Impact of Environmental Governance on Local Livelihoods in Forest Protected Areas of Bangladesh: A Study of Lawachara National Park Mohammad Nashir Uddin BSS (Hons) (Dhaka University, Bangladesh) MSS (Dhaka University, Bangladesh) MPP (National Graduate Institute for Policy Studies, Japan) A thesis submitted in fulfilment of the requirements for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy (Sustainable Resource Management) The School of Environmental and Life Sciences The University of Newcastle Australia November 2019 This research was supported by Australian Government Research Training Program (RTP) Scholarship (Endeavour Postgraduate Scholarship) i Statement of Originality I hereby certify that the work embodied in the thesis is my own work, conducted under normal supervision. The thesis contains no material which has been accepted, or is being examined, for the award of any other degree or diploma in any university or other tertiary institution and, to the best of my knowledge and belief, contains no material previously published or written by another person, except where due reference has been made. I give consent to the final version of my thesis being made available worldwide when deposited in the University’s Digital Repository, subject to the provisions of the Copyright Act 1968 and any approved embargo. Signature: Name: Mohammad Nashir Uddin ii Acknowledgement of Authorship I hereby certify that the work embodied in this thesis contains a published paper of which I am a joint author. I have included a written declaration below endorsed in writing by my principal supervisor, attesting to my contribution to the joint publication. By signing below I confirm that Mohammad Nashir Uddin contributed ninety-five percent to the publication entitled ‘Community perception of impacts of protected area governance on local livelihoods: A case study of the Lawachara National Park, Bangladesh’, By: Mohammad Nashir UDDIN, Salim MOMTAZ and Anita CHALMERS (Presented in 2019 International Conference on Climate Change, Disaster Management and Environmental Sustainability arranged by The Center for Water Cycle, Marine Environment and Disaster Management (CWMD) held at Kumamoto University, Japan on September 19-20. The Paper is reviewed and accepted for publication in the conference proceedings). …………………………………….. Principal supervisor: Associate Professor Salim Momtaz iii Acknowledgements It is my privilege to acknowledge the cooperation of many people and organisations who generously supported and contributed during my PhD studies at The University of Newcastle, Australia. I would like to express my gratitude to The Australian Department of Education for awarding me Endeavour Postgraduate Scholarship to pursue my doctoral research program. I am thankful to The University of Newcastle for giving me the opportunity to do this research by extending support. I am greatly thankful to Associate Professor Dr Salim Momtaz, my principal supervisor, for his careful attention, and constructive and critical comments to improve my writing. Without his scholarly advice and encouragement I would not have crossed the finish line. I would like to thank my co-supervisor Dr Anita Chalmers for her comments and inputs that helped me greatly in improving my thoughts. She extended her cooperation and guidance that backed me in tough situations. I acknowledge the support of the staff at Ourimbah campus especially Ms Nicole Day and Ms Pam Steenkamp, who were always cooperative in need of assistance. I would like to thank Ms Virginia Walker, Senior Research Librarian, for her kind cooperation to fix the referencing just before submission of my thesis. I am also grateful to officers and other staff of the Department of Forest, Bangladesh, for their assistance to conduct fieldwork for this research. I would like to thank the forest beat officer Md Anwar Hossain for introducing me to the co-management leadership and officials as well as the potential participants. I am humbly grateful to those people who participated in the household surveys, interviews, and focus group discussions. I am also thankful to my former student Mr Kanu Kumar Ghosh and two local residents Mr Forly iv Niang and Mr Md Rubel Hossain who supported me during the conduct of fieldwork for this study. I am thankful to my friends and students for their support and encouragement to complete my research. My special thanks to Mr Palash Basak, Mr Mohammad Hamiduzzaman, Mr Hoang Dung Ha, Mr Mohammad Elyas Karim, Mr Md Faruk Hossain, Mr Md Saifullah and other fellow PhD candidates in my lab. I am thankful to my family members in general and my beloved wife Ms Kazi Sharmin and my loving daughter Ms Nujhat Nabila Suha in particular for their personal sacrifices and patience. Above all, I am grateful to the Almighty Allah for bestowing me with privilege, strengths and ability to finish my PhD journey. v Dedication I would like to dedicate this thesis to: My teachers, for opening up my eyes to the universe. My parents, for their continuous caring and sacrifice. My family, for their unconditional support. vi Publications The following conference paper is based on perception analysis portion of Chapter 4: Title: Community perception of impacts of protected area governance on local livelihoods: A case study of the Lawachara National Park, Bangladesh By: Mohammad Nashir UDDIN, Salim MOMTAZ and Anita CHALMERS (Presented in 2019 International Conference on Climate Change, Disaster Management and Environmental Sustainability arranged by The Center for Water Cycle, Marine Environment and Disaster Management (CWMD) held at Kumamoto University, Japan on September 19-20. The Paper is reviewed and published in the conference proceedings). vii Abstract Forest protected areas (FPAs) are great sources of natural resources that play a vital role in the livelihoods of a large number of local people in developing countries. A co- management-based participatory approach to protected area governance has been adopted and implemented in many countries. The main purpose of this approach is to overcome the complex challenges of resource conservation and inclusion of resource dependent local people in the governance practice. Authors claim that this governance practice encompasses FPA conservation and considers forest-dependent local people’s livelihoods. However, the practice is criticised by the researchers for its limited achievement through donor-funded programs. Therefore, it is important to examine the efficacy of existing governance in forest protected areas. Hence, this research examines how and to what extent local people and their livelihoods are affected by the co-management-based governance practice in a selected FPA in Bangladesh. An integrated review of the relevant literature was undertaken to understand the issues and determinants of environmental governance of FPAs and local livelihoods. A mixed- methods research design with an interpretative phenomenological approach was applied. Household surveys, key informant interviews and focus group discussions were employed to collect field data. A combined thematic-interpretative analysis process was employed to analyse the transcribed and translated data. The findings are presented and discussed under several themes and subthemes to address the research objectives and research questions. viii A major finding of this study is that the local people, irrespective of place of residence, gender, age, race or position in the society, believed that FPA governance was useful for the survival of the forest. However, the local people had shallow understanding about co- management activities. They believed that there were limited and inequitable gains in the livelihood improvement from the implemented governance practices. Moreover, the influential people dominated the activities of the existing governance. As a result, participation of local people was limited. Furthermore, the influential people were damaging the forest through their illegal exploitation. To overcome the challenges for protecting the forest and improving the livelihoods of the people around the forest, increased participation, awareness and capacity enhancement of local people, benefit sharing; and political and social commitment are essential. Reduction of donor dependency and diversification of income sources along with committed leadership are necessary to ensure future sustainability. ix List of Abbreviations ACF Assistant Conservator of Forests AIG Alternative Income Generation ASA Association for Social Advancement BRAC Bangladesh Rural Advancement Committee BDT Bangladeshi Taka BGB Border Guards Bangladesh CBD Convention on Biological Diversity CCF Chief Conservator of Forests CMC Co-Management Committee CMO Co-Management Organisation CPG Community Patrolling Group CREL Climate-Resilient Ecosystems and Livelihoods DfID Department for International Development DFO Divisional Forest Officer FAO Food and Agricultural Organization FD Forest Department FGD Focus Group Discussion FPA Forest Protected Area IPAC Integrated Protected Area Co-management IUCN International Union for Conservation of Nature KII Key Informant Interview LNP Lawachara National Park x MMR Mixed-methods Research NGO Non-government Organisation NS Nishorgo Sahayak NSP Nishorgo Support Project OA Overall Assessment PA Protected Area PF People’s Forum PPP Public–Private Partnership RDRS Rangpur-Dinajpur Rural Service SD Sustainable Development SFM Sustainable Forest Management SLA Sustainable Livelihoods Approach UNO Upazila Nirbahi Officer UP Union