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1 W67 3 1822 02951 6903 v . 353

TRATEGIC & DEFENCE STUDIES CENTRE

WORKING PAPER NO .353

JAPANESE AIRBORNE SIGINT

CAPABILITIES

Desmond Ball and Euan Graham

Working paper (Australian National University . Strategic and Defence Studies Centre ) IR /PS Stacks AUST UC San Diego Received on : 03 - 29 -01 SDSC Working Papers Series Editor : Helen Hookey Published and distributed by : Strategic and Defence Studies Centre The Australian National University Canberra ACT 0200 Australia Tel: 02 62438555 Fax : 02 62480816 UNIVERSITYOF CALIFORNIA, SANDIEGO...

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LIBRARY INT 'L DESTIONS /PACIFIC STUDIES , UNIVE : TY OF CALIFORNIA SAN DIEGO LA JOLLA , CALIFORNIA 92093

WORKING PAPER NO .353

JAPANESE AIRBORNE SIGINT

CAPABILITIES

Desmond Ball and Euan Graham

Canberra

December 2000 National Library of Australia Cataloguing -in-Publication Entry Ball , Desmond , 1947 Japanese airborne SIGINT capabilities .

Bibliography. ISBN 0 7315 5402 7 ISSN 0158 -3751

1. Electronic intelligence . 2.Military intelligence - Japan . I. Graham , Euan Somerled , 1968 - . II. Australian National . . University. Strategic and Defence Studies Centre . III Title

( Series : Working paper Australian( National University . ; Strategic and Defence Studies Centre ) no . 353 ) .

355 . 3432 01 ,

© Desmond Ball and Euan Graham 2000 - 3 - 4 ABSTRACT , Unsettled by changes to its strategic environment since the Cold War , but reluctant to abandon its constitutional constraints Japan has moved in

recent years to improve and centralise its intelligence - gathering capabilities

across the board . The Defense Intelligence Headquarters established in , ,

Tokyo in early 1997 is now complete and Japan plans to field its own fleet by of reconnaissance satellites 2002 . Intelligence sharing with the United

States was also reaffirmed as a key element of the 1997 Guidelines for

Defense Cooperation . One of the less conspicuous but most remarkable

features of Japan ' s intelligence drive has been the steady development of an

airborne signals intelligence SIGINT( ) capability that now ranks second only

to that of the United States in the Asia Pacific- region .

The Japanese Air Self - Defense Force JASDF( ) and Japanese Maritime

Self Defense- Force ( MSDF ) together maintain about 16 dedicated SIGINT , collection aircraft as well as half - a dozen- electronic warfare EW( ) training

aircraft with some electronic intelligence ( ELINT ) capabilities . There are

another 13 E - 2C Hawkeye and four E - 767 airborne early warning and control

AEW( & C ) aircraft with substantial secondary ELINT electronic/ surveillance

measure ESM( ) capabilities . And there are 17 RF - 4EJ reconnaissance

aircraft which are equipped with a variety of ELINT / ESM systems . This

Working Paper describes these aircraft and their capabilities , and discusses

their SIGINT operations . , Unless otherwise stated publications of the Strategic and Defence

Studies Centre are presented without endorsement as contributions to the

public record and debate . Authors are responsible for their own analysis and

conclusions . JAPANESE AIRBORNE SIGINT CAPABILITIES

Desmond Ball and Euan Graham *

Introduction , Unsettled by changes to its strategic environment since the Cold War , but reluctant to abandon its constitutional constraints Japan has moved in

recent years to improve and centralise its intelligence - gathering capabilities

across the board . The Defense Intelligence Headquarters established in , ,

Tokyo in early 1997 is now complete and Japan plans to field its own fleet by of reconnaissance satellites 2002 . Intelligence sharing with the United

States was also reaffirmed as a key element of the 1997 Guidelines for

Defense Cooperation . One of the less conspicuous but most remarkable

features of Japan ' s intelligence drive has been the steady development of an

airborne signals intelligence SIGINT( ) capability that now ranks second only

to the United States in the Asia - Pacific region . * * * ,

Japan has made an enormous investment sustained over several , decades in airborne SIGINT capabilities . It is one of about two dozen

countries which maintain dedicated airborne SIGINT collection- systems . It , , , was also one of the first following the United States the United Kingdom , the Soviet Union and a couple of other European countries . By the late , 1950s the Japanese Air Self Defense- Force JASDF( ) and then the Japanese

Maritime Self - Defense Force ( JMSDF ) had initiated acquisition programmes

for airborne SIGINT capabilities . Japan now has the third largest- SIGINT , , aircraft fleet in the world after the United States and Russia but it is more

active than the Russian fleet .

The JASDF and JMSDF together maintain about 16 dedicated , SIGINT collection- aircraft as well as half a dozen electronic warfare EW( )

training aircraft with some ELINT capabilities . There are another 13 E - 2C

Hawkeye and four E 767- airborne early warning and control AEW( & C )

aircraft with substantial secondary ELINT electronic/ surveillance measure * is a special professor Desmond Ball and Euan Graham is a PhD candidate in the Strategic , and Defence Studies Centre Australian National University . , This paper is a revised and expanded version of Desmond Ball and Euan Graham , , , pp ‘ Japanese SIGINT Takes Off Jane ' s Intelligence Review December 2000 . 26 - 31 . 2 Strategic and Defence Studies Centre

(ESM ) capabilities . And there are 17 RF -4EJ reconnaissance aircraft which are equipped with a variety of ELINT / ESM systems .

Airborne systems have greater operational flexibility than ground based systems and are able to monitor very high frequency (VHF) and microwave transmissions which are beyond the line -of-sight of ground stations . They are very well suited to Japan 's geostrategic circumstances .

They are able to monitor low power- high frequency HF( ) and VHF radio , voice communications and especially the electronic order of battle EOB( ) of , neighbouring countries which cannot be heard from the Japanese islands . In , wartime they are less vulnerable than fixed facilities . , ,

However airborne systems are very expensive to maintain and operate ,

especially if regular ( for example daily ) flights are required . The acquisition

costs are greater in the case of some aircraft than the costs of ground stations . by The EP - 3s acquired the JMSDF in the early 1990s cost about

Y12 . 67 billion ( or US $ 95 . 5 million in 1992 dollars ) . ' The JMSDF ' S UP - 3D

EW training support aircraft cost Y13 . 61 billion US( $ 155 million ) in 1995 . , E - The 767 AEW & C aircraft cost even more but they are equipped

with many expensive systems such( as the distinctive rotodomes and

associated radar systems ) not directly involved in SIGINT activities . The last

batch of five E - 2Cs had a programme cost of Y9 . 23 billion each in 1990 ( or , US $ 62 . 4 million ) . The four E - 767s cost Y55 billion each or US $ 2 billion ,

for the programme ( including parts training and simulators ) . " The E - 767

purchase dominated the JASDF ' s budgets in the early 1990s . '

Airborne platforms are difficult to categorise functionally . They can be , used to collect strategic and tactical SIGINT both communications , intelligence COMINT( ) and ELINT and to contribute operationally in EW

environments .

JASDF Curtiss C 46D- Commando SIGINT Aircraft

The JASDF began planning the acquisition of an airborne capability , for strategic and operational SIGINT soon after its establishment and

decided in the late 1950s to acquire ‘ a number of Curtiss C 46D- Commando

aircraft ( including JASDF 91 - 1140 ) modified for SIGINT EW/ operations . by These were operated the JASDF Electronic Warfare Training Unit at , , Iruma Air Base northwest of Tokyo in the 1960s and 1970s . up The rapid build - of the Japanese Air Self Defense- Force after 1955

56 reflected American concerns about the threat of air attack from the Soviet , Union and China and the need to protect US strategic bases in Japan . In its Working Paper No. 353 3

formative years , the United States was heavily involved in equipping the

JASDF , training its pilots and planning down to the tactical level . ”

The C - 46 Commando was a twin - engined tactical transport aircraft by produced in large numbers the Curtiss Wright- Corporation during the , Second World War and provided to the JASDF in the 1950s . It could carry a , , , kg payload of 9 287 and had a range of some 4 000 km . The C - 46Ds configured for the SIGINT role were fitted with nose and ventral antenna , fairings as well as inboard SIGINT processing and analysis systems . The ; JASDF also maintained two C 46As- for calibration purposes these also had / limited ELINT EW capabilities . ”

JMSDF EP - 2J SIGINT Aircraft

The JMSDF ' s 81 Air Training Support Squadron Kokutai( ) of the 31st , , , Flight Group based at Iwakuni Air Base near Hiroshima operated two EP , 2J SIGINT aircraft from the mid - 1970s until the early 1990s when they were by . “ - 3 EP replaced the much more capable aircraft

The EP 2Js- were ELINT versions of the Kawasaki P - 2J twin turboprop- ,

anti submarine- aircraft which could carry more than ten tonnes of electronic ,

equipment had a cruising speed of about 200 knots 370( km / h ) at an altitude , , , , ,

of 3 050 metres ( 10 000 feet ) and a range of some 4 450 km ( 2 765 miles ) . "

The EP - 2Js were equipped with indigenously produced HLR - 105 and

HLR - 106 SIGINT equipment . " 2 These aircraft deployed to Hachinohe Air , , Base near Misawa in Aomori Prefecture for ELINT missions against Soviet

facilities on Sakhalin . 13

JMSDF EP - 3 SIGINT Aircraft , The 81st Kokutai at Iwakuni now has five EP - 3 aircraft which have

much greater endurance and frequency coverage than the EP - 2Js . The first

EP - 3 No( . 9171 ) flew in October 1990 and was delivered to the JMSDF in ; ; March 1991 the second was delivered a few months later the third aircraft ; ; was flown in June 1995 the fourth was delivered in September 1996 and the

fifth in September 1998 . " The EP - 3s ( as well as the UP - 3D EW training , aircraft ) have been spotted at Gifu Air Base northwest of Nagoya . , It was reported in 1987 when procurement of the first EP - 3 was , funded that nine aircraft were planned . " More recent accounts state that a

fleet of 8 - 10 is still intended . , , by The EP - 3 aircraft produced Kawasaki Heavy Industries are

modified P - 3C Orion long range- maritime patrol LRMP( ) and anti submarine- , warfare ASW( ) aircraft . With four turboprop engines and a patrol speed of 4 Strategic and Defence Studies Centre

376 km /h ( 234 mph ), the P -3Cs have a mission radius of 3,834 km (2 ,382 miles ). "

The EP -3 SIGINT suite , produced locally by NEC and Mitsubishi Electric Corporation (MELCO ), covers the frequency range from VHF through to the I/J bands with an ELINT capture range of 370 km (230 miles)." According to the JMSDF, the ELINT capability of the EP - 3Cs is more than five times that of the EP -2Js. 18 ,

In addition to the SIGINT suite the EP - 3s are equipped with an

ESM / electronic countermeasure ECM( ) system for self protection- . The first , ,

three aircraft produced before 1992 were given the Magnavox AN / ALQ - 78 by produced under licence Mitsubishi . Housed in a radome under the port , wing root the AN / ALQ - 78 system provides warning and bearing of radar

threats in the 2 - 40 GHz band . " The later EP - 3s are equipped with the by AN / ALR - 66 ( V ) 3 system produced MELCO under licence to Litton in ,

California and which has improved sensitivity and direction - finding ( DF ) by capabilities . The wing spans- of these aircraft were increased 0 . 82 metres

to accommodate the associated ESM antennas and receivers . ? ' A large ESM

pod is hung from the lower face of the fuselage . 22 These systems are expected , by to be replaced ‘ a new indigenous system ' designated HLR 109- . 23

JASDF EC - 1 SIGINT Aircraft

The JASDF began developing a new airborne SIGINT capability in the , early 1980s based on the J ALR/ - 1 SIGINT system produced by Toshiba . It , was originally planned to install this system aboard two C - 130H transports

but this plan was cancelled for cost reasons . Studies showed that installation

of the Toshiba system would have required a significant and costly redesign ,

of the C - 130 airframe . 24 Instead the system was deployed aboard a Kawasaki ,

C - 1 transport which began operations in 1985 . 25 , Under a contract signed in March 1983 Kawasaki modified a C - 1

tactical transport aircraft JASDF( 78 - 1021 ) for use as “ an ECM training , ,

aircraft ' . 26 The C - 1 is a medium range- maximum( about 3 000 km ) aircraft , by with a high wing to maximise cabin volume produced Kawasaki for the

JASDF in 1973 - 81 . 27 ,

The EC - 1 first flew on 3 December 1984 and was delivered to the , , JASDF ’ s Air Development and Test Wing at Sayama in Saitama Prefecture , in late January 1985 for evaluation . Between April 1985 and March 1986 the , Air Development and Test Wing conducted about 100 test flights and in

June 1986 it was transferred to the JASDF ' s Electronic Warfare Training

Unit at Iruma Air Base . 28 Working Paper No .353 5

In addition to the J/ALR - 1 SIGINT system , the EC -1 aircraft is equipped with a Technical Research & Development Institute (TRDI)/MELCO J/ALQ -5 ECM system . The aircraft has a large , flat, bulbous

nose radome, tail radomes , a blister on each side of the forward fuselage aft , , of the flight deck side windows others on each side of the rear fuselage and

two antennas beneath the fuselage . ? ' It currently serves with the YS - 11s at

Iruma Air Base .

JASDF YS - 11E SIGINT Aircraft

The IISS reported in 1999 that the JASDF has 10 YS - 11E SIGINT EW/ , aircraft forming ( together with the EC - 1 ) two squadrons . 30 The YS - 11 is a by twin - turboprop short - range transport produced the Nippon Airplane , Manufacturing Company NAMC( ) in the 1960s with a payload capacity of , , 5 . 7 tonnes and a range of about 2 320 km ( 1 440 miles ) . "

Martin Streetly reported in 1983 that the first YS - 11 aircraft configured , for EW operations was delivered on 30 March 1965 that there were three

such YS - 11s operating with the Electronic Warfare Training Unit at Iruma in , , 1981 including No . 12 - 1163 that these aircraft were “ externally characterised , by numerous avionics fairings ' and that ' the JASDF has recently ordered

additional aircraft of this type ’ . se

A fourth YS - 11 ELINT aircraft entered service in April 1985 . ,

According to a contemporary press account the role of the new aircraft was fly to over the northwest Pacific and the Sea of Japan and intercept radio and radar signals emitted from Soviet land bases , airfields , and operational

aircraft and warships in the Soviet Far East . It noted that the YS - 11s were

particularly valuable in monitoring Soviet radars which cannot be effectively by monitored the Chobetsu ' s ground stations . "

The JASDF decided in the late 1980s to upgrade three of the YS - 11

ELINT EW/ aircraft . The modifications featured new turboprop engines to , extend the range of the aircraft ( to 2 670 km ) and to cope with the increased

weight and electrical power requirements of the new electronic systems . The by by J / ALR - 1 SIGINT system had then been superseded the much more , advanced J ALR/ - 2 which was therefore installed on these three aircraft . The , by J ALR/ - 2 system was produced MELCO but evidently also involved US

sub contractors- ( such as Signal Technology Corporation ' s Arizona Operation , and Space Center ) . The first YS - 11E with the J / ALR - 2 SIGINT system , No . 12 - 1163 was rolled out on 12 September 1991 and delivered to the

JASDF on 20 December 1991 . The upgrading also included installation of ,

the NEC J ALQ/ - 7 ECM system . 34 According to the IISS three more YS - 11E 6 Strategic and Defence Studies Centre

ELINT/EW aircraft were acquired in 1996 , and another three in 1998 ." The aircraft also operate out of Chitose , in Hokkaido , when conducting monitoring operations around the Russian Far East . JMSDF EW Training Aircraft

The JMSDF has acquired eight aircraft for EW training support – three long-range UP -3D Orions, a UP -3C Orion , and five Learjet U - 36A jet , aircraft . These are equipped with a wide variety of ESM and ECM systems

and comprise a substantial reserve ELINT EW/ capability . by The five Learjet U - 36As were converted Shin Maywa Industries to , serve as fleet training support aircraft for the JMSDF beginning with U 36A- , 9201 in November 1985 and U - 36A 9202 in late 1986 and then 9204 - 9206

in the early and mid - 1990s . The U - 36As have an operating speed of 590 770- , , by km / h and a range of 1 960 - 4 165 km depending( on altitude ) . " Flown the , 814 Squadron at Iwakuni they are used for anti ship- missile simulation and

ECM missions . They are equipped with a long - range ocean surveillance , , radar a large underbelly radome housing a scanning antenna an AN ALQ/ - 6 , jammer and an AN / ALE - 43 chaff dispenser .

The three UP - 3D EW training support aircraft Nos( 9161. - 9163 ) were

ordered from Kawasaki in 1994 - 96 and delivered in 1997 - 99 . 37 The single , , UP - 3C aircraft No( 9151. ) delivered in February 1995 was initially reported , to be a ' flying testbed ' for the JMSDF but is also reportedly used as an EW

trainer and calibration aircraft . It has an elongated antenna pointing forward ,

from the nose . In addition to their primary mission systems these aircraft are

also equipped with the AN ALR/ - 66 ( V ) 3 ESM system installed on all recent

JMSDF P - 3C Orions . , Rear Admiral Makoto Yamazaki Director of the Logistics Department , of the JMSDF ' s Maritime Staff Office noted in 1996 that the UP - 3D EW

training support aircraft have sufficient capability and flexibility to support a

wide range of post Cold- War duties' ' : , The UP - 3D is an electronic warfare training support aircraft of which

one was programmed for each year from fiscal years 1993 through by 1995 . The training support aircraft presently possessed the MSDF is ,

the U - 36A which is used actively in the electronic warfare training of , the fleets . However this aircraft is basically designed for jamming the

radar of a single ship and is not capable of jamming radar nor the

communications of an entire unit . The UP - 3D has been designed to

create a highly composite electronic warfare environment and to

support air defense training of surface ships more effectively . Working Paper No.353 7

The above equipment was programmed in the transitory period immediately after the end of the Cold War and was presupposed to follow previously established duties without alteration . However , in the future , it is necessary to consider equipment which can deal with a wider variety of duties based on the new NDPO [National Defense Program Outline ) while using the existing technology of above equipment as a basis ."

JASDF E- 2C Hawkeye Airborne Early Warning Aircraft

The JASDF now has the second most- - extensive AEW & C capability in

the world . The aircraft are used to greatly extend warning of intrusions into , Japanese airspace and would serve as a powerful ‘ force multiplier ' for the

JASDF in air defence contingencies . Although they are known more for their , , radar rotodome/ configurations their SIGINT collection analysis and

exploitation capabilities are substantial . , by The JASDF currently has 13 E - 2C Hawkeye E - 2C aircraft operated , its 6015 AEW Squadron whose home base is with the Northern Aircraft

Control and Warning Wing at Misawa on Honshu Island . This is the largest

E - 2C force outside the US Navy . The first eight were acquired between 1982 ,

and 1984 and the other five in 1992 - 93 . , E - 2C

a length of 17 . 6 a - The AEW aircraft have metres wing span of , , , , kg 24 . 56 metres a payload capacity of 6 000 a cruising speed of 600 km / hr ,

and a maximum range of 2 550 km or an endurance of more than six hours . , ,

They have a crew of five comprising the pilot and co pilot- on the flight deck

and three staff of the Combat Information Center . 4° Operating from land , bases rather( than aircraft carriers for which they were designed for the US , Navy ) the airframes have an expected service life of 40 years . The , operational readiness of the JASDF ' s Hawkeye fleet which completed more , , than 60 000 flying hours ( without an accident ) in October 1999 is extremely

high . 41

The air defence of Japan had been the JASDF ' s highest priority since , its foundation in the 1950s . By the mid - 1970s the JASDF had five squadrons , of F - 1043 Starfighters and two squadrons of F 4EJ- Phantoms and was just , beginning to introduce its F - 15 Eagles which would equip eight squadrons

by the late 1990s . It had built a network of 28 fixed radar sites interlinked

through the Base Air Defense Ground Environment BADGE( ) air defence

network across the country to provide constant surveillance in most of the , airspace ' but these had limited range against aircraft intruding at low , altitudes and had ' insufficient electronic warfare capabilities ’ . The need for 8 Strategic and Defence Studies Centre

an AEW capability for long range- surveillance and early detection of

offensive air attacks was accepted by defence planners . There was also

considerable pressure from the United States for procurement of a substantial

AEW capability .

The eventual decision to acquire an airborne early warning capability , by was prompted the Belenko affair in September 1976 when the defecting

Soviet fighter pilot flew his MiG - 25 from Chuguyevka about( 120 miles

northeast of Vladivostok ) across the Sea of Japan and landed at Hakodate , , , Airport some 90 miles southwest of Chitose in Hokkaido without being . 43 intercepted by Japanese fighter aircraft

The Grumman E - 2C was selected rather than the Boeing E - 3 because , , the Sentry was too expensive exceeded required capabilities and could be , used on only a limited number of Japanese runways whereas the E 2Cs- could use almost any airfield . * *

The operational concept for the E - 2Cs was to provide ' three

continuous surveillance points over Japan ' s air and sea lanes ' – the area , , around Hokkaido the Sea of Japan and the East China Sea – as well as a

capability to be ' scrambled ' with JASDF fighters to investigate intrusions , into Japan ' s airspace . With only the eight Hawkeyes acquired in 1982 - 84 this

was not possible . Only two ' points ' could be covered : the northern part of the , Sea of Japan and the Sea of Okhotsk west and north of Hokkaido and the

central sector over the main breadth of the Sea of Japan . Twelve aircraft were

necessary to cover the East China Sea as well . 4s , , Although based at Misawa the E 2Cs- also operate from Gifu and during special missions , and especially when more intensive electronic , surveillance of orth Korea is required they also deploy to Nyutabaru Air , Base in Miyazaki Prefecture and Tsuiki Air Base in Fukuoka Prefecture

Kyushu . 46

The first eight Japanese E 2Cs- were originally equipped with the , AN APS/ - 125 radar system but the next five carried the AN / APS - 145 radar .

The first eight were re - fitted with the AN / APS - 145 later in the 1990s . With , , , the aircraft flying at 9 150 metres ( 30 000 feet ) the AN APS/ - 145 is able to , detect targets as small as cruise missiles at ranges over 185 km fighter , up up aircraft at ranges to 370 km and larger aircraft to 465 km away . The E ,

2Cs are also equipped with some 30 other electronic devices which combine , , ,

to give a picture of targets tracks and trajectories and signal emissions all

duly processed . " The passive ELINT / ESM systems are located on the nose , and tail and on the tips of the tailplane for lateral coverage . The principal Working Paper No. 353 9

ELINT/ESM system on the E -2Cs is the AN /ALR -73 Passive Detection System (PDS ), which can detect the presence of electronic emitters at ranges up to twice that of the radar system - typically in excess of 600 km .“8 As a Grumman official has described : If the radar represents the eyes of the Hawkeye then the Passive

Detection System is its ears . With a monitoring envelope greater than ,

the radar the completely passive system provides the operators with a , ,

bearing to the emitter its type and the classification of the platform .

The range to the emitter can be determined with triangulation . “ 9 , In May 1997 the JASDF contracted with Grumman for modification , and enhancement of its 13 E 2Cs- with the Update II Mission Suite at a cost , of US $ 400 million in order to maintain both the operational readiness of the

fleet and its interoperability with US and NATO E - 2Cs . " When the decision , was made to acquire the four E - 767 AEW & C aircraft in the early 1990s the , JASDF also considered the future roles of the Hawkeyes . In April 1993 , , General Isao Ishizuki the Chief of Staff of the JASDF argued that together

the E - 2Cs and E - 767s would provide a flexible threat warning- capability . He

said that :

The E - 2C will be used for low altitude early warning of threats . [ They , will ] not necessarily have a maritime role only but will be operated

dependent on the threat . . . A solely maritime role will be

inappropriate . " ,

In June 1999 E 2Cs- from Misawa accompanied F - 15 fighters from

Hyakuri Air Base to Guam to participate in Exercise Cope North Guam ' 99

with the US Air Force . This was the first occasion in which the JASDF had

deployed fighter aircraft outside Japan . The exercise involved training in air , ,

combat tactics airborne air control and ' electronic combat ’ . S ? According to a ,

Japanese press account the deployment to Guam permitted more realistic EW ,

training using' strong radio waves that cannot be allowed in Japan ' . " A , second joint exercise involving JASDF F - 15Js and E - 2Cs Exercise Cope ,

North Guam ' 00 took place in Guam on 30 May - 3 June 2000 . 54 ,

In December 1998 the Board of Audit reported that the United States

had failed to deliver important communication' components ' which the Japan

Defense Agency IDA( ) had ordered for the JASDF ' s Hawkeyes in 1996 . "

The JASDF announced in August 1999 that because of shortage of spare , , parts it plans to maintain only eight E - 2Cs gradually withdrawing the other

five aircraft from active service . " 10 Strategic and Defence Studies Centre

JASDF /Boeing E - 767 Airborne Warning and Control Aircraft

By the time the government agreed to the procurement of the second , batch of E - 2Cs in the late 1980s it was already clear that a much better

airborne early warning and control capability was required than the current , By generation of Hawkeyes could provide . the late 1980s Japan ' s air defence

situation had deteriorated considerably . The deployment to the Soviet Far

East of Tu - 22M Backfires equipped with AS - 4 Kitchen air - to - surface missiles ,

with( both nuclear and conventional warheads and ranges of 300 - 460 km

depending on the altitude at launch ) meant that missile attacks could be

launched against Japan from bombers beyond the detection range of the E , 2Cs . Moreover the E 2Cs- lacked the ability to operate as airborne control centres . 57

There was also a lot of US pressure on Tokyo to purchase a substantial

AEW & C capability . The US government was concerned about burden , , sharing issues and the 1 000 mile SLOC defence agreement ' but the strategic , requirements were ‘ entangled with US Japan- trade issues ' as any AWACS

purchase would involve expensive off - the shelf- purchases from the United

States . " Members of Congress were insisting that Japan acquire a minimum , of 12 to 14 AWACS aircraft hopefully the Boeing E - 3 Sentry AWACS

which( would also involve tanker requirements ) . 59

However , some Japanese officials remained unpersuaded about the , , necessity for such a large capability . In May 1991 as Tokyo vacillated , Boeing closed the production line for its 707 aircraft which provided the E - 3 , airframe but proposed to Tokyo a 767 AWACS design . Although the 767 , ,

aircraft is more expensive than the 707 it has a longer range the wide body- , configuration provides much more floorspace and it can use most Japanese

airfields . º - Japan has no air - to - air refuelling capability .

The government decided to procure an initial two E 767s- in December ,

1992 and placed the order in November 1993 . A second pair was ordered in , 1994 . The first two deployed to Hamamatsu Air Base in Shizuoka , , Prefecture in March 1998 and the other two in January 1999 . After a year of ,

operational‘ testing ' they entered service with the JASDF in May 2000 . 03 , By the time they were ordered the AWACS aircraft were reckoned by , JASDF officers to be among the highest hardware priorities . In particular fly there was an expressed requirement for AWACS' that has a range that can

to the Spratlys ' . 0 *

The E - 767 AWACS combines the 767 - 200ER airframe with the APY

2 radar and a suite of modern electronic systems . The 767 aircraft are 48 . 5 Working Paper No . 353 11 , , kg metres long , have a maximum take - off weight of 175 000 a maximum , , ,

cruising speed of more than 800 km / h a service ceiling of 12 000 metres a , , ,

range of 8 300 to 9 200 km unrefuelled and an endurance of 8 - 12 hours , depending on the distance to the area of operations . With refuelling the

endurance is extended to 22 hours . They carry a crew of two pilots and 18

mission specialists . " ,

The AN / APY - 2 radar which is mounted in a 9 . 1 metre diameter , circular radome above the aircraft fuselage was developed for the E - 3 , AWACS . It provides 360° coverage operates at about 10 GHz in the E / F , bands and at operating altitudes can detect targets more than 320 km ( 200 , miles ) away . When functioning in a passive mode it is used to detect and ,

track in - band ( E / F band ) jammers and to process ECM data for electronic

counter countermeasures- ECCM( ) purposes . "

The E - 767s are also equipped with the AN AYR/ - 1 advanced ESM , by system produced Boeing in the mid - 1990s for upgraded E - 3 AWACS , , aircraft which intercepts analyses and identifies both radar and radio signals . ,

Antenna elements which are housed in two large blisters on either side of the , , , aircraft just aft of the cockpit as well as nose and tail mounted- arrays

provide 360° coverage . It is able to intercept radar emissions at ranges in

excess of 800 km . , In peacetime the E - 767s are used for ' information gathering ' ELINT( ,

collection ) as well as training activities . In crisis and conflict situations the

operational concept for the E - 767s is to deploy the four aircraft to the closest ,

airfield and use them to maintain a continuous airborne early warning , surveillance and control capability in any area of operations out to 1 000 nm .

The JASDF ' s E - 767s are designed to cooperate closely with United , States Air Force USAF( ) AWACS and to provide intelligence to US forces ,

operating near Japan as outlined in the updated guidelines for bilateral

cooperation . It has been suggested that the USAF and the JASDF might share , ,

certain airborne warning and surveillance tasks such as in the case of the , Korean peninsula the USAF ' s E - 3 aircraft based at Kadena in Okinawa

would cover the western side while the JASDF ' s E 767s- would patrol the

eastern side . The primary mission equipment aboard the E - 767s was by developed for the JASDF the USAF ' s Electronic Systems Center at , by Hanscom Air Force Base in Massachusetts and was tested before delivery

a detachment of the USAF ' s 66th Test Squadron . The Joint Tactical

Information Distribution System JTIDS( ) allows the JASDF ' s E 767s- to

exchange data with US and NATO E - 3 AWACS aircraft . A USAF E 767- 12 Strategic and Defence Studies Centre

AWACS team is based at Yokota Air Base to support the JASDF E -767 programme . JASDF RF-4EJ Reconnaissance Aircraft

For tactical ELINT operations , the JASDF has equipped 17 RF 4EJ-

Kai reconnaissance aircraft with ELINT pods produced by MELCO and

based on the Analyseur Superheterodyne Tactique ASTAC( ) system , by produced Thomson - CSF in France . The pods are capable of detecting

analysing and locating modern threat radars in a dense electromagnetic

environment . ' The great advantage of the pods is that they provide a

substantial ELINT capability with minimal modification required of the , aircraft thus allowing retention of the RF - 4EJ ' s multi - role fighter

capabilities . They are operated by the 5014 Air Reconnaissance Squadron at , , Hyakuri Air Base northeast of Tokyo which also maintains an ELINT

ground processing station .

A decision to order 14 RF - 4E Phantoms from McDonnell Douglas was , by approved the Japanese Cabinet in October 1972 as a replacement for the

501 " Squadron ' s RF 86F- Sabres . " These were delivered to the JASDF , between November 1974 and June 1975 . They were unarmed and were fitted

for photographic reconnaissance rather than ELINT collection . The 13 ,

surviving aircraft were upgraded in the early 1990s with a new radar , , , AN( / APG - 172 ) digital avionics an infra red- surveillance system and a new

J / APR - 6 radar warning system . Twin aft - facing radomes for this system were tip mounted on the fin and forward - facing antennas on the wingtips . They

were also fitted for carrying the Westinghouse AN / ALQ - 161 advanced multi , mode ECM pod which has a wide range of modules and re programmable- ,

software making it capable of quickly countering new threats . , However the JDA had realised by 1989 that ' the inventory RFof - 4E is , inadequate in number ' and the JASDF decided to convert 17 F 4EJ- fighters

into reconnaissance aircraft and to equip them with the ASTAC ELINT / ESM , system . In addition to Hyakuri Air Base the RF 4EJs- also operate out of

Chitose . up The ASTAC ELINT / ESM system is made of microscan receivers

for high - resolution measurement of signal parameters and interferometers for , providing DF with accuracy better than 1° across the frequency band from

0 . 5 to 40 GHz . The design enables incorporation of enhanced processing

capabilities and extension of the frequency coverage . 74 From an altitude of , , ,

40 000 feet it provides instantaneous coverage of an area of 164 000 square Working Paper No. 353 13 , nauticalmiles on the ground and is able to intercept airborne radar emissions

out to a distance of some 520 nauticalmiles . 75

The pods also contain a UHF data - link for air - to - ground transmission , of the intercepted ELINT data to the ground processing station which up ' enables a very rapid build - of the electronic order of battle of the observed

area ' . Data are also stored in a recording system in the pod for post' - flight ? ? analysis ' .

JGSDF LR - 1 Liaison and Reconnaissance Aircraft

The Japanese Ground Self Defense- Force ( JGSDF ) currently operates

ten LR - 1 liaison and reconnaissance aircraft . " These are modified MU - 2M , twin - turboprop short take- off- and- - landing STOL( ) utility transport aircraft by produced Mitsubishi in the 1970s and 1980s . These aircraft have a cabin , , length of about 3 . 2 metres a cruising speed of about 500 km / h and a , , maximum range of 2 700 km . " They are based at Camp Utsunomiya Tochigi

Prefecture . Airborne SIGINT Operations , A fleet of several dozen SIGINT aircraft comprising more than half a , dozen quite different types of aircraft and associated SIGINT systems

together with the inherent operational flexibility of aircraft and a body of , highly trained operators provides Japan with capabilities for undertaking a , wide variety of SIGINT operations both on a regularly scheduled basis and

expeditiously as close monitoring of particular events is required . The range

and payload capacities of the EP - 3 and E 767- aircraft permit missions to be

undertaken at substantial distances from Japanese territory . Both the JASDF , and the JMSDF are now able to undertake radio reconnaissance patrols and ,

to engage in electronic warfare in a broad area from the Bering Sea and the , Aleutian Islands in the north to the Spratly Islands and the South China Sea

and from the Sino / Russian littoral to the mid Pacific- Ocean . Airborne

activities are regularly undertaken to intercept signals emanating from , , Russia North Korea and China as well as from aircraft intruding into

Japanese airspace and from ships in surrounding waters .

( i ) Collection of Electronic Order of Battle EOB( ) , The most routine activity of the Japanese airborne SIGINT aircraft , conducted almost continuously is the collection of data about electronic , emitters in adjacent countries and its compilation into an electronic order of

battle ( EOB ) for Japan ' s region of primary strategic interest . The EOB

consists of the location of each detected signal emitter and the parameters of , , , , the signals such as the frequency ( wavelength ) strength pulse rate pulse 14 Strategic and Defence Studies Centre repetition frequency (PRF ), scan rate , antenna pattern (beam width ), antenna gain , antenna polarisation , pulse width and pulse shape , and the transmission schedules , and catalogued for expeditious identification of subsequently intercepted signals .80

In peacetime and crisis situations , monitoring of the EOB is an important 'warning indicator '. Changes in important elements of the EOB , especially the communications and other electronic emissions integral to or closely associated with command and control centres , military bases , airfields, and naval ports , reveal much about deployments , movements , and alert levels , and hence about likely actions. In conflict situations , the quality of the EOB is amajor ingredient in the success of EW operations .

Electronic reconnaissance for production and monitoring of EOB data is the principal task of some of the YS - 11E , the EP- 3 and the RF -4EJ aircraft, and is a common task of the E -2C and E -767 early warning and control aircraft . Both the JASDF and JMSDF must have compiled EOB about the Russian Far East and North Korea of extraordinary precision , detail, and thoroughness .

( ii ) Ocean Surveillance

Japanese defence planners have emphasised that Japan is an island

nation dependent on imports of food , energy and raw materials for its

survival . An active maritime surveillance posture provides forewarning of

threats against Japanese territory and merchant shipping . The JDA has

declared that ‘ inasmuch as Japan takes an exclusively defense oriented , policy it is highly important to conduct at all times warning and surveillance , activities in territorial waters and adjacent sea areas and the airspace 81 above ' .

SIGINT activities remain the principal component of ocean

surveillance . The main straits controlling access to and from the Sea of Japan , by ( Tsushima Tsugaru and Soya ) are monitored continuously both ships and

land based- coastal surveillance units . The 1977 defence White Paper outlined

an operational requirement for the MSDF ' s fixed wing- anti - submarine

aircraft ‘ of patrolling the seas around Japan on a daily basis - when the

necessity arises - at ranges of about 300 nautical miles from the Pacific coast ; and 100 200- nauticalmiles from the Sea of Japan coast and of deploying one

squadron to each of the ocean and coastal sea lanes when the necessity for , ship protection arises ' . 82 In May 1981 prime minister Zenko Suzuki gave a

further commitment to ' strengthen our defense capability in order to defend Working Paper No. 353 15

several hundred miles of surrounding waters and the sea -lanes to a distance of 1,000 miles '.

Long -range patrol and surveillance is chiefly the responsibility of the JMSDF 's substantial fleet of P -3C Orions.8% Daily surveillance flights are currently conducted over the waters around Hokkaido , the Sea of Japan and East China Sea .84

The P -3C's ESM systems (the AN /ALQ - 78 in earlier aircraft and the AN /ALR -66 ( V ) 3 in later ones ) are at least as important as their active radar (the AN /APS - 115 ) in detecting and identifying vessels. The EP- 3s perform a more specialised function , depending entirely on their passive COMINT and

ELINT systems for identification of emitting platforms .

The EP - 3s conduct regular electronic reconnaissance flights over the ,

main maritime approaches to Japan . For example one is responsible for the , , southern part of the Sea of Japan opposite North Korea and along the

western coastline of Honshu from Akita to Shimane prefectures . According , , to Admiral Satoshi Takemura commander of the JMSDF base at Maizuru , , by Kyoto Prefecture general' surveillance is handled an EP - 3 patrol plane

which monitors the region ' . 8

( iii ) Sovereignty Intrusions by The airspace surrounding Japan is monitored around - the - clock , ground based- radar stations while the critical approaches are patrolled daily , by E - 2C Hawkeyes and the E - 767s are now available for AEW & C

operations further afield . The ESM systems aboard the E - 2Cs and the E 767s- , are the first to detect approaching aircraft and provide identification .

During the Cold War , the JASDF was concerned principally with by intrusions into Japan ' s air defence identification zone ADIZ( ) Soviet

aircraft . JASDF interceptors were frequently scrambled in response to flights

by both Soviet combat aircraft ( fighters and bombers ) and reconnaissance , , aircraft . In the 1980s as shown in Table 9 . 2 the Soviets conducted more than

300 surveillance flights around Japanese airspace a year . These activities , began to decrease in 1988 although the JDA reported an increase in Russian

flights close to Japanese airspace during 1998 - 99 . 80 Since the end of the Cold , War the JASDF has also scrambled to intercept Chinese and North Korean

jet aircraft . The first occasion involving Chinese jets occurred on 24 August , 1995 when JASDF fighters scrambled as the Chinese aircraft neared

Japanese airspace close to the disputed Senkaku Islands . * 7 And in the case of , North Korea the JASDF ' s E - 2C Hawkeyes patrolling over the Sea of Japan , on 24 March 1999 when suspicious' ' North Korean boats were found inside 16 Strategic and Defence Studies Centre

the Japanese ADIZ , detected four North Korean jets (probably MiG -21s ) and vectored two F - 15J fighters to meet them .88

( iv ) Telemetry Collection

The north Pacific is the most active area in the world in terms of

missile test launches and telemetry interception operations . During the Cold , War the Soviet Union regularly launched dozens of inter - continental ballistic

missiles ICBMs( ) per year in development and operational tests into splash

down areas around the Kamchatka peninsula . The United States developed an , ,

amazing array of ground based- satellite borne- ship borne- and airborne

systems for interception of the telemetry transmitted from the missiles back to

the Sovietmissile development facilities . The most expensive and most secret

programme involved the Rhyolite geostationary SIGINT satellites . The most , sophisticated US airborne system is code named- Cobra Ball and involves , RC - 135 aircraft equipped with an Advanced Telemetry System which are ,

sometimes stationed at Kadena Okinawa . ” Although designed for , interception of Soviet ballistic missile telemetry the Cobra Ball aircraft also monitored Chinese missile launches and , more recently , North Korean , , launches . In March 1996 for example a Cobra Ball aircraft monitored , Chinese missiles fired into Taiwan ' s shipping lanes and soon after monitored , North Korean tests . In May 1997 a Cobra Ball aircraft monitored the North , Korean test of an anti ship- cruise missile . 92 In June 2000 ITAR - TASS

reported that an RC - 135 was deployed to Kadena in anticipation of a second

test of China ' s Dong Feng - 31 ICBM . ”

Japan began its own airborne operations to monitor regional ballistic , missile development programmes in the early 1990s initially using EP - 2J , SIGINT aircraft and then the EP - 3s . Since the late 1980s the JDA had been , increasingly concerned about North Korea ' s ballistic missile programme , based on Scud - B and Scud - C technology . On 29 May 1993 the North

Koreans conducted the first test launch of the Nodong - 1 medium - range ,

ballistic missile MRBM( ) which splashed into the Sea of Japan west of the ,

Noto peninsula on the mid west- of Honshu . An EP - 2J SIGINT aircraft

intercepted the telemetry signals transmitted from the missiles back to

technicians in North Korea . " , On 31 August 1998 when North Korea test - fired its new Taepodong - 1

intermediate - range ballistic missile ( IRBM ) in a trajectory which passed over , by Japan and into the north Pacific Ocean the telemetry was intercepted an

EP - 3 SIGINT collector . ” The recordings of this telemetry were taken first to ,

the Electronic Data Analysis Department at Iwakuni and then transmitted to

the Electronic Information Support Unit assigned to the JMSDF Fleet Working Paper No . 353 17

Command at Yokosuka , Kanagawa Prefecture , and then to various JDA sections .

(v ) Electronic Warfare Training

Both the JASDF and JMSDF have extraordinary capabilities for providing training in ELINT collection and EW operations . Their exercises and simulations are as realistic as possible , using ELINT collection flights to upgrade EOB tables and inform EW training .

The JMSDF 's EW training capability , with the five Learjet UA- 36As, the UP- 3C and the three UP - 3D aircraft , is especially strong . In particular , the ability of the UP -3Ds ' to create a highly composite electronic warfare environment ', as Rear Admiral Makoto Yamazaki noted in 1996 , is extremely

important in exercising the air defence of JMSDF battle groups . ”

( vi ) Monitoring Special Events

Airborne systems have the flexibility and responsiveness to deploy , , rapidly and at short notice and can be fitted with the most appropriate ,

equipment for the occasion for monitoring crises or other special events . ,

This is especially the case with the EP - 3s which have the range to undertake

collection operations with substantial times - on - station at distances beyond by those reachable other platforms . , Until the beginning of the 1990s the crises which warranted the

immediate deployment of airborne SIGINT assets generally involved the

Soviet Union . The JASDF ' s YS - 11Es were procured primarily for operations

against Soviet radio and radar sources . The E - 2C service began with , coverage of the northern part of the Sea of Japan and around Hokkaido monitoring Soviet electronic activity from Vladivostok north through

Sakhalin and east through the Kuril Islands . The JMSDF ' s EP 2Js- were also

used mainly to monitor the electronic emissions from Soviet activities . Since , , then however Japan ' s listening aircraft have been flown to monitor activities

involving China and North Korea much more frequently . During the Chinese , , missile firings into Taiwanese sealanes in March 1996 for example JMSDF

EP - 3s and JASDF E - 2Cs maintained virtually continuous stations over the , southern part of the East China Sea from where they could intercept , electronic signals emanating from a large area in China extending beyond , Zhejiang and Fujian provinces as well as from Taiwanese naval and air , , up defences . Six months later in October to six E - 2Cs were deployed on

Okinawa to monitor a joint Hong Kong - Taiwanese flotilla of civilian

protesters sailing in the vicinity of the Senkaku Islands disputed among , Japan China and Taiwan . ” 18 Strategic and Defence Studies Centre

Since 1993, when suspicions arose about North Korea's nuclear weapons development which provoked a major international crisis , Japan 's intelligence -collection aircraft have responded to numerous unusual, aberrant or potentially dangerous North Korean actions . During the 1993 crisis , the JMSDF and JASDF mounted wide-ranging electronic reconnaissance flights , involving EP -3, RF -4E , YS - 11E and E- 2C aircraft . 99 On 9 July 1994 , when Pyongyang announced the death of President Kim Il-sung, E -2C , EP- 3 and YS- 11E aircraft were dispatched for flights along the North Korean peninsula

to monitor North Korean air activity in order to discern any unsettling

behaviour . 100 When North Korea launched its Taepodong - 1 IRBM on 31 , , August 1998 not only was an EP - 3 used to intercept the missile telemetry

but from around 15 August ELINT collection systems were also deployed to

the Sea of Japan ( including the Aegis equipped- Myoko DDG destroyer ) .

The frequency of E - 2C patrols over the southwestern sector of the Sea of , Japan was also increased thus enhancing both radar and ELINT coverage . 102 , , An EP - 3 SIGINT aircraft together with a P - 3C LRMP aircraft flew to

the area west of Tsushima Island in December 1998 to monitor a small - scale , by naval firefight in which South Korean patrol boats supported fighter , aircraft sank a North Korean submersible vessel which the South Koreans

had found attempting to land espionage agents near the southern port city of ,

Yosu . ' ' s In April 1999 when the ' suspicious ' North Korean boats were found , in the ADIZ the E - 2Cs again used both radar and ELINT systems to locate

fighter . "

as guard the boats as well against North Korean intervention

( vii ) Warfighting by The JSDF can reasonably expect to be well served its airborne

SIGINT systems in the event of its involvement in conventional hostilities in

the northwest Pacific or the East Asian littoral . They should be able to , establish and maintain control of the electromagnetic spectrum providing , timely intelligence for strategic and operational planning as well as , electronic intelligence to support EW operations including ECM for both

offensive purposes and protection of JSDF forces . any The JSDF would enter such hostilities with the most

comprehensive and detailed EOB data . It would almost certainly have the , largest airborne SIGINT fleet including some of the most advanced types , ( such as the EP - 3s and E - 767s ) equipped with the best SIGINT and EW , by systems and operated very well - trained SIGINT EW/ personnel . Working Paper No.353 19

Table 1: Airborne SIGINT Systems

Aircraft No Base Range (km ) Comments

YS - 11E | 10 Iruma Air 2,320 - 2,670 Operated by JASDF Air . Base | Electronic Research Unit - 2 Equipped with J / ALR SIGINT

system . , Includes serial numbers 12 - 1162 , , , 12 - 1163 02 - 1159 92 - 1157 12 ,

1161 82 - 1155 . by

Operated . 81 Support 2 E -P3 5 Iwakuni 7, 760 No Air , Squadron JMSDF . . Serial numbers 9171 9175-

First delivery March 1991 . 2J Replaced two P - SIGINT

aircraft .

8 - 10 aircraft planned . , 3 | by Hyakuri 1

Operated " RF 4EJ- | 17 Air 700 JASDF 501 Air Base Reconnaissance Squadron . , by E - 2C 13 Misawa Air 2 550 Operated JASDF 6015 Air

Hawkeye Base Warning Squadron . 5 , , E - | 4 767 Hamamatsu 8 300 - 9 200 First two delivered in March 1998 ; AWACS Air Base Nos( . 64 - 3501 and 64 - 3502 )

second pair in early 1999 . ,

1 3 Equipped J / - 1 EC - Iruma Air 000 with ALR SIGINT

Base system .

First test flight in 1985 . , 7 - 3D 7 UP 3 Iwakuni 670 JMSDF EW training aircraft .

Serial numbers 9161 9163- .

Delivered 1998 - 99 . , |

training . 18 7 UP 3C1- Iwakuni 670 JMSDF EW aircraft

Serial number 9151 . . Delivered in February 1995 , , UA - 36A 5 Iwakuni 1 960 - 4 165 JMSDF ECM training support

Learjets aircraft . Operated by 81 Air Support

Squadron .

Serial numbers 9201 , 9202 , 9204 , ,

9205 9206 . , 10 LR - 1 10 Camp 2 700 JGSDF liaison and reconnaissance

Utsunomiya aircraft .

Delivered in the 1970s and 1980s . 20 Strategic and Defence Studies Centre

Table 2: Soviet/Russian Military Aircraft Activities around Japan , 1983 - 93

Year No . of flights

1983 315

1984 345

1985 354

1986 347

1987 320

1988 295

1989 260

1990 240

1991 210

1992 176

1993 149

Source : Japan Defense Agency , Defense of Japan (Japan Defense Agengy, Tokyo , various issues). Working Paper No. 353 21

Figure 1: Japanese SIGINT Aircraft Bases

Sea of Okhotsk

RUSSIA CHINA Rama

Misawa ( E - 20 ) NORTH re

KOREA Sea of Japan

Iruma SOUTH ,

MEC - 1 YS - 11E ) . KOREA Hyakuri ( RF

TOKYO - 4EJ )

Iwakuni Hamamatsu ( EP - 3 )

( E - 767 )

PACIFIC OCEAN

500

i kilometresbilometers soo 22 Strategic and Defence Studies Centre

Figure 2 : Curtiss C -46D (91-1140 ) Commando SIGINT Aircraft

- 0011 16 , , p Source : Streetly World Electronic Warfare Aircraft . 43 . Working Paper No.353 23

Figure 3: Kawasaki/ JMSDF EP - 3 SIGINT Aircraft (No. 9171) jda go jp Source : Japan Defense Agency :

301 _ m . jpg > . 24 Strategic and Defence Studies Centre

Figure 4 : Kawasaki/JASDF EC - 1 ( 78 - 1021 ) SIGINT Aircraft,Gifu Air Base, 7 September 1988

Source :Norio Aoki: . Working Paper No . 353 25

Figure 5: NAMC /JASDF YS - 11EA ( 12 -1163 ) SIGINT Aircraft , , p Source : Lambert (ed.), Jane 's All the Worlds Aircraft 1994 - 95 237. . 26 Strategic and Defence Studies Centre

Figure 6 : NAMCIJASDF YS - 11 EB (92 - 1157) SIGINT Aircraft ,

Chitose Air Base

- LS11 26 jp Source : Hidehiro Takahashi : < http : / www/ . geocities . co . SweetHome/ 2998/ / 92 - 1157 . jpg > . Working Paper No. 353 27

Figure 7: NAMCIJASDF YS - 11E (12 - 1162) SIGINT Aircraft,

Chitose Air Base

:

Source : Hidehiro Takahashi: . 28 Strategic and Defence Studies Centre

Figure 8 : NAMCIJASDF YS11E (82 -1155 ) SIGINT Aircraft, Chitose Air Base

- 9911 CB

" S91 jp Source : Hidehiro Takahashi : < http : / www/ . geocities . co . SweetHome/ 2998/ / 82 - 1155 . jpg > . Working Paper No.353 29

Figure 9: NAMC/JASDF YS - 11E (02 -1159) SIGINT Aircraft 11EB 159 - YS jp Source : Akira Sahara : < http : / www/ . linkclub . or . / ~ strange / jsdf jmsdf/ / JMSDF05 htm. > . 30 Strategic and Defence Studies Centre

Figure 10 : Kawasaki/JMSDF UP -3D (No. 9161 )

Source : Japan Defense Agency : http jda go jp img up jpg < : / www/ . . . / JMSDF / data / equip gallery/ / / link / 3d01- _ m . > . Working Paper No.353 31

Figure 11 : Shin Maywa / JMSDF Learjet U - 36A ECM Training Aircraft (No. 9202 )

Source : Japan Defense Agency: jda go jp . 32 Strategic and Defence Studies Centre

Figure 12:Grumman/JASDF E -2C Early -Warning Aircraft

(No . 34 - 3460),Misawa Air Base

Source : Atsushi Tsubota: . Working Paper No.353 33

Figure 13: JASDF E -767 Airborne Early Warning and Control Aircraft (No. 64 - 3502 ), Hamamatsu Air Base WWW COOK jp Source : Atsushi Tsubota : < http : / www/ people. . or . / - Atsubo DATA1/ E767/ htm. > . 34 Strategic and Defence Studies Centre

Figure 14 : Comparative E - 2C and E - 767 Operational Areas

Shadedareasrepresentlow- altitudecoverage Operational range by 28radarsitesthroughoutJapan of E-2Cs Examplesarebasedon theassumptionthatE-2Cs (example of operations willbeoperatedona fixedbasis,whileE-767swillbe by three E- 2Cs ) operatedonamobilebasisdependingon thesituation

CHINA RUSSIA

NORTH KOREA

SOUTH KOREA

Operational range of E-7678

PACIFIC OCEAN 500

kilometres

Source : Japan Defense Agency ( JDA ), Defense of Japan 1993, p. 112. Working Paper No . 353 35

Figure 15 : JASDF RF -4EJ Reconnaissance Aircraft

-EJ RF

Source : Akira Sahara: . 36 Strategic and Defence Studies Centre

Figure 16 : JGSDF LR -1 Liaison and Reconnaissance Aircraft .1 9107A 91022 SU jp :

: < http : / / . . or .

/ - strgzr / / Source Norio Aoki www usiwakamaru aircraft index _ e . htm > . Working Paper No.353 37

Figure 17 : E - 2C ELINT Coverage , East China Sea Deployment

117 125E 31°N

Hangzhoun

PACIFIC OCEAN

CHINA 600km 27°N

Fuzhou

Quanzhou Strait Taipei Zhangzhou

Xiamen Taiwan

TAIWAN

Shantou

100 200 300 km 38 Strategic and Defence Studies Centre

Notes

1 Japan Defense Agency (JDA), Defense of Japan 1992 (Japan Defense Agency , Tokyo, 1992 ), p .259 .

2 Japan Defense Agency (JDA ), Defense of Japan 1995 (Japan Defense Agency , Tokyo , 1995 ) , p .285. See also Eiichiro Sekigawa and Michael , Mecham , 'Japan Eyes New Programs, But Pays for AWACS Now ' , , pp Aviation Week & Space Technology 21 March 1994 . 62 - 3 . , 3 Japan Defense Agency JDA( ) Defense of Japan 1989 Japan( Defense , , , , ; p Agency Tokyo 1989 ) 316. and Japan Defense Agency JDA( ) Defense , , p of Japan 1990 Japan( Defense Agency Tokyo 1990 ) 289. . , , 4 Tetsushi Kajimoto ASDF‘ Takes Delivery of AWACS Planes ' Japan , , , ; pp Times 26 March 1998 . 1 3 and First' Two 767 AWACS Delivered to , , , p Japan ' Defense News 30 March - 8 April 1998 . 33 . , , 5 Eiichiro Sekigawa and Michael Mecham Japan' Eyes New Programs , , But Pays For AWACS Now ' Aviation Week & Space Technology 21 , pp March 1994 . 62 - 3 . , 6 Martin Streetly World Electronic Warfare Aircraft Jane( ' s Publishing , , , pp Company Limited London 1983 ) . 42 - 3 . ,

7 John Welfield An Empire in Eclipse : Japan in the Postwar American , , , , ; pp Alliance System ( The Athlone Press London 1988 ) . 110 - 11 354 and , Joseph P . Keddell The Politics of Defense in Japan : Managing Internal and , , , , pp External Pressures ( M . E . Sharpe Armonk NY 1993 ) . 41 - 2 172 . , , 8 Leonard Bridgman ( ed . ) Jane ' s All the World ' s Aircraft 1941 , , , , ,

Sampson( Low Marston & Company London 31st edition June , , ; pp 1942 ) . 158 - 60 and Derek Wood Jane ' s World Aircraft Recognition , , , ,

Handbook Jane( ' s Information Group Coulsdon Surrey 4th edition , p 1989 ) 257. . 9 ibid . , , 10 ' Japan ' s Navy Weighs E - 3 Additional E 2Cs- for AEW Mission ' , , ; p Aviation Week & Space Technology 11 May 1987 . 59 and Martin , , , Streetly Japan' ' s SIGINT Islands ’ Jane ' s Defence Weekly 20 August , p 1991 236. . , , 11 John W . R . Taylor ( ed . ) Jane ' s All the World ' s Aircraft 1978 - 79 , , , pp Macdonald( and Jane ' s London 1978 ) . 119 - 20 . Working Paper No.353 39

12 Martin Streetly , “Japan ' s SIGINT Islands ', Jane's Defence Weekly , 20 ; , , August 1991, p. 236 and Martin Streetly State of Japan ' s EW ' Jane ' s , , p Defence Weekly 27 July 1991 . 144 . , ,

13 Jeffrey T . Richelson Foreign Intelligence Organizations Ballinger( , , p Cambridge MA 1988 ) 257. . , , 14 Paul Jackson ( ed . ) Jane ' s All the World ' s Aircraft 1998 - 99 Jane( ' s , , , , , p Information Group Coulsdon Surrey 89th edition 1998 ) 282. . , ,

15 ‘ Japan Navy Weighs E - 3 Additional E - 2Cs for AEW Mission ' , , p Aviation Week & Space Technology 11 May 1987 . 59 . , , 16 Paul Jackson ( ed . ) Jane ' s All the World ' s Aircraft 1997 - 98 Jane( ' s , , , , pp Information Group Coulsdon Surrey 1997 ) . 289 - 90 . , , , 17 Martin Streetly “ Japan ' s SIGINT Islands ' Jane ' s Defence Weekly 10 , , , ; p August 1991 236. Martin Streetly ' State of Japan ' s EW ' Jane ' s , , ; , p Defence Weekly 27 July 1991 . 144 and Air Force Magazine October , p 1997 . 66 . , , 18 ' Japan ' s Navy Weighs E - 3 Additional E - 2Cs for AEW Mission ' , , p Aviation Week & Space Technology 11 May 1987 . 59 . ,

19 Norman Friedman The Naval Institute Guide to World Naval Weapons , , , , ; p Systems 1997 - 1998 Naval( Institute Press Annapolis MD 1997 ) 538. , , and Bernard Blake ( ed . ) Jane ' s Radar and Electronic Warfare Systems , , , , 1995 - 96 Jane( ' s Information Group Coulsdon Surrey 7th edition , p 1995 ) 584. . , , 20 Friedman The Naval Institute Guide to World Naval Weapons 1997 , ; , pp 1998 541. - 3 and Blake ( ed . ) Jane ' s Radar and Electronic Warfare , , p Systems 1995 - 96 567. . , , 21 John W . R . Taylor ( ed . ) Jane ' s All the World ' s Aircraft 1998 - 99 ( Jane ' s , , , , , p Information Group Coulsdon Surrey 89th edition 1998 ) . 283 . ,

22 Kenichi Watanabe Japan' : MSDF Improves P - 3C Navigation , , , , , p Precision ' Wing 11 March 1998 . 7 in FBIS - EAS - 98 - 103 FBIS , ,

Translated Text Daily Report 13 April 1998 . , ,

23 Friedman The Naval Institute Guide to World Naval Systems 1997 , p 1998 543. . , , ,

24 ‘ Industry Observer ' Aviation Week & Space Technology 2 July 1984 p . 13 . 40 Strategic and Defence Studies Centre

25Martin Streetly , 'State of Japan 's EW ', Jane's Defence Weekly , 27 July 1991 , p .144; Martin Streetly, “Japan 's SIGINT Islands ', Jane 's Defence Weekly , 24 August 1991, p .236 ; and Streetly , World Electronic Warfare Aircraft , p .74 . , 26 John W .R . Taylor (ed .), Jane 's All the World ' s Aircraft 1987 - 88 Jane( ' s , , , p Publishing Company London 1987 ) . 178 . , , 27 John W . R . Taylor ( ed . ) Jane ' s All the World ' s Aircraft 1981 - 82 Jane( ' s , , , , pp Publishing Company London 72nd edition 1981 ) . 143 - 4 . , , , p 28 Taylor ( ed . ) Jane ' s All the World ' s Aircraft 1987 - 88 . 178 . , pp 29 ibid . . 178 - 9 . ,

30 The International Institute for Strategic Studies ( IISS ) The Military , , , p Balance 1999 2000- Oxford( University Press Oxford 1999 ) . 193 . , , 31 John W . R . Taylor ( ed . ) Jane ' s All the World ' s Aircraft 1965 - 66 , , , , pp Sampson( Low Marston & Company London 1965 ) . 105 - 6 . , , p 32 Streetly World Electronic Warfare Aircraft . 95 . , , 33 ‘ to on : ' ASDF Plane Gather Data Soviets Sources Japan Times 26 , p April 1985 . 3 . , 34 “ Japanese Continue to Upgrade Airborne EW Capability ' Journal of , , , , ; p Electronic Defense Vol . 14 No . 12 December 1991 . 19 and Mark , , Lambert ( ed . ) Jane ' s All the World ' s Aircraft 1994 - 95 Jane( ' s , , , , p Information Group Coulsdon Surrey 1994 ) . 237 . ,

35 The International Institute for Strategic Studies ( IISS ) The Military , , , , Balance 1996 - 97 Oxford( University Press Oxford October 1996 ) ; , p . 186 and The International Institute for Strategic Studies ( IISS ) The , , , Military Balance 1998 - 99 Oxford( University Press Oxford October , p 1998 ) 185. . , , 36 John W . R . Taylor ( ed . ) Jane ' s All the World ' s Aircraft 1987 - 88 ( Jane ' s , , , ; pp Publishing Company London 1987 ) 418. - 19 and Mark Lambert , , , ( ed . ) Jane ' s All the World ' s Aircraft 1994 - 95 ( Jane ' s Information Group , , , p Coulsdon Surrey 1994 ) 548. . , , , pp 37 Jackson ( ed . ) Jane ' s All the World ' s Aircraft 1998 - 99 282. - 3 . , p 38 ibid . . 282 . Working Paper No. 353 41

39 Rear Admiral Makoto Yamazaki , “Rear Admiral on Future MSDF Technology ', Gekkan Jadi, November 1996 , pp 7- 17, in FBIS -JST-97 -001 , FBIS Translated Text, 1 November 1996 .

40 Jackson (ed .), Jane's All the World 's Aircraft , 1997 - 98, pp.708 - 9.

41 “Japan Air Self -Defense Force Completes Key E -2C Milestone', Aerotech News and Review : Journal of Aerospace and Defense Industry News, 12 October 1999 , at (November 2000 ).

42 Defense of Japan (JDA), Defense of Japan 1984 (The Japan Times, Tokyo , 1984 ), p.99 .

43 Tokyo Shimbun , 17 August 1999 , in Daily Summary of Japanese Press , American Embassy , Tokyo , Political Section , Office of Translation Services , 18 August 1999. See also John Barron , MiG Pilot : The Final Escape of Lieutenant Belenko (Reader ' s Digest Press, New York , 1980 ).

44 Japan Defense Agency (JDA), Defense of Japan 1993 (Japan Defense Agency , Tokyo , 1993 ), pp.110 -13; and Tokyo Shimbun , 17 August 1999 , in Daily Summary of Japanese Press , American Embassy , Tokyo , Political Section , Office of Translation Services , 18 August 1999 .

45 Japan Defense Agency (JDA ), Defense of Japan 1986 ( The Japan ; Times , Tokyo , 1986 ), p . 148 and ' Japan Weighs E - 3 Additional E 2Cs- , , , for AEW Mission ' Aviation Week & Space Technology 11 May 1987 p . . 59 ,

46 Documents' Reveal SDF ' s Intelligence Collection Activities ' Tokyo , , , , p Shimbun 13 August 1998 . 1 in FBIS - EAS - 98 - 30 FBIS Translated , ,

Text Daily Report 28 October 1998 . ,

47 BillGunston An Illustrated Guide to Spy Planes and Electronic Warfare , , , pp Aircraft ( Arco Publishing New York 1983 ) . 122 - 3 . , , , pp 48 Jackson ( ed . ) Jane ' s All the World ' s Aircraft 1997 - 98 708. - 9 . ,

49 Kenneth Koehler ' The Grumman E - 2C Hawkeye Airborne Warning , and Control System ' in Desmond Ball ( ed . ) Air Power : Global

Developments and Australian Perspectives Pergamon( Brassey- ' s Defence , , , Sydney p ) . Publishers 1988 385 . 42 Strategic and Defence Studies Centre

Department , 50 U .S. of Defense Memorandum for Correspondents , No 079. - M 19 May 1997 at < http : / www/ defenselink. mil. : 80 news/ /

May1997 m051997/ m079_ - 97 html. > November( 2000 . , , , 51 in ‘ General Isao Ishizuka cited Paul Beaver Japan ' s Balancing Act , , pp Jane ' s Defence Weekly 24 April 1993 . 24 - 5 . , 52 ‘ U . S . Trains With Japan in Exercise Cope North Guam ' 99 ' PACAF , ,

News 21 June 1999 at < http : / www2/ hickam. . af mil. news/ newsarchive/ /

1999 99108/ . htm > November( 2000 ) . , , , p 53 3 . 3 in Yomiuri Shimbun November 1998 Daily Summary of Japanese , , , ,

Press American Embassy Tokyo Political Section Office of , Translation Services 9 November 1998 . , , 54 Exercise' Cope North Guam ' 00 Begins May 30 ' PACAF News 23 , May 2000 at http< : / www2/ hickam. . af mil. news/ 2000/ / 2000079 . htm >

November( 2000 ) . , ,

55 ' US Lagging on Defense Deliveries : Audit Board ' Japan Times 11 December 1998 , , ,

56 Tokyo Shimbun 17 August 1999 in Daily Summary of Japanese Press , , , American Embassy Tokyo Political Section Office of Translation ,

Services 18 August 1999 . , , ; pp 57 Japan Defense Agency JDA( ) Defense of Japan 1993 . 110 - 13 and , , , pp Tokyo Shimbun 26 March 1998 . 6 - 7 in Daily Summary of Japanese , , , , Press American Embassy Tokyo Political Section Office of , Translation Services 30 March 1998 . , ,

58 Norman D . Levin Mark Lorell and Arthur Alexander The Wary ,

Warriors : Future Directions in Japanese Security Policies RAND( Santa , , pp Monica CA 1993 ) . 62 - 3 . , ;

59 ibid . and Naoaki Usui ' AWACS May Get New Plane : Boeing , ,

Considers Retrofitting 767 Airframe For Japan Buy ' Defense News 21 , p December 1991 . 4 . , ,

60 David E . Sanger “ Japan May Delay Buying US Military Planes ' New , , p York Times 5 August 1991 . D8 . , get 61 Naoaki Usui AWACS' May New Plane : Boeing Considers , , Retrofitting 767 Airframe For Japan Buy ' Defense News 21 December , p 1991 . 4 . Working Paper No.353 43

62 Japan Defense Agency (JDA ), Defense of Japan 1993,pp.110 -13 .

63 'In Brief: AWACS Enter JASDF Service', Jane's Defence Weekly , 24 May 2000 , p. 14; and Japan :AWACS Enter Service ', Asian Defence Journal , June 2000, p.54 .

64 Asahi Shimbun , 2 December 1995 ; and Lam Peng Er, 'Japan and the Spratlys Dispute : Aspirations and Limitations ', Asian Survey , Vol.36 , No. 10, October 1996 , p .1009. , , ; pp 65 Jackson (ed .), Jane's All the World ' s Aircraft 1997 - 98 582. - 3 and , , Tetsushi Kajimoto ‘ ASDF Takes Delivery of AWACS Planes ' Japan , , p Times 26 March 1998 . 3 . ,

66 D . Clifford Bell The' Boeing E - 3 Airborne Warning and Control , System ' in Ball ( ed . ) Airpower : Global Developments and Australian , ; , , , p Perspectives 327. Lambert ( ed . ) Jane ' s All the World ' s Aircraft 1991 - 92 ; , , p 365. and Blake ( ed . ) Jane ' s Radar and Electronic Warfare Systems 1995 , p 96 292. . , , ,

67 Blake ( ed . ) Jane ' s Radar and Electronic Warfare Systems 1995 - 96 pp . 588 - 9 . , , pp 68 Japan Defense Agency JDA( ) Defense of Japan 1993 . 110 - 12 . , , , pp 69 Tokyo Shimbun 26 March 1998 . 6 - 7 in Daily Summary of Japanese , , , ,

Press American Embassy Tokyo Political Section Office of ,

Translation Services 30 March 1998 . , 70 ‘ Electronic Systems Center ' at < http : / www/ afmc. wpafb. . af mil. HQ/

AFMC / PA / leading _ edge may98/ esc/ . htm > November( 2000 ) . , 71 Japan Adopts Thomson - CSF ' s ASTAC EW Pod ' Defense and , , p Armament International February 1990 . 12 . ,

72 Japan Defense Agency JDA( ) Defense of Japan 1976 Japan( Defense , , , , p Agency Tokyo 1976 ) Appendix 6 . 147 . , 73 Japan Defense Agency JDA( ) Defense of Japan 1989 Japan( Defense , , , p Agency Tokyo 1989 ) . 114 . ,

74 F . P . Dube ( ed . ) International Electronic Countermeasures Handbook , , , p Horizon( House Norwood MA 1999 ) . 14 . 44 Strategic and Defence Studies Centre

75 , , paper Pierre Alain Antoine “ Tactical ESM and ELINT' prepared for , , a on ' 97 conference Electronic Warfare Asia Kuala Lumpur 5 - 6

November 1997 . , ,

76 Martin Streetly ( ed . ) Jane ' s Radar and Electronic Warfare Systems , , , ,

1998 - 99 Jane( ' s Information Group Coulsdon Surrey 10th edition , p 1998 ) 436. . 77 ibid . , 78 ( The International Institute for Strategic Studies IISS ) The Military , , p Balance 1999 - 2000 . 192 . , , , pp 79 Taylor ( ed . ) Jane ' s All the World ' s Aircraft 1978 - 79 123. - 5 . , , , 80 J . A . Boyd D . B . Harris D . D . King and H . W . Welch eds( ) Electronic , , , Countermeasures Peninsula( Publishing Los Altos CA 1978 ) chapter , ; 11 and Lt . Col . Richard E . Fitts ( ed . ) The Strategy of Electromagnetic , , , Conflict Peninsula( Publishing Los Altos CA 1980 ) chapter 4 . , 81 Japan Defense Agency JDA( ) Defense of Japan 1998 Japan( Defense , , , p Agency Tokyo 1998 ) 115. . ,

82 Japan Defense Agency ( JDA ) Defense of Japan 1977 Japan( Defense , , , p Agency Tokyo 1977 ) . 66 . , ,

83 Rear Admiral Yasuo Ito Surveillance‘ Tasks ' Journal of the Australian , , p Naval Institute November 1989 37 . , 84 Japan Defense Agency JDA( ) Defense of Japan 1998 Japan( Defense , , , p Agency Tokyo 1998 ) . 115 . , , , 85 Eric Johnston Maizuru' in Pyongyang ' s Sights ? ' Japan Times 2 , p September 1999 . 3 . , 86 Japan Defense Agency ( JDA ) Defense of Japan 1999 Japan( Defense , , , p Agency Tokyo 1999 ) . 34 . ,

87 The International Institute for Strategic Studies IISS( ) Strategic , , , ; p Survey 1995 - 1996 Oxford( University Press Oxford April 1996 ) 253. , and Michael J . Green and Benjamin L . Self ' Japan ' s Changing China , , Policy : From Commercial Liberalism to Reluctant Realism ' Survival , , , p Vol . 38 No . 2 Summer 1996 . 37 . Working Paper No. 353 45

88 Asahi Shimbun , 7 April 1999 , pp.2-3 , in Daily Summary of Japanese Press , American Embassy , Tokyo , Political Section , Office of Translation Services , 12 April 1999 .

89 See Desmond Ball, Pine Gap : Australia and the US Geostationary Signal , , ,

Intelligence Satellite Program Allen( & Unwin Sydney 1988 ) especially pp . 34 - 41 . ,

90 William E . Burrows Deep Black : Space Espionage and National Security , , , ; pp Random( House New York 1986 ) . 171 - 3 Tom Bernard and T . ,

Edward Eskelson ' U . S . Spy Plane Capable of Interceding in Attack on , , , ; p Korean Jet ' Denver Post 13 September 1983 . 38 and Recon' Wing , , , Famed for Skill Endurance ' Aviation Week & Space Technology 4 , p August 1997 . 53 . ,

91 Jeffrey T . Richelson The U . S . Intelligence Community Westview( , , , , ; p Press Boulder CO 4th edition 1999 ) . 193 and Recon' Wing Famed , , , , for Skill Endurance ' Aviation Week & Space Technology 4 August 1997 p . 53 . , , ; , p 92 Richelson The U . S . Intelligence Community . 193 and Bill Gertz ' N . , , , Korea Fires New Cruise Missile ' Washington Times 30 June 1997 , pp A1. A8 .

93 “ ' Informed Sources ” Tell TASS US Alerted to Imminent Chinese , , ICBM Tesť ITAR - TASS 1151 GMT 6 June 2000 in FBIS Transcribed , , ,

Text Daily Report FBIS SOV- 2000- - 0606 6 June 2000 . , , , , pp 94 Bungei Shunju November 1998 150. - 7 in FBIS EAS- - 98 299- FBIS , ,

Translated Text Daily Report 26 October 1998 . 95 ibid .

96 ibid . , 97 Rear Admiral Makoto Yamazaki “ Rear Admiral on Future MSDF , , , , , pp Technology ' Gekkan Jadi November 1996 . 7 - 17 in FBIS - JST - 97 - 001 ,

FBIS Translated Text 1 November 1996 .

98 ‘ Tokyo Leaders Fear SmallMistake Could Turn Confrontation into a , , Military Conflict South China Morning Post 7 October 1996 . , 99 Documents' Reveal SDF ' s Intelligence Collection Activities ' Tokyo , , , , p Shimbun 13 August 1998 . 1 in FBIS EAS- - 98 - 30 FBIS Translated , , . Text Daily Report 28 October 1998 46 Strategic and Defence Studies Centre

100 Rabbits' ' Ears and Doves ' Dreams : Information on North Korea ' s , , , Missile Test Firing- Kept Secret ' Mainichi Shimbun 14 August 1994 , , , p Morning Edition . 1 FBIS Translated Text at < http : / www/ . fas org. /

news / japan / eas9x192 . htm > November( 2000 ) . , , , , pp 101 Bungei Shunju November 1998 . 150 - 7 in FBIS EAS- - 98 - 299 FBIS , ,

Translated Text Daily Report 26 October 1998 . , , , p 102 Mainichi Shimbun 7 September 1998 . 3 in Daily Summary of , , , , Japanese Press American Embassy Tokyo Political Section Office of ,

Translation Services 10 September 1998 . , , by 103 Agency' Alarmed Sinking of Sub ' Daily Yomiuri 19 December , p 1998 . 2 . , , , pp 104 . 2 - 3 7

April in Asahi Shimbun 1999 Daily Summary of Japanese , , , , Press American Embassy Tokyo Political Section Office of ,

Translation Services 12 April 1999 . RECENT PUBLICATIONS OF THE STRATEGIC AND DEFENCE STUDIES CENTRE

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CANBERRA PAPERS ON STRATEGY AND DEFENCE YEAR NO . TITLE SA ( including costof packaging & postage) 1991 CP72 South Pacific Security: Issues and Perspectives by Stephen Henningham and Desmond Ball (eds) (156+xxii pp ) 20.00 CP73 The Northern Territory in the Defence of Australia : Strategic and Operational Considerations by J. O. Langtry and Desmond Ball ( eds) ( 340+xxii pp) 24.50 by CP74 The Architect of Victory: Air Campaigns for Australia Gary Waters pp 23 . 00 ( 224 + xii ) by 23 . 00 pp in

the Gary ( ed . ) ( CP75 Modern Taiwan 1990s Klintworth 228 + xviii )

CP76 New Technology : Implications for Regional and Australian Security by pp 23 . 00 Desmond Ball andHelen Wilson eds( ) 248( + xxxvi )

CP7 by Reshaping the Australian Army : Challenges for the 1990s David Horner pp ( ed . ) ( + 282 xii ) 24.00 by pp 17 . 50 CP78 The Intelligence War in theGulf Desmond Ball 106( + xiv )

CP79 Provocative Plans : A Critique of US Strategy for Maritime Conflict in the by pp 20 . 00 North Pacific Desmond Ball 138( + xx ) by pp 17 . 50 : Operation ( 94 CP80 Soviet SIGINT Hawaii Desmond Ball + xvi ) Testing

: Kwajalein CP81 Chasing Gravity ' s Rainbow and US Ballistic Missile , pp

by Megan Hayes ( + ) Owen Wilkes van Frank and Peter 210 xiv 22 . 50

CP82 Australia ' s Threat Perceptions : A Search for Security by Alan Dupont pp 17 . 00 ( + 118 xii )

CP83 Building Blocks for Regional Security : An Australian Perspective on

Confidence and Security Building Measures CSBMs( ) in the Asia / Pacific

by pp 17 . 00 Region ( + Desmond Ball 110 xviii ) by pp CP84 Australia ' s Security Interests in Northeast Asia Alan Dupont 132( + xii ) 18 . 50

CPS by Finance and Financial Policy in Defence Contingencies Paul Lee pp 17 . 00 118( + x ) by pp 1992 CP86 Mine Warfare in Australia ' s First Line of Defence Alan Hinge ( 254 + xvi ) 23 . 00

CP8 by Hong Kong ' s Future as a Regional Transport Hub Peter J . Rimmer pp 20 . 00 ( + 110 xvi ) PO

The Conceptual Basis of Australia ' s Defence Planning and Force Structure by 17 . 50 Development pp ( + Paul Dibb 151 xviii ) , CP89 Strategic Studies in a Changing World : Global Regional and Australian by pp 28 . 00 Perspectives Desmond Ball and David Horner eds( ) 465( + xxxii ) by CP90 The Gulf War : Australia ' s Role and Asian - Pacific Responses J Mohan. pp ( 134 + xi ) Malik 21 . 00

CPO by

' s Space Defence Aspects of Australia Activities Desmond Ball pp 20 . 00 ( + 128 xviii ) CP92 The Five Power Defence Arrangements and Military Cooperation among the

ASEAN States : Incompatible Models for Security in Southeast Asia ? by pp 23 . 00

Philip ( + xiv Methven 208 )

CP93 Infrastructure and Security : Problems of Development in the West Sepik by . pp 23

of Papua 00 T . M

. Boyce ( + Province New Guinea 230 xiv ) by pp CP94 Australia and Space Desmond Ball andHelen Wilson ( eds ) ( 389 + xxviii ) 26 . 00

CP95 LANDFORCE 2010 : Some Implications of Technology for ADF Future Land , by pp Force Doctrine Leadership and Structures David W . Beveridge ( 97 + xiv ) 15 . 50 , CP96 The Origins of Australian Diplomatic Intelligence in Asia 1933 - 1941 by pp

Wayne ( + ) Gobert 106 xiv 17 . 50 , by CP97 Japan as Peacekeeper : Samurai State or New Civilian Power ? Peter pp 16 . 00 Polomka ( 106 + x ) CP98 The Post- Soviet World : Geopolitics and Crises by Coral Bell (92+xii pp) 15.00 1993 CP99 Indonesian Defence Policy and the Indonesian Armed Forces by Bob Lowry ( 144+xiv pp) 20.00 by CP100 Regional Security in the South Pacific : The Quarter century- 1970 - 95 Ken pp 23 . 00 Ross 206( + x ) by CP101 The Changing Role of the Military in Papua New Guinea R . J May. pp 15 . 00 ( 97 + xiv ) Strategic Change : CP102 and Naval Roles Issues for a Medium Naval Power by pp ( ) ( + x ) Sam Bateman and Dick Sherwood eds 216 23 . 00

CP103 ASEAN Defence Reorientation 1975 - 1992 : The Dynamics Modernisationof by pp 24 . 00 and Structural Change J . N . Mak 322( + xvi ) by 1994 CP104 The United Nations and Crisis Management : Six Studies Coral Bell ( ed . )

pp 17 144( + x ) .50

CP105 Operational Technological Developments in Maritime Warfare : Implications by pp 20 . 00 for the Western Pacific Dick Sherwood ( ed . ) ( 159 + xviii )

CP106 More Than Little Heroes : Australian Army Air Liaison Officers in the Second by pp World War Nicola Baker ( 199 + xx ) 23 . 00 ' s : CP107 Vanuatu 1980 Santo Rebellion International Responses to a Microstate by pp 14 . 00 Security Crisis Matthew Gubb ( 78 + xiv ) by CP108 TheDevelopment of Australian Army Doctrine 1945 - 1964 M . C . J . Welburn pp ( 93 + xii ) " 15.00 by 1995 CP109 The Navy and National Security : The Peacetime Dimension Dick Sherwood

(98 +x pp) 16 . 00 by pp CP110 Signals Intelligence ( SIGINT ) in South Korea Desmond Ball ( 83 + xii ) 15 . 00

: An Emerging CP111 India Looks East Power and its Asia - Pacific Neighbours by pp

Sandy Stephen Henningham ( ) ( + xx ) 24

Gordon and eds 280 . 00

, Region : in CP112 Nation and Context Studies Peace and War in Honour of Professor by pp 24 . 00 T . B . Millar Coral Bell ( ed . ) 259( + xiv )

1996 CP113 Transforming the Tatmadaw : The Burmese Armed Forces since 1988 pp 23 . 00 by Andrew Selth ( 207 + xvi )

CP114 Calming the Waters : Initiatives for Asia Pacific Maritime Cooperation by pp 23 . 00 Sam Bateman and Stephen Bates eds( ) 207( + xxii )

CP115 Strategic Guidelines for Enabling Research and Development to Support by pp 17 . 00 Australian Defence Ken Anderson and Paul Dibb ( 105 + xviii )

Security Security by CP116 and Building in the Indian Ocean Region Sandy Gordon pp 24 . 00 ( 243 + xx ) , , : ) in CP117 Signals Intelligence SIGINT( South Asia India Pakistan Sri Lanka by pp 17 . 50 Ceylon( ) Desmond Ball ( 116 + xiv ) by CP118 The Seas Unite : Maritime Cooperation in the Asia Pacific Region Sam pp 00 . Bateman and Stephen Bates ( eds ) ( 303 + xxx ) 25 1997 CP119 In Search of a Maritime Strategy : The Maritime Element in Australian by pp 24 . 00 Defence Planning since 1901 David Stevens ( ed . ) 252( + xx ) by CP120 Australian Defence Planning : Five Views from Policy Makers Helen pp 15 . 00 Hookey and Denny Roy ( eds ) ( 71 + xiv )

CP121 A Brief Madness : Australia and the Resumption of French Nuclear Testing by pp

Carolyn ( + x ) Kim Richard Nossal and Vivian 69 15 . 00

CP122 Missile Diplomacy and Taiwan ' s Future : Innovations in Politics and Military by pp Power Greg Austin ( ed . ) ( 292 + xxiii ) 25 . 00 ,

CP123 Grey - Area Phenomena in Southeast Asia : Piracy Drug Trafficking and by pp 17 . 50 Political Terrorism Peter Chalk 117( + xiv )

1998 CP124 Regional Maritime Management and Security by Sam Bateman and Stephen pp ( ) ( + ) 24 . Bates eds 209 xxiv 00 by CP125 The Environment and Security : What Are the Linkages ? Alan Dupont ( ed . ) pp 17 . 00 ( 99 + xii ) Development : Army Educating an Army ' CP126 ' Australian Doctrinal and the , by Operational Experience in South Vietnam 1965 - 72 R . N . Bushby pp ( + ) 111 xiv 17 . 50 CP127 South Africa and Security Building in the Indian Ocean Rim by Greg Mills (139 +xiv pp) 20.00 CP128 The Shape of Things to Come: The US - Japan Security Relationship in the New Era byMaree Reid (97 +x pp) 17.50 CP129 Shipping and Regional Security by Sam Bateman and Stephen Bates (eds) (159+xxiv pp) 20.00 CP130 Bougainville 1988- 98: Five Searches for Security in the North Solomons Province of Papua New Guinea by Karl Claxton ( 199+xx pp) 23. 00 1999 CP131 TheNext Stage: Preventive Diplomacy and Security Cooperation in the Asia Pacific Region by Desmond Ball and Amitav Acharya (eds) (335 +xx pp ) 25.00 CP132 Maritime Cooperation in the Asia-Pacific Region : Current Situation and Prospects by Sam Bateman (ed.) (193+xxii pp ) 23. 00 CP133 Maintaining the Strategic Edge: The Defence of Australia in 2015 by Desmond Ball ( ed.) (445 +xxvi pp) 30.00 2000 CP134 An Independent Command : Command and Control of the 1"' Australian Task Force in Vietnam by R. W. Cable (108+xiv pp) 17. 50 by CP135 Armed Rebellion in the ASEAN States : Persistence and Implications

Andrew Tan 23 . 00 by CP136 Burma ' s SecretMilitary Partners Andrew Selth 18 . 50 They CP137 Where Are When You Need Them ? Support Arrangements for Deployed by Air Power Peter McLennan 26 . 00 ,

Weapon- - CP138 ASEAN the Southeast Asia Nuclear Free Zone and the Challenge of by Denuclearisation in Southeast Asia : Problems and Prospects Bilveer Singh 18 . 50

CP139 The Council for Security Cooperation in the Asia Pacific CSCAP( ) : Its Record by

Its Prospects and Desmond Ball 18 . 50

SDSC WORKING PAPERS at

price of $ A6 . 00 (

including of packaging & All the one cost postage )

1991 WP225 India ' s Strategic Posture : Look' East ' or Look' West ” ? by Sandy Gordon by WP226 Index to Parliamentary Questions on Defence for the Period 1989 to 1990 Gary Brown

Papua by WP227 Australia and New Guinea : Foreign and Defence Relations Since 1975 Katherine Bullock by WP228 The Wrigley Report : An Exercise in Mobilisation Planning J . O . Langtry by , Security WP229 Air Power the Defence of Australia and Regional Desmond Ball

WP230 Current Strategic Developments and Implications for the Aerospace Industry by Desmond Ball by WP231 Arms Control andGreat Power Interests in the Korean Peninsula Gary Klintworth , by WP232 Power the Gun and Foreign Policy in China since the Tiananmen Incident lan Wilson by WP233 TheGulf Crisis : Testing a New World Order ? Amin Saikal and Ralph King by An

Perspective on WP234 Australian Maritime CSBMs in the Asia - Pacific Region Desmond Ball and Commodore Sam BatemanRAN by WP235 Insurgency and the Transnational Flow of Information : A Case Study Andrew Selth by WP236 India ' s Security Policy : Desire and Necessity in a Changing World Sandy Gordon of WP237 The Introduction the Civilian National Service Scheme for Youth in Papua New

Guinea by Lieutenant Colonel T . M . Boyce , , by WP238 Command Control Communications and Intelligence in the Gulf War Shaun Gregory

WP239 Reflections on Cambodian Political History : Backgrounder to Recent Developments by Stephen R . Heder , , by WP240 The Asia - Pacific : More Security Less Uncertainty New Opportunities Gary Klintworth by WP241 A History of Australia ' s Space Involvement Matthew L . James by WP242 Antarctic Resources : A Dichotomy of Interest John Wells by WP243 The' Right to Intervene ' in the Domestic Affairs of States Gary Klintworth 1992 WP244 An Isolated Debating Society: Australia in Southeast Asia and the South Pacific by Greg Johannes WP245 Recent Developments in China 's Domestic and Foreign Affairs : The Political and Strategic Implications for Northeast Asia by Di Hua WP246 The Evolution of US Maritime Power in the Pacific by E.A. Olsen WP247 Index to Parliamentary Questions on Defence, 1991 by Gary Brown WP248 Call Out the Troops: An Examination of the Legal Basis for Australian Defence Force Involvement in 'Non -Defence Matters by Elizabeth Ward WP249 The Australian Defence Force and the Total Force Policy by Charles E. Heller WP250 Mobilisation : The Gulf War in Retrospect by James Wood WP251 Mobilisation : The Benefits of Experience by James Wood WP252 Strategic Studiesand ExtendedDeterrence in Europe : A Retrospective by Andrew Butfoy

WP253 Geographic Information and Remote Sensing Technologies in the Defence of

Australia by Ken Granger

Military by WP254 The Dimension of Common Security Andrew Butfoy by ' s WP255 Taiwan New Role in the Asia - Pacific Region Gary Klintworth Focusing Agenda in /

Region : WP256 the CSBM the Asia Pacific Some Aspects of Defence

Confidence Building by Paul Dibb by WP257 Defence and Industry : A Strategic Perspective Stewart Woodman by WP258 Russia and the Asia - Pacific Region Leszek Buszynski

Security Policy by Making- WP259 National and Defence Formation and Decision in India Bruce Vaughn

WP260 A Question of Priorities : Australian and New Zealand Security Planning in the 1990s by StewartWoodman by WP261 Papua New Guinea - Australia Defence and Security Relations Peter I . Peipul by WP262 The Regional Security Outlook : An Australian Viewpoint Paul Dibb by WP263 Pakistan ' s Security Concerns : A Chinese Perspective Liu Jinkun up ,

Military - in - Region WP264 The Build the Asia Pacific : Scope Causes and Implications

for Security by Andrew Mack and Desmond Ball by WP265 Principles of Australian Maritime Operations W . S . G . Bateman and R . J . Sherwood by WP266 Sino - Russian Detente and the Regional Implications Gary Klintworth by WP267 Australia and Asia - Pacific Regional Security Peter Jennings , by 1993 WP268 Cambodia ' s Past Present and Future Gary Klintworth ' s

Programme in WP269 Australia Aerial Surveillance the South Pacific : Review and New by Options Wing Commander R . W . Grey

WP270 Strategic Culture in the Asia - Pacific Region ( With Some Implications for Regional by Security Cooperation ) Desmond Ball by WP271 Australian Security Planning at the Crossroads : The Challenge of the Nineties StewartWoodman , by WP272 Index to Parliamentary Questions on Defence 1992 Gary Brown

in Military Acquisitions in / WP273 Trends the Asia Pacific Region : Implications for Security

and Prospects for Constraints and Controls by Desmond Ball by WP274 A Proposal for Cooperation in Maritime Security in Southeast Asia Wing

Commander R . W . Grey

Preparation of WP275 The andManagement Australian Contingents in UN Peacekeeping

Operations by Captain Russ Swinnerton RAN by WP276 The Future of Australia ' s Defence Relationship with the United States Paul Dibb by WP277 Russia ' s Military and the Northern Territories Issue Geoffrey Jukes , by WP278 A Regional Regime for Maritime Surveillance Safety and Information Exchanges Captain Russ Swinnerton RAN and Desmond Ball

WP279 The Political Role of the Singapore Armed Forces ' Officer Corps : Towards a by

Military - Administrative State ? Tim Huxley

Complex ( ) 1994 WP280 The East Coast Armaments ECAC Location Project : Strategic and

Defence Aspects by Desmond Ball by WP281 Rules of Engagement in Maritime Operations Captain Russ Swinnerton RAN WP282 The Political and Strategic Outlook, 1994-2003: Global, Regional and Australian Perspectives by Paul Dibb WP283 Index to Parliamentary Questions on Defence, 1993by Gary Brown WP284 New Dimensions to the Japan -Australia Relationship : From Economic Preference to Political Cooperation by Nobuyuki Takaki by 1995 WP285 Winners and Losers: South Asia After the Cold War Sandy Gordon by : a WP286 Australia and New Zealand Towards More Effective Defence Relationship Jim Rolfe by

' s Policy Spratly WP287 China Towards the Islands in the 1990s Sheng Lijun

WP288 How to Begin Implementing Specific Trust - Building Measures in the Asia - Pacific

Region by Paul Dibb by WP289 Burma ' s Arms Procurement Programme Andrew Selth by WP290 Developments in Signals Intelligence and Electronic Warfare in Southeast Asia Desmond Ball by WP291 India ' s Naval Strategy and the Role of the Andaman and Nicobar Islands D . N . Christie by 1996 WP292 Japan and Australia : A New Security Partnership ? Naoko Sajima by WP293 Chinese Strategy and the Spratly Islands Dispute Brigadier Chris Roberts by WP294 Transnational Crime : The New Security Paradigm John McFarlane and Karen McLennan by WP295 Signals Intelligence SIGINT( ) in North Korea Desmond Ball

Emerging by WP296 The Geopolitics of the Asia - Pacific Region Paul Dibb by WP297 Maritime Strategy into the Twenty - First Century : Issues for Regional Navies Jack McCaffrie by , Regional Impact : Diplomacy Strategy WP298 The Cold War in Retrospect and Coral Bell by WP299 Australia Indonesia- Security Cooperation : For Better or Worse ? Bob Lowry by WP300 Reflections on American Foreign Policy Strategy John Chipman

Requirements by WP301 New for Multilateral Conflict Management UN and Other Forces :

Nordic Responses by Jaana Karhilo by WP302 Developing Army Doctrine in the Post - Cold War Era Bill Houston ( ) : by WP303 The Joint Patrol Vessel JPV A Regional Concept for Regional Cooperation Desmond Ball by WP304 Australian - American Relations after the Collapse of Communism Harry G . Gelber

WP305 Policy Coordination for Asia - Pacific Security and Stability by Yukio Satoh by 1997 WP306 Force Modernisation in Asia : Towards 2000 and Beyond Paul Dibb , WP307 PMC ARF and CSCAP : Foundations for a Security Architecture in the Asia - Pacific ?

by Jörn Dosch by WP308 Burma ' s Intelligence Apparatus Andrew Selth

WP309 Burma ' s Defence Expenditure and Arms Industries by Andrew Selth

WP310 Australia ' s Vulnerability to Information Attack : Towards a National Information

Policy by Adam Cobb by , WP311 Australia the US Alliance and Multilateralism in Southeast Asia Desmond Ball by

to : Japan WP312 From Distant Countries Partners the - Australia Relationship Yukio Satoh

WP313 The Burma Navy by Andrew Selth by WP314 Problems and Issues in Malaysia - Singapore Relations Andrew Tan

WP315 The Burma Air Force by Andrew Selth by WP316 Australia ' s National Security into the Twenty - First Century Brigadier Mike Smith

, Alignments : WP317 Alliances and the Global Order The Outlook for the Asia - Pacific

Region in the Next Quarter - Century by Paul Dibb

1998 WP318 The South African National Defence Force : Between Downsizing and New by Capabilities ? Greg Mills by of ' s WP319 The Evolution China Perception of Taiwan Sheng Lijun , by

UN Peacekeeping Fijian WP320 UNIFIL and the Experience Jim Sanday by of WP321 The Future the ASEAN Regional Forum : An Australian View Alan Dupont by

Singapore ' s WP322 Defence Policy in theNew Millennium Andrew Tan by by WP323 Responses to NATO ' s Eastward Expansion the Russian Federation Alexei Mouraviev WP324 TheRemaking of Asia 'sGeoppolitics by Paul Dibb WP325 The Nuclear Crisis in Asia : The Indian and Pakistani Nuclear Programmes by Desmond Ball and Mohan Malik WP326 Researching Security in East Asia : From "Strategic Culture ' to 'Security Culture ' by Pauline Kerr WP327 Building the Tatmadaw : The Organisational Development of the Armed Forces in Myanmar , 1948-98by Maung Aung Myoe WP238 Drugs , Transnational Crime and Security in East Asia by Alan Dupont WP329 The Relevance of the Knowledge Edge by Paul Dibb 1999 WP330 The US -Australian Alliance : History and Prospects by Desmond Ball

WP331 Implications of the East Asian Economic Recession for Regional Security

Cooperation by Desmond Ball by WP332 Strategic Information Warfare : A Concept Daniel T . Kuehl

Region , WP333 Security Developments and Prospects for Cooperation in the Asia - Pacific by with Particular Reference to the Mekong River Basin Desmond Ball by WP334 Burma and Weapons of Mass Destruction Andrew Selth

WP335 Transnational Crime and Illegal Immigration in the Asia - Pacific Region : , Background Prospects and Countermeasures by John McFarlane by WP336 Burma and Drugs : The Regime ' s Complicity in the Global Drug Trade Desmond Ball by WP337 Defence Strategy in the Contemporary Era Paul Dibb by WP338 The Burmese Armed Forces Next Century : Continuity or Change ? Andrew Selth

Military by WP339 Doctrine and Strategy in Myanmar : A Historical Perspective Maung Aung Myoe by WP340 TheEvolving Security Architecture in the Asia - Pacific Region Desmond Ball , by WP341 The Asian Financial Crisis : Corruption Cronyism and Organised Crime John McFarlane by WP342 The Tatmadaw in Myanmar since 1988 : An Interim Assessment Maung Aung Myoe WP343 Cambodia and Southeast Asia by Tony Kevin

2000 WP344 The Principle of Non - Intervention and ASEAN : Evolution and Emerging Challenges

by Herman Kraft by

Region ? in - WP345 Will America ' s Alliances the Asia Pacific Endure Paul Dibb by WP346 Officer Education and Leadership Training in the Tatmadaw : A Survey Maung Aung Myoe by WP347 The Prospects for Southeast Asia ' s Security Paul Dibb Approach : a WP348 The Army ' s Capacity to Defend Australia Offshore The Need for Joint

by John Caligari , ' - ' '

: ' Neighbourliness WP349 Interpreting China - Indonesia Relations Good Mutual Trust by and All' - round Cooperation ' He Kai by WP350 Strategic Trends in the Asia - Pacific Region Paul Dibb by WP351 Burma ' s Order of Battle : An Interim Assessment Andrew Selth by WP352 Landmines in Burma : TheMilitary Dimension Andrew Selth

WP353 Japanese Airborne SIGINT Capabilities by Desmond Ball and Euan Graham

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Strategic and Defence Studies Centre Australian National University

MISSION STATEMENT

Strategic studies is the primary analytical discipline for examining the defence policies of, and security relationships between , states. It embraces not only the control and application of military force , but the full range of factors determining the security of states. Strategic studies is interdisciplinary , and includes military , political , economic , environ mental, scientific and technological aspects .

The mission of the Strategic and Defence Studies Centre (SDSC ) is: • to be the leading Australian research centre on strategic and defence studies ;

to develop postgraduate research and teaching on Asia -Pacific strategic affairs , which will support the priorities of the Research School of

Pacific and Asian studiesJUICS ;,

to achieve quality in its scholarly publication , programme which will enhance the Centre ' s

international reputation ; ,

to provide advice to Government the Parliament

and the private sector that will contribute to the ;

University ' s national function ,

to promote awareness of and informed public , debate on strategic and defence issues .