, and it is a much on the street. I worry that we are excluding them, and bigger question than we have time to deal with this morning. But I will say that ever that this may be another example of how we are, in since people learned that they can get the fact, spreading apart as opposed to coming together news for free online, the industry has been in a kind of crisis. We will ½gure it out, but as a society. it’s a struggle. cost us to do that work over the course of a Norman Ornstein Diane Wood year. Then you face the challenge of poten - tial libel suits and court judgments. Many I want to invite those from the ½rst part of I want to go back to our broadest topic– papers (and some newspaper owners) have our panel to add their comments or ask any stewarding democracy–to point out that decided that they do not want the flack or questions they have. the move online raises more questions than the expense that come with investigative simply how news organizations can make reporting. They don’t think it is necessary or Karl Eikenberry money. Many people in our country still do that it can be, to use the word that is bandied not have access to technologies that would about so often, monetized as a business prop - David Ignatius, of The Washington Post , com - allow them to get news online, yet they osition. Indeed, there is some question as to mented that embedded reporting “comes at might be able to pick up a newspaper on the whether it can be monetized, whether the a price.” He continued: “We’re observing street. I worry that we are excluding them, kind of money that is being spent can be these wars from just one perspective, not and that this may be another example of earned back. seeing them for the whole. When you see my how we are, in fact, spreading apart as byline from Kandahar, Kabul, Basra, you opposed to coming together as a society. Alex Jones should not think of me going out among the ordinary people, asking questions on all Philip Bredesen There is no question about the muscle and sides. I’m usually inside an American mili - bone being cut away from statehouse report - tary bubble, and that vantage point has In listening to the discussion, I was struck by ing or local beat reporting that leads to value, but it’s hardly the full picture. I fear the ease with which everyone slipped into deeper investigations. However, some other that embedded media is becoming the this notion of reporting as being two-sided, entities have stepped in to ½ll the gap. For norm, and not just when it comes to war.” with a spokesperson for one side and a instance, journalism schools around the I’d like to hear any thoughts from fellow spokesperson for the other. By casting sto - country are now doing serious reporting. panelists on this. ries in this way, do we immediately set up a Some foundations are funding speci½c proj - “good versus bad” dichotomy that obscures ects that require the kinds of reporting that Judy Woodruff the nuances of an issue and encourages have suffered the most cuts. head-butting between spokespeople? Any news organization, but especially any He is absolutely right to be concerned. When newspaper, that thinks investigative journal - reporting from a war zone, it is incumbent Judy Woodruff ism is not in its ½nancial interest is headed on correspondents to make very clear what for bankruptcy. The very thing that will keep their limits are. I would also add that this is I was speaking in shorthand when I talked these institutions in business is that brand a casualty of money. So many news organi - about getting the two sides of an issue. It’s not of reporting. zations covered the hot part of the Iraq War, as if we plunge in and take only the rnc talk - but when it ground down, they pulled their ing points and the dnc talking points; we put reporters out. It cost so much to keep more thought into it than that. But it is

26 Bulletin of the American Academy of Arts & Sciences, Winter 2013 challenges to american institutions

absolutely true that the more folks we can talk nothing was accomplished just by posting it. organizations in danger of losing that role of to, the better. And this includes both those in He had to give the information to The New gatekeeper, now that they no longer control the middle and those who are ½rmly on each York Times , , and Der Spiegel in the release of information? side. We should not shut out the extremes, order for it to be noticed. And when he did keeping in mind what percentage of the pop - so, he gave these papers the opportunity to Alex Jones ulation they represent. We sometimes hear treat the information responsibly, which I from viewers who ask, “Why don’t you ever think they did. What’s more of a danger is that, for instance, cover the far left? You’re always covering the The New York Times has reported things that far right position on, say, the role of religion in Judy Woodruff the Obama administration has not been politics, but you’re not covering the far left.” happy about, and the administration has I think we need to remember that WikiLeaks gone after the reporters to give up their Martin Baron is not journalism. It’s somebody with an sources. If you start putting people in jail for agenda who wanted to get information out talking to reporters, you are going to have a I hope I did not slip into the notion that we into the open. You could argue that there real problem with reporters being able to do have two sides, because I don’t see it that was a lot of valuable information, but there their job at the highest level, which is to tell way. These stories have many sides or no was also a lot of harmful information. the public things that people in power do not sides. It is a matter of ½nding out what is want them to know, for a variety of reasons. really going on, and that is the bulk of what Norman Ornstein I think that problem could be much more we try to do. We also have to be careful not dangerous than . to view all these stories in a political frame - The New York Times , or The Boston Globe , or work: that it’s just talking heads debating The Washington Post has to decide whether Karl Eikenberry political issues. In fact, the issues relate to running a story or making information what is happening in society at large. The available would damage national security Having been on the receiving end of the pain more our news stories convey this, the better interests. I think most of us have been very that was felt from the WikiLeaks release, I we serve the public. comfortable with the fact that those deci - have to tell you, I sat around with the sions have so far been made by responsible, embassy team and went through all the Norman Ornstein mature people who weigh the right to know cables that had potentially been leaked. In against the needs of the nation. Are news the end, we asked ourselves, why are we I have received several cards with questions from the audience, covering everything from WikiLeaks, to the military, to Citizens United . So, WikiLeaks: good or bad?

Alex Jones

As far as I’m concerned, The New York Times dealt with WikiLeaks in a responsible way. It took information that was made available, went through it carefully, and screened out anything it thought would put people’s lives in danger; but it did not pretend that the information was not now available. The news media are supposed to tell us what they ½nd out, and I think that is what happened. Julian Assange and his organization made this information available, but he found that Karl Eikenberry , Philip Bredesen , and Norman Ornstein

Bulletin of the American Academy of Arts & Sciences, Winter 2013 27 presentations

writing all of this stuff? Who is even reading Diane Wood opt out of the union’s political activities. If it? So I think that one of the lessons has to you belong to a union and it supports the do with managing information. For a long time, the United States (and most Democratic candidate but you like the of the rest of the world) has followed the rule Republican candidate, you are entitled to a Norman Ornstein that a corporation is a citizen of the state, or refund of your dues to the extent that the if applicable, the country that incorporated it. union participates in political activities. When we recruit for the volunteer force, we In the United States, we have lots of Delaware There is a whole line of Supreme Court cases appeal to people by describing military ser- corporate “citizens” in this sense; we also about this. Corporations are even more com - vice as a career-building move and an oppor - have a certain number of corporations that plicated, but without going into all the details, tunity to make some money. Is this a positive are citizens of other U.S. states. Typically we suf½ce it to say that the Court was not looking development? have not looked through the corporate struc - at the differences in the agency model that ture to see where the shareholders come might be appropriate for different kinds of Karl Eikenberry from. So a company incorporated in groups. Going forward, there could be some Delaware may be a wholly owned subsidiary room for development along those lines. If you look at the demographics of our mili - of a Japanese corporation, or it may have for - tary, it is not a complete cross-section of eign citizens as shareholders. Despite the for - Norman Ornstein American society. Both the Hispanic and eign ownership, the Delaware incorporation Asian populations in the United States are means that it is still a U.S. “citizen.” In fact, I want to add one ½nal twist on this topic. Not under-represented in our military. Perhaps the United States has a network of treaties long after he was chosen as Governor Rom - most surprising is that we tend to be over- that make either of these scenarios perfectly ney’s running mate, Paul Ryan went to Las represented in certain parts of the country. lawful. But those treaties run into conflict Vegas for a long and intimate private meeting Alabama has ten recruiting stations for the with our election laws, which do not permit with businessman and gop donor Sheldon armed forces; the Greater Los Angeles area foreign influence in our elections. One of the Adelson. The SpeechNow case that I mentioned has three. That’s okay, except that the Greater many things the Supreme Court has to ½gure earlier has blown a hole in the notion that these Los Angeles area is about three times the pop - out is how to reconcile these two models. super pac s are indepen dent of candidates, and ulation of Alabama. Geographically, we are In addition, it is worth recalling that Justice now they can appear at fundraisers, among not doing a good job of making our military Kennedy approaches Citizens United as though other things. Sheldon Adelson’s money comes represent American society. a corporation is nothing more or less than a much less from the casino business in Las Motivations for coming into the service are group of people. But if we look at the idea of Vegas, which has tanked in recent years, but mixed. Certainly, the ½nancial aspect is an a group more carefully, we see that there are almost entirely from Macao and Singapore. If important one, but the pricetag for our tax - at least three distinct scenarios. First, if those Sheldon Adelson calls someone to whom he payers is steadily increasing. Current health of us sitting here decided that we wanted to has contributed “independently” tens of mil - care costs in the military are about $50 billion get together and send money to a certain lions of dollars and asks for an appointment, a year, and they are going up. Judy mentioned political candidate, we could all chip in, say, you can be sure that he will get that appoint - post-traumatic stress disorder; that and other $100 each and send that contribution as a ment. And you can also be sure that the subject health issues from Afghanistan and Iraq are group. Secondly, as Justice Kennedy points of policy toward China will come up. So there driving costs higher and higher. Retirement out, unions are a type of group. So unions can isn’t much of a distinction here. n costs, too, are going up. The role that material participate in the political process. Finally, a bene½t plays in building this magni½cent corporation can be thought of as a group. © 2013 by Norman J. Ornstein, Diane P. force has to be looked at. I think it is an unsus - Here’s the rub: the issue of agency is different Wood, Philip Bredesen, Karl Eikenberry, tainable model. in each situation. In the ½rst scenario, we have Judy Woodruff, Alex S. Jones, and Martin collectively decided on a course of action, and Baron, respectively Norman Ornstein every person had a direct say in the decision. In the case of unions, although the group is To view or listen to the presentations, Diane, how does Citizens United affect foreign entitled to participate in the political process, visit http:// www.amacad.org/events/ Induction2012. corporations? the Supreme Court has insisted on a right to

28 Bulletin of the American Academy of Arts & Sciences, Winter 2013 The Modern Concept of Substance

On November 8, 2012, at a Stated Meeting held in Cambridge, Frank Wilczek , the Herman Feshbach Professor of Physics at the Massachusetts Institute of Technology, discussed the modern concept of substance and the nature of the Higgs particle. His presentation and the introduction given by Jerome Friedman , Institute Professor and Professor of Physics Emeritus at the Massachusetts Institute of Technology, follow.

Introduction by Jerome Friedman Jerome Friedman is Institute Professor and Pro - David Politzer discovered a ½eld theory that date for dark matter, and various laborato - fessor of Physics Emeritus at the Massachusetts successfully describes the strong interaction. ries are searching for it. Institute of Technology. He was elected a Fellow qcd predicts that the interaction between Frank also invented a new form of quan - of the American Academy of Arts and Sciences quarks will be weaker at short distances and tum statistics that has important implica - in 1980. get stronger at long distances. The ½rst tions in condensed matter physics, and he behavior is called asymptotic freedom. The has made a number of contributions to rank Wilczek is one of the most promi - latter feature is called infrared slavery, and it understanding deep issues in the imple - Fnent theoretical physicists in the world. explains why individual quarks have not mentation of qcd in particle physics and His theoretical work is characterized by its been found in nature, even though they have astrophysics. inventiveness, depth, and breadth. been seen inside the proton and neutron His talents go well beyond his scholarly He received his undergraduate education with the equivalent of a very powerful elec - work. He has written a number of highly at the University of Chicago and did his grad - tron microscope. successful books that bring modern physics uate research at Princeton under the supervi - qcd has been veri½ed in numerous exper - to the public. The latest of these is titled The sion of David Gross. He taught at Princeton iments over a wide range of energies. It is Lightness of Being . He is currently ½nishing a University; the University of California, one of the pillars of the standard model, novel. In addition, he plays the piano and the Santa Barbara; and the Institute for Advanced which is our highly successful theoretical accordion and performs in rock bands. Study. In 2000 he was appointed as the Her - description of the fundamental particles and man Feshbach Professor of Physics at mit . their interaction. The standard model is Frank has a number of signi½cant achieve - considered one of the crowning achieve - ments to his credit. But he is best known for ments of twentieth-century physics. his pioneering work in developing the theory For this pioneering work Frank was of the strong interaction, known as quantum awarded the Nobel Prize in 2004, along chromodynamics, or qcd for short. The with David Gross and David Politzer. In strong force is the force that holds quarks addition to the Nobel Prize, Frank has won together to form other particles, such as pro - many other honors. These include the tons and neutrons; it also holds neutrons and Sakurai Prize, the Dirac Medal, the Lorentz protons together to form the atomic nucleus. Medal, the King Faisal Prize, the Lilienfeld When I was a graduate student at the Uni - Prize of the American Physical Society, and versity of Chicago in the early 1950s, it was the Particle Physics Prize of the European said that it would take a hundred years to Physical Society. understand the strong force. At the time there Frank’s research has covered a broad was a highly successful quantum theory of range of topics in condensed matter physics, electromagnetism based on ½eld theory. But astrophysics, and particle physics. In addi - ½eld theory did not appear to be suitable for tion to his work on qcd , he predicted the the strong interaction. However, in 1973 existence of a new particle in nature called Frank, David Gross, and, independently, the axion. This particle is a plausible candi -

Bulletin of the American Academy of Arts & Sciences, Winter 2013 29 presentations

A great achievement of nineteenth-century physics was to understand that light consists of wave-like disturbances in electric and magnetic fields. The fields, as dynamical entities, fill all space.

I–and modern physics–want to consider probabilities are large, but in principle non- light and matter as one thing, in what follows zero probabilities extend out to spatial I will use “substance” to denote that thing. I in½nity, in any of the states. These visualiza - will use the word “matter” as it is tradition - tions, which make quite attractive patterns, ally used, to denote the kind of thing that are not fantasies. (They should seem fantas - makes rocks and people. In the literature of tic, but they are not fantasies.) We use pro - modern physics, “matter” is usually taken to grams like Mathematica and Photoshop to include light, but for present purposes we create the images, but the description of will have to step back from that usage. hydrogen they incarnate is based on equa - As many of you know, in quantum theory, tions that have been veri½ed with extraordi - Frank Wilczek a product of the twentieth century, some of nary accuracy–in important respects, to Frank Wilczek is the Herman Feshbach Professor the main distinctions between light and parts in trillions. There can be little doubt of Physics at the Massachusetts Institute of Tech - matter, as understood previously in physics, that this is the way nature works, and that the nology. He was elected a Fellow of the American went away. A great achievement of nine - images are an honest portrayal of profound teenth-century physics was to understand understanding. Academy of Arts and Sciences in 1993. that light consists of wave-like disturbances Conversely, light can sometimes behave in electric and magnetic ½elds. The ½elds, as as if it were made of particles, called pho - e learned in the twentieth century dynamical entities, ½ll all space. Matter, on tons. I’ll say more about that later. In the Wthat matter is a very different thing the other hand, was thought to be built up more accurate, uni½ed treatment both mat - than everyday experience suggests. To from tiny particles that occupy discrete bits ter and light obey the same kinds of equa - understand it deeply, we need entirely new of space. We learned in the twentieth cen - tions. Perhaps you have seen a classic concepts. These concepts have brought a tury, with the development of quantum the - paradoxical image, that when apprehended new level of beauty and coherence to fun - ory, that this distinction is super½cial. from one point of view seems to be a rabbit damental physics, a foundation of our If you want to understand the behavior of but from another point of view seems to be world-picture. They also invite new ques - matter on small scales–within its con - a duck. In reality the image is neither, or tions and ambitions. stituent atoms, say–then matter must be both: It is what it is, a dabbit. Similarly, we The modern understanding of matter has described, as light is, using space-½lling have wavicles. many aspects. I won’t be able to do justice to ½elds. But they are not precisely the same The wave/particle synthesis transcends all of them in the brief time available. kind of ½elds that we had before; they retain one major contrast between light and mat - Instead, I am going to focus on two big ideas. a vestige of the old particle concept. An ter. But there are several other apparent dif - The ½rst is that all matter is like light. The example will be helpful here. We can visual - ferences between the usual conceptions of second is that space is a material. ize how an electron settles down when it is light and matter that need to be explained, if Until recently people thought there was a bound to a proton in a hydrogen atom. In any we are going to get a uni½ed concept. basic dichotomy between matter and light. of its orbitals, called stationary states, we can For example: Light gets created and It seems obvious–so obvious, that it went picture the probability of ½nding an electron destroyed easily, whereas matter is perma - unquestioned for centuries. But it is not so. in different places. That ½eld of probabilities nent; it gets rearranged but not created or Many relics of outmoded ideas are embed - is what the electron’s wave function encodes. destroyed. Light travels at the speed of light, ded in everyday language, and so here. Since We can use brighter areas to show where the and is always on the move, whereas material

30 Bulletin of the American Academy of Arts & Sciences, Winter 2013 the modern concept of substance

particles, such as electrons and protons, most conceptually tight, the most consis - that all-pervasive cosmic molasses, rather travel at less than the speed of light, and can tent, and the most elegant. than an intrinsic shortcoming. come to rest. Light transfers energy from one So, to bring unity and beauty to our The molasses metaphor is kind of icky. place to another. Matter, when it moves at all, description of nature, we would like to make Here is a nicer metaphor: Imagine that a race transfers mass from one place to another. the world from building blocks, fundamen - of intelligent ½sh evolves in the oceans of a And perhaps what is most striking, light is in tal particles, that have zero mass. Unfortu - water-rich planet. Those ½sh get so intelli - a deep sense a single thing, whereas matter nately, many of the fundamental particles gent that they start to think about physics seems to be made out of several different we know do not cooperate. Electrons, for and the laws of motion. They carefully study things. Atoms of the different chemical ele - instance, do not move at the speed of light in how things move, and they derive some very ments are made of electrons and different empty space, but always slower. complicated laws, because the way things kinds of nuclei; the nuclei are made out of What can we do about that? When physi - move through water is very complicated. protons and neutrons; the neutrons and pro - cists do not like how the world works, we The push-back of the water itself compli - tons are made out of up and down quarks and have learned there is an interesting fallback cates motion. gluons. The list of matter’s building blocks position: We imagine a better world, and For a long time, our ½sh struggle with gets more sophisticated, but it doesn’t con - then see if we can somehow gracefully mess their equations, until one day a ½sh genius, verge to a list with just one entry. that world up, to get ours. Fish Newton, ½gures out another way to describe things. You can get by with much simpler laws of motion, she proposes, by Since many of the properties of the Higgs particles removing water from your equations. The could be predicted in advance of their observation, ½sh of course had always lived surrounded by that stuff we call water, and had come to we could infer what they had to look like. And so we take it for granted, not realizing they could remove it, imaginatively. Once you do that, could recognize them when we saw them. The great Fish Newton demonstrates, you can start news of July 4, 2012, is that thanks to a massive with simpler laws–Newton’s laws of motion. Then you put the water back in, you international effort at CERN ’s Large Hadron Collider, recover the complicated laws that ½sh physi - now we have. cists had derived before, which describe everyday motion as observed in their world. The big news is that we are like those ½sh. Physics today is justi½ably ambitious. We The new development is that we have We live in a universal, cosmic ocean. We can can realistically aspire to a uni½ed picture that found a good solution to the mass quandary. get a simpler, more beautiful description of gets down to just one thing. So, among the It involves an idea that was theorized almost the world, more elegant laws of motion, rest, we want to eliminate the dichotomy ½fty years ago, but has only now come to more elegant laws for all of physics, by pos - between light and matter. The tale is not experimental fruition. The resolution, fol - tulating that a material ½lls the whole world ½nished, but one by one those apparent dis - lowing the fallback strategy I just mentioned, everywhere and slows things down and tinctions between light and matter have fallen is to imagine that space is ½lled with a mate - gives various particles mass. away. Recently we have completed a major rial, a “cosmic molasses,” that slows some It’s an old idea, as I mentioned, and we new chapter of the story, as I’ll now explain. things down (including electrons and quarks, have been using it for decades to get more Light moves at the speed of light. In the but not photons). If you remove that material, beautiful equations, which have been quite context of special relativity, this means that imaginatively, particles such as electrons and successful. But there has been a big problem the particles of light, photons, have zero quarks will move at the speed of light, and looming over it. We learned a lot about mat - mass. And that is a really nice feature. When they will be described by the beautiful equa - ter in the twentieth century. Through stud - you study the equations of physics, you ½nd tions of massless particles. The observed fact ies ranging from intricate chemistry to that particles with zero mass satisfy the that electrons and quarks don’t move at the systematic, precise, violent experiments equations that are the most beautiful, the speed of light will reflect the evil influence of with accelerators, we have developed a rich,

Bulletin of the American Academy of Arts & Sciences, Winter 2013 31 presentations

full account of how the physical world been detected, and for the foreseeable from straight-line motion. The magnets’ works. We made a tremendous amount of future they probably won’t be, because they power requirements would be exorbitant, if progress. We made an inventory of the interact too feebly. But theoretically we are they were ordinary magnets. So they have to forces, and discovered two new ones (the sure they are there. Gluons are the quanta be superconducting magnets, and this re- strong and weak forces, supplementing grav - of the nuclear force ½elds. They were ½rst quires that you keep them at a very low ity and electromagnetism). We discovered inferred theoretically, and then found temperature, two degrees Kelvin. And that many new fundamental particles and under - experimentally in one of the great triumphs requires a lot of specialized plumbing, using stood their interactions. It would be hard to of twentieth-century physics. liquid helium. If any of that plumbing goes overstate the power and accuracy of our The Higgs ½eld also has quanta, called wrong, you can have catastrophic failures. understanding of substance. But in all of our Higgs particles. They are the minimal units Getting all this to work involves truly heroic explorations, nothing we discovered had the of the world-½lling material substance we engineering. right properties to make the cosmic ocean. postulated, to legitimize the equations of The intellectual point is to explore our The charm quark doesn’t do it, nor the our dreams. theories of the fundamental way the world beauty quark, nor the top quark, nor pho - Since many of the properties of the Higgs works, using those protons. That step pre- tons nor gluons. None of those particles is particles could be predicted in advance of sents lots of challenges, too. I’ll describe one up to the job. their observation, we could infer what they especially interesting and important one. When two protons smash together, what actually col - We live in a universal, cosmic ocean. We can get a simpler, lides, usually, are two gluons, one from each proton. If your more beautiful description of the world, more elegant laws goal is to make Higgs parti - of motion, more elegant laws for all of physics, by postulat - cles, that is problematic. For the Higgs particle, in line with ing that a material fills the whole world everywhere and its role as the quantum of slows things down and gives various particles mass. molasses, couples to particles proportionally to their mass. (Remember, the mass arises As our beautiful equations using the cos - had to look like. And so we could recognize from that coupling.) But gluons, like photons, mic ocean idea went from triumph to tri - them when we saw them. The great news of have zero mass. So gluons don’t couple to the umph, our con½dence in the existence of July 4, 2012, is that thanks to a massive inter - Higgs particle directly at all. that medium grew. Since no known material national effort at ’s Large Hadron Col - Fortunately, though, gluons do manage to would provide it, physicists postulated a lider, now we have. couple to Higgs particles indirectly, in a new one: the Higgs ½eld. The lhc is a giant twenty-six-mile circular remarkably beautiful way. Fortunately, that bold hypothesis has tunnel. Inside it, we have protons moving at Gluons couple directly to all kinds of observable consequences. within one part in a million of the speed of quarks, including the very heavy (and very In the quantum description of the world light. Two beams of those very energetic pro - unstable) top quarks and top antiquarks. A the minimal units, or quanta, of any ½eld tons circulate in opposite directions around top quark–top antiquark pair can come to appear as particles. For instance, photons the tunnel. Once you have gone through the be and then pass away after a short time, are the quanta of the electromagnetic ½eld. trouble of accelerating the protons to such spontaneously. That possibility is a special Light appears continuous when you have high energy you want to keep them, so you case of quantum uncertainty, or if you like lots of it. But if you have very dim light, you have them move in a circle. You have to use quantum fluctuations. We call such evanes - ½nd that it breaks up into little packets, each powerful superconducting magnets–lots of cent pairs “virtual particles.” The top with the same ½nite energy (for monochro - them–to coax the protons. The reason the quark–top antiquark pair, being very heavy matic light). Those are the quanta, photons, ring has to be so big, and the magnets so particles, are very happy to couple to the the minimal units, of light. Gravitons are powerful, is simply that when protons move Higgs particle. And so the gluons get to cou - the quanta of gravity. They have not yet so fast it is extremely hard to deflect them ple to the Higgs particle indirectly, with the

32 Bulletin of the American Academy of Arts & Sciences, Winter 2013 the modern concept of substance

help of deep quantum physics, through even beyond-state-of-the-art, electronics sort of negative gravity, which triggered a those intermediate virtual particles. designed to reconstruct what happens in process of very rapid inflation. That might Once you produce the Higgs particle, it those violent collisions, or “Little Bangs.” explain quite a bit about the universe we see. occasionally decays into two photons. Since You can’t resolve the tiny time scales over Cosmic inflation is a topic for another talk, photons, like gluons, have zero mass, that which all the action takes place by taking but it is important to mention how our ideas decay process also must go through interme - snapshots. It is more like studying the ashes, hang together. diate virtual particles. That cir - cumstance raises a remarkable possibility. Besides the particles Could all the apparent distinctions among elementary we know about, other very heavy particles, that we have not yet particles, not just their masses, arise from their differing observed, could also be con - reactions to cosmic fi elds? tributing, in their virtual form. And so it is especially important to measure the properties of the Higgs par - after an explosion, in order to reconstruct We are also licensed to speculate, since the ticle accurately, because they open a new what the explosion itself was like. Lots of properties of space are negotiable, that window into the unknown. particles, typically several dozens, emerge. things could be very different elsewhere. The collisions that produce Higgs parti - You want to see how many there are, which This leads to a concept called the multiverse, cles are a small subset of all the collisions ones they are, and how fast and in which the idea that if you got far enough away you that occur at the lhc , and even within that directions they are moving. Essentially all of would ½nd that the effective description of subset the Higgs particle is one particle them are moving very close to the speed of the world is quite different from what we among dozens of the particles emitted. So light, but maybe one is moving within one have here. The world might, for instance, you have to understand and measure things one-hundred-thousandth of the speed of look as if it had a different number of dimen - extremely well in order to pick out this par - light, while another is moving within one sions. Or instead of one kind of electromag - ticular process from all the processes we one-millionth of the speed of light. Those netism, you might have two with different already understand and don’t regard as so tiny differences carry crucial information. kinds of photons and different versions of interesting anymore. Or, to use a different You have to be very fast and accurate about electric charge simultaneously. Or you metaphor, if you are looking for a needle in measuring particle velocities and distin - might even ½nd a universe in which there is a haystack, it is really important to know guishing the different kinds of particles. no qcd . exactly what hay looks like. Physicists have Thanks to this grand endeavor, now we Could all the apparent distinctions among a saying, “Yesterday’s sensation is today’s have ½rmly established the existence of a elementary particles, not just their masses, calibration.” Astonishing things we were material that ½lls the universe and changes arise from their differing reactions to cosmic proud of discovering in the late part of the the properties of things we know about. That ½elds? That possibility would allow for a twentieth century are now taken for granted answer suggests some wonderful questions. truly uni½ed description where all the parti - and used as stepping stones, to reach higher. If space is–or, more flexibly, is ½lled cles, all the fundamental building blocks of It is one thing for a theorist to draw doo - with–a material, could that material change nature have equivalent properties, but are dles showing what the process will look like. with time? Speci½cally, could it have melted made to look different due to complications Actually detecting those photons is quite or boiled away early in the Big Bang, when introduced by world-½lling substances. another. The cost of the lhc was approxi - things were very hot? And could it be differ - Detailed investigation shows this idea is not mately ½ve billion euros. The whole project ently organized elsewhere? only viable, but explanatory, and productive is our civilization’s answer to the pyramids In fact, it has already proved fruitful to of testable consequences. In this way Ein - of Egypt. In this case, it is a monument to think that the properties of space-½lling stein’s dream of uni½cation has evolved human curiosity and determination. material–or, you might say, of space itself– from mystic faith to quantitative science. The detectors are especially fantastic. The change with time. The early universe could The details of that story are a movie for Atlas detector would ½ll a fair-size aircraft have been very different in its fundamental another time, still in production, but I can hangar. It is stuffed with state-of-the-art, properties. In particular, it could have had a show you the trailer. The movie, which is

Bulletin of the American Academy of Arts & Sciences, Winter 2013 33 presentations

If you assume that the new super-particles exist, and further experimental exploration, we will ½nd out whether they have been teaching us you consider their effects as virtual particles, you or teasing us. discover a marvelous quantitative consequence. For Some of you might know Caravaggio’s painting of St. Thomas inspecting the if you extrapolate the known laws of physics to short wounds of the Lord. I have always admired St. Thomas, and thought of him as the distances, making corrections for the effects of those patron saint of experimental physics. He additional virtual particles, then you find that the dif - wants to see the actual wounds. But the painting also includes the one ferent interactions come to have equal strength. whose wounds Thomas wants to examine, the patron saint of theoretical physics, who said, “Blessed are they who do not see and actually a sort of sequel to “The Modern particle, and vice versa . That is the essence yet believe.” n Concept of Substance,” is called Desperately of supersymmetry, physically. Thus susy Seeking susy . would transcend an annoying dichotomy in © 2013 by Jerome Friedman and Frank susy is short for supersymmetry. It is the our current descriptions of nature: that is, Wilczek, respectively next great target for discovery at the lhc . the distinction between matter particles and susy force particles, or in the jargon, between involves the idea that space has To view or listen to the presentation, visit another set of dimensions that is very small fermions and bosons. That dichotomy, you http://www.amacad.org/events/stated and that we don’t see (yet). In fact, the new will appreciate, is a modern, sophisticated meetings/modernconceptmatter. dimensions are not dimensions of space in descendant of the old divide between matter the ordinary sense; they are something quite and light. new: quantum dimensions. The central But the reason I don’t merely admire innovation is that to describe positions in susy , but love her, is more concrete. If you superspace, instead of ordinary numbers assume that the new super-particles exist, that satisfy x × y = y × x, you have to use a new and you consider their effects as virtual par - kind of numbers, Grassmann numbers, for ticles, you discover a marvelous quantitative which x × y = - y × x. That strange minus sign consequence. For if you extrapolate the makes a big difference. The quantum known laws of physics to short distances, dimensions are not just small, but in a sense making corrections for the effects of those discrete. You can think of them as just hav - additional virtual particles, then you ½nd ing two sheets. You can explore a quantum that the different interactions come to have dimension fully in one step, because a sec - equal strength. Thus uni½cation of all the ond step leads you to nowhere: x2 =0. interactions we know, including gravity, will If you step into the other sheet of the at last mature from a vague hope into a quan - quantum dimension, you don’t arrive in a titative phenomenon. different place, in the usual sense; rather, I hear sirens singing. They sing that empty you turn into a different kind of particle. So, space is a medium that, given susy , recon - if you were an electron, you would turn into ciles perceived differences. And they sing something called a selectron, which retains another suggestive detail: The observed some of the electron’s properties, such as the mass of the Higgs particle, it turns out, is same electric charge, but has much larger nicely consistent with susy ’s preferences. mass and is a boson instead of a fermion. Like Odysseus, tied to the mast, listening to Roughly speaking: If you were a force-medi - all this, I am entranced, hoping the sirens ating particle, you will become a material sing true. Over the next few years, through

34 Bulletin of the American Academy of Arts & Sciences, Winter 2013 Francis Amory Prize Symposium: Advances in Reproductive Biology and Medicine

On March 14, 2012, the Academy presented the Francis Amory Prize to Patrick C. Walsh , M.D., a renowned urologist who pioneered work in the understanding and treatment of prostate cancer. (The prize citation was printed in the Spring 2012 issue of the Bulletin .) Following the prize ceremony, Dr. Walsh participated in the Francis Amory Prize Symposium on advances in reproductive biology and medicine. The symposium also included presentations by David C. Page (Whitehead Institute; mit ) and Patricia K. Donahoe (Massachusetts General Hospital; Harvard Medical School). The prize ceremony and discussion served as the Academy’s 1983rd Stated Meeting. The following is an edited transcript of the symposium.

The Y Chromosome

better part of my career defending the honor of this unsuspecting pair acquired a mutation of the Ychromosome in the face of innumer - that would give rise to the sex-determining able insults to its character and future gene, SRY , on the Y chromosome. Over time, prospects. Let me now address these ques - ½rst in the immediate vicinity of SRY and then tions in the context of discoveries that my over a larger region, sexual recombination– colleagues and I published this month. that swapping of genes with a partner chro - You may have heard some nasty rumors mosome–stopped. It turns out that swapping that the Y chromosome is slowly withering genes in the making of eggs and sperm is very away, and that it is on course to perish in a good for the health and well-being of genes few million years. For the past decade or so, over long expanses of time; within the region these rumors have appeared in leading sci - that had stopped swapping with the X, the Y enti½c journals, and they are occasionally chromosome started losing genes and began resurrected at conferences. Where did these to shrink (Figure 1). This process eventually ideas about the disappearing Y chromosome took over most of the Y chromosome, so that come from, and what is the truth about the while today’s X chromosome retains the gene fate of the Y chromosome? To answer these content of the ancestral autosomes, the Y questions, I will give you a crash course in chromosome is a mere vestige of its former what we now understand to be the origins glory. If you extrapolate into the future, it does David C. Page of not only the Y chromosome but also the not look good for the Y chromosome. X David C. Page is Director of the Whitehead chromosome. Three hundred million years This doomsday scenario did not escape Institute; Professor of Biology at the Massachusetts ago, when we were reptiles (the old days you the attention of researchers in the ½eld. In Nature Institute of Technology; and a Howard Hughes talk about at Thanksgiving and other family fact, in an editorial published in a gatherings), we existed as males and females, decade ago, somewhat grandly titled “The Medical Institute Investigator. He was elected a but we had no sex chromosomes. We had Future of Sex,” my colleagues John Aitken Fellow of the American Academy in 2011. only what in our laboratory we call “ordi - and Jenny Graves recount what I have just nary” chromosomes. Others call them auto - told you: that the Y chromosome is particu - s the ½rst speaker of this Francis Amory somes . But about three hundred million years larly vulnerable across evolutionary time A Prize Symposium, I would like to offer ago, a perfectly ordinary, matched pair of because it does not have a matching partner some comic relief. Before we get to the sub - chromosomes began a journey. with which it can swap and retrieve lost stantive presentations by Drs. Donahoe and These ordinary chromosomes had swapped genetic information. They went on to state Walsh, I will bring you late-breaking news genes back and forth every time eggs and that the original Y chromosome, that ances - from the Y chromosome. I have spent the sperm were made–that is, until one member tral autosome, carried “around 1,500 genes;

Bulletin of the American Academy of Arts & Sciences, Winter 2013 35 presentations

end of the chromosome are areas where the X and the Y chromosomes routinely swap genetic information. These areas are called the pseudoautosomal regions . In between lies the strictly male-speci½c part of the Y chromo - some, which is distinguished from all other nuclear chromosomes by two features. First, it is speci½c to one sex; all other chromo - somes have traveled through both males and females. Second, it does not participate in crossing-over or swapping with a homologue. In fact, much of the long arm of the Y chro - Figure 1 mosome is so-called heterochromatic (see Figure 2). That is, it has a very simple, monot - onous sequence composition and is such a dense jungle of repeats that, sadly, no molec - ular biologist has entered the heterochro - matic region and returned alive. So tonight, we will instead focus on the euchromatic part of the Y chromosome, which makes up a bit less than 1 percent of the human genome. I will now summarize all that has been learned in several laboratories, including my own, over the last decade. In doing so, I will contrast the slurs of the past with the under - standing of the present. First, the notion that the Y chromosome is a genetic wasteland: we now understand that the Y chromosome carries about sev - enty-six protein-coating genes, many of which have specialized roles in the produc - tion of sperm. Second, the image of the Y chromosome as merely a rotting copy of an ancient auto - Figure 2 some: we understand today that the Y chro - mosome still carries some of the genes from but during the ensuing three hundred mil - I was not the ½rst member of my labora - that ancestral autosome. However it has also lion years, all but around 50 were inactivated tory to read this editorial. It was one of my imported other genes from elsewhere in the or lost.” And then came the devastating ana - graduate students who came running into genome, especially during primate evolu - lytic part of this editorial, which took these my of½ce, tears streaming down his face. We tion, and has even ampli½ed some of them. two data points (300 million years ago, 1,500 held an emergency lab meeting in which we Third, the idea that the Y chromosome is genes; today, 50 genes), drew a straight line resolved to pick up the pace of our research. full of junky repeats: we have learned that through them, and reached the following So let me tell you briefly what we have the Y chromosome actually carries palin - conclusion: “at the present rate of decay, the learned in the ensuing decade. dromes–that is, almost perfectly symmetri - Y chromosome will self-destruct in around Figure 2 shows a schematic of the human Y cal structures of unbelievable size, scale, and ten million years.” chromosome as we understand it. At either precision.

36 Bulletin of the American Academy of Arts & Sciences, Winter 2013 francis amory prize symposium

We have learned in the last ten or fifteen years that the Y chromosome holds many of the an - swers to male infertility (spermatogenic failure), and it may hold important answers in the case of testis cancer and Turner Figure 3 syndrome as well.

Fourth, the notion that all of the Y chromo - some’s genes are disintegrating: today we understand that special mechanisms operating within the palindromes contribute to the evo - lutionary longevity of gene pairs located there. Fifth, the theory that the Y is headed for extinction: it is now apparent that even the single-copy genes of the Y, those not bene½ting from the palindrome mechanism, are doing quite well. Finally, in an age of translational research, the ultimate slur is that the Y chromosome is of no medical signi½cance. We have learned in the last ten or ½fteen years that the Y chro - mosome holds many of the answers to male infertility (spermatogenic failure), and it may hold important answers in the case of testis cancer and Turner syndrome as well. Figure 4 In closing, I will turn to the work that we published just this month. It is a tale of three honoree, Dr. Patrick Walsh. (This is an of the y? We are going to look at a set of primates, and it directly addresses the claim appropriate time to disclose publicly the fact genes that we called the ancestral genes , that that the Y chromosome will go extinct that the Y chromosome we sequenced eight is, the genes of the y’s autosomal ancestry. within ten million years. I will tell the story or nine years ago was that of Dr. Walsh. We On Patrick’s Y chromosome, there are nine - through a comparison of the Y chromo - have not worked out all the issues of teen such genes. Clint the chimp has only somes of three primates. The star of this informed consent, but that will be dealt with fourteen such genes, and these fourteen show is the rhesus monkey, whose Y chro - later this evening.) form a nested subset of Patrick’s nineteen mosome we will compare with the Y chro - What does comparing Patrick’s Y chro - (Figure 3). This ½nding suggests that no y- mosome of a chimpanzee named Clint as mosome with those of Clint and the rhesus chromosomal genes have been lost in the well as that of none other than tonight’s monkey tell us about the future and the fate human lineage since the split between

Bulletin of the American Academy of Arts & Sciences, Winter 2013 37 presentations

Developmental Reproductive Biology: Advances Impacting Disorders of Sexual Development and Ovarian Cancer

human and chimpanzee six million years differentiation, which occurs midway ago. But did the Y chromosome of the through mammalian development after the human-chimpanzee progenitor carry nine - primitive streak forms and before gastrula - teen ancestral genes? To answer this ques - tion, is driven by the intermediate meso - tion, we turn to the rhesus monkey, and we derm, which is located between the ecto - switch from a six million-year comparison derm and the endoderm in the early embryo. to a twenty-½ve million-year comparison. At that time, a number of transcription fac - Here, we ½nd that the rhesus monkey has tors come into play, allowing further differ - twenty ancestral genes, and that Patrick’s entiation of the intermediate mesoderm nineteen are completely nested within those into the urogenital ridge . twenty (Figure 4). In other words, Patrick’s The urogenital ridge is posteriorly and Y chromosome carries almost exactly the dorsally placed in the embryo and is sexu - same set of genes as the Y chromosome of ally indifferent until the gonad has declared the rhesus; this implies that in the lineage itself as a testis or an ovary (Figure 1); both leading to Patrick’s Y chromosome and to all male and the female reproductive tracts are other Y chromosomes in this room, one gene present and in close approximation, at this has been lost in the last twenty-½ve million time, as are the subjacent kidneys and years. In other words, in the human lineage, superjacent adrenals. The urogenital ridge gene loss on the Y chromosome essentially Patricia K. Donahoe is then exposed to the transcriptional mas - sry ceased more than twenty-½ve million years Patricia K. Donahoe is the Marshall K. Bartlett ter switch, the sex-differentiation gene , ago. The same goes for the rhesus lineage. As Professor of Surgery at Harvard Medical School located on the sex-determining region of the it turns out, the chimp is the exception, not and Director of the Pediatric Surgical Research Y chromosome. The only function ascribed the rule. So I want all the men in the audi - to this tiny gene is to bend dna . One won - Laboratories and Chief Emerita of Pediatric ence to come away from this lecture having ders how such a potent master switch can Surgical Services at Massachusetts General Hos - breathed a huge sigh of relief. be such a simple molecule. As a transcrip - pital. She has been a Fellow of the American tion factor, it is responsible for the differen - Academy since 1987. tiation of the somatic components of the gonad. evelopmental reproductive biology has Before somatic differentiation of the Dhad a substantial influence on our clin - gonad occurs, a small number of cells within ical care of children with disorders of sexual the epiblast differentiate to become germ differentiation. The molecular factors so cells. These germ cells, which perpetuate important in normal sexual differentiation pluripotency and propagate the gene pool, have also influenced the way we care for undergo an extensive migration from the patients with ovarian cancer. epiblast, along the primitive streak, and to Sexual differentiation is an amazing cas - the hindgut from which they eventually cade of events, each of which must be cor - populate the differentiating gonad in the rect for proper sexual differentiation to urogenital ridge. occur. One must ½rst have the right chromo - One of Dr. Page’s great contributions, in somal endowment. Once the gonads under addition to de½ning the sex-determining the influence of this chromosomal endow - region of the Y chromosome, was the dis - ment have properly differentiated, they covery of the mechanisms contributing to must make the right hormones. Then other meiosis inhibition, which differentiates tissues must respond appropriately to those male and female gonads, as female germ hormones in order for an appropriate phe - cells enter meiosis just before birth, while notypic male or female to eventuate. Sexual the male gonad produces a “meiosis inhibit -

38 Bulletin of the American Academy of Arts & Sciences, Winter 2013 francis amory prize symposium

ing factor” which prevents meiosis until puberty, many years later. If the gonad differentiates as a testis under the influence of sry , it produces two products. One is testosterone, which is fur - ther modi½ed by ½ve alpha reductase, one of the genes that Patrick Walsh discovered with his early mentor, Jean Wilson. This reduced form of testosterone acts on the external genitalia, resulting in male differ - entiation. Under the influence of dihy - drotestosterone (d HT ), the genital tubercle becomes a phallus, and the genital folds become the scrotal organs housing the descended gonad. In the face of syndromes resulting in testosterone de½ciency, this dif - ferentiation cannot be completed, resulting in smaller structures. There are also syn - Reprinted by permission of the New England Journal of Medicine . dromes in which the adrenal produces an Figure 1 excess of testosterone, which, in an xx female, will influence the development of the external genitalia to a more male pheno - type; in these patients the clitoris is enlarged and the labia are accentuated as scrotal folds. We undertake surgery in xx patients who were exposed to excess endogenous testosterone when they are very young to reduce both the clitoris and the labia and to bring the vagina down to the perineum so that after surgery, the 46 xx female patient has a small normal appearing female clitoris, petite labial folds, and an exteriorized vagina. The other protein made by the differenti - ated testis is Müllerian Inhibiting Substance (mis ), with which I and my colleagues have had a lifelong interest. In the male, this potent hormone is responsible for complete regression of the Müllerian duct that would otherwise go on to form the Fallopian tubes, the uterus, and the vagina of the female (Fig - ure 2). We hypothesized that if this protein can cause complete regression of the Müller - ian duct, then it might be a potential thera - Reprinted by permission of Nature Reviews Genetics . peutic against tumors of Müllerian duct Figure 2 origin (that is, cancers of the Fallopian tube,

Bulletin of the American Academy of Arts & Sciences, Winter 2013 39 presentations

uterus, or cervix). Dr. Robert Scully, a renowned reproductive pathologist at the Massachusetts General Hospital, suggested, “Look also at ovarian cancer because ovar - ian cancers recapitulate the Müllerian duct of the embryo.” In validating this predic - tion, over the last few decades, we have puri½ed mis and, with colleagues at Biogen, have cloned the gene for mis and scaled up its production. We later (along with many other labs studying this subject) cloned its receptors and studied its signal transduction pathway. Meanwhile we de½ned its clinical use in ovarian, breast, prostate, cervical, and endometrial cancers. To scale up production of mis , we collaborated with Ipsen to develop mis for potential clinical trials against ovarian cancer. This scaled human recombinant mis inhibited ovarian cancers in vitro , as well as in animals treated in vivo for Figure 3 long periods. 1 More recently, we began to consider the As we expected, these stem cell popula - this could represent a ratio change because possibility that ovarian cancer is a stem cell tions responded to mis as well as to a small the chemotherapeutic agents kill off so many disease. Could we isolate its stem cells and molecule mis mimetic previously discovered other cells, we then con½rmed by using determine their responsiveness to mis ? in the laboratory. 2 But to our surprise, when colony formation assays that the same phe - This hypothesis was raised since gynecolo - we exposed this select population to the nomenon occurred quantitatively. gists-oncologists can be seemingly 100 per - chemotherapeutic agents that we currently The implications of this ½nding, recently cent successful in eradicating ovarian cancer use to treat ovarian cancer, we stimulated that published in the Proceedings of the National when surgery is combined with chemother - population. One result showed a twentyfold Academy of Sciences , is that ovarian cancers are apeutic agents, but in 70 percent of patients, growth of those select tumor cells treated initially heterogeneous with a population the tumors return and are lethal within one with doxorubicin and a four to ½vefold that not only does not respond to chemo - or two years. We looked for markers that growth of those treated with cisplatin. 3 Since therapeutic agents but is actually stimulated would allow us to enrich the stem cell pop - by these clinically used agents. 4 Therefore, ulation, screened 130, and selected those our therapeutic strategies and care of our 2 N. Renlund, R. Pieretti-Vanmarke, F. O’Neil, L. markers that would be gentle to the cells Zhang, P. K. Donahoe, and J. Teixeira, “c-Jun N- patients must include individualized treat - when used for separation and compatible terminal kinase inhibitor II (SP600125) activates ment of the stem cell population as well as with flow cytometry. The marker panel cho - Müllerian Inhibiting Substance type II receptor- the bulk of the tumor. Figure 3 illustrates a sen allowed enrichment of a select stem cell- mediated signal transduction,” Endocrinology 149 suggested shift in the future care of patients (1) (2008): 108–115; pmcid : pmc 2194615. like population of tumor cells, validated by 3 X. Wei, D. Dombkoski, K. Meirelles, R. Pieretti- their ability to form colonies and migrate in Van Marcke, P. P. Szotek, H. L. Chang, F. I. Pref - 4 K. Meirelles, L. A. Benedict, D. Dombkowski, vitro , and, when injected in mice after limit - fer, P. R. Mueller, J. Teixeira, D. T. MacLaughlin, D. Pepin, F. I. Preffer, J. Teixeira, P. S. Tanwar, ing dilution, to show early tumor formation. and P. K. Donahoe, “Müllerian Inhibiting Sub - R. H. Young, D. T. MacLaughlin, P. K. Donahoe, stance preferentially inhibits stem/progenitors and X. Wei, “Human ovarian cancer stem/pro- in human ovarian cancer cell lines compared to genitor cells are stimulated by doxorubicin but 1 D. T. MacLaughlin and P. K. Donahoe, “Sex De - chemotherapeutics,” Proceedings of the National inhibited by Müllerian inhibiting substance,” termination and Differentiation,” New England Academy of Sciences USA 107 (44) (November 2, Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences USA Journal of Medicine 350 (4) (2004): 367–378. 2010): 18874–18879; pmcid : pmc 2973919. 109 (7) (2012): 2358–2363.

40 Bulletin of the American Academy of Arts & Sciences, Winter 2013 francis amory prize symposium

Developmental reproductive biology has had a substantial influence on our clinical care of children with disorders of sexual differentiation. The molecular factors so important in normal sexual differentiation have also influenced the way we care for patients with ovarian cancer. with ovarian cancer. We should address not tics Incorporated, and are working to eira, as none of this work is ever done in only the bulk of the tumor, which responds continue the scale-up that we began suc - isolation. Advances in our understanding very well to standard chemotherapeutic cessfully with Ipsen/Biomeasure in 2008. of reproductive biology have had an impact agents, but also the stem cell population that Future ovarian cancer therapy should con - on the surgical and endocrinologic man - completely evades and is actually stimulated tinue to provide the standard of care with agement of children born with abnormali - by current chemotherapeutic agents, but cryoreductive surgery and platinum-based ties or disorders of sexual differentiation. responds to mis . We hope that, in the future, and Taxol therapies; however, instead of Some of the discoveries of developmental both of these populations will be treated subsequently treating women only when biology made in the care of these children effectively and that the treatments will be they manifest a recurrence of the tumor, we may also bene½t those who face the possi - selected in a patient-speci½c manner. recommend treating the stem cell popula - bility of reproductive cancers, such as ovar - We have scaled up production of mis and tion so that recurrence of the tumor is ian cancer. hope to take it to commercial development averted (Figure 4). for treatment of patients. Toward that end, I would like to thank my colleagues, par - we formed a company, Mulleris Therapeu - ticularly David MacLaughlin and Jose Teix -

Figure 4

Bulletin of the American Academy of Arts & Sciences, Winter 2013 41 presentations

The Impact of Anatomic Discoveries on Prostate Cancer Surgery

that the treatment was worse than the dis - decided that I would try to ½nd out why the ease. When I arrived at Johns Hopkins in side effects of the prostatectomy occurred. I 1974, I was surprised to realize that even at learned very quickly that these side effects the institution where the operation origi - occurred because we did not understand the nated, it was rarely performed. At that time, anatomy around the prostate. Bleeding I wondered why the side effects occurred occurred because the anatomy of the major and if they could be prevented. I do not veins responsible for the bleeding had not believe that I would have ever made the con - been charted. Impotence occurred because tributions that I have made to the ½eld of the location of the innervation to the corpora urology had I not been at Hopkins. cavernosa was not known. And incontinence Hopkins has been a wonderful place to be. occurred because our understanding of the Though it goes unspoken, there is an expec - sphincter responsible for passive urinary con - tation that your major job is discovery. On my trol was incorrect. Why? It was because all of ½rst day, I went to lunch and sat next to the this anatomy had been studied in the adult distinguished neuroscientist Vernon Mount - cadaver. In adults, the prostate is shrouded by castle, who is a member of the American dense fascia, which conceals the surrounding Academy. I introduced myself, saying, “I’m anatomy. In the postmortem state, the the new urologist.” And although I expected abdominal viscera compress the pelvic Patrick C. Walsh him to respond with the same line I’d heard organs into a thick pancake of tissue, and for - Patrick C. Walsh, the 2012 Francis Amory Prize over and over again–“oh, you’re the new malin ½xatives dissolve the fatty planes, mak - recipient, is University Distinguished Service plumber”–I heard something different. He ing the identi½cation of anatomic structures Professor of Urology at Johns Hopkins Medical said, “What’s your ½eld of research?” impossible. The solution was to use the oper - To make an important discovery, you need ating room as an anatomy laboratory and Institutions. an important problem to work on, and I to perform fetal dissections. All of this is

or tonight’s last talk, I am going to tell a Fstory. The story is about the impact of anatomic discoveries on prostate cancer sur - gery, and it begins with Hugh Hampton Young, the founder of modern urology, who performed the ½rst radical prostatectomy via the perineal approach at Johns Hopkins in 1904. Young was awarded the Amory Prize in 1940. In 1947, an Irish surgeon named Ter - ence Millin developed the radical retropubic approach, which is similar to the transab - dominal approach used today, and he received the Amory Prize in 1954. But by 1970, radical prostatectomies were rarely performed, despite their effective con - trol of cancer, because of major side effects. There was major bleeding, often life threat - ening. One hundred percent of men who underwent the procedure were impotent, and 10 to 25 percent were completely incon - Figure 1 tinent. Patients and their physicians thought

42 Bulletin of the American Academy of Arts & Sciences, Winter 2013 francis amory prize symposium

chronicled in an article published on the twenty-½fth anniversary of the ½rst nerve- sparing radical prostatectomy. 1 The ½rst thing I tackled was bleeding. Using the operating room as an anatomy lab - oratory, I identi½ed a common trunk over the urethra (Figure 1), hidden underneath a shroud of tissue. Merrill Sosman, the great radiologist at Brigham and Women’s Hospi - tal in Boston, had the expression, “You only see what you look for and you only look for what you know.” Here, I was looking for Figure 2 something I didn’t know. Identifying the common trunk was an important observa - tion because it led to a surgical technique that reduced blood loss; in turn, having a blood - less ½eld made it possible to perform a safer, more precise, and thorough cancer operation. In 1977, soon after the technique for con - trolling bleeding was developed, a ½fty-eight- year-old man returned three months following surgery and told me that he was fully potent. I wondered, how could this be? At that time, everyone believed that because all men were impotent following surgery, the nerves had to run through the prostate. But I knew from this one case that this was not true. So where were the nerves? The answer was not in any textbook. In 1981, I was a visit - Figure 3 ing professor at the University of Leiden. I spent the afternoon with neuro-urologist shows the prostate, the urethra, and bladder exactly the same location as the nerves in the Pieter Donker, professor emeritus and former in the infant cadaver. The nerves that we dis - fetus and speculated that this neurovascular chairman of the department, who was using sected out reveal the branches to the corpora bundle could be used as the intraoperative a dissecting microscope to study (in a still - cavernosa, clearly outside the prostate. Based landmark to identify these microscopic born male infant) the nerves that innervate on this observation, we knew where the cav - nerves (Figure 3). Armed with that informa - the bladder. When I asked to see the branches ernous nerves were located in a tiny fetus, tion, on April 26, 1982, I performed the ½rst to the corpora cavernosa, the nerves respon - much the same way you might have a purposeful nerve-sparing radical prostatec - sible for erectile function, he said that he had schematic for your television set, but how tomy. Next month, that patient will have never looked. Three hours later, we had would you ½nd that transistor? That is, how lived thirty years cancer free and with a nor - identi½ed them outside the prostate. Figure 2 could we identify these microscopic struc - mal quality of life. tures in the adult male pelvis? From there, I went on to perform detailed When I returned to Hopkins, I once again neuroanatomical studies, providing tem - 1 Patrick Craig Walsh, “The Discovery of the Cavernous Nerves and Development of Nerve used the operating room as an anatomy lab - plates for surgeons and delineating the fascia Sparing Radical Retropubic Prostatectomy,” The oratory. There I identi½ed that the capsular around the prostate (Figure 4). My hope was Journal of Urology 177 (5) (May 2007): 1632–1635. arteries and veins of the prostate traveled in to make radical prostatectomy a better can -

Bulletin of the American Academy of Arts & Sciences, Winter 2013 43 presentations

Figure 4

cer operation, and I embarked on a twenty- nine-year journey to perfect the technique. Again, using the operating room as an anatomy laboratory, I changed one thing at a time, resulting in twenty-eight major changes over twenty-nine years in 4,569 patients. I maintained a database from day one, documenting changes in technique, cancer control, and quality of life. I con - stantly reevaluated outcomes, and eventu - ally, I used video for documentation. I found that I could perform the same operation on two men on the same day, and while one of them would be in perfect health at three months, the other would take a year or longer to recover. I learned that minor differences in technique had a major impact, so I video - taped cases, looked at outcomes, reviewed those videotapes frame by frame (yes, my wife is a saint for allowing me to spend my summer vacations doing that) to identify some of the changes that were made. I then Figure 5 used these videos to teach others.

44 Bulletin of the American Academy of Arts & Sciences, Winter 2013 francis amory prize symposium

What were the accomplishments of this there should be a dramatic reduction in the In summary, the impact of anatomic dis - work? First, there was a major reduction in number of men dying of the disease or suffer - coveries are: improved surgical exposure, death from prostate cancer. Prostate cancer ing from painful metastasis. Figure 5 shows reduced blood loss, wider surgical margins, is the most common cancer in men. It is also the changes in mortality in cancers in men the ability to preserve potency, improved the second most common cause of cancer and women between 1994 and 2003. The urinary continence, reduction in deaths from prostate cancer, and the availability of tumor tissue, which has galvanized research My hope was to make radical prostatectomy a better in the ½eld. In closing, I would like to thank the resi - cancer operation, and I embarked on a twenty-nine- dents, faculty, and support staff, past and present, at Hopkins. Over the last thirty year journey to perfect the technique. years, they have made possible the discover - ies that I have summarized in this presenta - tion. I would also like to thank my patients, death in men in the United States. The greatest decline in mortality over that decade who have been my partners in discovery. n Scandinavian Prostate Cancer Group car - was the decline in deaths from prostate can - ried out a very brave randomized trial, ran - cer. The operation was also safer with a reduc - © 2013 by David C. Page, Patricia K. Donahoe, domizing men to surgery versus watchful tion in blood loss, which meant that the and Patrick C. Walsh, respectively waiting, and last year, in The New England thirty-day mortality rate fell from 2 percent to Journal of Medicine 0.2 percent, and the length of stay in the hos - , the ½fteen-year follow- To view or listen to the presentations, 2 up study was published. Among the men pital decreased from two weeks to the one to visit http:// www.amacad.org/events/ who had bene½ted the most–that is, men two days that it is today. Another impact is statedmeetings/1983_amory. under the age of sixty-½ve who are most improved quality of life. Today, signi½cant likely to live ½fteen years–there was, across incontinence should be less than 2 percent the board, a 50 percent relative reduction in and sexual function can be preserved in 80 to metastasis, in death from any cause and in 90 percent of men who have normal sexual death from cancer. function preoperatively, if it is possible (for What is the impact of these results? In optimal cancer control) to preserve both neu - 1983, only 7 percent of men with prostate can - rovascular bundles and if the procedure is cer underwent surgery, and radiotherapy was performed by a skilled surgeon. too underpowered to cure. Essentially, no one What has been the impact on research? was being treated with curative intent. How - In breast and colon cancer, tissue was ever, with the reduction in side effects and always available for pathologic correlation improved safety, by 1993, one-third of men– and biochemical molecular study, which one hundred thousand men that year– accelerated discovery in these ½elds. How - underwent surgery. If we apply the results of ever, prior to the development of nerve- the Scandinavian trial at ½fteen years to today, sparing radical prostatectomy, only 7 percent of men with localized disease underwent surgery, and thus only small 2 Anna Bill-Axelson, Lars Holmberg, Mirja Ruutu, Hans Garmo, Jennifer R. Stark, Christer Busch, needle biopsy specimens were available for Stig Nordling, Michael Häggman, Swen-Olof An - research. However, the availability of tissue dersson, Stefan Bratell, Anders Spångberg, Juni harvested from surgical specimens today Palmgren, Gunnar Steineck, Hans-Olov Adami, has galvanized research. In the long run, and Jan-Erik Johansson; for the spcg -4 Investi - gators, “Radical Prostatectomy versus Watchful this impact on research may be the contri - Waiting in Early Prostate Cancer,” New England bution of surgery that may have the greatest Journal of Medicine 364 (May 5, 2011): 1708–1717. impact in reducing deaths from cancer.

Bulletin of the American Academy of Arts & Sciences, Winter 2013 45 projects and activities

Regional Forums on the Humanities and Social Sciences

he Academy’s Commission on the Humanities and Social Sciences is advancing arguments for the importance of these disciplines T to the nation’s intellectual and economic strength, public institutions, and civil society. The Commission is led by Richard H. Brodhead , president of Duke University, and John W. Rowe , chairman emeritus of Exelon Corporation. Commission members include leaders from higher education, business, the arts and humanities, and public affairs. In recent months, the Commission has hosted a series of regional forums to collect testimony on the value of the humanities and social sciences. These forums, undertaken at the suggestion of Philip Bredesen , former governor of Tennessee and chair of the Commission’s Publicity Committee, are providing members with a more complete understanding of the many communities within and beyond academia that draw on the humanities and social sciences for their livelihood and well-being. The forums have received extensive media coverage and have identi½ed new participants and new audiences for an inclusive public campaign to follow the publication of the Commission’s initial report, forthcoming in 2013.

Cambridge Forum– July 17, 2012

he Academy piloted the ½rst forum at T its Cambridge headquarters in July. The meeting, organized in collaboration with the six humanities councils of New England, focused on civics education and the impor - tance of teaching history. Commissioners David Souter (Supreme Court of the United States), Annette Gordon-Reed (Harvard University), Philip Bredesen (former gov - ernor of Tennessee), and Richard Freeman (Harvard University) joined members of the regional humanities and education commu - nities, including the leader of a Bhutanese Richard Freeman (Harvard University) and Annette Gordon-Reed (Harvard University) refugee community, a deputy commissioner of state economic development, and an as - sociate justice of the Massachusetts Appeals Court, as well as educators and representa - tives of state humanities councils. Justice Souter, pondering the importance of the humanities, said: “I think we want to promote–what I think it is essential to American government that we do pro - mote–is a sense and understanding that we do not exist in our opinions in isolation. The humanities perhaps ultimately teach that . . . we are not alone.”

David Souter (Supreme Court of the United States) and David Watters (New Hampshire State Senate; University of New Hampshire)

46 Bulletin of the American Academy of Arts & Sciences, Winter 2013 Stanford Forum–September 4, 2012

forum held at Stanford University in several former Cabinet members as well as a A September, chaired by Stanford Presi - Stanford undergraduate student. Representa - dent John Hennessy , discussed the impor - tives from universities; the military; private tance of the humanities and social sciences to enterprise; and Cal Humanities, the state international relations, national security, and humanities council, participated in the day’s global competitiveness. Speakers included events. Former Secretary of State Con - doleezza Rice established a common theme for the conversation when she linked a nation’s self-awareness with its capacity to tackle international challenges: “We are, as Americans, losing the sense of ‘us.’ One way not to fear ‘them’ is to have a strong sense of ‘us.’” Retired Army Lieutenant General and former U.S. Ambassador to Afghanistan Karl Eikenberry pointed out that sound interna - tional policy requires a deep knowledge of Gerald Early (Washington University in St. Louis) other cultures and languages, as well as an understanding of our own nation’s history and traditions: “If you aspire to be a transna - St. Louis Forum– tional bridge, you have to be grounded on September 7, 2012 both sides of the river.” n September, Gerald Early (Washington Condoleezza Rice (Stanford University) I University in St. Louis) organized and moderated a forum at the Missouri History Museum in St. Louis on the importance of the humanities and social sciences in local communities. Leaders of ½fteen Missouri cultural institutions and community groups joined in the day’s discussion. Chief Glenna Wallace of the Eastern Shawnee Tribe de - clared the study of history crucial for creat - ing a sense of self and community among Native Americans. Geoff Giglierano , exec - utive director of the Missouri Humanities Council, extended that message to the entire nation: “Just as an individual who has a flawed or incomplete memory and con - science can’t function, a society, a civiliza - tion, a nation with a flawed or incomplete memory and conscience is in a lot of trouble. It is not going to function.” Karl Eikenberry (Stanford University) and William J. Perry (Stanford University)

Bulletin of the American Academy of Arts & Sciences, Winter 2013 47 projects and activities

Regional Forums, continued

Miami Forum– September 14, 2012

onna Shalala , president of the University Dof Miami, and Eduardo Padrón , presi - dent of Miami Dade College, cohosted a forum in September on the importance of the human - ities to the multiethnic culture of southern Florida and to the development of a shared civic identity. The meeting featured singer Gloria Estefan , who testi½ed on the critical importance of funding art, music, history, and civics courses. Panelists stressed how essential it is for members of the wider humanities and social sciences communities to form partner - ships across the education continuum, and Philip Bredesen (former Governor of Tennessee), Donna Shalala (University of Miami), how powerful those collaborations can be. “It Leslie Berlowitz (American Academy), and Eduardo Padrón (Miami Dade College) is through the humanities that we best record, share, and pass on the truths that make up who learn how to think, who are trained how making decisions. They make better citizens in the human experience,” said Alina Interián , to think, are better problem solvers, more gen - the kind of democratic, free societies we value executive director of the Florida Center for the erous in their understanding of others, better and cherish and for which we have fought so Literary Arts at Miami Dade College. “[P]eople able to understand many perspectives before hard in our country.”

Durham Forum–October 26, 2012

n October, Commission Cochair and Duke and research in the humanities and social dozen North Carolina-based English and I University President Richard Brodhead sciences at a time when public support and social studies teachers, arts administrators, hosted a forum on how to bolster teaching student enrollments are falling. Nearly two and educational policy leaders offered their impressions of the state of the humanities. Attendees included former North Carolina Governor James B. Hunt, Jr. , interim Chan - cellor of North Carolina Central University Charles Becton , and President of the National Humanities Center Geoffrey Harpham . Many speakers noted that the humanities offer students a deeper self- understanding and are key to solving the problems of the future. Todd Roberts , chan - cellor of the North Carolina School of Sci - ence and Mathematics, argued for the crucial connections between scienti½c, social scienti½c, and humanistic research: “Grand challenges can’t be solved by science James B. Hunt, Jr. (former Governor of North Carolina) and Richard Brodhead (Duke University) and technology alone.”

48 Bulletin of the American Academy of Arts & Sciences, Winter 2013 New York Forum–November 7, 2012

nthony Marx , president of the New cane Sandy as evidence that “people will AYork Public Library; Pauline Yu , presi - ½ght their way through a storm to be able to dent of the American Council of Learned do the work of the humanities, and to be Societies; and Carl H. Pforzheimer III , able to inspire each other by doing it manager of Carl H. Pforzheimer and Co. together.” Many speakers joined Pauline Yu llc , cohosted a forum in November on the in stressing the need to support ongoing, importance of libraries and advanced advanced research in the humanities as part research in the humanities. Historians, nov - of an overall strategy for preserving and elists and poets, architects, artists, and advancing the intellectual life of the nation: librarians spoke about the crucial impor - “[T]he knowledge of the humanities will not tance of public access to books, research vanish instantly, but it will ineluctably documents, and venues for the exchange of degrade if it is not constantly renewed by ideas. In his opening remarks, Anthony rigorous research and the transmission of Marx cited the enormous crowds that vis - advanced expertise to the next generation of ited the library in the aftermath of Hurri - scholars.” n

Pauline Yu (American Council of Learned Anthony Marx (New York Public Library) Societies)

Audio and video from the forums are available on the Academy website at http://www.humanitiescommission.org/RecentActivity/Events.aspx.

Bulletin of the American Academy of Arts & Sciences, Winter 2013 49 projects and activities

The Lincoln Project: Excellence and Access in Public Higher Education

new Academy initiative–The Lincoln A Project: Excellence and Access in Public Higher Education–will advance a national discussion on the importance of public colleges and universities. Although they are key engines of economic growth, innovation, and upward mobility, these schools are facing cutbacks in government support, competition from for-pro½t educa - tion providers and foreign universities, and pressures to respond to technological changes. The initiative will engage state and federal policy-makers, elected of½cials, university and business leaders, philanthropists, learned societies, and, ultimately, the general public to improve understanding and to influence education policy at the state, fed - eral, and institutional levels. Through a series of national conferences, it will reinforce the work of other organizations and advocacy groups concerned with these issues. The Lincoln Project is named for Presi - dent Abraham Lincoln to commemorate his Robert J. Birgeneau (pictured above), role in signing the Morrill Act of 1862, which chancellor of the University of California, laid the groundwork for the nation’s unpar - Berkeley, will lead the project, along with a alleled public university system. group of eminent and experienced advisors. n

The Lincoln Project: Excellence and Access in Public Higher Education

Project Chair Nancy E. Cantor William Powers, Jr. Chancellor and President, President, University of Texas at Austin Robert J. Birgeneau Chancellor, University of California, Berkeley John T. Casteen III Gerald Rosenfeld Former President, University of Virginia Senior Advisor and Vice Chairman of U.S. Investment Banking, Lazard Ltd. Advisors* Mary Sue Coleman Lawrence S. Bacow President, Phyllis Wise Former President, Tufts University Chancellor, University of Illinois at Matthew Goldstein Urbana-Champaign Gene Block Chancellor, City University of New York Frank D. Yeary Chancellor, University of California, Robert D. Haas Chairman, CamberView Partners LLC Los Angeles Chairman Emeritus, Levi Strauss & Co. Henry E. Brady Earl Lewis Dean, Goldman School of Public Policy, Incoming President, Andrew W. Mellon University of California, Berkeley Foundation *partial list

50 Bulletin of the American Academy of Arts & Sciences, Winter 2013 Examining U.S. Energy Policy

he interconnected challenges of climate change, an increased global demand for energy, and America’s need for Tenhanced energy security will require a substantial transformation of the U.S. energy system, including the large- scale adoption of new energy technologies. The American Academy’s Alternative Energy Future project ( aef ) is identifying behavioral and regulatory barriers to this transformation and exploring how policy-makers could best anticipate and over - come these obstacles using lessons from the social sciences.

Creating New Research Networks Shaping Durable and Flexible Energy Policy

The Academy organized a workshop in Washington, D.C., on Legal scholars, political scientists, and members of the aef project November 29–30, 2012, that gathered investigators from the gov - committee convened at the Academy’s headquarters on February ernment, academic, and industry sectors to discuss novel 14–15, 2013, for a workshop on “Establishing a Durable Gover - approaches to understanding and overcoming the social and behav - nance Framework for Energy Policy.” Project Chair Robert W. Fri ioral barriers to the adoption of new energy technologies. Topics (Resources for the Future) moderated the discussion with Ann included considering human behavior in technology development, Carlson (University of California, Los Angeles, School of Law) and engaging the public on new technologies, and facilitating large-scale Dallas Burtraw (Resources for the Future). The meeting focused technology deployment. on the urgent need for a blueprint for a U.S. energy policy that is Participants discussed how social scienti½c knowledge could be durable enough to last for decades, yet flexible enough to change applied to new and existing energy programs, and how to scale up as new socioeconomic, technological, and environmental condi - successful state and local initiatives to the regional and national lev - tions arise. els. The workshop also established the foundation for a network of The participants discussed the factors that contribute to sustain - researchers, based at the Academy, that will develop guidelines for able energy policies, identi½ed critical areas for future research, and evaluating the application of social science research to government- suggested methods to encourage interdisciplinary scholarship on funded energy projects. Participants discussed how the network’s this question. They considered how stable previous policies have activities and membership could be designed to maximize the proven to be and whether these policies have successfully adapted exchange of research tools and data. to subsequent societal and scienti½c changes. Other topics explored at the meeting included the role of agency discretion versus detailed legislation or other statutory directives; the roles of different tiers of government, from the local to the federal level; and the role of stakeholder groups, including Public Utility Commissions and private ½rms that develop new energy technologies.

Participants at the workshop on creating new research networks: Douglas Arent (Joint Institute for Strategic Energy Analysis) and Holmes Hummel (U.S. Department of Energy)

Bulletin of the American Academy of Arts & Sciences, Winter 2013 51 projects and activities

Examining U.S. Energy Policy, continued

New Dædalus on “The Alternative Energy Future” Winter 2013 Dædalus “The Alternative Energy Future” The Winter 2013 issue of Dædalus , the Journal of the American Academy, on “The Alternative Energy Future” highlights questions Robert W. Fri (Resources for the Future): The Scope of the where existing social science research could be of use as well as Transition areas where additional research is needed. A concluding essay by Hal Harvey (Energy Innovation; University of Chicago), guest editors Robert Fri and Stephen Ansolabehere outlines a Franklin M. Orr, Jr. (Stanford University) & Clara research agenda for social science, including questions that are Vondrich (ClimateWorks Foundation): A Trillion Tons especially relevant to future energy policy choices. Stakeholders Jon A. Krosnick (Stanford University) & Bo MacInnis (Stan - from all sectors will need to cooperate to ½nd answers to these ford University): Does the American Public Support Legislation questions and to facilitate the transformation in U.S. energy policy to Reduce Greenhouse Gas Emissions? that will be required to solve the energy challenges of the twenty- Naomi Oreskes (University of California, San Diego) & Erik M. ½rst century. n Conway (Pasadena, California): The Collapse of Western Civi - lization: A View from the Future For more information about the Alternative Energy Future project, Kelly Sims Gallagher (Tufts University): Why & How Govern - visit http://www.amacad.org/projects/alternativeNEW.aspx. ments Support Renewable Energy Thomas Dietz (Michigan State University), Paul C. Stern (National Research Council) & Elke U. Weber (Columbia University): Reducing Carbon-Based Energy Consumption through Changes in Household Behavior Roger E. Kasperson (Clark University) & Bonnie J. Ram (Ram Power llc ): The Public Acceptance of New Energy Tech - nologies Robert O. Keohane (Princeton University) & David G. Victor (University of California, San Diego): The Transna - tional Politics of Energy Dallas Burtraw (Resources for the Future): The Institutional Blind Spot in Environmental Economics Ann E. Carlson (University of California, Los Angeles) & Robert W. Fri (Resources for the Future): Designing a Durable Energy Policy Michael H. Dworkin (Vermont Law School), Roman V. Sidortsov (Vermont Law School) & Benjamin K. Sovacool (Vermont Law School): Rethinking the Scale, Structure & Scope of U.S. Energy Institutions Rosina M. Bierbaum (University of Michigan) & Pamela A. Matson (Stanford University): Energy in the Context of Sus - tainability Stephen Ansolabehere (Harvard University) & Robert W. Fri (Resources for the Future): Social Sciences & the Alternative Jody Freeman (Harvard Law School) and Dædalus co-guest editor Energy Future Stephen Ansolabehere (Harvard University)

52 Bulletin of the American Academy of Arts & Sciences, Winter 2013 Nuclear Power in Southeast Asia

ith nearly every nation in Southeast WAsia exploring the possibility of devel - oping a civilian nuclear power program, the Academy’s Global Nuclear Future ( gnf ) Ini - tiative is working to create a culture of safety and security in the operation and oversight of nuclear facilities in the region. The Academy recently convened delegates from a dozen nations for an off-the-record meeting in Hanoi, Vietnam. Senior govern - ment of½cials and policy experts from Egypt, India, Indonesia, Japan, Malaysia, the Philip - pines, Russia, Singapore, South Korea, Sri Lanka, Thailand, the United States, and Viet - nam candidly discussed the political, techni - cal, and nonproliferation issues related to the expansion of nuclear energy in Southeast Asia. The goal of the meeting–and of the larger Initiative–was to identify, re½ne, and promote measures that will limit the safety, security, and proliferation risks associated Vietnam Vice Minister of Science and Technology Le Dinh Tien , U.S. Ambassador to Vietnam with a growing global nuclear footprint. David Shear , and GNF codirector Scott D. Sagan (Stanford University) According to Scott D. Sagan (Stanford University), who codirects the gnf Initiative Vietnam’s Vice Minister of Science and power plants but have plans to acquire them with Steven E. Miller (Harvard University), Technology, Le Dinh Tien , told conference or are in the process of doing so. “A key strand of the gnf project has focused participants that his country hopes to have The meeting in Hanoi, organized in col - on two regions–Southeast Asia and the nuclear power generation online by 2020. He laboration with the Vietnam Atomic Energy Middle East–where there is strong govern - said that the Academy-sponsored meeting will Agency, followed Academy-sponsored re- ment interest in nuclear power, but limited help provide “common ground for the safe, gional conferences on the Global Nuclear technical capacity, a fledgling regulatory secure, and peaceful use of nuclear energy.” Future in the United Arab Emirates in 2009 infrastructure, and uncertain public accept - U.S. Ambassador to Vietnam David and in Singapore in 2010. n ance of the technology.” Shear also addressed the group. He noted At the Hanoi meeting, policy-makers from that all the nations in the region are growing throughout Southeast Asia, as well as techni - rapidly and are in various stages of weighing cal experts and industry representatives from nuclear power to meet increased energy countries with established nuclear programs, demands. “No one nation can ensure the outlined the nuclear power plans of individ - safe and secure development of nuclear ual states and shared best practices for ensur - energy,” Shear said. “That’s why confer - ing that the programs advance as safely as ences like this are so important.” possible. Delegates discussed ways to create The regional strategies that were discussed a culture of safety in the operation of nuclear at the meeting will be disseminated to the facilities in the post-Fukushima era, methods broader international nuclear-energy policy of ensuring the transparency of civilian community. The gnf project is organizing a nuclear power programs, and ideas for man - series of publications that will address the aging the nuclear fuel cycle, including the economic, technical, public policy, and secu - concept of regional storage and disposal of rity challenges faced by nations in Southeast used fuel, among other topics. Asia that do not currently have nuclear

Bulletin of the American Academy of Arts & Sciences, Winter 2013 53 projects and activities

From the Archives

nthony Fothergill (1732–1813) was an -educated physician and natural historian. In 1806, he sent an essay A to the Academy entitled “Memoir on the origin & formation of ice-islands, and their dangerous effects in navigation, pointing out a certain and easy method of timely forewarning seamen of their approach even in the darkest night.” Though some of his points had been anticipated independently by François Péron, a French naturalist and explorer, Fothergill made the following observations in his essay:

2. That the origin, formation, and destina - 8. That winds, blowing over them, temper tion of ice islands, hitherto unknown, the intense heat of summer in the adja - may now perhaps admit of a probable cent climates. explanation, that may excite others to 9. That ice islands may be guarded against complete the discovery. by vigilance, and by ships well con - 3. That the arctic regions alone give birth structed. to ice islands, and the liquefaction of the 10. That the thermometer may be rendered polar ices to the tides, as has been sup - preeminently useful in pointing out the posed seems highly improbable. approach of rocks, shoals, and shores; 4. That the ice islands observed in the more but particularly of ice islands and the temperate seas, where the temperature Gulph stream. decreases downwards, may originate 11. That the barometer may also greatly where least expected, viz. at the bottom; contribute, and that these instruments especially where rocks and other con - should jointly constitute a part of the ducting bodies overspread the surface. nautical apparatus, and daily observa - 5. That the notion of central ½re is ground - tions be noted in the journals. less; and that objections, drawn from it, 12. Finally, that by due attention to the or volcanoes, are alike inadmissible. above rules those dangerous obstacles to 6. That ice in the open air evaporates even navigation may be detected, which elude below the point of congelation, and that the magnetic needle and all other instru - Cover page of Fothergill’s treatise on ice-islands evaporation generates cold and accumu - ments; and thus might the art of naviga - lates ice in the curious cave of Grace tion be improved, science promoted, Reprinted from the Memoirs of the American Dieu most in summer. and many disasters prevented. Academy of Arts and Sciences , vol. 3, no. 1 (1809), 69. 7. That the evils, occasionally produced by ice islands, are complained of, while their bene½cial effects on the animal and vegetable creation have hitherto passed unnoticed.

54 Bulletin of the American Academy of Arts & Sciences, Winter 2013 noteworthy

Select Prizes and Awards National Medal of Science, Thomas D. Cook (Northwestern continued in Life Sciences University) is the recipient of the to Members 2012 Peter H. Rossi Award, given Leroy Hood (Institute for Systems Cornelia I. Bargmann (Rocke - by the University of Maryland Nobel Prizes, 2012 Biology) feller University) School of Public Policy and the Association for Public Policy Chemistry Barry Mazur (Harvard University) (Princeton Uni - Analysis and Management. versity) (Stanford Univer - Robert Lefkowitz (Duke Univer - Lucille Shapiro Daniel Day-Lewis (New York, sity Medical Center) sity School of Medicine) Lewis C. Cantley (Weill Cornell NY) won an Academy Award for Medical College) Best Actor for his role in Lincoln . Medicine Anne Treisman (Princeton Uni - versity) (Hubrecht Institute) He was also awarded a Golden Globe for Best Actor in a Drama. John Gurdon (University of Cam - (Rockefeller Uni - bridge) † (New York National Medal of Technology versity) Ronald Dworkin Economics University) was awarded a 2012 and Innovation Eric S. Lander (Broad Institute of Balzan Prize for Jurisprudence. Alvin Roth (Harvard University) mit and Harvard) Frances Arnold (California Insti - Gerald Early (Washington Uni - Lloyd Shapley (University of Cali - tute of Technology) (Johns Hopkins versity in St. Louis) received the fornia, Los Angeles) University) St. Louis American Foundation’s Robert Langer (Massachusetts Lifetime Achiever in Education Institute of Technology) Robert A. Weinberg (Massachu - award. Wolf Prizes, 2013 setts Institute of Technology) Louise Erdrich (Minneapolis, Architecture Academy Fellows elected to MN) won a 2012 National Book the Institute of Medicine Other Awards Award for The Round House . Eduardo Souto de Moura (Uni - versidade do Porto; Souto Moura- Jacqueline K. Barton (California Nima Arkani-Hamed (Institute Nina Fedoroff (Pennsylvania Arquitectos SA) Institute of Technology) for Advanced Study) is among the State University) was awarded the recipients of the Fundamental 2013 Desert Research Institute Mathematics Don W. Cleveland (University of Physics Prize. Nevada Medal. (Massachusetts California San Diego School of (Johns Hop - Institute of Technology) Medicine) Charles L. Bennett Martin Feldstein (Harvard Uni - kins University) was awarded the versity) was awarded the 2012 (Boston University) George Mostow (Yale University) James J. Collins 2012 Gruber Cosmology Prize. siepr Prize for Contributions to Economic Policy. Chemistry Vishva M. Dixit (Genentech Inc.) Leo Beranek (Westwood, MA) is (Brown Uni - the recipient of the ieee Founders David Ferry (Wellesley College) Robert Langer (Massachusetts John P. Donoghue Medal. won a 2012 National Book Award Institute of Technology) versity) for Bewilderment . Jeffrey Bezos (Amazon.com) was Agriculture Robert M. Groves (Georgetown University) named 2012 Businessperson of the Neil Gehrels (Goddard Space Year by . Flight Center) received the Com - Jared Diamond (University of Fortune California, Los Angeles) (University of Cali - mittee on Space Research Harrie fornia, San Francisco) Robert J. Birgeneau (University of Massey Award. California, Berkeley) was awarded Dan R. Littman (New York Uni - the 2012 Karl Taylor Compton Laurie H. Glimcher (Weill Cor - National Medal of Science versity School of Medicine) Medal for Leadership in Physics. nell Medical College) is the recip - (University of Texas at ient of the 2012 Ernst W. Bertner Allen Bard Terry R. Magnuson (University of Caroline Walker Bynum (Insti - Austin) Memorial Award from The Uni - North Carolina School of Medi - tute for Advanced Study) was versity of Texas md Anderson cine) elected to the Orden Pour le Sallie Chisholm (Massachusetts Cancer Center. Institute of Technology) Mérite für Wissenschaften und Thomas Maniatis (Columbia Uni - Künste of the Federal Republic of (University of versity Medical Center) Sharon Glotzer Sidney Drell (Stanford University) . Michigan) was named a 2012 (University of Cali - Steven A. Siegelbaum (Columbia Simons Investigator by the Simons Sandra Faber Jesse H. Choper (uc Berkeley Foundation. fornia, Santa Cruz) University Medical Center) School of Law) is the recipient of the State Bar of California’s (University Wayne M. Yokoyama (Washing - Sha½ Goldwasser (Massachusetts Sylvester James Gates Bernard E. Witkin Medal for of Maryland) ton University School of Medi - Institute of Technology) was cine in St. Louis) 2012. named a 2012 Simons Investigator (University of by the Simons Foundation. Solomon Golomb (Boston Univer - Southern California) James J. Collins sity) is among the recipients of Harry Gray (California Institute of M. Frederick Hawthorne (Uni - the 2012 Sano½-Institut Pasteur Technology) has been awarded the versity of Missouri-Columbia) Awards. 2013 Othmer Gold Medal by the Chemical Heritage Foundation.

† Deceased

Bulletin of the American Academy of Arts & Sciences, Winter 2013 55 noteworthy

John Guckenheimer (Cornell Jon Kleinberg (Cornell University) Jeffrey V. Ravetch (Rockefeller Peter J. Stang (University of Utah) University) received the 2013 was named a 2012 Simons Investi - University) is among the recipi - was awarded the 2013 Priestley American Mathematical Society’s gator by the Simons Foundation. ents of the 2012 Sano½-Institut Medal from the American Chem - Leroy P. Steele Prize for Mathe - Pasteur Awards. ical Society. matical Exposition. He shares the Leonard Kleinrock (University of California, Los Angeles) is the (Harvard Univer - (Johns Hopkins prize with Philip Holmes (Prince - James R. Rice Eric J. Sundquist ton University). recipient of the 2012 ieee Alexan - sity) received the American Geo - University) is the 2012 recipient of der Graham Bell Medal. physical Union’s 2012 Walter H. the Jay B. Hubbell Award, given by Jeffrey C. Hall (Cambridge, ME) Bucher Medal. the American Literature Section of has been awarded the Wiley Prize Ang Lee (Ang Lee Productions) the Modern Language Association. in Biomedical Sciences, the Canada won an Academy Award for Best John D. Roberts (California Insti - Gairdner Award, and the Massry Director for Life of Pi . tute of Technology) has been Ivan Edward Sutherland (Port - awarded the 2013 American Insti - land State University) is the recip - Prize. He shares these prizes with (Stanford Univer - (Brandeis Uni - tute of Chemists Gold Medal. ient of the 2012 Kyoto Prize in Michael Rosbash sity) is among the recipients of Advanced Technology. versity) and Michael W. Young the Fundamental Physics Prize. Michael Rosbash (Brandeis Uni - (). versity) has been awarded the (University of Cali - George Lucas (Skywalker Proper - Wiley Prize in Biomedical Sci - fornia, Los Angeles) was named a (University of ties, Ltd.) received an naacp Cambridge) was awarded a spe - ences, the Canada Gairdner 2012 Simons Investigator by the Image Award for Best Motion Pic - Award, and the Massry Prize. He Simons Foundation. cial physics prize by the Funda - ture for . Red Tails shares these prizes with Jeffrey C. mental Physics Prize Foundation. Calvin Trillin (The New Yorker ) Juan Maldacena (Institute for Hall (Cambridge, ME) and (Stowers Insti - Michael W. Young (Rockefeller was awarded the 2012 Thurber R. Scott Hawley Advanced Study) is among the Prize for American Humor. tute for Medical Research) was recipients of the Fundamental University). awarded the George W. Beadle Physics Prize. (JPMorgan) Ronald D. Vale (University of Cali - Award of the Genetics Society of E. John Rosenwald, Jr. fornia, San Francisco) was awarded America. Mark Mazower (Columbia Uni - was honored with the Living Landmark Award by the New the 2012 Albert Lasker Basic Med - versity) is the recipient of the ical Research Award. He shares John L. Hennessy (Stanford Uni - Dido Sotiriou Award. York Landmarks Conservancy. versity) was awarded the 2012 the award with James Spudich ieee Medal of Honor. Bill McKibben (Middlebury Col - Marlan O. Scully (Texas A&M (Stanford University School of lege) received the Gandhi Peace University) is the 2012 recipient Medicine) and Michael Sheetz Geoffrey Hill (University of Award. of the Frederic Ives Medal/Jarus (Columbia University). Oxford) received the British Quinn Prize, given by The Optical honor of knighthood. Jerrold Meinwald (Cornell Uni - Society of America. Marvalee H. Wake (University of versity) was awarded the Benjamin California, Berkeley) is the inau - Philip Holmes (Princeton Univer - Franklin Medal in Chemistry. (Institute for gural recipient of the Interna - sity) received the 2013 American Advanced Study) is among the tional Union of Biological Sci- Mathematical Society’s Leroy P. Sam Nunn (Nuclear Threat Initia - recipients of the Fundamental ences Award. Steele Prize for Mathematical tive) and Richard Lugar (Indiana Physics Prize. Exposition. He shares the prize University) were honored with Douglas C. Wallace (The Chil - (Princeton University) dren’s Hospital of Philadelphia; with John Guckenheimer (Cor - the ½rst Nunn-Lugar Award for nell University). Promoting Nuclear Security, given received the 2013 American Math - University of Pennsylvania) is the by Carnegie Corporation of New ematical Society’s Leroy P. Steele recipient of the 2012 Genetics Sarah Hrdy (Winters, CA) was York and the Carnegie Endow - Prize for Lifetime Achievement. Prize of the Gruber Foundation. awarded the J. I. Staley Prize and ment for International Peace. the W. W. Howells Book Prize for Linda B. Smith (Indiana Univer - Sharon K. Weiner (American Ralph Nuzzo (University of Illi - sity) is the 2013 recipient of the University; Visiting Scholar, Mothers and Others: The evolution - David E. Rumelhart Prize. 2005–2006) received the 2012 ary origins of mutual understanding . nois at Urbana-Champaign) was awarded an Alexander von Hum - Louis Brownlow Book Award (Rensselaer Ralph Snyderman (Duke Univer - from the National Academy of Shirley Ann Jackson boldt Professorship. sity School of Medicine) is the Polytechnic Institute) was selected Public Administration for Our as an International Fellow of the Tim O’Brien (Austin, TX) received recipient of the David E. Rogers Award, given by the Association Own Worst Enemy?: Institutional Royal Academy of Engineering. the 2012 Richard C. Holbrooke Dis - Interests and the Proliferation of tinguished Achievement Award. of American Medical Colleges. . (Qualcomm, Nuclear Weapons Expertise Irwin M. Jacobs (Stanford Univer - Inc.) is the recipient of the 2013 Robert Page (Arizona State Uni - James Spudich (Institute for ieee Medal of Honor. versity) was elected a Fellow of sity School of Medicine) was Advanced Study) is among the the Entomological Society of awarded the 2012 Albert Lasker recipients of the Fundamental David A. Kenny (University of America. Basic Medical Research Award. He Physics Prize. Connecticut) received the Distin - shares the award with Ronald D. guished Scientist Award from the Thomas D. Petes (Duke University Vale (University of California, San Horng-Tzer Yau (Harvard Univer - Society of Experimental Social Medical Center) was awarded the Francisco) and Michael Sheetz sity) was named a 2012 Simons Psychologists. Thomas Hunt Morgan Medal of (Columbia University). Investigator by the Simons Foun - the Genetics Society of America. dation.

56 Bulletin of the American Academy of Arts & Sciences, Winter 2013 Marvin Zelen (Harvard Univer - William C. Kirby (Harvard Uni - Barbara A. Schaal (Washington Fiction sity) is the recipient of the Karl E. versity) has been elected a mem - University in St. Louis) has been Peace Award for Outstanding Sta - ber of the Board of Directors of named Dean of the Faculty of Arts Louise Erdrich (Minneapolis, tistical Contributions for the Bet - Cabot Corporation. & Sciences at Washington Uni - MN). The Round House , Harper, terment of Society, given by the versity in St. Louis. She was also October 2012 American Statistical Association. Steven E. Koonin (New York Uni - appointed U.S. Science Envoy. He shares the award with Fritz versity) joined the Board of Direc - Jamaica Kincaid (Claremont Scheuren ( norc at the University tors of Ceres, Inc. Eric Schmidt (Google) has been McKenna College). See Now Then . of Chicago). elected to the Board of Directors Farrar, Straus and Giroux, Febru - G. Peter Lepage (Cornell Univer - of first (For Inspiration and ary 2013 sity) has been appointed to the Recognition of Science and Tech - National Science Board of the nology). Sharon Olds (New York Univer - New Appointments National Science Foundation. sity). Stag’s Leap . Knopf, Septem - Lucille Shapiro (Stanford Univer - ber 2012 James J. McCarthy (Harvard Uni - sity School of Medicine) has been Lewis Cantley (Harvard Medical versity) was appointed to the U.S. Jerry Pinkney (Jerry Pinkney Stu - School) has been named Director appointed to the Board of Direc - Arctic Research Commission. tors of Paci½c Biosciences of Cal - dio). Puss in Boots . Dial, Novem - of the Cancer Center at Weill ber 2012 Cornell Medical College and Kathleen McCartney (Harvard ifornia, Inc. Graduate School of Education) (Bridgehampton, NY). NewYork-Presbyterian Hospital. David Skorton (Cornell Univer - James Salter has been named President of sity) was appointed Chairman of All That Is . Knopf, April 2013 Jared L. Cohon (Carnegie Mellon Smith College. University) has been appointed to the Board of Directors of the New Lynne Sharon Schwartz (New the board of the Heinz Endow - W. James McNerney, Jr. (Boeing York Racing Association. York, NY). Two-Part Inventions . ments. Company) has been elected to the (National Science Counterpoint, November 2012 Board of Directors of first (For Subra Suresh (University of Foundation) has been named F. Fleming Crim Inspiration and Recognition of President of Carnegie Mellon Wisconsin-Madison) was named Science and Technology). Non½ction Assistant Director for the Direc - University. (National Institute of (United States torate of Mathematical and Phys - Gary Nabel Daniel Vasella (Novartis) has Ben S. Bernanke ical Sciences at the National Allergy & Infectious Diseases) been elected to the Board of Federal Reserve). The Federal Re - Science Foundation. has been named Chief Scienti½c Directors of American Express. serve and the Financial Crisis: Lec - Of½cer and Senior Vice President tures by Ben S. Bernanke . Princeton Sheldon H. Danziger (University at Sano½. James V. Wertsch (Washington University Press, March 2013 of Michigan) was named President University in St. Louis) has been of the Russell Sage Foundation. Erin K. O’Shea (Harvard Univer - named Vice Chancellor for Inter - Angus Burgin (Johns Hopkins Uni - sity) was named Vice President versity; Visiting Scholar, 2009– (Johns Hopkins Uni - national Affairs at Washington Karen Davis and Chief Scienti½c Of½cer at the University in St. Louis. 2010). The Great Persuasion: Rein - versity) has been named Director Howard Hughes Medical Institute. venting Free Markets since the of the Roger C. Lipitz Center for Judy Woodruff (PBS NewsHour ) Depression . Harvard University Integrated Health Care at Johns Herbert Pardes (NewYork-Pres - has been elected a Trustee of the Press, October 2012 Hopkins Bloomberg School of byterian Hospital) was elected to Duke Endowment. Public Health. the Board of Directors of the Noam Chomsky (Massachusetts National Center on Addiction and Institute of Technology). Power Esther Duflo (Massachusetts Insti - Substance Abuse at Columbia Systems: Conversations on Global tute of Technology) was appoint- University. Select Publications Democratic Uprisings and the New ed a Member of the President’s Challenges to the U.S. Empire , inter - Global Development Council. Roger Perlmutter (Amgen, Inc.) Poetry views with David Barsamian was appointed as an Independent (Alternative Radio). Metropoli - Jonathan Galassi (Farrar, Straus Non-Executive Director of Ablynx. and Giroux) has been elected to John Ashbery (Bard College). tan, January 2013 . Ecco, the Board of Directors of Words William K. Reilly (Aqua Interna - Quick Question: New Poems (Harvard Art December 2012 Marjorie B. Cohn Without Borders. tional Partners) was appointed a Museums). Member of the President’s Global Classic Modern: The (University of Yale John Hennessy (Stanford Univer - Development Council. Charles Bernstein Art Worlds of Joseph Pulitzer Jr. sity) has been appointed to the Pennsylvania). Recalculating . Uni - University Press, February 2013 versity of Chicago Press, March Board of Trustees of the Gordon Geraldine Richmond (University (Yale University). 2013 Peter Crane and Betty Moore Foundation. of Oregon) has been appointed to . the National Science Board of the Ginkgo: The Tree that Time Forgot (Rutgers, the State Yale University Press, March 2013 Susan Hock½eld (Massachusetts National Science Foundation. Rachel Hadas University of New Jersey). Institute of Technology) has been The (Columbia Uni - . TriQuarterly Arthur C. Danto elected to the Board of Directors Theodore C. Rogers (American Golden Road: Poems versity). . Yale Univer - Books, October 2012 What Art Is of Qualcomm Incorporated. She Industrial Partners) has been sity Press, March 2013 elected to the Board of Directors was also named U.S. Science (Princeton Univer - of Words Without Borders. Paul Muldoon (Emory Univer - Envoy. sity). Frans de Waal The Word on the Street: Rock sity). . Farrar, Straus and Giroux, The Bonobo and the Atheist: In Ira Katznelson (Columbia Univer - Joan V. Ruderman (Harvard Med - Lyrics ical School) has been named Pres - February 2013 Search of Humanism among the Pri - sity) was named President of the mates . W.W. Norton, March 2013 Social Science Research Council. ident and Director of the Marine Biological Laboratory.

Bulletin of the American Academy of Arts & Sciences, Winter 2013 57 noteworthy

Jared Diamond (University of Thomas Nagel (New York Uni - Robert B. Silvers (New York Review California, Los Angeles). The versity). Mind and Cosmos: Why of Books ), ed. The New York Review World Until Yesterday: What Can the Materialist Neo-Darwinian Con - Abroad: Fifty Years of International We Learn from Traditional Societies? ception of Nature is Almost Certainly Reportage . New York Review of Viking, January 2013 False . Oxford University Press, Books, April 2013 September 2012 Robert A. Ferguson (Columbia Wole Soyinka (Abeokuta, Nige - University). Alone in America: The Martha C. Nussbaum (University ria). Of Africa . Yale University Stories that Matter . Harvard Uni - of Chicago) and Alison L. LaCroix Press, November 2012 versity Press, January 2013 (University of Chicago). Subver - Charles Taylor (McGill Univer - (University of sion and Sympathy: Gender, Law, sity). Robert W. Fogel and the British Novel . Oxford Uni - Democracia Republicana: Chicago). Explaining Long-Term versity Press, January 2013 Republican Democracy . lom Edi - Trends in Health and Longevity . ciones, October 2012 Cambridge University Press, Jeremiah P. Ostriker (Princeton August 2012 University) and Simon Mitton Peter Temin (Massachusetts Insti- tute of Technology) and David (University of Cambridge). Heart Robert W. Fogel (University of Vines (Oxford University). The Chicago), Enid M. Fogel (Univer - of Darkness: Unraveling the Myster - ies of the Invisible Universe . Prince - Leaderless Economy: Why the World sity of Chicago), Mark Guglielmo ton University Press, February Economic System Fell Apart and How (Bentley University), and Nathaniel 2013 to Fix It . Princeton University Grotte (University of Chicago). Press, February 2013 Political Arithmetic: Simon Kuznets Elizabeth J. Perry (Harvard Uni - versity). Garry Wills (Northwestern Uni - and the Empirical Tradition in Eco - Anyuan: Mining China’s versity). nomics . University of Chicago Press, Revolutionary Tradition . University Why Priests? A Failed Tra - April 2013 of California Press, October 2012 dition . Viking, February 2013 (Harvard Uni - Saul Friedländer (University of David G. Roskies (Jewish Theo - Edward O. Wilson California, Los Angeles). logical Seminary) and Naomi Dia - versity). Letters to a Young Scientist . Franz W.W. Norton/Liveright, April 2013 Kafka: The Poet of Shame and Guilt . mant (New York University). Yale University Press, April 2013 Holocaust Literature: A History and Robert Wuthnow (Princeton Uni - Guide . Brandeis University Press, versity). The God Problem: Express - Darlene Clark Hine (Northwestern January 2013 University) and John McCluskey ing Faith and Being Reasonable . Jr. (Indiana University). (Oxford Univer - University of California Press, The Black J.S. Rowlinson October 2012 Chicago Renaissance . University of sity). Sir James Dewar, 1842–1923: Illinois Press, July 2012 A Ruthless Chemist . Ashgate, August 2012 (Cambridge, MA). Gish Jen Tiger We invite all Fellows and (Harvard Kennedy Writing: Art, Culture, and the Inter - John Ruggie For eign Honorary Members dependent Self . Harvard University School). Just Business: Multina - to send notices about their Press, March 2013 tional Corporations and Human Rights . W.W. Norton, March 2013 recent and forthcoming pub - Ira Katznelson (Columbia Univer - lications, scienti½c ½ndings, sity; Social Science Research Richard Sennett (New York Uni - exhibitions and performances, Council). versity; London School of Eco - Fear Itself: The New Deal and honors and prizes to . W.W. nomics). and the Origins of Our Time Together: The Rituals, bulletin@ama cad.org. Norton/Liveright, March 2013 Pleasures, and Politics of Coopera - tion . Yale University Press, Febru - Rashid Khalidi (Columbia Uni - ary 2013 versity). Brokers of Deceit: How the U.S. Has Undermined Peace in the John Sexton (New York Univer - Middle East . Beacon Press, March sity) with Thomas Oliphant 2013 (Washington, DC) and Peter J. Schwartz (New York, NY). Base - Phillip Lopate (Hofstra Univer - sity). ball as a Road to God: Seeing Beyond Portrait Inside My Head: the Game . Gotham, March 2013 Essays . Free Press, February 2013 (University of Chi - (Princeton Univer - Neil Shubin Nolan McCarty cago). The Universe Within: Dis - sity), Keith T. Poole (University of Georgia), and covering the Common History of Howard Rosenthal Rocks, Planets, and People . Pan - (New York University). Political theon, January 2013 Bubbles: Financial Crises and the Fail - ure of American Democracy . Prince - ton University Press, May 2013

58 Bulletin of the American Academy of Arts & Sciences, Winter 2013 Remembrance

It is with sadness that the Academy notes the passing of the following members .*

Armen Albert Alchian –February 19, 2013; elected Rita Levi-Montalcini –December 30, 2012; elected to the Academy in 1978 to the Academy in 1966

Robert Heron Bork –December 19, 2012; elected to Chia-Chiao Lin –January 13, 2013; elected to the the Academy in 1981 Academy in 1951

Dave Brubeck –December 5, 2012; elected to the Robert Peichung Lin –November 17, 2012; elected Academy in 2011 to the Academy in 2006

James McGill Buchanan –January 9, 2013; elected E. Peter Lougheed –July 13, 2012; elected to the to the Academy in 1976 Academy in 2002

Arthur Chaskalson –December 1, 2012; elected to Rudolf Ludwig Mößbauer –September 14, 2011; the Academy in 2008 elected to the Academy in 1971

James Anderson DePreist –February 8, 2013; Steven Muller –January 19, 2013; elected to the elected to the Academy in 1992 Academy in 1975

Michael Anthony Eardley Dummett –December Joseph E. Murray –November 26, 2012; elected to 27, 2012; elected to the Academy in 1985 the Academy in 1992

Ronald Myles Dworkin –February 14, 2013; elected Oscar Soares Filho Niemeyer –December 5, 2012; to the Academy in 1979 elected to the Academy in 1949

Stuart Jay Freedman –November 9, 2012; elected Robert Coleman Richardson –February 19, 2013; to the Academy in 2006 elected to the Academy in 1995

Howard Gest –April 24, 2012; elected to the Acad - Henry William Riecken –December 27, 2012; emy in 2002 elected to the Academy in 1971

Erwin Nick Hiebert –November 28, 2012; elected Charles Rosen –December 9, 2012; elected to the to the Academy in 1975 Academy in 1974

Albert Otto Hirschman –December 10, 2012; Warren B. Rudman –November 19, 2012; elected to elected to the Academy in 1965 the Academy in 2002

Donald Frederick Hornig –January 21, 2013; Nevin Stewart Scrimshaw –February 8, 2013; elected to the Academy in 1952 elected to the Academy in 1975

Ada Louise Huxtable –January 7, 2013; elected to Richard Gustave Stern –January 24, 2013; elected the Academy in 1974 to the Academy in 1995

Farish Alston Jenkins, Jr. –November 11, 2012; Kenneth Winfred Thompson –February 2, 2013; elected to the Academy in 2011 elected to the Academy in 1963

Elwood Vernon Jensen –December 16, 2012; Nicholas John Turro –November 24, 2012; elected elected to the Academy in 1975 to the Academy in 1981

Charles Everett Koop –February 25, 2013; elected J. Richard Udry –July 29, 2012; elected to the Acad - to the Academy in 1990 emy in 1997

Alexander Leaf –December 24, 2012; elected to the Annemarie Weber –July 5, 2012; elected to the Academy in 1966 Academy in 1976

Gerda Lerner –January 2, 2013; elected to the Acad - Carl R. Woese –December 30, 2012; elected to the emy in 1998 Academy in 1985

*Notice received from November 13, 2012 to February 26, 2013

Bulletin of the American Academy of Arts & Sciences, Winter 2013 59 The Academy was created to cultivate every art and science that may tend to advance the interest, honour, dignity, and happiness of a free, independent, and virtuous people.

–Charter of Incorporation, May 4, 1780

Since its founding in 1780, the American Academy has served the nation as a champion of scholarship, civil dialogue, and useful knowledge.

As one of the nation’s oldest learned societies and independent policy research centers, the Academy convenes leaders from the academic, business, and gov - ernment sectors to address critical challenges facing our global society.

Through studies, publications, and programs on the Humanities, Arts, and Edu - cation; Science, Engineering, and Technology; Global Security and Energy; and American Institutions and the Public Good, the Academy provides authoritative and nonpartisan policy advice to decision-makers in government, academia, and the private sector. Norton’s Woods, 136 Irving Street, Cambridge, ma 02138 telephone 617-576-5000, facsimile 617-576-5050, email [email protected], website www.amacad.org academy officers Bulletin Winter 2013 Issued as Volume lxvi , Number 2 Louis W. Cabot , Chair of the Board © 2013 by the American Academy of Arts & Sciences Leslie Cohen Berlowitz , President and William T. Golden Chair The Bulletin of the American Academy of Arts & Science s (issn Jerrold Meinwald , Secretary 0002–712 x) is published quarterly by the American Robert P. Henderson , Treasurer Academy of Arts & Sciences, 136 Irving Street, Cambridge, ma 02138. Periodi cals rate postage paid at Boston, ma , and Louis W. Cabot , Chair of the Trust at additional mailing of½ces. Post master: Send address Gerald L. Early , Chair of the Council changes to Bulletin , American Academy of Arts & Sciences, 136 Irving Street, Cambridge, ma 02138. Neal Lane , Vice Chair of the Council John F. Cogan, Jr. , Vice Chair, New England The views expressed in the Bulletin are those held by each contributor and are not necessarily those of the Of½cers and John Katzenellenbogen , Vice Chair, Midwest Fellows of the American Acad emy of Arts & Sciences. Jesse H. Choper , Vice Chair, West publications advisory board photo credits

Jerrold Meinwald and John Mark Hansen , Cochairs ; Martha Stewart outside cover, pages 2, 4, 6, Jesse H. Choper, Denis Donoghue, Gerald Early, 8, 10, 12, 14–15, 17, 21–22, Carol Gluck, Linda Greenhouse, John Hildebrand, 24–25, 27, 30, 35, 38, 42, 46 Jerome Kagan, Philip Khoury, Neal Lane Rod Searcey Photos pages 47, top left and Steven Marcus, Eric Sundquist bottom; 49, left Whitney Curtis Photography page 47, top right editorial staff Jon Gardiner/ Duke Photography page 48, top Phyllis S. Bendell , Director of Publications Micah J. Buis , Associate Director of Publications Miami Dade College page 48, bottom Peter Walton , Senior Editorial Assistant Eric Craig Studios page 49, right Scott Raymond , Design & Layout John Blaustein page 50 Initial design by Joseph Moore of Moore + Associates Imijination Photography page 51 Gail Oskin page 52 american academy of arts & sciences Norton’s Woods 136 Irving Street Cambridge, ma 02138-1996 usa telephone 617-576-5000 facsimile 617-576-5050 email aaas @amacad .org website www .amacad .org a m e r i c a n

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