~N / d States rtment of ulture Cotton Insect ' ultural neaearch Management With Service Agriculture Special Reference Handbool< Number 589 to the Boll W^täl oSpartÄ^ Cotton InsGCt Agricultural Management With Research Service Special Reference Agriculture Handbook to the Boll Weevil Number 589 Edited by Issued R.L Ridgway, E.P. Lloyd, and W. H. Cross November 1983 For sale l)y the Superintendent of Documents, U.S. Government Printing Office Washington, D.C. 20402 ABSTRACT Ridgway, R. L., E. P. Lloyd, and W. H. Cross, editors. 1983. Cotton insect management with special reference to the boll weevil. U.S. Department of Agriculture, Agriculture Handbook No. 589. 612 p., illus. This monograph describes the state of the art of management of boll weevils in the United States. It is, therefore, concerned with the biological, economic, and environmental effects of this introduced pest, the problems associated with its control, and alternative approaches to dealing with this pest. Keywords: cotton losses, cotton culture, Anthonomus grandis, cotton insects, Heliothis spp., simulation models. Boll Weevil Eradication Trial, Optimum Pest Management Trial, insect manage- ment, eradication, chemical insecticides, insect growth regula- tors, pheromones, sterile insect releases, beneficial arthropods, microbial agents Mention of a proprietary product in this publication does not constitute a guarantee or warranty of the product by the U.S. Department of Agriculture and does not imply its approval by the Department to the exclusion of other products that may also be suitable. Views expressed by the authors are not necessarily those of the U.S. Department of Agriculture. FOREWORD Profitable cotton production in the U.S. and effective insect control and management have been particularly closely related since the boll weevil, Anthonomus grandis Boheman, entered the U.S. in 1892. Since that time, much research has been directed toward the boll weevil and other cotton insects. Recently, scientists have conducted expanded field and laboratory investigations to gain in- creased insight and understanding of the biological, economic, and environmental impacts of alternative options for beltwide cotton insect management. Alternative options or strategies are contro- versial. To a degree they are controversial because of deep-seated philosophy and/or convictions on the part of individuals and the economic interest groups. In broad terms, one of the most impor- tant things that we have learned over the years is that no cotton producer is an island to himself or herself in terms of effective insect management programs. Certainly, all segments of the cotton econoiay are entitled to have access to the knowledge available on the subject and to the privilege of making their own decisions. A pilot field experiment was conducted in 1971-73 in south Mississippi and Louisiana to determine whether eliminating the boll weevil by properly integrating the use of various techniques was technically and operationally feasible. Although the Technical Guidance Committee for that experiment concluded that it was tech- nically and operationally feasible to eliminate the boll weevil as an economic pest in the United States, a significant number of en- tomologists opposed the conclusion. The interpretation, therefore, of the results of the pilot field experiment led to divergent views that may be rectified only through further research and joint dis- cussions. It is of interest to note that current authorization in the Agricultural and Consumer Protection Act of 1973 states that "...Secretary is authorized and directed to carry out programs to destroy and eliminate cotton boll weevils in infested areas of the United States...if the Secretary determines that method and sys- tems have been developed to the point that success in eradication of such insects is assured." This authorization stimulated the development of the present boll weevil program with the overall objective of developing sound scientific information which may be utilized in making a recommendation for a beltwide cotton insect management program for the boll weevil infested areas of the Cotton Belt. During the development of a format for the Biological Evalua- tion Team Report, it became obvious that a number of the topics could be developed into chapters for the publication of a mono- graph. Enthusiasm for the proposed treatise gained momentum as the potential for such an undertaking was discussed with colleagues, authors, and administrators. There was general agreement that the monograph could add stature and visibility to the comprehensive study while emphasizing areas of interest to a broad base of read- ers. It was also envisaged that the monograph would be an integral part of the Biological Evaluation Team Report as well as a separate IV publication. This sequence of collective thoughts and delibera- tions brought forth "Cotton Insect Management with Special Refer- ence to the Boll Weevil." The purpose of this monograph is to present the results of research studies related to the biological, economic, and environ- mental effects of the boll weevil and other cotton insects on the crop with special emphasis on the biological aspects. In view of the emphasis placed on the Optimum Pest Management and Boll Weevil Eradication Trials, it seems appropriate to pay special attention to the biological phases and to provide a summary of the pertinent data together with detailed references. This monograph is divided into five parts. The introductory chapters provide a historical background, and describe current practices and impacts, as well as concepts for future considera- tion. The second part provides an indepth discussion of newly developed and existing technology available for practical use now or in the future. In the third part, the supporting components of insect rearing, sampling, and modeling are reviewed. Alternative programs and then impacts are discussed in section four. Finally, in section five, opportunities and constraints of current and future programs are presented. The authors have paid attention to the more recent and perti- nent literature. As in any scientific endeavor, some may chal- lenge the data presented in the monograph. The material is based, however, on such extensive experimental evidence that is not like- ly to be found incorrect. Some of the authors project certain management strategies for the boll weevil and other cotton insects. However, it is expected that the results of the research findings present here will not only promote cotton insect strategies but also have application to numerous other crop commodities. Even though scientists, specialists, consultants, and others representing various segments of the cotton economy may hold di- verse views regarding insect management programs for cotton, they should not differ on the desirability of learning the truth. This monograph, authoritatively written by a number of authors and edited by three prominent scientists, presents the facts, assem- bles present knowledge, and indicates areas along which further knowledge must be obtained. K. R. KELLER Executive Coordinator Boll Weevil Policy Group ACKNOWLEDGMENTS The editors of this monograph are very grateful for the assis- tance of many who contributed to its preparation and publication. Thanks are due to the USDA Boll Weevil Policy Group, Anson R. Bertrand, Harry C. Mussman, and Kenneth R. Farrell, for their sup- port and encouragement as this endeavor was conceived and prepara- tions were begun. Thanks are also due to the authors who prepared their material quickly and cooperated fully with an accelerated review process; to the many anonymous reviewers who provided their comments on a timely basis; to Mrs. Jane Wall, Mrs. Fay Eggers, and Ms. Judith Smith who provided substantial editorial assistance; to Mrs. Marguerite Benedict who prepared the index; and Mr. Edgar Skelton, Mr. Roy Nash, and Mrs. Winnie Daves who supervised the preparation of illustrations and of final copy. In addition, thanks are due to Dr. Kenneth R. Keller, executive coordinator for the Boll Weevil Policy Group, for his assistance in securing anony- mous peer reviews and providing strong encouragement throughout its preparation. Special thanks are due Mrs. Sara Smith, Mrs. Dorothy Turner, and Mrs. Marijane Burns for their tireless and persistent efforts as they worked for more than a year in the preparation and revision of this monograph on word processing equipment at Raleigh, NC. vil CONTENTS Foreword iii Acknowledgments v Contributors ix I. Introduction 1. Evolution of Cotton Insect Management in the United States 3 R. L. Ridgway and E. P. Lloyd 2. The Cost of Insecticides Used on Cotton in the United States 29 F. T. Cooke, Jr. and D. W. Parvin, Jr. 3. Ecology of Cotton Insects with Special Reference to the Boll Weevil 53 W. H. Cross II. Suppression Components 4. Plant Resistance and Modified Cotton Culture 73 L. N. Namken, M. D. Heilman, J. N. Jenkins, and P. A. Miller 5. Entomophagous Arthropods 103 J. R. Abies, J. L. Goodenough, A. W. Hartstack, and R. L. Ridgway 6. Microbial Agents 129 M. R. Bell 7. Boll Weevil Sterility 153 J. E. Wright and E. J. Villavaso 8. Pheromones for Survey, Detection, and Control . .179 E. P. Lloyd, G. H. McKibben, J. E. Leggett, and A. W. Hartstack 9. Insect Growth Regulators with Emphasis on the Use of Benzoylphenyl Ureas 207 D. L. Bull, J. R. Abies, and E. P. Lloyd 10. Insecticides for Control of Cotton Insects 237 C. R. Parencia, Jr., T. R. Pfrimmer, and A. R. Hopkins VIII III. Support Components 11. Mass Rearing Boll Weevils 265 J. G. Griffin, P. P. Sikorowski, and 0. H. Lindig 12. Sampling Arthropods in Cotton 303 J. W. Smith, W. A. Dickerson, and W. P. Scott 13. Losses in Yield of Cotton Due to Insects 329 P. H. Schwartz 14. Models for Cotton Insect Pest Management 359 A. W. Hartstack and J. A. Witz IV. Alternative Programs 15. Optimum Pest Management Trial in Mississippi .... 385 J. L. Hamer, G. L. Andrews, R. W. Seward, D. F. Young, Jr., and R.