Ayn Rand’s philosophy “Objectivism” and her idea of “the ideal man” in comparison to modern approaches
Diplomarbeit Zur Erlangung des Magistergrades An der Kultur- und Gesellschaftswissenschaftlichen Fakultät Der Universität Salzburg
Fachbereich: Anglistik und Amerikanistik Gutachter: Dr. Ralph Poole
Eingereicht von: Simone Koch Salzburg: 2018 1
Inhalt Abstract ...... 3 Introduction ...... 4 1. Objectivism ...... 6 1.1. Ayn Rand’s novels ...... 7 1.1.1 The Fountainhead (1943) ...... 7 1.1.2. Atlas Shrugged (1957) ...... 10 1.2. Reality ...... 12 1.2.1. Reason ...... 13 1.3. Capitalism – the economic system ...... 15 1.4. Happiness ...... 16 1.5. The (moral) evil of Altruism ...... 18 2. The Theory of Virtues ...... 20 2.1. The Virtue of Selfishness ...... 20 2.2. The Virtue of Productiveness ...... 20 2.3. The Virtue of Pride ...... 22 2.4. The Virtue of Love ...... 22 2.5. The Virtue of Justice ...... 23 2.6. The Virtue of Honesty ...... 25 2.7. The Virtue of Independence ...... 26 2.8. The Virtue of Integrity ...... 26 3. The ideal man ...... 28 3.1. Ayn Rand and Stoicism ...... 29 3.2. Ayn Rand and Essentialism ...... 32 3.2.1. Protecting the asset ...... 33 3.2.2. The main thing is to keep the main thing the main thing ...... 35 3.2.3 The importance of integrity ...... 36 3.2.4. Essentially awkward ...... 37 3.2.5. The necessity of playing ...... 40 3.2.6. Is exploration necessary? ...... 43 Conclusion ...... 45 3.3. Ayn Rand and “The 50th law” ...... 47 3.3.1. Fear ...... 48 3.3.2. Intense Realism ...... 49 3.3.3. Are we alone? ...... 53 3.3.4. A bad person...... 57 3.3.5. Power: The trait of a first-hander or of a second-hander? ...... 61 Conclusion ...... 63 2
3.4. Ayn Rand and “The Obstacle is the Way” ...... 65 3.4.1. How to deal with pain ...... 66 3.4.2. Encountering death ...... 68 3.4.3. Emotions and perception ...... 70 3.4.4. Finding the opportunities ...... 71 3.4.5. Do your job...... 72 3.4.6. Helping others ...... 75 Conclusion ...... 78 3.5. Ayn Rand and The Education of Millionaires ...... 79 3.5.1. The educational system ...... 80 3.5.2. Personal branding ...... 83 Conclusion ...... 85 Final Conclusion ...... 86 Bibliography ...... 89 Acknowledgment ...... 92 Statutory Declaration ...... 93
3
Abstract This paper centers on the philosophy “Objectivism” by Ayn Rand and focuses primarily on the notion of her ideal man. The point of this paper is to compare Ayn Rand’s argumentation – with regard to the qualities and virtues man has to possess to live an ideal life – with the approach authors of the 21st century take towards this topic. To achieve a clear overview of both, the notions of the 1940s onwards and the current views on this subject, three works of Ayn Rand were examined closely and compared to four works of different modern-day writers.
Theoretical information is provided on the philosophy of objectivism in general, Rand’s novels “The Fountainhead” (1943) and “Atlas Shrugged” (1957), as well as her collection of essays “The Virtue of Selfishness” (1964). 21st century authors and works included in this paper are Greg McKeown’s “Essentialism” (2014), Robert Greene’s collaboration with the rapper 50 Cent “The 50th law” (2009), Ryan Holiday and “The Obstacle is the Way” (2014) and finally Michael Ellsberg who published “The Education of Millionaires” (2011).
While this thesis provides an introduction to the most important novels of Ayn Rand and her theoretical work, its main focus lies on the comparison of Rand’s ideal man, for example in the areas of work, relationships, education and self-improvement, to its modern equivalent. To illuminate whether Rand’s philosophy can still be regarded as essential today each of the following chapters in the third part of the thesis contains a comparison between her and one other author. The reader will be able to determine the importance of Rand’s works as a basis for improving one’s life and will understand whether or not “Objectivism” can be considered a contemporary philosophy.
4
Introduction Ayn Rand’s “Objectivism” is a widely discussed philosophy but known rather to specialists or lovers of her work than the broad mass. Her views are straightforward. Neither in her essays nor her novels does she leave a lot of space for discussion. This is, however, one of the main points that make her philosophy so attractive, as she is one of few who does not content herself with blurry definitions and a lack of real world examples, but rather strives to depict her ideas as clearly and with as little room for interpretation as possible.
One of her main points, and the focus of this paper, is her vision of an ideal man, by which she does not limit the expression on the male biological sex, but rather views it as “the ideal human being”. The term “the ideal man” will therefore refer to both sexes in this thesis. Her novels “The Fountainhead” (1943) and “Atlas Shrugged” (1957) both depict her vision of how man can live life the fullest, how man can be ideal in every sense, and which character traits, values, and ideals he has to possess to be regarded as such. However, also in her essays the interested person can find ideas and concepts directly related to the ideal man. In this thesis, especially her collection of essays “The Virtue of Selfishness” (1964) will be taken into consideration. Ayn Rand’s work was written and published starting around the 1940s and it is still read today. It does not only seem to bear universal truths, but also ideas that speak to modern man.
The point of this paper is to compare the philosophy of Ayn Rand with modern day philosophy on the ideal man. It seems like never before could one find so many books, novels, papers, articles and online content on self-improvement; on how to be ideal; on how to live a fulfilling and productive life. Some of these authors, who managed to gain worldwide interest through their work, will be mentioned in this paper. Significant information regarding them as well as their works will be provided, prior to an in-depth comparison and analysis on whether the vision of an ideal man has changed over the decades or if Ayn Rand’s published texts are undervalued by the public with regard to its fundamental truth in this regard.
Authors included in this thesis are Greg McKeown, Robert Greene, Ryan Holiday and Michael Ellsberg. A small section in the first chapter will contain a short overview over the idea of the ideal man before Ayn Rand’s time, mainly with regard to “Stoicism”, as this philosophy is often considered to describe the phenomena of the ideal man in ancient times best. 5
This paper will be divided into three main sections. The first section will describe Ayn Rand’s philosophy in general, that is, without focusing on the ideal man but rather presenting her work to introduce the main aspects of her philosophy. It will also include relevant information on “The Fountainhead” and “Atlas Shrugged”. The second part of the paper will focus on Ayn Rand’s concept of virtues and finally, the third part concerns itself with her vision of the ideal man and the authors of the 21st century. Each subchapter will include central aspects of both theories and will be followed by a short conclusion. Finally, a brief summary of the main overlaps and differences will close the discussion on the question of the ideal man.
6
1. Objectivism Ayn Rand’s philosophy is essentially a claim that a life of value must be chosen. Living, which seems to come naturally to man, is ultimately not enough, as it needs the conscious choice of man to fully engage in the process of valuing his life. David Kelley, philosopher and founder of “The Atlas Society”, claims that the choice to live plays an important role in the real life of a follower of the objectivist ethics as it ultimately involves the choice between living and merely surviving.1 “The Atlas Society” is an organization which concerns itself with questions regarding the philosophy of Ayn Rand. According to them there are four underlying principles, which also will repeatedly appear in the course of this thesis: Freedom, Achievement, Individualism and Reason.2 While “Reason” will have its own subchapter in point 1.2.1., the other terms will be included in more detailed explanations about Rand’s most vital ethical, religious and also economical views. Rationality could also be considered one of the pillars of “Objectivism” and it includes various aspects. It does not only concern the duty of man to face reality, but also to act on reason, assume responsibility and it shapes the, according to Ayn Rand, perfect economical system: laissez-faire capitalism. Selfishness, another prominent idea, already highly contributes to the main topic of this paper as it concerns man’s individuality and therefore individualism. Man can only be ideal if he is selfish, if he lives on his own terms, for his own sake3. Her definition of selfish is quite different from today’s popular one, however, and it is therefore necessary to already include Rand’s theory on “The Virtue of Selfishness” in the theoretical part as well. The notion of virtues is generally prominent in her writing. A more detailed view on the different virtues Rand proposes for the ideal man will follow in chapter 2. – “The Theory of Virtues”. Necessary for fully understanding the following chapters is the differentiation between a “first-hander” and a “second-hander”, notions, which are frequently used by Rand. A first-hander is a person who acts and lives according to his own mind and values. He does not place the judgment of others above his own. A second-hander, on the other hand, describes a person who derives validation and a sense of being only through the judgment of others. Not who he is, is important, but who others believe him to be.
1 David Kelley (2010) Choosing life. On: theatlassociety.org. Web.
They have no self. They live within others. They live second-hand. […] In the realm of greatest importance – the realm of values, of judgment, of spirit, of thought – they place others above self […]. A truly selfish man cannot be affected by the approval of others. He doesn’t need it.4
To start out, Ayn Rand’s two novels “The Fountainhead” (1943) and “Atlas Shrugged” (1957) will be presented and a short characteristic of the main characters will be given, as they frequently will be used in the later analysis of Rand’s ideas and already offer an insight into what “the ideal man” means to her.
1.1.Ayn Rand’s novels Both novels which are used to illuminate Ayn Rand’s concept of the ideal man have one obvious main character. This character does not necessarily talk most of the time, or is the focus throughout the book, but is characterized by outstanding qualities, long and meaningful speeches and she differentiates between them and the other characters through a stylistic device, as she only addresses them with their family name.
1.1.1. The Fountainhead (1943) “The Fountainhead” is about an architect, Howard Roark, who seems unimpressed by common standards and conventions, is a genius in the building business and works only out of a selfish interest in his profession. He despises the notion of working for a client, in the sense that he would never submit to their wishes, as it often would significantly worsen the outcome, but would rather build a house that is perfect according to his own standards. He is the perfect example of the afore mentioned first-hander.
At his side are a few honest, productive people as well as the love of his life, Dominque Francon. Their love is not based on dependence and exploitation but on the acceptance and appreciation of each other’s values.
In perfect contrast the reader is then introduced to Peter Keating. Peter Keating is handsome, a successful architect and a loyal son – at least that is what other people believe him to be. For Peter it is not important what he really is but rather what other people think he is. He does not live for himself but for what people believe of him and see in him. External validation to him is more important than self-respect. We learn throughout the story that Roark designed many of Peter Keating’s biggest successes, yet he is still proud of them and considers them a personal achievement as other people believe it to be his
4 Ayn Rand, The Fountainhead (1943; New York: Signet, 1952) 605f. 8 work. He is a perfect example of the afore mentioned second-hander as he does not live for himself but for the sake of and vicariously through others. He doesn’t live to evaluate himself but to be evaluated and judged in a convenient way by his fellow men. Thus, he does not live according to his own ideas but prioritizes what he considers society’s ideas. Peter Keating is a very pitiful and unhappy person. The deep influence other people have on him and his lack of self-esteem as well as self-respect can be observed clearly in the following quotation.
[Peter Keating, S.K.] “I’ve thought of it for some time - all by myself – I haven’t mentioned it to anyone. And nobody suggested it. It’s my own idea. […] . I think I’d like to move to the country and build a house of our own. […]” [His wife, S.K..] “Will you like commuting?” “No, I think that will be quite an aweful nuisance. But you know, everybody that’s anybody commutes nowadays.” […] “Will you like to do some gardening” […]? “Good God, no! What kind of grounds do you think we’d have? We can afford a gardener, and a good one – so the place will be something for the neighbours to admire.5
A character much harder to read than the one of Peter is Ellsworth Toohey. He understands the worth of Howard Roark and first-handers like him. The people in the society around Ellsworth Toohey love him. He represents a character who is able to make his neighbors feel great and confident about themselves, even though they do not act in an upright or self-respecting way. He manages to bestow the feeling of validation on them, which second-handers need in order to feel accepted, and thereby obtains power over many people in his surroundings, which is his lead motive. As they are dependent on his validation, he can easily lift or crush a person, depending on what he needs in the moment. This way Toohey is a great manipulator, who always gains what he wants from his followers as he can make them feel both, morally superior and morally reprehensible. As he is, due to his abilities and capacities, unable to be more elevated himself, his quest is to destroy builders and first-handers; people who don’t need other people to feel good about themselves, with as clear set moral values as Roark. Toohey sets out to build a society which believes that the “common good” is its highest moral achievement. Thus
5 Ibid. 423. 9 making sure that his fellow men are unable to be happy on their own, as they blindly try to follow his preaching and work for others only, it is in his control how the society he lives in develops. By preaching that the only way to be morally good is to be selfless, he elevates mindless followers of his over independent minds like Roark. Toohey’s way of manipulation is well displayed in this conversation with his niece, who goes from a woman of potential to a selfless, unpleasant woman throughout the novel.
[Toohey, S.K.] “Don’t you see how selfish you have been? You chose a noble career, not for the good you could accomplish, but for the personal happiness you expected to find in it.” [His niece, S.K.] “But I really wanted to help people.” “Because you thought you’d be good and virtuous doing it.” “Why – yes. Because I thought it was right. Is it vicious to want to do right?” “Yes, if it is your chief concern. Don’t you see how egoistical it is? To hell with everybody so long as I’m virtuous.” “But if you have no…no self-respect, how can you be anything?” “Why must you be anything?”6
It is interesting to know that Toohey was shaped after leaders of Communism.7 Ayn Rand, who was born in Russia, has chosen the model of men who supported the ideas of a communist state. What Toohey wants are people who work and live as mindless creatures, as slaves, easily manipulated by the ideas of the common good for society, which are fed to them. The fact that Toohey wants to destroy Roark comes from this notion as well, as a Howard Roark could never be a slave.
Finally, important to mention is Gail Wynand, a seemingly scrupulous powerful person who plays people’s minds, only to realize his personal potential through his friendship with Howard Roark and understanding, thereby, why he feels as unfulfilled as he does. He would have had the intelligence and means to be like Howard, true to his values.
“It is not my function,” said Wynand,” to help people preserve a self-respect they haven’t got.”8
6 Rand, The Fountainhead 364.
7 Leonard Peikoff (1993). Afterword. In: The Fountainhead 700. 8 Rand, The Fountainhead 409. 10
However, during his quest towards power he lost a lot of the control he thought he had, not only over himself but also over the people who made the way he developed possible. Gail Wynand is an impressive character, but one cannot help but pity him at times, as in this novel he seems to be the person who has lost his actual purpose the most.
Anything may be betrayed, anyone may be forgiven. But not those who lack the courage of their own greatness. Alvah Scarret can be forgiven. He had nothing to betray. […] But not I. I was not born to be a second-hander.9
He is not like Peter Keating, who could have never been like Roark and doesn’t understand what separates them; not like Toohey, who understands the difference but lacks the means to achieve the state of the first-hander and, thus, tries to destroy him; but rather a tragic case of a person who had all possibilities but fails to live a happy life.
1.1.2. Atlas Shrugged Ayn Rand’s second novel, published in 1957, is about the rulers and minds of the world. Indeed, it is started with the question “Who moves the world?”10.
John Galt is not introduced to the reader, in person, until the last quarter of the book. People similar to him are presented at an early stage, however. One of the first people the reader gets to know is Francisco d’Anconia, a smart man who inherited a successful copper mine. He knows from an early age that he wants to be even more famous and productive than his ancestors. His intelligence is paired with the will for success, a clear insight in how the world is run and the discipline to help forming it in order to succeed. While the impression one gets throughout the book is not always congruent, he will towards the end turn out to be one of the most self-possessed characters of the book and it is striking to watch a man this young be willing to go harmful ways for a greater good. As with the main characters in “The Fountainhead” – introduced in chapter 1.1.1. – as well as characters yet to be introduced in this chapter, one of his main characteristics is his utter self-confidence in nearly every situation. He never lies or tries to mask reality in a convenient way, but his character rather illuminates the incompetence of society to hear and face reality even when it is clearly presented to them.11
Hank Rearden, on the other hand, is an able businessman, whose own intelligence and productivity is of no good to him. He, in contrast to Francisco d’Anconia, fails to see the
9 Ibid. 663. 10 Ayn Rand, Atlas Shrugged (1957; United States of America: Signet, 1996) Abstract. 11 Ibid. 380ff. 11 evil that lies within Altruism that is considered the highest standard of society in “Atlas Shrugged”. He is good at heart and therefore unable to understand how people can work and plot against him. The everlasting current throughout this book is, however, that productive work and people working for money and profit is evil as it is not done for the good of others but for the good of the producer himself. A man like Hank Rearden, who basically lives for his productivity and finds joy in developing ideas and projects, cannot do anything but fail in this society’s surroundings.12
Finally, the reader is introduced to Dagny Taggert. She is the woman behind a railroad line, the only one capable of keeping it going, and she too, similar to Hank Rearden, believes that if only she worked a little harder, she could save the world from the looters. Looters are seen as those people who live not by thinking and producing on their own, but on the ideas, thoughts and products others create for them. While they claim that the ways of d’Anconia, Rearden and Dagny Taggart are morally reprehensible, they always turn to them when they need more products or help of any kind. She is burdened with an incompetent brother, Jim Taggert, who goes on complaining about injustices and the need for “fair” conditions, while what he really means is that he wants no competitors in his field of work who are more competent than he is. He is the perfect example of a looter and serves as a great contrast to his sister.
Society is failing in “Atlas Shrugged”, not by chance but by the man who was mentioned at the beginning of this chapter: John Galt. He is the character who has the competence, wits, and intelligence to “stop the motor of the world”13. He is among the first to discover the problem of society and works towards his final goal – destroying the looters and being able to create a world where competence and products of the mind are not punished but cherished, where it is possible for intelligent, upright people to live and survive by fair trade and exchange of goods, not by threats and injustice.
The question “Who is John Galt?” accompanies the reader throughout the whole story. When he finally is presented, explaining his aim and his behavior, it seems as the ultimate revelation. It is a challenging book at times, as the injustice that prevails throughout most of it is described in great detail and seems difficult to cope with. This is, however, exactly why “Atlas Shrugged” is an effective tool of conveying Ayn Rand’s philosophy.
12 Ibid. 196f. 13 Rand, Atlas Shrugged Cover. 12
The difference between first-handers and second-handers is still much more prominent in “Atlas Shrugged” than it was in “The Fountainhead”. One after the other the movers, the intelligent ones, the first-handers, vanish from earth – no one knows where they go or why they leave. The second-handers scream about the injustice, not realizing that it was their own behavior and injustice prevailing, which drove them to this point. Ayn Rand manages to draw a clear distinction between people who are ideal and people who are not capable of living alone. This distinction is crucial in the objectivist theory, which makes “Atlas Shrugged” a necessary read for anyone who supports Rand’s ideas.
I have deprived your world of man’s mind. Men do not live by the mind, you say? I have withdrawn those who do. The mind is impotent, you say? I have withdrawn those whose mind isn’t. There are values higher than the mind, you say? I have withdrawn those for whom there aren’t. […].14
1.2. Reality A is A.15
Reality is one of the most important aspects in Ayn Rand’s philosophy. For an objectivist the idea that reality exists and is what it is is self-evident.16 We all live in this reality – in the present world and society that we were born into or have chosen to live in. But life in our present time has given us a vast amount of possibilities to distort reality. The different forms of social media can serve as a perfect example to this argument. For many, especially young people, what happens in real life does not seem of as much importance, as the life which is perceived on social media platforms. It is interesting to observe how Ayn Rand talks about a phenomenon like twisted reality in a time, when defying reality was not as easy as it is now. It seems that it was already an issue then but instead of realizing and improving on that, modern society has developed backwards and made the problem worse. William Thomas states that in some university departments he is connected with the postmodernist notion exists which claims that reality is not what is, but what humans perceive as such. Rand would have contradicted this notion fiercely. For her, the consciousness of man stands in no connection to the fact that reality exists.17 As was already mentioned before, advanced technology too could lead one to believe that
14 Rand, Atlas Shrugged 924f. 15 Ibid. 930. 16 William Thomas (2011) What is the Objectivist View of Reality (Metaphysics)? On: atlassociety.org
Important to mention in this context is Ayn Rand’s notion of “value”. A “value” is something that forms and characterizes a person. It is something man tries to gain or keep or its presence in one’s life has to make a difference to its owner. It not only describes characteristics, however, but also views, concepts, ideas and standards that are close to a person’s heart and are therefore something he lives for and by. People build their life around the values they have set and discovered for themselves as well as they make their choices accordingly. Examples of these values can be Integrity, Independence, or Feminism. An underlying current that will reappear in this thesis is the following quote:
[the] ultimate value for any given living entity is his own life18
With this quote Rand again tries to convey the notion that life is only of value if one tries to sustain it and strives to keep it. In this case David Kelley of “The Atlas Society” identifies a major difference between human beings and other living organisms. While, for example, a plant automatically lives due to its innate processes, man has to choose life consciously. As Kelley puts it:
Our own choice is the source of our commitment to life, it is what gives us a lock on life as a goal. If the commitment is not there, if I do not actually value my life, then my life cannot be a value for me. It is not something I act to gain or keep.19
1.2.1. Reason Reason accepts no commandments20.
One of the most important subparts of the concept of “Reality” is “Reason” as it is the distinguishing feature of mankind. Reason implies not only thinking logically from time to time but it, according to Ayn Rand’s philosophy, includes the full choice of thinking, judging and evaluating situations consciously at any given time. On “The Atlas Society”, “Reason” was named as one of four necessary underlying principles of the objectivist
18 Ayn Rand, The Objectivist Ethics. In: The Virtue of Selfishness. (1961; United States of America: Signet, 1964) 18. 19 Kelley, Choosing life. 20 Rand, Atlas Shrugged 932. 14 ethics21 and she herself views “Reason” as the only absolute of her ideal man.22 Viewing this matter in today’s society, it often seems that people are less willing to hold reason as their absolute, especially as certain paths of living are already laid out and seemingly do not need to be challenged. If we look at the life of modern man in a developed world, its course is easily described. After birth, the next 16 years are already in a fixed order – kindergarten, elementary school, high school. Immediately after this succession, one will most likely be told that he needs to study – the importance of higher formal education to succeed in life is supported in most European, American and Asian countries and will be elaborated on further in chapter 3.5.1.. It is not mentioned that higher education nowadays cannot be viewed as a guarantee for a job, yet, many people, regardless of their interests, follow this path often to either please their parents, their peers, or their surroundings, not giving thought to the more reasonable choices they could make. They end up in a job they more or less like for the rest of their lives, have children at the age of 30, move from an apartment to a house. All the while they are told that they are free and independent in this process, even though one never stops to challenge this truth. This is of course a rather negative perspective on the life of many people, however, one has to only consider the resistance one experiences when he decides not to follow this plan. Women who do not want to have children often face criticism; students who discovered that their true talents and abilities do not lie in the subject they study and therefore quit to start freshly in a new field have difficulties explaining their choices. The path that is laid out for one seems to be the easy path – it is simple to follow and the steps it includes are clearly marked. But for any reader of the objectivist philosophy the question of whether or not it is the real and right path for oneself must be of a higher importance as it includes the necessity of applying reason to one’s choices.
Studying “Objectivism”, Rand outlines very clearly what she expects of her readers. The ability to think is given to everyone – the choice to think has to be made consciously.
No, you do not have to live; it is your basic act of choice. But if you choose to live, you must live as a man- by the work and the judgement of your mind.23
One cannot speak of reason without giving any regard to the concept of “Responsibility”. It is impossible for anyone to make decisions and always know their outcome. Sometimes choices are going well, as intended, sometimes they may go amiss. In this second case it
21 The Atlas Society (2004) Freedom, Achievement, Individualism, Reason: Objectivism. 22 Rand, Atlas Shrugged Appendix. 23 Ibid. 929. 15 is the duty of anyone involved in the decision to take responsibility, not only of the event that already happened and its consequences but, more importantly, also in ensuring that the same mistake won’t be made a second time. Being responsible means to own both your successes and your failures. It means making sure you take care of your needs and obligations, as Shawn E. Klein puts it in his commentary regarding business issues.24
According to Rand there are three essential factors involved in the survival of man: Man has to initiate it [life, S.K.], to sustain it and to bear responsibility for its results.25 Man cannot go without the process of thinking, applying reason, taking up responsibility and facing reality and expect to lead a happy and independent life. Likewise, economics cannot function without these factors and Ayn Rand’s idea of the perfect economical system will be elaborated on in the next chapter.
1.3.Capitalism – the economic system When I say “capitalism,” I mean a full, pure, uncontrolled, unregulated laissez-faire capitalism—with a separation of state and economics, in the same way and for the same reasons as the separation of state and church.26
Capitalism is, commonly speaking, not a widely popular economical system. Especially the left-winged party is often demonstrating against this system and their leaders, like Slavoj Žižek and Alain Badiou, forecast the downfall of humanity if it continues incorporating capitalistic views.27 David Kelley, in his commentary on Capitalism & Morality, which he calls “The Fourth Revolution”, argues that the anti-capitalist sentiment is mainly due to financial crises. His article, published in 2010, states that one of the biggest problems capitalism has to face is that it is always viewed in connection with morality. With a welfare state in announced search for social justice on the one hand, and the allegations that capitalism breeds selfishness, exploitation, alienation, injustice, on the other hand, it seems clear which is favored by the public.28 Ayn Rand’s argumentation, however, is not based on systems of capitalism as they are experienced
24 Shawn E. Klein (2010) Responsibility, not Regulations. On: theatlassociety.org. Web.
Her argumentation takes the reader to the point, where he will often understand that her view of capitalism indeed is a possible form of economy for her which ensures that man is not regulated or disturbed by the state in his productive work. What he achieves is purely due to his own effort and knowledge and therefore only he has a right to it. The principles of freedom, achievement, individualism and reason can all four fully be applied here. For many, especially left-winged people, capitalism symbolizes an unfair system. People or companies who have achieved good results through high quality products or services will reach far higher positions in the world than other companies. This is, however, not due to the sacrifice of other people or their selfishness, as many left-winged news-papers like to claim, but due to one man using his reason and given intellect without relying on others or the state to do the work for him, while another is not willing to put in the same effort and capacities. Capitalism, in the objectivist sense, is therefore, ultimately, man’s right to his own productiveness and reason without the interference of the state. It stands for the freedom of men to live free from force and ensures that he owns his own life.30
1.4. Happiness Happiness is the successful state of life.31
The importance of “Happiness” in Ayn Rand’s works has to be stressed. Philosophy in general seems often to be thought of as boring, very theoretical and without real-life context. Ayn Rand’s theories stress the importance of happiness – on happiness being the one value and goal in life, and on happiness being a value dependent on thinking. From an early age the way to distinguish between what is right and what is wrong is through
29 Ayn Rand Capitalism: The Unknown Ideal. (1966; United States: Signet 1986) 30 The Atlas Society, Freedom, Achievement, Individualism, Reason: Objectivism. 31 Rand, The Objectivist Ethics. In: The Virtue of Selfishness 30. 17 the sensation of pain or pleasure. Likewise, one can judge what is the right or wrong path for one by evaluating one’s happiness or discomfort one experiences. By advocating pleasure, selfish pleasure, pleasure that is directed towards one’s own good, Rand advocates happiness. Andrew Bissell explains that “happiness” in the way Rand meant it can only stem from a selfish pursuit of one’s own values and desires.32 It should be mentioned that pleasure for Rand, however, is not to be read as a synonym for mindless engagement in useless activities or the sacrifice or manipulation of others to reach that state. Pleasure, for her, is important as a part of life but she describes pleasure and happiness also through having a purpose and intent in life, through productive and meaningful work, through rational thoughts and the ability to use one’s mind. It would be wrong to say that her form of pleasure is useless but from the pleasure that man can build for himself happiness can be derived.
One of the reasons for this point of view that should be mentioned in this context is her obvious distance to religion, as portrayed further in section 3.1. – “Ayn Rand and Stoicism”. Religion and churches claim that to be happy in the afterlife, one has to live free of sin and with a sacrificing personality in this current life. “Happiness” is not a state which should be achieved now, but an eternal happiness after death is desirable in many religions. Both of these ideas, however, imply that man sacrifices himself and his freedom to the thought of a possible afterlife. This would neither be rational, nor real, as one cannot conclude through logical thought that such an afterlife exists, so a reason for not enjoying and living life to its fullest is not given. This might be one of the reasons why the church and Christian religion loses more and more of its power in Western societies. While in the Middle Ages faith was a common denominator and the influence of religion on the behavior of people undisputable, the drop-out rate of churches rises continuously nowadays.33 People are less willing to defy their happiness. In this argumentation, logic and reason has taken over the minds of the people. Unfortunately, many are still not able to live according to themselves and, with the loss of religion, turn to the second institution that assumes the responsibility of telling them how to live a morally valuable life - society.
32 Andrew Bissell (2011) Collectivism, Freedom, and Happiness. On: theatlassociety.org. Web.
Ayn Rand has a clear aversion against the role of the state, society and the “common good”. According to her “society” nowadays substitutes for “god” – both notions cannot be defined clearly. “Society”, as “church” before, is an innumerable collection of men and the people on top of these institutions dictate what is morally good and what is morally bad. Any man would consequently need to live after this dictation to be viewed as ideal in the eyes of society34. But often these ideas do not serve his happiness or his life, which illuminates why Rand is against it.
A successful state of life is what every man should have as his highest goal. This is not possible though Altruism, a concept that is repeatedly advocated by the leaders in our society and will be explained in more detail in the next chapter.
1.5.The (moral) evil of Altruism Altruism is a form of life that is taught to many people since birth. Altruism is what Western society often denotes “moral”, but Rand strongly contradicts this idea.
David Kelley identifies two different strains of altruism. The first one is similar to the current Merriam Webster Online dictionary’s definition as the “unselfish regard for or devotion to the welfare of others”35 and basically comprises the sacrificial aspect of behavior, as it is taught by the Christian religion. According to the second strain Kelley describes, however, it isn't just that those who lack ability, strength, wealth, and so on need our help and we should give it to them. According to this strain, the helpless, weak, and the poor are actually superior to the able, the strong, the wealthy.36 When looking at those definitions, one of the first questions that should come to the mind is why so many people consider this to be positive. If a charitable act is motivated purely by altruism, is that not at the same time stating that it is not the will of the person carrying out the act? If one has an “unselfish” regard for the welfare of others, who chooses whom to help? It makes one wonder how the scale is set for a person to be worthy of the help of others in an altruist way if what motivated him to help is not his reason telling him to do so but the vague concept of this morality.
We live in a society that preaches altruism, but this is similar to telling people that they are not good enough themselves. One would be required to help others, whether he wants
34 Rand, The Objectivist Ethics. In: The Virtue of Selfishness 15. 35 Merriam- Webbster (2018) Altruism. Web. < https://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/altruism> (15.01.2018) 36 David Kelley (1998) Two Strains of Altruism. On: theatlassociety.org. Web.
This alone shows how incompatible the concepts of “Altruism” and “Objectivism” are. One focuses only on other people, the other on oneself. It could also be called the difference between “Collectivism” and “Individualism”. Individualism is what the objectivist philosophy is based upon – it creates the individualist man.38 Collectivism, on the other hand, favors altruism and produces a man of constant dependence.
37 David M. Buss. The Evolutionary Psychology. The New Science of the Mind (5th edition). (2008; New York: Routledge 2016) 262. 38 The Atlas Society, Freedom, Achievement, Individualism, Reason. 20
2. The Theory of Virtues How to focus on oneself in a meaningful, non-sacrificial way is very well outlined with the different ideas of virtues that Ayn Rand introduces. She gives a lot of thought to the concept of virtues which society claims are necessary (as, for example, “Altruism”) and her own concept of important virtues in life. As these ideas will come up throughout the whole of this thesis, the most important virtues regarding “Objectivism” will be presented here.
2.1.The Virtue of Selfishness The Virtue of Selfishness, which is also the title of her collection of essays, is one of the most important concepts in Ayn Rand’s writing. “Selfishness” is a difficult term to define. In our society being selfish is something highly undesirable. It is often connected with “being an egotist” and sacrificing others only for the sake of oneself. However, as Rand points out in her essays, this is not what selfishness is about. Being selfish means that one is concerned with one’s own interests. Being selfish, inherently, is not a bad thing as it only means that one is an independent man, able to live on and by his own. A selfish person after the objectivist ethics is someone who does not need other people because he is able to live on his own account, after his own mind and reason. He does not depend on his neighbors to make him happy, to validate his existences or to use them as a means to his end, as he is not willing to ensure their happiness or sacrifice himself for them in turn. It will become clearer in the second part of this thesis why the Virtue of Selfishness is one of the most important ones a human being can have according to “Objectivism”. Readers of Ayn Rand’s fiction will have found this virtue clearly displayed in her main, and seemingly perfect, characters Howard Roark (The Fountainhead) and John Galt (Atlas Shrugged). One can understand, and will later recognize in the comparisons, why authors nowadays shun the word “selfishness”. If our society concerned itself more with the concept, however, not only admirers of the Ayn Rand philosophy but everyone would understand the necessity of it.39
2.2.The Virtue of Productiveness Man, in contrast to most other animals on this earth, cannot rely on his innate instincts but must think and use his mind to be able to survive. A reasonable person will soon discover that it is only productive work that ensures the survival of his species. This can be seen as an advantage as well as a disadvantage. One negative aspect might be that doing productive work requires a choice and man, thereby, as the only species on earth
39 Rand, The Virtue of Selfishness, Introduction viiff. 21 can act self-destructive.40 Reasonable men will always choose the work but also people who choose not to work themselves are able to survive through the productive work of others. This is what is often called a welfare state. It could not be argued that a welfare state can automatically and in every form considered to be bad, yet, it is undeniable that it is the only state form that allows people, who choose not to work and care for themselves, to live off their neighbors who do. Looking at states like Venezuela and Bolivia, countries that chose a total welfare state without elements of other economical systems as their current one, it becomes quite obvious that this form, as well-meant as it may be, cannot work on the long-term.41 The phenomena can be exampled on a small scale; in schools, children are put into groups and one or two people of the team will do 80% of the work. However, also the fellow team members, even though not contributing significantly to the project, are awarded with the same grades. The system does not change on a larger scale, which leaves a country, who favors Welfarism, with a group of people who work according to their standards and values on the one side, and people who live off that while not having any values or standards themselves on the other. Obviously, this applies only to men who are regarded to have the same status. People, who would like to work but are unable to because of disability or bureaucratic problems, are not automatically to be considered not ideal. Rand, in this context, seems to compare similar men of ability, with their difference lying mainly in the fact that one is a first-hander or producer and one is a second-hander or looter.
The advantage of this peculiarity of men regarding his survival is that he is far more adaptable to his surroundings than any other animal. Whatever the conditions may be, as long as they permit living theoretically, the thinking man will be able to adapt himself. Animals, who survive by instinct, do not have this convenience, humans, however, have the advantage of the free will.42
Furthermore, the Virtue of Productiveness does not demand an excessive amount of intelligence, talent or wealth. Productiveness is not merely following the rules and works of someone else, without seeing the purpose behind them but it is much rather defined as the calculated pursuing of a chosen career. Anyone can work purposefully. There are no
40 Kelley, Choosing life. 41 Rafael Acevedo, Luis B. Cirocco (2017) How Socialism ruined Venezuela. On: businessinsider.de. Web
It means the consciously chosen pursuit of a productive career, in any line of ration endeavor, great or modest, on any level of ability.44
2.3.The Virtue of Pride Pride, as well as Selfishness is another concept that bears negative connotations in Western modern society. Indeed, it is even considered one of the 7 deadly sins in Christianity. All the same, pride, in the context of “Objectivism”, is an appealing asset and can be considered the first and the last of the virtues as it connects directly with the radical egoism of the Objectivist ethics, as William R. Thomas discusses in his webinar.45
According to Rand, the Virtue of Pride can be best described by the term “moral ambitiousness”.46 It is not, as is commonly believed, about bragging or being arrogant but about understanding one’s own worth and striving for improvement. Doubtlessly, the Virtue of Pride describes in very few words what so many other authors tried to capture in long self-improvement books. To be able to live in a happy and fulfilled state, one has to be able to look oneself in the eye and accept and act on the potential of what one sees. If I am to live and view myself as my highest value, then I have to be able to display and improve my character accordingly. It includes being sure of oneself, not accepting false truths or unearned guilt and it is closely intertwined with self-esteem. Unfortunately, pride too is considered a negative concept. If it was not, it might be much easier for a lot of people to live a happy life.47
2.4.The Virtue of Love While Rand’s work seems very emotionless and straightforward at times, she too is able to concern herself with topics close to the heart such as love, relationships and friendship. It does not come as a surprise that her views on this topic are quite distinct. Love, often, is felt to be unconditional. You should give your love to all people according to the bible. You should love your parents unconditionally according to unwritten rules. You should love your friends without asking anything in return according to every magazine you can possibly read.
43 Rand. The Objectivist Ethics. In: The Virtue of Selfishness 29f. 44 Ibid. 45 William R. Thomas (2011) Pride: Living as a Self-Made Soul. Webinar. On: vimeo.com. Web. https://vimeo.com/27771031 (15.01.2018) 46 Rand. The Objectivist Ethics. In: The Virtue of Selfishness 29f. 47 Ibid. 23
Love and friendship have the potential to be a lot more if one is not ready to content oneself with what society dictates him. Love and friendship are above all selfish. It is one’s own happiness and content that he seeks when he loves another person. This is, for both parties involved, a desirable state as, similar to pride, it contributes highly to one’s happiness without sacrificing another person.
Love, friendship, respect, admiration are the emotional response of one man to the virtues of another.48
If one is a self-respecting man, he has analyzed and defined his own values. If he follows the Virtue of Productiveness, he works and thinks according to these values. If he follows the Virtue of Pride, he has worked on himself to fit these values. If he follows the Virtue of Love, he will find a lot of content and happiness in the ability, worth and values of the people he loves and chooses them accordingly. Loving someone unconditionally implies that no values, no work, no mind is necessary to be loved. Yet, loving someone and being loved in return must be based on mutual respect and admiration – two things that could never be attributed to anyone who does not have standards or values to live by.49 Andrew Bissell, when faced with the question of the objectivist’s perception of love, asserts that it is not a blank check granted to random passersby, but instead the result of our careful examination and approval of another’s character.50 It thereby gets obvious that valuing someone and loving someone is closely intertwined. One cannot love someone without valuing the person too, but this demands for a person to understand what values are and mean. If there is nothing to value for neither person, relationships will stay empty and senseless. A selfless love implies that there is no interest in a person and if so, that person does not have any values himself. In this case no love or friendship is truly possible as real love always involves a selfish gain.51
2.5.The Virtue of Justice When talking about the Virtue of Justice the most important aspect is that no guilt, neither earned nor given, should be unfair. In theory this concept seems clearer and more acceptable according to Western standards than many of Rand’s other claims. However, considering one of her examples in “The Fountainhead”, its wrong implementation is revealed. It is striking that what was considered to be true in the 1920s is still true today
48 Ibid. 35. 49 Ibid. 50 Andrew Bissell (2011) Love. On: The Atlas Society. Web.
“You’re quite right, Peter,” said Mrs. Keating, rising. “On a question like that you don’t want to consult your mother. It’s too important. I’ll leave you to settle it with Mr. Roark.” He looked at his mother. He did not want to hear what she thought of this; he knew that his only chance to decide was to make the decision before he heard her. “Why, mother, how can you say that? Of course I want your opinion. What… what do you think?” She ignored the raw irritation in his voice. She smiled.53
This phenomenon is nowadays called “emotional blackmailing” and it is common practice among partners or relatives. Examples include: “If you really loved me, you wouldn’t risk your safe income”, imposing the feeling of guilt on the person who wants to change his job because he is extremely unhappy in the current one. Saying “You wouldn’t go away for a year, if you cared at all for our relationship”, meaning “You are guilty of not sacrificing your dream for our relationship and my needs”. “After all that we have done for you”, uttered by many parents when they are unhappy with life choices their child makes. All these examples serve to impose the will of one person on another through the tool of guilt. Yet all of this guilt is to be considered underserved as it implies the sacrifice of one’s own self to the inadequacy of another person. One person has no right to damn his or her partner into unhappiness, only because he/she himself/herself feels scared or entitled to any of his time, earnings or energy. Morally speaking the partner is not required to feel guilty about it. Likewise, a partner has no right to ask of the other person to sacrifice dreams or desires just because he is jealous or insecure. In the long run, behavior of this kind will kill any loving and caring relationship, as the common denominator is no longer the appreciation of the values and abilities of the other party but the careful tiptoeing around what might or might not be the wished by the other. Parents, as thankful as one is for their guidance, support, and help, have no right to demand that
52 Rand, The Objectivist Ethics. In: The Virtue of Selfishness 28. 53 Rand, The Fountainhead 34f. 25 their wishes in the life choices of the child are given more consideration than the child’s own thoughts on it. While most people are happy about their advice and more than willing to listen to them, it ultimately is the life of the children. The children are the ones who have to live with their decisions and it is their duty to make their life as happy as possible. Of course, this is true also the other way around – a child in his adult years cannot expect to be entitled to the achievements of his parents, if he chooses to defy and contradict their values. To live a happy life, it has to be possible for man to make his own decisions and to justify them. Other people imposing the feeling of guilt as a tool of belittlement, makes this direction often seem difficult.
To live according to the objectivist philosophy and the Virtue of Justice is to live without unearned guilt. It also implies to live without giving unearned guilt as one might be as quick at imposing it on other people as one is at accepting it. The Virtue of Justice, being intertwined with reality, demands to see situations and facts as they are and that no guilt, which is unearned according to one’s own standard and judgment, is accepted.
2.6.The Virtue of Honesty Reality and reason, important in “Objectivism” demand a certain behavior. The Virtue of Honesty should be self-explanatory, yet, in practice, it might be more difficult to execute than one would think in the beginning. In order for “Honesty” to function, it is necessary to view reality as it is. It sounds logical enough that a green table cloth is a green table cloth but what happens when it comes to matters closer to the heart? It is easier to say that we didn’t get a job because the interviewer was unfair and biased, instead of admitting that the other candidate was more prepared and better suited for it. When a person is left for another it is commonly heard that this happened due to “inexplicable” reasons, instead of pausing and considering that he or she can give the former partner more, as one has long stopped giving value to the relationship. It is an accepted practice to never try out something new and muse on how great we would have been at it, instead of actually giving it a try. It seems that few modern men take the time and effort to consider what reality really means and not fake it, still this is necessary for practicing the Virtue of Honesty. This virtue concerns the notion of how the ideal man in Rand’s essays views himself. Admitting shortcomings and the necessity to improve is often not something that can be seen from an outward perspective but an inner trait. The Virtue of 26
Honesty, therefore, is not influenced by external factors but it demands of a person to be true to himself.54
2.7. The Virtue of Independence When talking about independence, two of the four principles noted by “The Atlas Society” come to mind immediately: Individualism and Freedom. Independence for Ayn Rand can mean various different things. On the one hand she argues that living by the work of one’s own mind can be considered part of the Virtue of Independence.55 This connects to the claim of “The Atlas Society”, who argue for a government which leaves the freedom to succeed – and the freedom to fail to everyone individually, without regulating the process too much.56 However, this virtue applies also to man being an independent person in thought, opinion, and value. The Virtue of Independence asks of people to form their own judgments and stay true to them. This does, of course, not imply that if one is wrong he should not accept that or refuse to see his mistake but it is rather saying that once values and standards are formed, a person should not denounce them just to please his surroundings. Similarly, the concept of “Responsibility” can be mentioned once again, even though it is to be viewed in a different context this time. One does not only have to be able to take responsibility for past decision or future consequences but also has to assume the responsibility to even form a judgment in the first place. This implies that judgments are not to be easily proclaimed but demand a certain kind of informing, reasoning, and understanding of the situation. The fact that it requests an autonomous choice reveals the part individualism plays in this equation.
2.8.The Virtue of Integrity As the final virtue of the eight which are to form the basis of the upcoming analysis on the ideal man, the Virtue of Integrity should be mentioned. This virtue is important as it takes up the concept of sacrifices once again. “Integrity” demands that one does not sacrifice his values and standards for other people. It means that someone was already able to form and decide on these values for himself and that they are important enough to him so that he will not alter them according to the convictions of others.57
Integrity is the ability to stand by an idea.58
54 Rand, The Objectivist Ethics. In: The Virtue of Selfishness 28. 55 Ibid. 56 The Atlas Society, Freedom, Achievement, Individualism, Reason: Objectivism. 57 Ibid. 58 Rand, The Fountainhead 313. 27
In our modern world it is a desirable asset. One was never before confronted with so many different opinions, views and ideas around us. Joel Wade, publisher on “The Atlas Society”, who defines integrity as to literally integrate what you think, know, believe with what you say; and to integrate what you say with what you do, argues that doing so demands courage of modern man.59 If one was to look at the numerous options modern technological gadgets gave to men, his argumentation seems valid. The internet has opened an infinite amount, often contradicting, information on one and the same topic. The ability to decide for an opinion, to justify it, to look for evidence and stand by it, no matter what other people have to say about it or want to change, is one of the most important ones and still characterize an ideal man today.
59 Joel Wade (2011) The Social Power of Integrity. On: theatlassociety.org. Web.
3. The ideal man This is the motive and purpose of my writing: the projection of an ideal man.60
Throughout Ayn Rand’s work, be it novels or non-fictional work, the reader repeatedly finds himself confronted with views, ideas, directions and depictions of what is supposed to be an ideal man. Different to current ideas, where often only one’s physical appearance is considered a measurement to their perfection and status in the world, Ayn Rand focuses more on the values of her characters, on their purposes and ways of living as well as the significance they give themselves in this world.
Many modern-day philosophers and writers, like the four presented in this thesis, approach this topic of achieving a fulfilled and ideal life by optimizing oneself. Not coincidentally are self-help books, blogs and websites now more popular than ever and people interested in self-improvement have a variety of sources to choose from.
Rand manages to convey a very clear and also didactically well working image of her ideal man and many of her ideas can, at least partially, be found in similar words in newer modern works, both printed and online, while other argumentations clearly contradict with her point of views and advocate different styles of living as ideal.
The following chapters aim at comparing Ayn Rand’s views with other respected writers and draw a general conclusion of their feasibility in modern life.
60 Ayn Rand, Introduction to the 25th Anniversary Edition. (1968). In: The Fountainhead vii. 29
3.1.Ayn Rand and Stoicism
Ayn Rand was a great philosopher. However, some of her ideas seem to have been popular already far before her working time. Students of philosophy are well informed about “Stoicism”, the philosophy executed by Marcus Aurelius, Seneca, and Epictetus to name a few. When comparing “Objectivism” and “Stoicism” it soon becomes obvious that some ideas presented by Ayn Rand regarding the ideal man were already practiced well before our calculation of time, and that those notions, therefore, seem timeless.
While there are a lot of similarities to present, it is also important to call attention to significant differences – while Epictetus, Seneca and Marcus Aurelius, who all worked in the time before modern dating started, were still largely influenced by the notion of faith and a force and power higher than the one a person presently experiences, Ayn Rand’s philosophy clearly states the absurdity in praising invisible gods to justify one’s own actions on earth. It highly contradicts the notion of both, reality and reason.
While the stoics point of view was that it is necessary to […] fix yourself in this resolution, to obey them [the gods S.K.] and yield to them and willingly follow them in all events61, Rand states that the avowed mystics held the arbitrary, unaccountable “will of God” as the standard of the good.62
Man is not supposed to live a life that contributes to the afterlife. We do not know whether such an afterlife, neither in the positive approach of heaven, nor in the negative approach of hell, exists. It is not reasonable nor rational to ask of man to live according to the feelings and standards of a group of people who claim to know what the “gods” want, which is why faith cannot exist in “Objectivism”. With such a strong focus on what man can logically explain, the idea that a common good can ever be defined by standards that have no means of definition sounds absurd. And yet, the discussion on this topic is now as relevant as ever. Rand is positioned contrary to the believe that any man should be influenced by a group of people who do not have reasons to support their claim. She already mentions that faith, in the religious sense, has decreased compared to former times but it was substituted by a similar construction – society.
(The avowed mystics held the arbitrary, unaccountable “will of God” as the standard of the good and as a validation of their ethics.) The neomystics replaced it with “the good
61 Epictetus, The Enchiridion (c. 135 A.D.; Leipzig: Forgotten Books, 2008) 12. 62 Rand, The Objectivist Ethics. In: The Virtue of Selfishness, 15. 30
of society”, thus collapsing into the circularity of a definition such as “the standard of the good is that which is good for society.” This meant […] that “society” stands above any principle of ethics, since it is the source, standard and criterion of ethics, since the good is whatever it wills, whatever it happens to assert as its welfare and pleasure.63
The fact that church and society work similarly in this sense is often overlooked. Both are preaching a common good, but neither is capable of setting standards or defining the means of it.
Yet, if the aspect of faith and society is left aside, “Stoicism” and “Objectivism” do have common denominators.
The ancient Wish things to be only just as they are 64 compared to Rand’s A is A 65 seems to imply the same thing.
John Galt’s speech in “Atlas Shrugged” is one of the most detailed texts on “Objectivism” and A is A is probably the of the most important quotes when it comes to Ayn Rand’s view on reality. Man has to see the world as it is. Man cannot be happy or in pursuit of a fulfilled life if he chooses to close his eyes to reality. It is most unwise to wish for things to be different than they are, to daydream and imagine situations that will never happen. To live according to the objectivist philosophy, man has to be able to see reality as it is, without masking it by his wishes or desires, as they do not influence our lives to a relevant degree. It is interesting to see that already in ancient times the notion of accepting reality as it is and not following emotions and wishes blindly was popular.
Naturally, Epictetus was not the only follower of “Stoicism”. Marcus Aurelius was a man, who, in his time, applied the habit of regularly writing down little fragments and sentences on leading a good and well-balanced life and the written records he left give a great insight into his everyday life and the way of living of his fellow man. While he too was influenced by the notion of gods, logics was one of his main principles in life.
Constantly test your mental impressions – each one individually, if you can: investigate the cause, identify the emotion, apply the analysis of logic.66
63 Ibid. 64 Epictetus, Enchiridion 15. 65 Rand, Atlas Shrugged 930. 66 Marcus Aurelius, Meditations. (ca. 180 A.D.; London: Penguin Classics, 2006) 73. 31
If one would try to find a statement similar to this of Marcus Aurelius in Rand’s works, one had a vast selection. One of the most fitting, however, could be;
[…] he has to discover how to validate his concepts, his conclusions his knowledge; he has to discover the rules of thought, the laws of logic, to direct his thinking.67
Logics and thinking is the basis of reason; reason is one of the basic principles of “Objectivism”. It is closely entwined with reality, as only thinking and applying logic to occurrences can make a man see reality in its full extent. Man cannot live without thinking. It is clearly stated in Rand’s “The Virtue of Selfishness” that man, unlike all other living organisms, has the power to consciously choose his path of action. He can either choose to think, sustain himself and thereby live a fulfilled life, or he can choose not to think and, therefore, rely on other people to survive.68 Life, in any case, is not possible without someone doing the thinking, as following logic is the only way to guarantee man’s survival. It is easily forgotten in a world, where trust and feelings play a more important role than reason and logical thinking, that the latter is responsible for the survival of man.
67 Rand, The Objectivist Ethics. In: The Virtue of Selfishness 23. 68 Ibid. 25. 32
3.2. Ayn Rand and Essentialism What is “Essentialism”?
“Essentialism” is a philosophy, or way of living, presented in a fitting way to today’s society by Greg McKeown in 2014. “Essentialism” is, similar to “Objectivism”, not something you can try out and dismiss, or incorporate in bits and pieces, but rather a lifestyle. This book, however, is not to be mistaken with the ancient philosophy “Essentialism”, practiced already by Plato and Aristotle. While there are various authors who have elaborated on this basis like Diana Fuss or Susan Gelman, McKeown has sought to display a practical way of incorporating an essentialist view in everyday life. He is not concerned with the essence of things per se, but with what is indeed essential in man’s life. In his publication he defines “Essentialism” as pursuing less and thereby gaining more and he never refers to ancient times or other authors on the philosophy “Essentialism” in the course of his work.
In theory, the book “Essentialism” is quite different to the works of Ayn Rand used in this paper. While Ayn Rand often implicitly presents her ideas of the world through characters such as Howard Roark and Dagny Taggart, McKeown structured his ideas as a kind of manual, easy to implement in one’s everyday life.
Naturally, this huge discrepancy already lays the foundation for ultimate differences in the approach of the two authors. McKeown’s approach on the perfection of men is subtle. He encourages the people around him to live a way of life that will provide them with more satisfaction and personal gain by opening a new perspective on how to view life itself.
Ultimately, “Essentialism” is about living a life of less - less stress, less busyness, less work. That is not to say that work or stress is inherently bad, it is only viewed negatively when a person’s quality of life suffers because of it.
The book “Essentialism” is divided into 4 sections. The first one, “Essence”, explains the way of the essentialist, that is, what a person who defines himself as an essentialist values in life. The following section “Explore” is then concerned with the difference between the many opportunities man has in life on the one hand, the ones he should truly pursue on the other hand, and how to differentiate between the two. In the third part 33
“Elimination” the reader is taught how to reduce redundant tasks and parts of life and the fourth and final stage “Execution” presents ways to implement the essentialist lifestyle.69
Why “Essentialism”?
McKeown’s “Essentialism” being rather a lifestyle than a mere self-help book, it displays all the qualities needed to compare it with Ayn Rand’s ideas.
One could not argue that both authors encourage the same sort of ideas or the same sort of lifestyle. While they undoubtedly would agree on some points of argumentation, essential aspects are clearly different, either in the approach or because of a different mind-set.
3.2.1.Protecting the asset Sleep, and the necessity of it, is curiously a widely discussed topic in today’s society. There are experts on the quality of sleep, numerous devices to track sleeping patterns and even the perfect duration of sleep is examined.
The question of sleep divides people. One part argues that little sleep is necessary, that sleep is a luxurious good, that people who sleep enough are lazy people who do not have the will, strength, and discipline to continue working. Already in school and university the concept of busyness and the lack of sleep are indicators for a seemingly successful person.
On the other hand, there are people who defend the necessity of sleeping at least 8 hours a night. Enough sleep for them is not luxurious or a waste of time but rather one of the most important aspects when it comes to living a healthy and well-balanced life. Contrary to the other group, these people listen to the needs of their body, instead of claiming that being constantly stressed out and exhausted is a sign of discipline.
Ayn Rand and Greg McKeown are split into similar fractions.
The characters of “The Fountainhead” and “Atlas Shrugged”, who are worthy of being called ideal, do not need sleep enough or deny the necessity of being well-rested. It is their duty and their sole purpose in life to continue working at all costs. It is, of course, at times difficult to consider this presentation of character realistic, as none of the characters ever falls ill or has problems with this hardship.
69 Greg McKeown, Essentialism. The Disciplined Pursuit of Less. (New York: Crown Business, 2014) 34
“We can rest, if you feel tired, Miss Taggart.” “I’m all right. We have no time to feel tired.”70
Even though sleep is not clearly mentioned as a weakness, it is quite obvious from Rand’s description that the protection of health and well-being is always to be submitted to production and work.
McKeown can be situated on the opposite side of the spectrum. Sleep is a personal asset. Sleep provides the body and brain with the necessary energy to function properly. In fact, sleep, scientifically proven, is needed to reach the goals one has set for oneself.71 The two philosophies couldn’t be more different to each other regarding this point, but this is primarily not because of the definition and importance of sleeping but because of the difference in defining what the asset is. It was formerly stated in this thesis that the objectivist philosophy introduces the self as the most important thing to value in one’s life. Similarly, McKeown also defines ourselves as the best asset. The difference, therefore, not only lies in defining what exactly the asset is but also in the definition of our selves. Rand mentions at various points that man is to be defined according to his productive work and ability to apply rationality and reason. The essentialist approach is multifaceted. Additional to the mind it includes the body and spirit.72
It could be argued that Rand’s approach on this topic is not congruent. While she does argue on the importance of the mind and the thinking man, she seems unaware of the necessity of a good night’s sleep to really be able to produce and work successfully. This might be due to the different times in which the books were written. Research on the importance of sleep for the brain was far less developed in the 1920s than it is nowadays. While Rand clearly takes notice that also her characters are but human, in her novels it seems to be difficult for her to accept the fact that people are not machines and, therefore, not purely built for working. McKeown offers a more practical view. Modern man still faces a society which often believes that if someone sleeps enough and takes care of his brain, ability, and health, he thereby chooses well-being over busyness and is to be labeled lazy or inefficient. The essentialist approach puts an end to this idea.
70 Rand, Atlas Shrugged 627. 71 McKeown, Essentialism 91ff. 72 Ibid. 94f. 35
3.2.2. The main thing is to keep the main thing the main thing73 Priorities are one of the most important aspects when it comes to being an essentialist. As described before, it is necessary for men to identify the truly important things in their lives and act exclusively on them. It is no wonder that nowadays, when possibilities are vast, and time is scarce a lot of people are unhappy. If one doesn’t know what he values, he cannot follow the path that would lead to his happiness. By prioritizing and reevaluating the life one leads, and ultimately eliminating the things that are of no use or lead to unhappiness, people could live a life truly worth living.
This angle that McKeown’s “Essentialism” takes is also typical for the objectivist ideas. It is true that Rand’s characters all have one passion, one great talent or value in their life, which they praise above everything else and that those values are nearly always connected to productive work. Yet, whatever it is they choose to do in life, they prioritize it over everything else, which does not only help them in achieving their goals and living a fulfilling life, but they are thereby also able to distinguish between what is important for them and what is not. It is true that in the society man lives in today a person who would prioritize work over anything else would probably face a lot of criticism. However, it is not the notion of work that is essential here, but the fact that people need to find out what they are passionate about, what it is that gives them most pleasure and meaning in their lives and then live accordingly.
While both authors present their ideas in different ways, Rand’s focus being on productive work, McKeown’s focus being broader and more liberal, both are very clear in what they want to achieve, and both agree on this aspect fully: Man is not able to live a happy life when he does not know what it is that makes him happy. McKeown’s 4 stages, as presented in the first section of this chapter, as well as Rand’s works lead a person to reach that goal.
I believe that nowadays the discovery of what is important personally has become even more difficult than it was during Rand’s time. With the enormous amount of opportunities that we are presented with and the pressure to lead a fulfilling life that society puts on us, humans are more lost than ever on pursuing a path that makes them happy. Both works, Rand’s and McKeown’s, create a sense of importance in discovering one’s values and in following that path without distractions.
73 Ibid. 134. 36
3.2.3 The importance of integrity One of the most important notions in the book “Essentialism” is the idea of trade-offs. Trade-offs describe the aspects or areas in life that have to be eliminated as they have been identified as non-essential. They might take up a lot of energy and space in one’s life even though they are not a priority. Trade-offs are decisions, not made by default, but made with the full knowledge of their consequences.74
If one were to contrast the essentialist approach on trade-offs with Rand’s ideas, especially two of the virtues named in the theoretical part of the paper would come to mind. One would be the Virtue of Independence, including responsibility. One cannot let life rush past without deciding on what is important and where the trade-offs have to be made. This is not an easy task. Taking up the responsibility for saying “No” to opportunities includes possible disappointments and erases the chance of blaming others for one’s own misjudgments or shortcomings. Yet, that seems to be the point of it. Man is meant to assume the responsibility of making decisions, setting priorities, evaluating trade-offs and become more ideal while doing so.
Consider the following example of the well-known statement: You cannot have your cake and eat it too.75 One of the two is the trade-off, either the having of the cake is impossible, if the priority is eating it, or if one prefers having the cake he needs to trade off the eating. It is in the sole responsibility of the person who has the cake to decide what he does with it. One could avoid the decision and do what everyone else around him considers the right approach. The possibility that he will face the outcome that would make him happy shrinks by 50%, however.
Every trade-off in turn offers an opportunity as well and the person who has set their priorities straight will soon realize the inherent chances and opportunities one gains by deciding to eliminate useless areas in one’s life.
The second virtue that needs to be considered in this context is the Virtue of Integrity. It has already been mentioned that integrity, above many other notions, plays a very big role in Ayn Rand’s characters and novels, and that by integrity one, who wants to live life after the objectivist ethics, can achieve that goal. This fits the idea of trade-offs as they essentially imply that one cannot do everything. To be able to make valuable choices and decisions, which will ultimately lead to a more fulfilling life, one cannot rely on others
74 Ibid. 49f. 75 Rand, Atlas Shrugged 930. 37 and their judgment but must be able to come to independent conclusions, which are in congruence with one’s values. With trade-offs it is not possible to do everything, to satisfy all and one has to decide what is truly important. A person who tries to please everyone, regardless of their personal importance to him, will end up pleasing no one and definitely displeasing himself. As McKeown puts it:
Saying yes to an opportunity by definition requires saying no to several others.76
Integrity might be difficult to achieve when one is working in a large factory in a rather low position. While one, of course, is in a position that requires the following of directions and doing the work that needs to be done, actions that one is unable to perform or are deeply against one’s own values are another issue. In this case, saying “No” to a superior might feel awkward. Yet, feeling awkward by saying “No” but ultimately staying true to one’s values are primary characteristics of any essentialist as well as objectivist.
3.2.4. Essentially awkward People in our society are faced with criticism and judgment on a daily basis. Technology, however good in many developmental fields, only increases this pressure on people to always be presentable and behave at their best while it also encourages shameless and improper behavior towards others through the veil of anonymity.
It is highly understandable that human beings do not want to offer themselves to others as victims to humiliation and belittlement. This feeling of constant need for self- preservation unfortunately leads to a decrease in integrity, an inability to say “No” to unpleasant situations and the pursuit of conformity, where conformity is not possible.
It is quite obvious from the description of the characters that neither of Ayn Rand’s main actors has difficulties with this topic. Criticism, judgment and belittlement is of no interest to them and cannot harm them, mostly because they are self-sufficient and often untouched by the negative sentiments of others.
“Red, to be putting yourself up like a show for all the bastards in this town to see? For all the sons of bitches to know they brought you down like this? For all of them to gloat?”
Roark laughed. “I don’t give a damn about that, Mike. Why should you?”77
76 McKeown, Essentialism 52. 77 Rand, The Fountainhead 198. 38
In our society a very common way to give into this fear of seeming awkward and being judged is the inability to say “No”. The reality is, however, that no person ever gains respect by not standing up for oneself and by letting others dictate their purpose in life and use of their time. McKeown dedicates a whole chapter to this thought: “The Power of a graceful No”.78 It is striking that humans are the most intelligent species on this earth, yet we need authors like McKeown to tell us that saying “No” is not an affront against a person but a necessity to protect one’s own values.
We have good reasons to fear saying no. We worry we’ll miss out on a great opportunity. We’re scared of rocking the boat, stirring things up, burning bridges. We can’t bear the thought of disappointing someone we respect and like. None of this makes us a bad person. It’s a natural part of being human. Yet as hard as it can be to say no to someone, failing to do so can cause us to miss out on something far more important.79
The advanced technology of modern times seems to make this task even more difficult. With the appearance of smartphones, one can be reached at any time. This would require man to develop the skill of saying “No” even more thoroughly, though it seems that rather the opposite is the case. People tend to expect total availability at all times. However, it is very interesting to see that even in Ayn Rand’s time a “No” to an opportunity was met with curiosity. Even with technology not as developed as it is nowadays people had to set their standards and priorities straight and were not always appreciated for being upright by refusing an opportunity.
The committee of distinguished civic leaders in charge of the project chose a council of the country’s best architects to design the fair. […] Howard Roark was one of the eight architects chosen. […] Roark appeared before the committee and explained that he would be glad to design the fair – alone. “But you can’t be serious, Mr. Roark”, the chairman declared. “After all with a stupendous undertaking of the nature, we want the best that can be had. I mean, two heads are better than one, you know, and eight heads… why you can see for yourself – the best talents of the country, the brightest names – you know, friendly consultation, cooperation and collaboration – you know what makes great achievements.” “I do.”
78 McKeown, Essentialism 131ff. 79 Ibid. 133. 39
“Then you realize…” “If you want me, you’ll have to let me do it all, alone. I don’t work with councils.” “You wish to reject an opportunity like this, a shot in history, a chance of world fame, practically a chance of immortality…?” “I don’t work with collectives. I don’t consult, I don’t cooperate, I don’t collaborate.” There was a great deal of angry comment on Roark’s refusal in architectural circles.80
Howard Roark is, of course, the prime example of being upright. Even though it would seem to be a great opportunity for him to make a name for himself and conform to what people expect him to do, he is very aware of his selfish need to stand by his principles. This example shows that the expectations of others and of society cannot be held as a standard to reach decisions when one wishes to stand by his ideas.
The above quotation and opportunity for Howard Roark is a prime example for a straddled strategy, a term coined by McKeown in “Essentialism”.
In the simplest terms, straddling means keeping your existent strategy intact while simultaneously also trying to adopt the strategy of a competitor 81
It is widely believed that a lot of people working on one task are better than just one competent person. One is easily led to believe that a mixture of many good things will ultimately lead to a better result. As in the example of a straddled strategy, this would mean taking the best part out of the existing strategy and combining it with the best part of another strategy. However, in reality things rarely turn out this way. By not being able to decide on one strategy, going for one approach and being willing to make trade-offs and hard decisions accordingly, many projects that are attempted under this approach are likely to fail.
This is perhaps a societal problem. Evolutionarily speaking, human beings are wired to take as much as they can from everything that is presented to them, as a means of survival, a tendency preserved from times when goods were scarce. Nowadays, however, the majority of the Western world is provided with an enormous amount of goods and opportunities, with products, which all claim to be necessary and vital in one’s life, and
80 Rand, The Fountainhead 513. 81 McKeown, Essentialism 50. 40 marketing companies, which act upon the fact that the fear of scarcity is still ingrained in many customers.
Likewise, the pressure of society on succeeding in life has grown over the years. To say “No” to opportunities, which, objectively, sound great demands courage and above all, integrity. One will seem naïve and awkward, if one follows one’s dreams or path of life, regardless of what others say. Swimming against the current in a world that has a relatively strict version of this current is not mastered by many.
In a certain sense, the characters of Ayn Rand are very courageous, even though they do not experience it in this way. It is rare to find people who muster up the courage to live according to their own values, when the common knowledge seems to be that combined knowledge and competence is always better and that saying “No” resembles an insult. Yet, both, the essentialist and the objectivist philosophy encourage the defiance of this notion.
3.2.5. The necessity of playing Every human being starts to discover life through play. When we are children, play is something that comes natural to us. The first sounds, the first movements, are all encouraged by the factor that they are playful, that we are entertained by doing so. Parents usually support this behavior as it is well known that play is a state of a mind that leads to the discovery of essential behavioral mechanisms in a child and is therefore crucial as a learning process.82
The notion of playing and entertainment is mentioned in both works. With Ayn Rand “play” is a synonym for entertainment. Her work revolves around the fact that entertainment and pleasure, if truly felt and accompanied by productive work, is essential for the human being. Her way of describing entertainment is quite different from what many would argue it to be today. Sources of entertainment nowadays are often exclusively watching TV or surfing the Internet. As this is often neither productive, nor especially helpful in improving oneself, it is fair to say that Rand probably would not call these behaviors entertaining. While it is also true that in her fictional works the main characters never seem to enjoy anything apart from the work they carry out, success, and the company of people alike to them, they all have the capacity of profoundly experiencing joy in the actions they are performing.
82 Aistear: the Early Childhood Curriculum Framework. Learning and developing through play. On: ncca.biz. Web. < http://www.ncca.biz/Aistear/pdfs/Guidelines_ENG/Play_ENG.pdf> (15.01.2018) 41
What they also enjoy and what combines pleasure, entertainment, and play, is sexuality. It is striking to see how far ahead of her time Ayn Rand is regarding sex.
Still nowadays, sex is often treated as a subject that is meant to stay completely hidden and private and especially women have to be careful of their reputation when it comes to their sex life.
Ayn Rand’s approach to the topic might even be called feminist. Sex is not a means to an end. Sex is not a weapon or something to pressure people with. Sex cannot be used as a tool for manipulation. On the contrary, sex for her and the person who one is having sex with is an appreciation and evaluation of one’s own values. In section 2.4. of this paper, “The Virtue of Love”, the concept that true love can only be experienced by someone who has distinguished values and understands the notion of virtues was briefly discussed already. This idea applies fully to the concept of sexuality as well. Only a person who understands sex as a profound, vital and important expression and definition of one’s integrity can experience it pleasurably. The opposite of that person is referred to as a slut.
The term “slut” does reoccur in Ayn Rand’s works, however, the definition of it is quite different from today’s. While in modern society a slut is often any woman who leads a fulfilling and autonomous sex-life, with her it is rather a person (man and woman alike), who sleeps mindlessly with anyone not because of the pleasure one can gain from it but because of the values he hopes to achieve through it. A person who has not learned to define values of his own can never be able to see and appreciate values in another person. A “slut” therefore is a person who sleeps with anyone regardless of his values, as the incapacity to see values und virtues in another person makes one indifferent to them. Sleeping with someone because of the reciprocal respect and admiration of the other, however, shows once again integrity, responsibility and an understanding for happiness and love.83
"Love is blind, they say; sex is impervious to reason and mocks the power of all philosophers. But, in fact, a man's sexual choice is the result and the sum of his fundamental convictions. Tell me what a man finds sexually attractive and I will tell you his entire philosophy of life. Show me the woman he sleeps with and I will tell you his valuation of himself. [...] He will always be attracted to the woman who reflects his deepest vision of himself […] Let a man corrupt his values and his view of existence, let
83 Rand, The Objectivist Ethics. In: The Virtue of Selfishness 35f. 42
him profess that love is not self-enjoyment but self-denial, that virtue consists, not of pride, but of pity or pain or weakness or sacrifice, that the noblest love is born, not of admiration, but of charity, not in response to values, but in response to flaws—and he will have cut himself in two.84
The difference between the two can be seen very well in various characters in the novel “Atlas Shrugged”.
The course led them to the moment when, in answer to the highest of one’s values, in an admiration not to be expressed by any other form of tribute, one’s spirit makes one’s body become the tribute, recasting it – as a proof, as a sanction, as a reward – into a single sensation of such intensity of joy that no other sanction of one’s existence is necessary.85
[The two people in this scene are Hank Rearden and Dagny Taggart, S.K.]
Afterwards, it did not disappoint him that what he had possessed was an inanimate body without resistance or response. It was not a woman that he had wanted to possess. It was not an act in celebration of life that he had wanted to perform – but an act in celebration of the triumph of impotence.86
[The two people in this scene are Jim Taggart and Lilian Rearden, S.K.]
While Rand manages to convey the huge difference between first-handers and second- handers, producers and looters, very well through many aspects, the description of the sex life and what it inherently means does make the distinction between them clear on a yet another level.
McKeown too has occupied himself with the notion of play. While Rand’s spectrum of playing comprises different areas like work and sex, McKeown focuses to a high extent on the self-developmental aspects of the topic.
We are built to play and built through play. When we play we are engaged in the purest expression of our humanity, the truest expression of our individuality. […] Play expands our minds in ways that allow us to explore: to germinate new ideas or see old ideas in a new light.87
84 Rand, Atlas Shrugged 435f. 85 Ibid. 237. 86 Ibid. 824. 87 McKeown, Essentialism 86. 43
Play is not only essential for the mind, but also for evolving into who one truly is. If one is to follow strict rules and dictations at all times, as is often learned in school and work environments, one never has the possibility to develop values and dreams of his own. Entertainment might seem trivial or unimportant to many, yet, to take time off and take time to discover life and happiness might be one of the most important things any human can do.88
Once again it comes down to priorities. Neither of the authors suggests a life without intent but rather to be entertained and to play with purpose. Whether it is defined as pleasure, relaxation or exploration is not the point of discussion but engaging consciously in a situation of play is definitely considered favorable. To be able to enjoy life in means that are congruent to one’s values is the way of both, the essentialist and the objectivist.
3.2.6. Is exploration necessary? As McKeown argues for exploration as a vital part of the essentialist lifestyle, this topic is one that seems to divide both authors.
In “Essentialism” the author explains that by being an essentialist, one is actually exploring more of the world, more of one’s options and opportunities, than most other people do. This seems like a contradiction to his subtitle, “The Disciplined Pursuit of Less”. One could argue that exploring more seems like a time-consuming task, yet, according to McKeown it is one of the most important things in order to become an essentialist. When one looks at the former sections of this chapter, it can soon be discovered that he seems to be right. “Essentialism” is, as was already stated formerly, about setting priorities. It is completely impossible, however, to discover and define priorities if one does not know all of his options well. Exploration, as McKeown defines it, does not mean spending a lot of time on every task and every opportunity but he much rather tries to sell the idea of being aware of the options and being informed on the decisions one makes to discard some of them.89
88 Ibid. 83. 89 Ibid. 59ff. 44
The way of the Essentialist […] is to explore and evaluate a broad set of options before committing to any. Because Essentialists will commit and “go big” on only the vital view ideas or activities, they explore more options at first to ensure they pick the right one later.90
This last step on deciding for trade-offs is crucial. His point is not to make spontaneous decisions without a lot of thought or by default, but consciously exploring one’s options and consequently deciding on the right path.
Ayn Rand, on the other hand, has not put any emphasis on the notion of exploration. Her main characters focus on ideas and projects, which bring them closer to their goals and ambitions, but they never need to explore new fields or discard any ideas as useless, as everything they touch seems to somehow fit their approach. One could argue that, as her novels are used primarily to portray the picture of the ideal man, it is not possible for her to include flaws of this kind. It is a general notion of her novels, and also a negatively striking one, that the main characters are flawless. It is difficult for the reader to identify with the character as feelings, which are common in men, as fear, anxiety or misjudgment, are hardly ever presented. In this line of argumentation, however, it is necessary for the characters, which the reader gets to know as ideal, to act in such way. The philosophy of “Objectivism” could not be portrayed if the people who represent it were not modeled after the perfect man.
As we are dealing with novels, it also is important to mention that her space to present her theory is limited. As there is mostly more than one main character, to show the developmental and explorational phase of each would have been very time consuming and impossible to put in only two books.
It is difficult to state whether Rand was in favor or against the notion of exploration as it is presented in “Essentialism”, as neither her ideal nor her not-so-ideal characters show traits of it. Howard Roark in “The Fountainhead” can act as a good example for this theory.
90 Ibid. 60. 45
Howard Roark laughed. […] He knew that he should think about it. [The plan of action for the upcoming time, S.K.] He knew also that he would not think, because everything was so clear to him already, because the plan had been set long ago, and because he wanted to laugh.91
Howard Roark is in his twenties when he is expelled from college and needs to pursue his dream of becoming an architect without a diploma. The fact that his expulsion does not bother him at all, that he does not need to think about the year ahead or the ways he could approach the question of his future clearly states that this character does not need to explore or identify any options and priorities but has always known what will become of him. This is, even apart from the fact that nowadays no one could work as an architect without an official diploma, an unlikely situation to be in in today’s real life. As it was stated before, Roark is a perfect man. It would be out of character for him to worry about his future, it is, however, a quite logical action for human beings. This arises the question whether the objectivist ethics can ever fully be applied to real life. While philosophies tend to be exaggerated, even people who do know what they want to do with their life at an early age will need to discover ways to do so, with their only solution to this problem being the exploration of different paths. Possibly, it could be argued that the objectivist explores by doing productive work and will find his way of living by exploring his talents in practice, while the essentialist would rather think about his options before actively choosing and pursuing one. The focus of McKeown primarily lies on thoughts, while Rand chooses to let her characters discover their options by work.
Conclusion Ayn Rand’s characters are probably, to a certain extent, what McKeown would call an essentialist. While there are huge differences in some respects, I would argue that they do agree on the most vital aspects of how someone has to recreate or shape his life when he wants to achieve being ideal in either the essentialist or the objectivist definition of it.
When trying to compare the two philosophies, there are two main, but minor, differences that should be considered. Ayn Rand was working on her written publications nearly 100 years ago. While they were published in the 1940s, much of what she incorporates in her novels and essays was written and learned before that time. When the aspect of sleep and health of a person is considered, the scientific research on sleep and its effect on the brain and of health as an indicator of a happy and successful life was not as developed then as
91 Rand, The Fountainhead 15. 46 it is now. With the findings that were made in this area, it is obvious that one has to rather follow the essentialist approach if he wants to succeed in life than the objectivist theories. As McKeown explains very well, only a well-rested brain and body can work and achieve good end results. However, this should not mean that a person cannot be an objectivist just because he focuses on a good night’s sleep. In fact, it is rather the other way around. As Ayn Rand mentions various times, productivity and intent in life are vital factors with regard to reaching the state of an ideal man. If she had known about the results of current research, she would probably not have preached a lack of sleep, as productivity too suffers greatly from it.
The second aspect to consider when comparing the two philosophies is the difference in the way the authors present their ideas. Ayn Rand chose to convey the notions of the objectivist philosophy through essays and, as we have seen in the previous chapter, two novels. Novels demand a certain type of protagonist and presentation of the ideal. It would not have been helpful in the pursuit of conveying her ideas to others to present characters that do not explicitly show those perfect traits. As space in novels is limited as well, she needed to portray vital qualities quickly. McKeown, on the other hand, has structured his philosophy as a manual. There are no characters present but he rather describes a way to reach the state of being an ideal person, of being, in his opinion, an essentialist. He was in this regard much freer to outline the necessary steps and developments to reach that final state than Rand was.
Many other aspects are, even when presented differently, very similar. As one of the main concepts of Rand is the idea of integrity and one of McKeown’s main principles the one of trade-offs and priorities, the overlap of the two philosophies is significant.
The objectivist and the essentialist philosophy are not contradictory. Man today, who aspires to improve, can read and incorporate both sets of ideas in his life. Regardless of the different styles and, ultimately, the different philosophies, Rand’s and McKeown’s ideas on the ideal man are both worth exploring and society today can learn from either.
47
3.3. Ayn Rand and “The 50th law” What is “the 50th law”?
“The 50th law” is a book written by Robert Greene in cooperation with the rapper 50 Cent. Robert Greene informed himself in detail about the life of Curtis Jackson (50 Cent) in an attempt to write a book that will help people to a life full of strength and full of the capability of realizing one’s dreams and ambitions. Similar to McKeown’s work on “Essentialism”, “The 50th law” is structured like a manual, divided into ten chapters. It should help the reader understand the importance of developing a certain mindset. Power, strength and the necessity to overcome fear are vital aspects of Greene’s work.
Every chapter is summarized on its first page. The key characteristics of the following chapter are stripped down to the most important aspects and thereby serve as an overview for the reader. Each chapter then follows a similar structure including: “The Fearless Approach”, “Keys to Fearlessness” and “Reversal of Perspective”. While the first two are concerned with techniques and possibilities of men to face the world in a fearless manner, the latter serves as an introduction to an aspect that favors Greene’s self-improvement book in comparison to many others. He is fully aware that what he proposes is not common knowledge and consequently proceeds to use the perspective that is well-known in our society to put a new twist to it. This procedure not only leads to a better understanding of his ideas but reaches his audience on a deeper level.92
Why “The 50th law”?
There is one similarity between Ayn Rand’s approach and Greene’s ideas, which favors comparison. While it was already mentioned various times that Rand often conveys her ideas on her philosophy through fictional characters in novels, Greene too chose to use a character to show rather than only explain what he is trying to communicate. Different to most other books that propose self-improvement merely by talking about it, Robert Greene analyzes Curtis Jackson, takes this knowledge and tries to reach his audience through a real-life appliance.
While both of the authors chose a rather unconventional way to express their ideas, the question remains whether their notion of the ideal man is similar to one another or if they have completely different views on this matter.
92 Robert Greene. The 50th law. (2009; New York: HarperCollins Publishers) 48
3.3.1. Fear Fear is the one aspect which reoccurs in every chapter of Greene’s “The 50th law”. It does not only exist in the structure of ever section but is also his primary concern. To fear nothing and approach life fearlessly is the end result he seems to want people to achieve through the help of his work. It is also the first reason for anyone to pick up the book, as the only hint the cover conveys to its content is the inscription “Fear nothing”.93
Fear was once a useful emotion to experience as it probably laid the foundation for humans to survive. It has helped man survive in the harsh world of his beginning by dealing with danger immediately. Many traits in humans, like the acceleration of the heartbeat in situations of experienced fear, still remind of those times.94 Nowadays, the world has become a much safer place. We seldom encounter threats that concern the immediate preservation of our lives, yet, according to Greene the number and intensity of our fears has not lessened, as one would assume, but rather multiplied.95
The topic of fear in “The 50th law” is centered around two main areas. The first one is the problem which arises when one’s attitude and view of life is considerably limited due to fear. The second is the approach proposed by Greene on how the ideal man can conquer his fear and which opportunities he gains thereby.
For Ayn Rand the idea of fear in man has a certain significance too. In “Atlas Shrugged” people who have renounced their mind and have turned over their capacity to judge to others are shaken by a nameless fear, which should show what happens to people who avoid the responsibility of thinking. Fear in Rand’s novels, however, also serves as a tool of distinction between first- and second-handers; the former are aware that their fear is of no help to them and that they have to face and conquer whatever stands in their way. The latter are afraid of recognizing the world around them and have lost the ability of identifying the terror, which arises when one gives up the responsibility of using one’s mind.
He saw the look of a peculiar panic growing in her eyes: it was not the look of understanding, but of a ferocious refusal to understand – as if she wanted to turn the
93 Ibid. Cover. 94 Buss, Evolutionary Psychology 85f. 95 Greene, The 50th law 4. 49
violence of her emotion into a fog screen, as if she hoped, not that it would blind her to reality, but that her blindness would make reality cease to exist.96
Nowadays, fears are often described as anxieties and by viewing the world through the lens of anxiety, life itself becomes much more difficult to live. Greene explains:
We are the animal that cannot get rid of its fears and when so many lay inside of us, these fears tend to color how we view the world. We shift from feeling fear because of some threat, to having a fearful attitude towards life itself.97
“The fearless approach” is what would make man ideal in the eyes of the author of “The 50th law”. It is necessary to lose the feeling of threat that one is used to experience now and face challenges in a more open, more aggressive way. The most probable solution is a change of perspective in this case. Obstacles and difficulties are not to be seen as threats but rather as opportunities.98
[…] not to get scared, but to learn – she thought 99
Just as one’s ability to think has to be acted out by choice, one’s ability to develop a fearless approach has to be chosen consciously as well. In our society it is often assumed that living a quiet life, without attributing too much value and a lot of attention to it, is the key to live in peace, undisturbed. As people decide to easily give into manipulations from the media and follow the opinion of the loudest voice without staying true to their own judgment, it also seems for them easier to act from a passive mode and encounter fear as a factor of life that has to be endured, instead of working actively to conquer those exact fears. Fearlessness is not an innate quality but the ideal man, important to both Rand and Greene, has to be able to learn it, to ensure further success in life.
3.3.2. Intense Realism One of the most obvious similarities between Ayn Rand and Robert Greene and their idea of the ideal man can already be discovered in the first chapter of “The 50th law”: “See things for what they are, Intense Realism”.100
Robert Greene argues that the perspective man has on reality is crucial when it comes to his understanding of the world. We live in a world where it has become very easy to
96 Rand, Atlas Shrugged 488. 97 Greene, The 50th law 5. 98 Ibid. 6. 99 Rand, Atlas Shrugged 800. 100 Greene, The 50th law 27. 50 choose not to face reality. We can defy ourselves and reduce the meaning and impact of our life through various actions. Blaming others for our own shortcomings instead of improving, spending our lives in a mindless routine of work and watching TV instead of aiming at a higher goal, and seeing ourselves as the victims at all times instead of accepting responsibility are only some examples. This way of living, however, might often lead to regrets on one’s deathbed.
Greene advocates a different approach to living life. One always has to stay sharp and focused, one must never lose one’s view on reality as it truly is. We are often tempted to get trapped into dream worlds but fantasies like these are nothing but unreal visions, which have no connection to reality and seldom come true. According to Greene, man is also too often concerned with himself only. He does not see what the world can offer him, or what harm can be done, but rather clings to whims and shortsighted desires.101
When things get tough and you grow tired of the grind, your mind tends to drift into fantasies; you wish things were a certain way and slowly, subtly, you turn inward to your thoughts and desires.102
Success in life, whatever definition this might require for the individual person, cannot be reached by staying in perfect dream worlds but by seeing the world as it is.
This approach is very closely intertwined with Ayn Rand’s “Virtue of Honesty” (chapter 2.6.). In this section of the paper it was already briefly discussed that for man to be happy and successful in life he has to be honest to himself. It is not possible to live a life dedicated to reality if one continuously lies to himself and others too. Being untrue to oneself is one of the most dangerous attempts to reshape reality. Even if no external factors might be involved or concerned by it, the momentum of little lies uttered to oneself can do a lot of harm. By not accepting reality as it is and starting to build it according to one’s wishes, much of what an ideal man is defined by is already lost.
One must never attempt to fake reality in any matter.103
Of course, also objectivist’s viewpoint on reality has to be mentioned once again in this context. The first chapter of “The 50th law” as well as many important statements by Rand are concerned with the immediate necessity of man to stop pretending and start seeing
101 Ibid. 32ff. 102 Ibid. 32. 103 Rand, The Objectivist Ethics. In: The Virtue of Selfishness 28. 51 things without a subjective and comforting veil. This is not only necessary in life for fulfilling one’s dreams but also in connection to fellow men.
If one returns to Peter Keating in “The Fountainhead”, he would easily see that Peter is a prime example for people, who live without taking reality into consideration. For him it is not important who he truly is but what other people think of him. He uses whatever “reality” he seems fit to make up, to manipulate people and thereby gain wealth and success, instead of staying true to his own convictions and thus gaining respect.
[Peter, S.K.] “I said, congratulations on landing Joel Sutton. Only, you know, you didn’t handle that very well.” [Roark, S.K.] “What?” […] “It’s a secret, Howard. A rare one. I’ll give it to you for free of charge with my compliments: always be what people want you to be. Then you’ve got them where you want them.”104
Roark, as presented in this scene, seems to lack understanding of the ways people are accustomed to working with each other and treating their fellow men. He is different, as it is not in his nature to change his personality and manner to make others like him, while for Peter it is his prime concern. He is true to himself and to reality and thus unable to see through people like Peter. According to “The 50th law” he could probably be called naïve. In this trait he is very similar to Hank Rearden in “Atlas Shrugged”. Rearden repeatedly detects that he has to start understanding other people’s motives.
The memory of that look remained in his mind, like a warning signal telling him that he had glimpsed an issue which he had to understand. But he could not grapple with it, he could not force his mind to accept it as worthy of thought […]105
He, in contrast to Roark, is actually economically harmed by the people he does not understand which makes it all the more important for him to discover their ways of operating with each other. Rearden believes that as long as he is true to his virtues he can live in peace and do what he considers to be right. He is not aware of the fact that it is those exact virtues that are held against him.
104 Rand, The Fountainhead 261. 105 Rand, Atlas Shrugged 197. 52
Greene takes a different line of argumentation regarding this topic.
You are never quite sure about their [other people’s S.K.] intentions. They present an appearance that is often deceptive – their manipulative actions don’t match their lofty words or promises. […] Seeing people as they are instead of what you think they should be, would mean having a greater sense of their motives. It would mean being able to pierce the façade they present to the world and see their true character.106
First, it seems that Greene proposes to be like the perfect characters in “The Fountainhead” and “Atlas Shrugged”, Howard Roark and Hank Rearden respectively. However, soon his approach differs greatly from Rand’s.
By seeing through people’s manipulations, you can turn them around. The firmer your grasp on reality, the more power you will have to alter it for your purposes.107
For Greene it is not enough to only understand other people and see through their motives to evade any harm they might intend, he proposes that true success in life can only be achieved when one starts to manipulate his fellow men with this gained knowledge. Rand’s characters, on the other hand, never use manipulation or deception on others, as to own another person, either by violence or by mind-games, would contradict their idea of self-respect.
[Wynand, S.K.] “Howard, have you ever held power over a single human being?” [Roark, S.K.] “No, and I wouldn’t take it if it were offered to me.” “I can’t believe that.” “It was offered to me once, Gail. I refused it.” […] “Why?” “I had to.” “Out of respect for the man?” “It was a woman.” “Oh, you damn fool! Out of respect for a woman?” “Out of respect for myself.”108
106 Greene, The 50th law 33.
107 Ibid. 25. 108 Rand, The Fountainhead 548. 53
This is one of the biggest differences between the two authors so far. Robert Greene proposes not only that a view on reality is important for oneself regarding work and success and in seeing through other people, but he suggests that this power can be used for exploiting others as well. Rand’s approach on it is quite the opposite. To be a self- respecting man, to hold his values high, includes not gaining a personal advantage due to the weakness of others and not to make one’s superiority a weapon. One should concern himself with reality and the different areas of it and to be prepared if manipulation takes place, yet, this power one has should not be used to harm others. While for Greene other people do not affect his self-image, Rand supports the view that we also form our characters by how we treat others.
3.3.3. Are we alone? One of the aspects that could be criticized about Rand’s novels is that her perfect characters never face any struggles in pleasing someone close to them. Howard Roark in “The Fountainhead” does not have any relatives the reader is introduced to and his relationship to his parents is never mentioned. His opposite, Peter Keating, is faced with a mother who thinks she knows exactly what is right for him and manipulates him into acting accordingly. Likewise, John Galt in “Atlas Shrugged” seems to have lost his parents at an early age. The only mentioning of them reveals that they were not especially gifted or rich.
Curtis Jackson too has lost his parents soon. A lot of Greene’s work focuses on how 50 Cent had to educate himself alone, how he had to survive in his rough neighborhood alone, and how he rose and became successful alone. Greene does not only present those occurrences as facts but rather elevates them to invaluable opportunities for 50 Cent.
You are more alone than you imagine. This should not be a source of fear but of freedom.109
In our society we tend to believe that other people, either their assistance, their favors or their approval is necessary for leading a happy and successful life. Both Rand and Greene contradict this idea. Ultimately, we do not need anyone but ourselves to feel and be content. There are many areas in life where this concept is applicable. First of all, there should not be any dependency on other people, neither in the success and fame one reaches, nor in the resources one gets. By depending on others too much and having a
109 Greene, The 50th law 57. 54 mind too clouded by their notions, one does not only lose one’s sense of reality but also his individuality.110
You spend years working for others – they own you during that period. […] You come to respect your own ideas less and less, listening to experts, conforming to conventional options. Without realizing it you squander your independence, everything that makes you a creative individual.111
This is not to say that working for others is inherently a bad thing, it always depends on how one chooses to give one’s time away. If the workplace seems fulfilling and offers the chance of rising in hierarchy and responsibility, working for others might be a crucial step in learning and gaining experience to ultimately have the freedom of action.112 The asset that can be gained through this situation has to be an internal one, however. If one worked in a position where all of the above applies, but he is completely dependent on the environment that is provided by others and his gain too is in their control, too much personal power is lost in the process.
Rand and Greene both advocate independence. If Roark would be taken as an example again, he is at one point in the book forced to work for an architectural company. This company does not hold the same values he does and his time there is accordingly difficult for him. By being asked to submit to the values of others, which is ultimately often the case if one is to work for another person in a lower position, one always runs the risk of losing a certain part of independence and individuality. Obviously, one has to consider living costs and survival when the question of work and money is at hand. However, while it is true that everyone has to earn a living, everyone also has but one life, and it is favorable to live this life as happily and content as one can manage. Resigning independence by resigning life-choices does not seem to be the right way.
Another area that is concerned with the notion of being alone, is, as was briefly mentioned above, family. In our society having a family is the norm. The people one loves have a deep impact on the way one’s life develops. When being faced with difficult decisions, one tends to rely more on the judgment of close ones than on one’s own judgment. The idea of being alone in “The 50th law” is closely related to Rand’s general notion of how to live one’s life. It is obvious that there are people in one’s life who are of great influence
110 Ibid. 54ff. 111 Ibid. 55. 112 Ibid. 63. 55 and one might develop in a certain direction because of these experiences. However, it is important to discover one’s own way of judgment and the ability to rely on one’s capacity of seeing reality and thinking logically to understand and survive in this world. While asking people, who are more experienced in a certain area, for advice certainly is not a sign of weakness as it relies on the mind once again, blindly following notions because people close to one might act as an agent for them, is not a path often recommended. To be open to ideas and feedback and to understand the necessity of broadening one’s horizon is an ability that can surely help in understanding the world and people as well as being more successful or efficient in one’s course of life. Yet, one must be aware of the fact that, fundamentally, the judgment and reason one should listen to is one’s own.
The competence to be self-reliant in many cases goes hand in hand with Rand’s idea of responsibility. To know that a person can trust his own judgment, as it is not only a spontaneous whim but rests on a thoughtful conclusion founded on knowledge, allows him to gain power, self-confidence and respect. People who are able to accept responsibility over their lives and choices, are the ones who know that they need to be able to survive alone in order to gain the success and the life they aspire to. Contrary to this sort of people are those who have long lost the capacity of assuming responsibility for themselves or for the choices they’re making and are, thus, at the mercy of any judgment that others might pass on them.
This does not mean that all forms of human contact are undesirable. Rand states that those who are self-reliant turn to people out of strength – a desire for company or an exchange of ideas.113 Humans are social beings. Few desire a life in which they are constantly alone and face isolation and one needs his fellow man to communicate and evolve. There seems to be, however, a difference between the “ideal man” and the rest of society with regard to social interaction. The ideal man turns to other people because of a deep self- confidence, an understanding for mutual values and virtues and always having his own happiness in mind. He can gain something from the interaction and is not one to manipulate or someone who needs outside validation. The ideal man is always independent in his thoughts and judgments. Consequently, he is the one who does not need others but chooses the company of people according to his hierarchy of values. What often seems to happen in today’s society, however, is that people are quick to conform to every new trend or idea, are not able to justify or stand for values of their own due to their
113 Ibid. 67. 56 fear of other people’s judgment and display little self-respect. They turn to their fellow men, not out of appreciation for them, but in the hope that the self-respect other people experience is enough to validate their existence too.
Keating looked at Ike, at the others, his eyes eager. They all seemed remote and pure, fare above him in the safety of their knowledge, but their faces had hints of smiling warmth, a benevolent invitation extended downward. Keating drank the sense of their greatness, that spiritual food he sought in coming here, and felt himself rising though them. They saw their greatness made real by them. A circuit was established […].114
Apart from friends and acquaintances, there is, of course, also always one’s family. With regard to this aspect Rand also has a clearly defined opinion which is based on the afore mentioned notion that all love, also between family members, has to be valued and earned and is not to be wasted. One of the examples in “The Fountainhead” is the manipulative relationship between Peter Keating and his mother. However, in “Atlas Shrugged” Rand tries to present the depravity of relying on family bonds only without the need of virtues even more clearly. Throughout the book Hank Rearden’s mother and his brother Philip try not only to strip him of his virtues and material wealth, but they also try to hold the fact that they are family members as a reason why he owes them consideration, understanding and feelings.
[ Rearden, S.K.] “But he [Philip, S.K.] knows nothing about the steel business!” [Rearden’s mother, S.K.] “What has that got to do with it? He needs a job.” “But he couldn’t do the work.” “He needs to gain self-confidence and to feel important […], he needs to feel that he’s wanted.” “Here? What could I want him for?” “You hire plenty of strangers.” “I hire men who produce. What has he got to offer?” “He’s your brother, isn’t he?” “What has that got to do with it?” She stared incredulously, in turn, silenced by shock. […] “He’s your brother,” she said, her voice like a phonograph record repeating a magic formula she could not permit herself to doubt.115
114 Rand, The Fountainhead 473. 115 Rand, Atlas Shrugged 196. 57
Families are, without a doubt, one of the most important institutions in everyone’s life. But as every other love, the love and respect between family members should not be granted undeservedly but must be earned and valued. To say that one is not alone because he has a family he can rely on equals saying that one does not have to think or decide because his family does it for him. Turning to family members for advice or help does not inherently mean that one is weak and dependent or that one does not value his integrity. Believing or submitting to ideas only because they are uttered by a family member, however, would mean to give up one’s own judgment and freedom of mind.
Just like saying “No” is not a personal affront, as was discussed in chapter 3.2.1., having a different opinion or discovering one’s own path in life is not a personal affront to anyone, nor does it mean that one is inconsiderate towards others. It should rather be considered the right and means of everyone’s life.
3.3.4. A bad person From an early age onwards, humans are confronted with “bad guys”. At a young age it is the villain in many fairytales, as one grows older it might be the antagonist in the TV- series one watches or the rebellious child at school and finally, during adulthood, bad guys are still represented by opponents or criminals.
Society rarely defines what “bad” truly means. “Bad” is a person who is considered an egotist. “Bad” is a person who feeds on other’s products and energy. “Bad” is someone who aims at gaining power. “Bad” is the label for anyone who relies on the mercy of others at all times. “Bad” defines criminals. “Bad” defines sociopaths. Some of the terms above seem contradictory, yet, if one were to make a sample of all sentiments that are connected to a person who is presumed to be bad the list would rather grow longer than shorter. Thus, the difficulty of objectively establishing a definition of who is considered to be bad is more difficult than it seems at first.
The notion of being bad comes up in both Rand’s and Greene’s work. Both authors, however, suggest different approaches to the topic. The aspects that are opened up for discussion not only revolve around people one encounters, who are in fact considered “bad”, but rather the crowds who judge Rand’s ideal man as being bad, or, as in Greene’s case, how and why to be bad oneself.
The first two notions that create a tension point are Rand’s idea of the ideal man and the view of society on selfishness and heartlessness. According to Rand, any man needs to live for himself only. It is necessary to be aware of the fact that according to the objectivist 58 philosophy man only has one life that he is living now and that it is his highest duty to live this life as fulfilling and happily as possible. To achieve this high goal, one has to understand that selfishness is not a trait of character to be despised but rather a quality that is to be praised. As it was previously stated in the first part of the paper, being selfish is not inherently good or bad. In a metalinguistic sense the word describes a person who is working and living for himself. Society has successfully managed to take this notion, which is, according to Rand the purest form of living, and turn it around, making the most fulfilling way to live one’s life also the most reproachable one.
Ayn Rand does not want people to be bad. She is not proposing that man should take his own desires and sacrifice his fellow men by exploiting, manipulating, or misusing them to achieve his goals. Quite the contrary, her proposition includes that no other person should be sacrificed for one’s own needs but that every man, according to his potential and talent, lives the best, self-sufficient life that he is capable of. One of the best examples in “Atlas Shrugged” is the oath that every man is to swear upon entering “Atlantis”. “Atlantis” is the term that describes the place where able, talented first-handers and producers go before the world as we know it vanishes and is destroyed by the hand of the looters (second-handers).
I swear by my life and my love of it that I will never live for the sake of another man, nor ask another man to live for mine.116
By coining selfish people bad, the only way to live a moral life, according to our society, is once again through acts of altruism. Still, the concept is difficult to grasp, in which it is felt to be true that the person who lives for and on his own and for and by his values and virtues is to be considered bad, while the person who constantly relies on the mercy of others and expects to be in a position where he is depended on hand-outs as well as his fellow man are dependent on his, is considered morally good.
Regarding people who seem bad, Rand’s statement on the ideal man is quite clear. It is not the person who is selfish who is to be considered morally bad, but the person who tries to destroy the integrity and the personal self-sufficiency of another.
Her line of attack, which he had found so baffling, had been constant and clear – it was his self-esteem she had sought to destroy, knowing that a man who surrenders his value
116 Ibid. 670. 59
is at the mercy of anyone’s will and [S.K.] as if he were to collapse, his depravity would give her a right to hers.117
The person described in this quote is the one who is going to judge and belittle his neighbors, who have displayed the courage to live after their own judgment. According to Rand’s philosophy, many people in today’s society are ultimately after their own personal gain and are to be called selfish or egoists. A huge difference, however, lies between the ones who accuse the ones, who speak up for their values, of being selfish and egoistical, while they themselves are trapped in the false concept of morality and at the constant mercy of their neighbors, and those who do neither sacrifice their virtues to others nor ask them to sacrifice theirs. Living like the person described in the above example would imply that one’s personal worth increases if the worth of another person decreases or is destroyed. While it seems preposterous on the one hand, in world in which anonymous hating postings on social media are the norm it also seems to be common practice.
In “The 50th law” the idea of a bad person is presented in quite a different way. Greene does not talk about the effects of others on one’s life, but he suggests that being bad, at times, is necessary to gain power and recognition.
When you face people’s indifference or outright hostility you have to get aggressive and push them out of your way by any means necessary […].118
As previously mentioned, man must not fear what other’s think of him when he wants to succeed in life and embody Greene’s idea of an ideal person. This can also be applied when it comes to being bad. According to “The 50th law” it would be the wrong way to always submit to morality, to stay on the right and expected track and to be what is socially agreed to be “good”. Again, the term “bad” should not be misunderstood. Greene is definitely not proposing to use criminal or illegal ways to reach one’s goals. What he does advise is a flexibility in one’s morality and in what is often considered the moral code to advance in life.119
117 Ibid. 892. 118 Greene, The 50th law 123. 119 Ibid. 133f. 60
To get ahead in this world we must be willing to occasionally bend that moral code, to play with appearance, to hedge the truth and make ourselves look better, to manipulate a person or two to secure our position.120
While in the context in which Greene presents this idea, it sounds reasonable and logical to implement this sort of behavior in order to survive and succeed in the competitive world we live in, Rand would not have agreed with this course of action.
Even if only his statement that includes “bending morality” was object of discussion, it already would become clear that it contradicts all of Rand’s beliefs on how man should live his life – it contradicts the notion of “Integrity”. Morality, as it is defined by Rand through her characters in “The Fountainhead” and in “Atlas Shrugged”, is staying true to a set of values and virtues that are self-reliant and connected to the judgment of one’s own mind. To bend this code would not only mean to fake reality, but to lose the right to claim the Virtue of Honesty too and thus lose the right to call oneself an ideal man according to her standards.
In this case, it can hardly be argued that the difference in approaches lies in the different time periods in which they were established. While the world may have become a more competitive place, I do not believe that Rand, who is very clear and straightforward about the idea of the right morality, would find it acceptable to bend this exact notion to reach more power. Yet, also Greene’s approach is understandable, as his book is based on a person who had to grow up on his own in a harsh environment, and who needed to be sly and “bad” at times to reach the stage where he is now.
Their difference in perspective is also based on another principle. According to Rand, people’s interests can never clash if they decide to live for themselves and accept reality. Man has to realize that he can never have the same as another person, who shows different characteristics or talents, neither in work, nor in his personal life.
[…] romantic love – is not an issue of competition. If two men are in love with same woman, what she feels for either of them is not determined by what she feels for the other and is not taken away from him. If she chooses one of them, the “loser” could not have had what the “winner” has earned.121
120 Ibid. 132f. 121 Ayn Rand, The „Conflict” of Men’s Interests. In: The Virtue of Selfishness. (1962; New York: Signet 1964) 63. 61
The above example does not describe a conflict of interests, as not both of the suitors display the same traits. The one who is chosen by her is not in competition with the other as she is no prize to win in a game but will ideally choose according to her values. Viewing life this way, there will never be a situation that causes a conflict of interest between men.122 Greene, on the other hand, approaches the question of interest through another angle. He states that […] life naturally involves conflicting interests; people have their own agendas, and they collide with yours.123 If one views life as a constant clash of interests between his and his neighbors, it is obvious that the ways to survive or the approaches of succeeding in life are different to a person who thinks that differences in interest are nonexistent.
One could probably argue that Greene’s approach is more realistic with regard to today’s world. Rand’s layout would demand that in every situation absolutely every aspect, value and talent is fully recognized, which in turn demands talent and the capacity of acknowledging value in the person who makes the judgment. This is not an approach which is often executed, as today decisions often seem little supported by justifying facts. Clashes in interests between men are therefore more realistic than a denial of such.
3.3.5. Power: The trait of a first-hander or of a second-hander? A first-hander is a person who lives a self-sufficient, self-reliant life and is able to live on his own mind and rational thought as well as on his own judgment. First-handers are the embodiment of the ideal man in “The Fountainhead”, as are producers in “Atlas Shrugged”. The description of first-handers is insofar again important as the notion of power is one that separates Rand’s approach to the ideal man from Greene’s.
In “The 50th law” the main focus, apart from being fearless, is on gaining power. As Greene’s matter of fact, one needs to lose fear to be powerful in life; the two concepts are inextricably connected to each other. Greene argues that only through power man is able to succeed in life. Power, not only on a personal level but also on a level that influences his surroundings, including his fellow man. That he does not have to be concerned too closely with moral aspects during this pursuit was outlined in chapter 3.3.3.
While power for Greene, therefore, is a necessary factor in the game of life, Ayn Rand’s ideal characters never seem to be particularly concerned with this question. While they
122 Ibid. 123 Greene, The 50th law 144. 62 appreciate the freedom of working on their own and according to their will, they do not connect this idea of independence to that of having power over their lives or over others.
The one exception to this rule is Gail Wynand in “The Fountainhead”. The character of Wynand was born in a low-class position and he is one of the few characters of whose childhood and parents the reader learns something. His struggle to reach the position he is in during his present appearance in “The Fountainhead” is described in great detail and throughout the respective chapter about his person. His prime motive, power, is also presented clearly. Even though Wynand represents an important character in “The Fountainhead”, he cannot be considered a first-hander. He runs a newspaper which is known for writing what the public wants to hear. The one time that he actually defends his values and his integrity is when society turns against him as a consequence. Ultimately, he is not able to give up his money, success, and power to stay true to his virtues. What is, however, even more interesting to notice, is how Roark reacts to this man. He perceives Wynand as a person of integrity, a first-hander, but he also knows that Wynand, who had had the potential and integrity to become a first-hander, has given up this opportunity in the search of power.
[Roark, S.K.] “Gail, if this boat were sinking, I’d give my life to save you. Not because it’s any kind of duty. Only because I like you, for reasons and standards of my own. […]” [Wynand, S.K.] “Howard, what were the reasons and standards?” Roark looked at him and realized that he had said all the things he had tried not to say to Wynand. He answered: “That you weren’t born to be a second-hander.” Wynand smiled. He heard the sentence – and nothing else. Afterward [Roark S.K.] thought: I haven’t mentioned to him the worst second-hander of all – the man who goes after power.124
A second-hander is someone who searches for his purpose and intent in life through the validation of others. If someone tried to seek power outside of the personal realm, it is not possible to do so without including others in his calculations as well. Therefore, according to Rand, the person who seeks power for the sake of power itself will always
124 Rand, The Fountainhead 608. 63 be ready to sell his integrity to this quest and is thus to be considered “the worst second- hander of all”.125
The approach Greene takes in this question is that manipulation as well as lying and the “bending” of one’s moral code might be necessary to achieve power. His view on an ideal man and Rand’s are not compatible as he sees it as an unalterable necessity to seek and gain power to be ideal, while for her the notion of power is intertwined with the dependency on others and therefore not suitable for an ideal man.
Gail Wynand could be considered the ideal man in Greene’s point of view. He has reached a high position, fame and wealth by doing exactly what Greene proposes: manipulating fellow men in any way necessary that will support his rise. In fact, Gail Wynand does live as if he had read “The 50th law”. He follows the rules of seeing reality as it is most of the time and never tries to fake reality when it comes to his own life, status or values in the world. His starting position can be compared to 50 Cent’s as both men started their lives basically alone, had to dominate in a neighborhood of bullies and had to fight their way to the top of the world through questionable but steady efforts. Yet, his morality is flexible, and it could be argued that he does defy himself when it comes to seeing who he has become.
As this very man, who could serve as a prime example for applying Greene’s book’s suggestions, is characterized as a second-hander by Roark, it too underlines the truth of the statement that the opinion on power and the importance of possessing power over others differs between Rand and Greene.
Conclusion Both works are able to give a great insight into the nature of men and into the paths that can be followed to improve one’s life. The main aspects discussed in this chapter, fear and power, are mentioned at various points in Rand’s and Greene’s work and their importance in the life of an ideal man is therefore undeniable.
While it is true that there is a focus on these aspects, the conclusion that can be drawn with regard to them differs greatly. Even though it is agreed that dependency should be avoided, both to close relations and to resource and favors in the working situation, the manner how the idea of power is treated shows great differences.
125 Ibid. 64
Moral uprightness is one of the key factors in “Objectivism” as some of its most important traits – reality, responsibility, integrity – can only thereby be achieved. To bend this morality in order to gain power over other people or to rise in the judgment of outsiders would defy Rand’s view of the ideal man greatly. Yet, this is exactly what Greene proposes in his book “The 50th law”. According to his idea of power and of what is necessary in life to succeed, a clash of interest between men is unavoidable and therefore it is essential that power is used without being influenced by moral values. Both authors support their argumentation with valid examples. The question, however, arises whether Rand’s view on this topic can today still be considered realistic. As mentioned before, her characters need to display a certain flawlessness to convey the picture of an ideal man perfectly. To ask of man in today’s world a thorough flawlessness might seem impossible. However, it could be argued that this portray favors an approach of mimicry, rather than of total identification. Greene’s suggestion seems more practical and allows more freedom in its application.
Fear, on the other hand, is treated surprisingly similar in both philosophies. While Rand focuses on describing the unnamed fear reality imposes on people who are not ideal in her eyes, as they are not able to face and deal with it, Greene too proposes fearlessness as one of the key factors on the road to success and personal development. It can be said that both parties fully agree that the absence of irrational fear in society can be regarded as a trait necessary to the ideal man.
Both authors present their views in a very straightforward way which is why neither could be called an exclusive self-help or self-improvement book. Rand, obviously, focuses more on explaining her philosophy and on conveying her ideas to the public, rather than taking great notice of the needs of prospective readers – an approach which seems obvious as it directly follows her philosophy. Greene, on the other hand, knows that mainly people in need of a helping hand towards personal improvement will decide to read this book. Yet, he does not spare his audience unpleasant facts but demands their full co-operational will and strength, should they decide to follow his ideas.
65
3.4. Ayn Rand and “The Obstacle is the Way” What is “The Obstacle is the Way”?
“The Obstacle is the Way” is a book, published by the young author Ryan Holiday in 2014. Already in the introduction Holiday clarifies that he is not interested in providing yet another self-improvement book which is concerning itself only with pleasant topics, but that he chose to address the issue of obstacles.
Obstacles are the norm in everybody’s life. In “The Obstacle is the Way” Holiday differentiates between systematic obstacles and individual obstacles. Systematic obstacles are those which one faces through social institutions and the question of unemployment. Individual, personal obstacles, on the other hand, are regarding one’s inner fears and insecurities for example. To conquer both kinds, Ryan writes his manual to guide people through the phase of self-improvement and change in their mindset, which is, according to him, necessary to succeed in life.
“The Obstacle is the Way” is divided into three main sections, the three main steps which man should follow to implement Holiday’s ideas in his life. The first part “Perception” addresses thoughts and emotions and how one should perceive everything as an opportunity. Secondly, the chapter “Action” is presented, in which the reader can study Holiday’s ideas on how to use one’s energy right and which steps are necessary along the way of turning obstacles into opportunities. Finally, the reader concerns himself with “Will”, which concentrates on the inner mindset and the importance of perseverance.126
To illustrate his ideas further, examples of well-known people like Steve Jobs or Abraham Lincoln are given. His audience can thereby be assured that what he preaches truly makes a difference in one’s life. His ideas often do not seem new, in fact, Holiday borrowed a lot from the stoic philosophy. However, by combining this summary of ancient knowledge with today’s reality, Holiday manages to present a new approach on self- improvement.
Why “The Obstacle is the Way”?
So far much was said on the positive aspects of life – happiness, sexuality, and fearlessness, for example, are all factors that have an influence on a person being “ideal” in the eyes of the presented authors. However, one’s life does not only consist of positive experiences. When humans face setbacks, it is a time when the true ability of man to be
126 Ryan Holiday. The Obstacle is the Way. (2014; London: Profile Books LTD 2015). 1ff 66 strong and upright is tested once more. While Holiday certainly presents possibilities of turning obstacles into opportunities, and the book definitely favors a positive approach, he also does not ignore two parts of life which are often experienced negatively – pain and death.
3.4.1. How to deal with pain Howard Roark once states that he is not bothered by pain as it only reaches until a certain point inside of him – not further. He is, of course, one of Rand’s characters who has to deal with a lot of pain in the course of his life. It is not physical pain that he has to fear but rather the one which makes intelligent people recoil when they are to witness a great injustice or stupidity. Roark has to deal with people who are not able to appreciate the value of his genius, with people who do not respect him or his passion and with the injustice that is done to him. He manages to face every blow with dignity and stoic calm.
I don't believe it matters to me—that they're going to destroy it. Maybe it hurts so much that I don't even know I'm hurt. But I don't think so. If you want to carry it for my sake, don't carry more than I do. I'm not capable of suffering completely. I never have. It goes only down to a certain point and then it stops. As long as there is that untouched point, it's not really pain.127
This attitude can be contributed to the fact that Roark is a self-sufficient and self-confident character. His temporary inability to work in his field of interest, forced onto him by less capable men, does not bother him because of the injustice itself but rather because he is hindered in producing his visions. When a building of his is destroyed, it is the closest that he ever comes to experiencing physical pain. Yet, in this scenario too he does neither get angry, nor sad, nor give any deeper consideration to the pain. He merely tries to use the time he has on his hands in a productive way once more, for example by working in a stone quarry or at any other place which has a faint connection to his profession.
In “Atlas Shrugged” the reader also encounters “pain” in various forms. This is one of the aspects which underline that “Atlas Shrugged” was written after “The Fountainhead” as it seems that Rand felt the necessity to deepen her approach on this topic. The characters are faced with more terror, more hurt and more ways by which pain is inflicted on them and all of the main characters experience pain at one point of the story. Additionally, it is interesting to note that it is not always the same kind of pain stemming from a lack of understanding that Roark was confronted with, but Rand tried to include various types of
127 Rand, The Fountainhead 344. 67 pain to support her idea that every adversity can be faced in an ideal way and no pain should be capable of breaking a person.
Hank Rearden and Dagny Taggart often have to encounter the same pain Roark is experiencing such as their work not being honored, destroyed and manipulated. The only alternative, it seems, to escape this pain would be through renouncing their values. By staying virtuous according to their own standards and facing reality, they do not allow themselves any relief of the knowledge of the incompetence of the world around them. Through Francisco d’Anconia the reader learns that not even in matters of the heart and love one can deny one’s virtues, but that love is only worthy of being reciprocal if one defines and lives by them. He has to give up the love of his life and accept a life without company in order to be true to himself. Heartbreak is as much a pain as physical or psychological pain is and Rand proves that she is aware of the hardships integrity can inflict. John Galt is even exposed to physical pain. His conviction and courage are vital resources to him in order to understand and live with his pain and his attitude towards it is remarkable.
It’s not that I don’t suffer, it’s that I know the unimportance of suffering, I know that pain is to be fought and thrown aside, not to be accepted as part of one’s soul and as a permanent scar across one’s view of existence. Don’t feel sorry for me. It was gone right then.128
The general idea that a person has to be self-confident and happy with himself and his convictions, to be freer of outside pain and enemies, is a well-known one. Holiday also addresses this exact way of dealing with pain, which is inflicted from the outside.
Bear and forbear. Acknowledge the pain but trod onward in your task.129
Pain, either inflicted by ourselves or from an external source, is an everlasting factor in life. While it is true that we should not give ourselves up easily or fall without resistance into the habit of whining and mourning at all times because of our seemingly heavy burden, it is important to acknowledge the fact that life without any form of pain at any time is simply not possible. Dignity, strength and courage are three of the resources he suggests to equip ourselves with in times of hardship.130
128 Rand, Atlas Shrugged 878. 129 Holiday, The Obstacle is the Way 131. 130 Ibid. 131. 68
Both writers do not conceal that pain exists and both agree on a way to bear it: to not let it reach the crucial part of the self. What Roark considers being the pain stopping at a certain point and not reaching him further, Holiday in “The Obstacle is the Way” calls “The Inner Citadel”.131
[…] the Inner Citadel, that fortress inside of us that no external adversity can ever break down. […] During the good times we strengthen ourselves and our bodies so that during the difficult times we can depend on it. We protect our inner fortress so it may protect us.132
The approach of the two authors is simple. As man will have to face pain in life, he needs to find and build an inner strength that protects him from any deeper harm. In Holiday’s work this idea is presented under the subchapter of “Will”, as only an imperturbable will can make it possible to reach this stage. There may be moments in which every action is made impossible and just because one is aware of the difficulties and problems, one cannot change them. Yet, being able to summon the will to endure hardship already makes one’s mindset better in comparison to those who face every single whim with a desperate attitude and are ready to give up reality rather than practicing strength.
3.4.2. Encountering death An obstacle even harder to encounter than pain is death. In this case it is not purely a question of what death means to a person but how he is able to face or anticipate his own death. This can, if it is handled wrongly, significantly hinder the path of personal and institutional success in a person’s life. Giving death its proper consideration, on the other hand, can significantly enrich it.
Even though mortality is not one of Rand’s main topics and no character ever has to face the death of a close one or his own, it can be considered a red thread throughout her novels. As it was already mentioned, an objectivist does not believe in a life after death, neither in heaven nor in hell. An objectivist, therefore, is always an atheist.133 Thus, contrary to the belief of religious people, one has to live one’s life in a way that contributes to happiness in this current one. The objectivist would not let church or society dictate the standards by which his life can be considered “good”. Death is, according to “Objectivism” the definitive endpoint of this conscious life, and the time man gets on
131 Ibid. 134. 132 Ibid. 137. 133 The Atlas Society (2011). Death. Kingwood (2018) Web.
The perfect example for this way of living is once again John Galt. Ultimately, he advocated that it is not the quantity or time span of life that matters but rather how this life is lived and valued. The ideal person according to Ayn Rand is, thus, a person who is aware of his mortality and of this life being the only one he is given, and therefore lives it fully without searching for excuses to an unfulfilled one in religion.
For Holiday too the topic of mortality is relevant, even if he approaches it quite differently. While Rand does not explicitly talk about death as a thought which should be considered frequently, Holiday argues that keeping in mind one’s own mortality is a necessary part of life. A prominent thought of the stoics finds its application in this chapter. Memento Mori. Remember you are mortal.135 Obviously, it is not his intention to turn his readers into depressed people. Different to most men, Holiday is aware of a fact that ultimately affects all of his audience: their own mortality. While it is easy to dismiss the thought as unimportant when one is young and seemingly less affected by death, “The Obstacle is the Way” presents a different approach to it. Instead of viewing death as a threat and letting this perception become an obstacle, one can appreciate the clarity and importance life gains by accepting death as a part of life and consequently making the most of it.136
In a way, the fact that human beings have the consciousness, and therefore the possibility of meditating on their death, can be considered a huge advantage. In the fog of everyday life, it is easy to lose sight of one’s most important principles and goals, or, if one would want to name it in Rand’s terms, of one’s values. However, if humans kept the inevitability of death in mind, they would experience a much more profound sense of urgency to live their life right at every given moment.
While one of the two philosophers clearly makes a point about mortality and the other conveys her thoughts about it implicitly, both agree that one has to live life at the fullest, as time is limited. Death is seldom a pleasant topic – the twist the views of the two authors give to it manages, however, to make death seem less threatening and more as a blessing
134 Ibid. 135 Holiday, The Obstacle is the Way 168. 136 Ibid. 168ff. 70 in disguise. Complaining about an unchangeable fact is useless, using the knowledge that it is unchangeable to one’s advantage, however, seems ideal.
3.4.3. Emotions and perception When we grow up, we are often faced with the idea of “good” or bad”. Nearly everything, every person or event we encounter is based on the premise that it can be filed into one of those two categories.
In her essay “The Objectivist Ethics” Ayn Rand tries to explain those two terms, and also why they are more arbitrary than one would think.137 She concerns herself with the question of who is responsible for defining good and bad in the lives of people and how man is to differentiate between the two sentiments. She argues that while “good” and “bad” are moral terms and society therefore claims to be responsible for their definition, the way humans learn about this differentiation is by experiencing the feelings of pleasure and pain, induced by approval and rejection. Both are omnipresent in man’s life, and the feeling of pleasure and pain is known to everyone.138 However, while this is true on a basic level, the question of “good” and “bad” posed in a moral, social or economic context is more difficult to answer and cannot be related to feelings, even though emotions play a vital part in one’s life. The objectivist ethics favors the point that emotions, even though they are human, should have no part in questions of the mind. Rand’s well-defined idea of seeing reality truly for what it is can once again serve as the basis of comparison on this point, especially as Holiday too argues for the objectivity of the mind. While Rand, however, states that only true reality, without the deceiving veil of other’s opinions or one’s own whims and feelings can make man ideal and fit for living, Ryan adds the ideas of stereotypes and prejudices, which too cloud man’s mind.
It takes skill and discipline to bat away the pests of bad perceptions, to separate reliable signs from deceptive ones, to filter out prejudice, expectation and fear. But it’s worth it, for what’s left is truth. […] We will see things simply and straightforwardly, as they truly are, neither good nor bad.139
In “The Obstacle is the Way” the reader can find a huge focus on the importance of the mind. Like Rand, Ryan sees the human as a being which is defined mainly by his thinking and by the rational thoughts, judgments, and, consequently, actions his mind considers
137 Rand, The Objectivist Ethics. In: The Virtue of Selfishness 13ff. 138 Ibid. 18. 139 Holiday, The Obstacle is the Way 11. 71 important. Yet, there is a crucial difference. It is not a thought that differentiates the two approaches per se, but rather an idea that Rand does not mention or consider important at all, while Ryan is fully aware of it. Neither in “The Virtue of Selfishness”, nor in any of her novels does Rand acknowledge the possibility of emotions and feeling clouding or influencing the mind. She does mention whims and the pure incompetence of the man who relies on those feelings only. However, she fails to mention that emotions are a natural part of life and that they too can have their influence on what man considers rational. Ryan does acknowledge this discrepancy. Even the person with the most rational mind is not totally free of biological factors like hormones and emotional agitations. External and internal factors will always affect our perceptions and therefore our mind and rationality. To Ryan “the ideal man” therefore does not deny the existence of emotions but he is aware of them and their influence on his decisions. This state of awareness is necessary to strip our perceptions clear of them. Instead of ignoring those factors and thereby not accepting their existence, Holiday favors a clear view also on our weakness, as to overcome them one must first of all be able to perceive them.
It is so much better to see things as they truly, actually are, not as we’ve made them in our minds.140
However, to be able to handle emotions this way is clearly not always the easiest task at hand. The difficulty lies primarily not in refraining from denying their existence but in controlling them. For Holiday one of the most dangerous things for the mind and success of man in life is when emotions, uncontrolled, obstruct his view on life. Setbacks and failures then start to become insuperable. The control of emotions is the control of the mind – controlling the mind is taking control over one’s life. A similar approach could be witnessed with Rand, if her characters were analyzed. While emotions are not an explicit topic of her work, her view on them is presented through her novels’ characters. In this case, not only positive emotions like love and friendship have no effect on rationality and clarity, but also setbacks and failure do not narrow the perception of them.
3.4.4. Finding the opportunities If one had to summarize the content of “The Obstacle is the Way” in one sentence, it would certainly include the ability of men to turn adversity into advantage and every obstacle into an opportunity. Ryan Holiday’s approach to life is essentially simple. While we cannot force life to be good to us, or influence everything that is thrown at us from
140 Ibid. 34. 72 other people or institutions, it is our own responsibility to handle it well. Dignity and self- respect are parts of the equation but for him the deciding factor in the question of life is the ability to see the opportunity in every obstacle. In the chapter “Finding the Opportunity”141 he connects this to the mind once more. It is not what actually happens that determines one’s course of action, but how one chooses to perceive and consequently react to it.
While Rand does not provide explicit thoughts on this topic, her attitude towards opportunities in life can be once again analyzed through her novels’ characters. It is true that many of them face adversity, especially because of the lack of understanding and acceptance of other characters who are considered societally important in “The Fountainhead” and in “Atlas Shrugged”. While the actions, which are often deliberately carried out to create obstacles for Rand’s main characters, for sure slow their process of achieving their goals and of being productive on the highest level, neither of her characters lets obstacles stand in their way. Obstacles are treated exactly as Holiday suggests – as opportunities. While Roark uses the time, he cannot spend in the profession of his choice to learn more about its details on other work grounds, Dagny Taggart and Hank Rearden face obstacles through which they finally understand the motives and intentions of the people around them and learn through the process. John Galt, however, trumps their efforts of turning obstacles into opportunities as he faces the greatest obstacle of all – a society completely immune to reason and the mind – and uses its depravity to destroy it.
Similar to pain, it cannot be doubted that man is always faced with obstacles, either inwardly, like stress or insecurities, or outwardly, like incompetence or shrewdness. The understanding that it is not useful to retreat and hand over one’s life to misfortunes and chances, but to take proper action in viewing every obstacle as yet another possibility to learn or advance in life, characterizes Holiday’s work and Rand’s characters and therefore can be counted as a valuable asset in the course of self-improvement.
3.4.5. Do your job Work and productivity play a vital part in the lives of Rand’s characters and in her philosophical essays. That notion is presented at various different points. A “job” is generally defined the following way: according to the Collins dictionary a job is the work someone does to earn money or the job of a particular person or thing is their duty or
141 Ibid. 56. 73 function.142 The Oxford Dictionary defines it as a task or piece of work, especially one that is paid/ A responsibility or duty.143
The reoccurring ways to define “job” are through the term “duty” and the fact that the work is paid. Never, in any line of argumentation, is “job”, even though it is a significant part of life, aligned with the notion of talent, fulfillment, or enjoyment.
It can therefore be concluded that most people do not view their job as something which they enjoy or as a pleasant part of their life but rather as a tiresome duty – a duty which has to be performed to earn money. The fact that many people spend their lives on an occupation which they do not like to carry out is societally accepted. In fact, a person is rather considered unusual if he passionately likes his job than when he has to force himself to start yet another workweek. According to a study conducted by the ManpowerGroup Germany, 46% of the people who were asked in a representative survey would change their job in the upcoming 2 months. The study was conducted in March 2017. The reasons for this change range from discontent regarding the wages towards a general dissatisfaction at the working place.144
The question of employment poses a certain difficulty to man. While he has to earn a living, it is at the same time important to live life as fully and free as he can. As work is a significant part of every human being, it comes as no surprise that both Rand and Holiday have established certain views on this topic as well.
Holiday argues that it is essential to do every job as best as one can. When trying to improve oneself one cannot expect to find happiness by randomly quitting and changing jobs. Quite on the contrary one should try to establish discipline and commitment towards a task and find fulfillment thereby. The chapter “Do your job. Do it right”145 focuses to a large extent on the fact that it is not the job per se that is important but the way one approaches it and the mindset and habits that are developed during this time. For Holiday, the aspect of control over the effort one puts in his work is far more important than the actual job at hand. In “The Obstacle is the Way” he stresses that as long as one is fully conscious of the process and uses one’s energy and knowledge to its highest level, one
142 Collins (2018). Job. Web. < https://www.collinsdictionary.com/dictionary/english/job > (19.01.2018) 143 Oxford University Press (2018). Job. Web < https://en.oxforddictionaries.com/definition/job > (19.01.2018) 144 Manpower GmbH & Co. KG. Jobzufriedenheit 2017. (Eschborn) Realisierung: Faktenkontor GmbH. (Hamburg) 145 Holiday, The Obstacle is the Way 93. 74 can be sure to do a good job. A job for him, therefore, is not only a duty that has to be finished in any way at all but how, and if, we do our job is what ultimately defines us. This thought is not only aiming at the self-improvement of man but also at his liberation.
You should never have to ask yourself, But what am I supposed to do now? Because you know the answer: your job.146
It is his point of view on the notion of “jobs”, that they are not to be considered only obligations but actions through which we respond to life itself.147 Doing one’s job well is not only a matter of self-respect but it can also lead to a successful change in one’s work- life, as this quality is seldom found and therefore quickly noted by superiors and clients. In this line of argumentation, he also establishes the idea that no job is of little value. While there are always jobs that are considered to have a higher prestige than others the true value in each does not lie in the status it has in society but instead in the personal pride and self-respect of the man doing the job well.
Especially this last idea is also vital in Rand’s works. In “The Fountainhead” Howard Roark is often forced to take on jobs which have little to do with his actual dream of being an architect. But while others are inclined to make fun of him or belittle him for working in, for example, a stone quarry, he is never troubled by it as he is not defined through the opinion of others and also gains two advantages through this behavior: on the one hand, he views it as an opportunity to understand the material and the profession of his own art in more depth. He accepts it as a learning experience, which will be of value later in life. On the other hand, he is never forced to work against his values. One of his highest virtues is “The Virtue of Productiveness”. By doing productive work and doing it well, his life is not spent in vain. Instead of complaining about misfortunes, he tackles every task that is given to him with his best will and energy. It is simply impossible for him to work less effectively, as it is part of his personality to always do his best. He, similar to the person that is described by Holiday, does not support the notion that any work is less valuable than another, as for him too the value lies in how it is done instead of what is done. Different to many of today’s people, Roark additionally understands the huge impact on happiness work can have, as well as the time it will consume. As his life is his highest value, for him it would be impossible to spend it doing labor that he cannot arrange with his values.
146 Ibid. 95. 147 Ibid. 96. 75
“But you see,” said Roark quietly, “I have, let’s say, sixty years to live. Most of the time will be spent working. I’ve chosen the work I want to do. If I find no joy in it, then I’m only condemning myself to sixty years of torture. And I can find joy only if I do my work in the best way possible to me. But the best is a matter of standards – and I set my own standards.148
In “the Objectivist Ethics” Rand introduces the idea that stillness is the antithesis of life.149 This notion is well represented in her characters, as none of them are able not to produce or think. A mind that has given up on thinking or has renounced its values and thoughts only lives by default and follows no standards. Success, in any area of life, is hardly possible this way.
However, if one were to combine Rand’s and Holiday’s approaches to this topic, it is probable that one could reach unknown heights in his success and personal life. A person who is aware that work is one of the biggest parts in his life, and therefore chooses his employment according to his values, paired with a deep desire to do every job well and thoroughly will never submit to passiveness and lethargic acceptance and could not be stopped in a world full of opportunities like the present one.
3.4.6. Helping others “Altruism” was already briefly discussed in chapter 1.6. of this paper and the question of whether “Altruism” can serve as a moral guideline through life from the point of view of Rand’s ideal concept was answered negatively. As this may lead to the wrong conclusion that objectivists support a brutal view on the relationships between men, by which no other person or cause can ever be of importance to one, this thought should be elaborated on further.
Rand certainly does not advocate that to be ideal one has to be inconsiderate of other people. Her main problem with the altruistic approach is that of sacrifices. To be altruistic seems to mean that one has to sacrifice personal needs or values in order to please other people. It is not an action or benefit offered by one’s own convictions, but a duty prescribed by society. According to one of Rand’s essays, “The Ethics of Emergencies”150, altruism leads man to believe that other men are helpless, on the one hand, as he must be present and ready to help his neighbors at all times and that they are
148 Rand, The Fountainhead 24. 149 Rand, The Objectivist Ethics. In: The Virtue of Selfishness 17. 150 Ayn Rand, The Ethics of Emergencies. In: The Virtue of Selfishness. (1963; New York: Signet 1964) 49ff. 76 not capable of caring for themselves. On the other hand, it implies that man should generally be considered an evil creature, as the moral standards have to be defined so rigidly and the topic of morality is such an omnipresent one. Her two important notions, value and sacrifice, are mentioned as well. She concludes that according to altruism, one has to prove his moral value by sacrificing himself, and that this results in two types of men: one is the ever-desperate person who seeks to count as anything in life by constantly sacrificing his own values to others. The other does not argue against this basic idea of altruism but positions himself on the other side of the doctrine, where he does not help anyone at any time, to prevent a hopeless feeling of selflessness.151
Her basic idea is clear. Helping others is an action that has to come from oneself and has to be carried out with integrity, thus, according to one’s own values. It is not the moral duty of anyone to help another person. The following example of one of John Galt’s statements supports this idea.
Do not cry that it is our duty to serve you. We do not recognize such duty. Do not cry that you need us. We don’t consider need a claim. Do not cry that you own us. You don’t.152
As previously mentioned, this does not mean that one is indifferent to the needs of his fellow men. In “The Ethics of Emergencies” Rand argues for a non-sacrificial approach to help, which basically means [to] always act in accordance with the hierarchy of your values and never sacrifice a greater value to a lesser one.153 Everything that was learned about “Objectivism” in the former chapters can be considered of importance once again when it comes to the decision of helping others or not. First of all, it is a question of the mind. One has to be able to consciously decide on a set of values and put them in a meaningful order for oneself. Secondly, one has to be able to act according to those values.
It would therefore be wrong to say that the objectivist ethics proposes an inhuman standard with regard to the relationship to others. To stress this point, one could consider the following example, often posed in the question of ethics: A person owns a certain amount of money that is required for a medical treatment (and survival thereafter). This money could either help his own mother to survive, a person of great value and interest
151 Ibis. 49f. 152 Rand, Atlas Shrugged 924. 153 Rand, The Ethics of Emergencies. In: The Virtue of Selfishness 50. 77 to him, or it could help 10 other women of no value to him. The altruistic approach to this question, and therefore what is considered morally good in our society, is that this person has to spend the money on the 10 women who are of no value to him, as it is an action benefiting the “common good”. According to Rand this would be a sacrifice because it is not in accordance to any of his values. If he spends the money on his mother, he spends it on a person who he values and thereby uses this money for his own happiness, as her survival is a factor and value to his happy life. This is what Rand would consider a perfect example of a selfish, non-sacrificial act of help. It is, too, what is considered morally evil in today’s society. The above example perfectly unites many of Rand’s major concepts. Firstly, there is, of course, the question of the mind and of the hierarchy of values. Secondly, one has to acquire the ability to show integrity to not be corrupted into believing the, by her standards, twisted moral values of society. Thirdly, an ideal man in her concept has to be free of the need of outside validation and recognition, as when he acts in selfish accordance with his values, he will most likely not be praised but rather deemed as unethical by his fellow men.
Ryan Holiday concerns himself with the question of whether humans should focus more on others or more on themselves, too. As he is less clear in his statements than Rand, it is difficult to say whether he agrees with her or not. While he certainly does not favor the idea of man being a sacrificial animal, the notion of “helping others” comes up repeatedly in “The Obstacles is the Way”. Holiday suggests that helping others can be an advantage when we concern ourselves with personal problems, too. Obstacles, which seem unmanageable, can become smaller and more approachable once one decides to look at them from a different angle. The chapter “Something Bigger than Yourself” 154 explains that the best way to help ourselves is by helping others.
Whatever you’re going through, whatever is holding you down or standing in your way, can be turned into a source of strength – by thinking of people other than yourself. You won’t have time to think about your suffering, because there are other people suffering and you’re too focused on them.155
It could be argued that he too follows a selfish approach, even though he never uses this word. Being selfish today is difficult, and writing a self-improvement book, like Holiday did, on this basis would probably not help its success. Therefore, it is interesting to
154 Holiday, The Obstacle is the Way 161ff. 155 Ibid. 165. 78 discover that he actually does proposes exactly that: to use even the misfortune or suffering of others as a source of inspiration and of guidance for himself. While he stresses that the “I” is not always the most important factor and the problems can lose a lot of their immediate seriousness when the “I” in front of it is removed, what can basically be concluded is that Holiday favors an approach that puts the highest significance on oneself.156 The fact that he presents this idea through the lens of altruism, working for a greater good, cannot hide the fact that one should attempt it to ensure one’s own happiness.
Conclusion While many of the ideas presented in this chapter come up in the works of both authors, what is interesting to notice is that often their ideas are conveyed in an implicit manner. Rand, on the one hand, makes a clear point regarding pain and death if one looks closely enough. Her ideas are comparable to Holiday’s open approach to the two topics. In summary, it could be stated that both favor the idea that this life is the only one we have. It is therefore of utmost importance to live this life to the fullest extent possible and to not let pain reach one’s most vital parts. Pain and death are to be considered as obstacles which everyone has to face. However, by dealing with them, instead of letting them dictate our lives, one can develop a mindset and life formed by one’s own standards, thereby enriching it.
The area in which both agree fully is when it comes to the working-life of a person. Rand and Holiday strongly argue against the stillness of the mind. Both recognize that a job is done well when it is carried out according to the full capacity and effort a person can produce. No job is of less value than another job, even if the societal prestige they may have might differ from one another. Every working place can serve as a learning station during one’s life. It is more important how a job is carried out than what the job is. For Rand, additionally, it is important that whatever one does during one’s life, it must happen in accordance with one’s values. This last statement can also be applied to the notion of helping others. While Holiday only implicitly hints that whatever action is carried out by man should ultimately serve his own well-being and happiness, Rand vigorously argues against the altruistic notion that helping other people is a duty and sacrificing one’s own values is a virtue. She states that only non-sacrificial help, help that is based on a selfish approach as it leads to one’s own happiness as well, is the right kind.
156 Ibid. 167. 79
3.5. Ayn Rand and The Education of Millionaires What is “The Education of Millionaires”?
In 2008 Michael Ellsberg published a guidebook which covers one of the most vital questions in the life of any man – the question of education. While Ellsberg graduated from the American Ivy-League University Brown, the focus of his book is mainly on an education that is practical and connected to real life experiences. To convey his idea of what man needs to know in life in order to succeed to the reader, he narrows down his approach to seven key areas. The first key area relates to the meaningfulness of the work one sets out to do. Secondly, networking is a topic that is broadly discussed, as advisors and mentors are crucial for the development in any chosen area. The third key area is marketing. Ellsberg argues that without marketing the best work and talent is worth little and the numerous books recently published covering this area (e.g. by Dan S. Kennedy) support this idea. Next, “The Education of Millionaires” covers the question of sales and how committed a person should be to develop the talent of selling products, ideas or projects to achieve the success he desires. Furthermore, the way one invests in oneself (chapter 5) and how one presents oneself (chapter 6) is important. This sixth chapter is especially interesting in today’s world as it talks about building a personal brand. With so many competitors for jobs, this chapter seems to be one of the most crucial ones as it provides the tools to distinguish oneself from others. Finally, the seventh key area is called “The Entrepreneurial Mind-Set versus the Employee Mind-Set”157 and it talks about taking one’s future and one’s life into one’s own hands instead of waiting for someone else to lead the way.
Ellsberg is not satisfied with only explaining the theory but includes popular names and real-life examples to support his perspective. He already states in the introduction that every person he features in his book is highly successful, happy and confident in their lives – and has not finished higher formal education. College degrees, even though they are still promoted and deemed necessary in society, are presented as unimportant compared to the areas he focuses on. He asks Do you want to chase degrees, or do you want to chase success?158
157 Michael Ellsberg, The Education of Millionaires. (New York: Penguin Group 2011). 192. 158 Michael Ellsberg, The Education of Millionaires. (New York: Penguin Group 2011) 5. 80
Why “The Education of Millionaires”?
Education undoubtedly is one of the most important aspect in man’s life. It is not only the basis for later development but also shapes one’s mind and values. While the child’s parents mostly cover the first basic part of education, its continuing course has nowadays been highly institutionalized. School and college are important influences in the early years. While the educational system differs from country to country, one premise seems to be the foundation for most – that a formal, academic education is a crucial step to a subsequent success in life. However, it has to be mentioned that often this is not the case anymore. While studying definitely allows one to broaden his horizon and supports specialization in many areas, it is no longer a guarantee for financial security to the extent it might have been 50 years ago, argues Ellsberg.
Throughout his work Michael Ellsberg tends to challenge the notion that academic education is a magic formula for succeeding in life, as does Ayn Rand. As education per se is nevertheless an important topic, it is necessary to elaborate on it in order to understand another part of “the ideal man”.
3.5.1. The educational system The course of a student in Austria, as in many other Western countries, is structured very clearly. There are usually a certain number of years which are obligatory. After graduating high school, the possibility of choosing a college or university is given. While in Austria one has the advantage that this system is often free of charge, Americans for example cannot expect the same. College tuition fees in the United States can be over 45,000 US- Dollars a year.159
Yet, both systems are comparable insofar, as in both societies it is still regarded as a fact that graduating from a university is an assurance for job security. Parents often prefer their children to enroll in secondary educational courses, instead of opting for practical jobs. People who find their passion and talent in a different, non-academic, area and who, rather than wasting their time in a field that will not be their future and using the state’s and their parents’ money, start to work on skills outside of university, are often belittled and regarded as undisciplined people of lower class. A current proof for this mind-set is given by the way the current chancellor of Austria is handled in the media. Several
159 Laura Bridgestock (2018) How much does it cost to study in the US? On: topuniversities.com Web. https://www.topuniversities.com/student-info/student-finance/how-much-does-it-cost-study-us (24.01.2018) 81 newspaper articles have concerned themselves with the question whether Sebastian Kurz, a person who has interrupted his studies to pursue his interest in politics, is able to be chancellor (Example: Trend, Kann Kurz Kanzler?).160 Lurid headlines illuminate the stunning importance of theoretical exams in the face of an obvious talent in politics, which can hardly be doubted if one analyzed his career.
While this is only one example, it seems that many people support this viewpoint in general. Even though first-hand experiences showed that nowadays it is often no longer a sign of intelligence or talent if someone finishes his studies, it is still presented as one of the primary qualifications employers value, both in Austria as well as in the United States.
Michael Ellsberg states in his introduction that this notion, as true as it might have been 50 years ago, is no longer accurate. While students in the United States still have to pay large amounts of tuition fees, often leading to debts, job security in one’s field of interest cannot be guaranteed. Even though it is true that there are some professional fields as medicine or law, for which an academic education is not only necessary but also beneficial, other departments would often profit from a more practically oriented approach, which cannot be learned in an exclusively theoretical environment at university. Ellsberg argues that education is important. He assigns the primary importance not on academic education but on the skills that one has to acquire throughout his life. It can be considered a life-long, independent learning process.161 He himself has studied at university but argues that his success is mainly due to the seven skills he presents in his book.
Rand too has a very particular relationship to college. While in her theoretical essays little is said about formal education, her view on this topic is illuminated by her characters in “The Fountainhead” and “Atlas Shrugged”. Reading those two novels chronologically, the first encounter her audience has with college is when Howard Roark in chapter 1 of “The Fountainhead” is kicked out of it because he is not ready to copy an architectural style once again which was already copied many times before. He calmly states that he had learned everything that he needed to know already and that he would not return even if they offered it to him, as more theoretical practice could not be of any help. Clearly
160 Michael Schmitz, Die neue Bundesregierung: Kann Kurz Kanzler? In: Trend. Edition 49/2017 161 Ellsberg, The Education of Millionaires 1ff. 82
Rand too does not consider the mere fact of a receiving a diploma as beneficial in man’s life but rather focuses on the practical application and knowledge he has.
I want to be an architect, not an archeologist. I see no purpose in doing Renaissance villas. Why learn to design them, when I will never build them? […] I came here to learn about building. When I was given a project, its only value to me was to solve it as I would solve a real one in the future. I did them the way I’ll build them. I’ve learned all that I could learn here – in the structural sciences of which you don’t approve. One more year of drawing Italian post cards would give me nothing”.162
This quotation illuminates Rand’s approach to formal education perfectly. While on the one hand it is obvious that some professions and theories have to be acquired through formal education, the mere fact that a person can show a diploma for his efforts should not automatically elevate him in terms of quality with regard to others. A degree in a certain area, for her, only illuminates that one has in fact concerned himself with important aspects of the topic but cannot be viewed as his only proof of talent and quality. If it were considered that in “The Fountainhead” one of the antiheros, Peter Keating, has obtained his degree in architecture but is at the same time far less capable than Howard Roark, the idea that the degree itself elevates him over people of more talent seems absurd. Yet, as in the book appreciation is primarily obtained through formal certification, as it is a form of outer validation, Keating is praised while Roark is shunned.
However, it could not be argued that Roark is a practical man in the sense of Ellsberg’s ideas. He never tries to sell his ideas, he is not interested in marketing his project but seems to wait for his talent to be discovered. In a common job market place this attitude is highly unrealistic.
There are, however, also characters in Rand’s novels who have a higher formal education and are successful in life. Dagny Taggert, Johan Galt, and Francisco d’Anconia all have majored in their respective subjects. Comparable to how they use college to their advantage is Ellsberg’s key area number 2 – Finding mentors. John Galt and Francisco d’Anconia often refer back to one of their mentors in philosophy, Dr. Akston. He is referred to as the last philosopher who praised the mind and reason over feelings and emotions and played a huge part in the development of Galt and d’Anconia. Their connection throughout the novel is notable and it illuminates the idea Rand and Ellsberg
162 Rand, The Fountainhead 22. 83 share of mentors being beneficial for life. However, Rand does not fail to deplore a certain deterioration in formal education, as apart from these characters, many others who graduate are corrupt and incompetent. A certain aversion regarding the formal education and the way it is presented might therefore be concluded.
3.5.2. Personal branding A very important notion in Ellsberg’s work, which was not yet mentioned in the paper at hand, is the one of being a brand. He summarizes a whole chapter with one sentence.
Your brand is what people think about when they hear your name.163
Considering this statement, it is already rather obvious that Rand and Ellsberg do not agree on this notion. While throughout her works Rand argues that independence of the judgment of other people is crucial to living a fulfilled life, Ellsberg approaches the topic from a different angle. For him, one of the main reasons for success is the way one presents oneself to others, what one makes of his reputation and how to use the judgments, which are inevitably made, to one’s advantage.
Marketing and sales, two other key areas of Ellsberg, also contribute to this factor. He does not deny that it is important to seek validation from others. Yet, a lot of his concept of practical skills relies on the fact that one is able to present oneself, one’s products or one’s company successfully to other people and thereby achieve respect and success. For him, this idea is crucial, as without taking action in these areas, man would need to wait passively for others to recognize his talent instead of taking the matter into his own hands.
In Rand’s novels two main characters can be analyzed in order to demonstrate her attitude towards this concept of branding oneself. Howard Roark can be considered as her first example. While he, for sure, represents an architect who has developed a personal style and is known by his employers for his appreciation of the material and talent as well as his individuality, he does not seek to make a name for himself. He does, of course, apply for jobs but he never tries to present his product or work in a way that is extenuated. Additionally, he ignores the human component, a characteristic trait which already Peter Drucker, a famous author on business matters, in “Managing oneself” named to be significant for success.164
163 Ellsberg. The Education of Millionaires 179.
164 Peter F. Drucker, Managing oneself. (1999, Boston: Harvard Business School Press 2008) 37. 84
“Look,” said Roark evenly, and pointed at the window. “Can you see the campus and the town? Do you see how many man are walking and living down there? Well, I don’t give a damn what any or all of them think about architecture – or about anything else, for the matter.[…]”165
It would not fit Rand’s character to show concern for the opinion of others. This idea, however, shows no practical rationality in modern society, as one’s reputation can have a huge influence on the path of one’s career and managing others as well as oneself is therefore crucial. According to The Business Insider, an online magazine on business and economics in the United States, the current job market can be considered a “nearly healthy one”. Yet, many people are unable to find employment after graduation, even though they spend years in college to seem more marketable.166 It seems that Ellsberg’s approach on this issue is more realistic. He presents the example of a college graduate with excellent marks who, after numerous standard applications, decided to try a different approach on getting employed. Her creative approach of using Facebook Ads to attract the consideration of possible employers brought her to their attention and by making herself popular this way she soon got highly lucrative offers.167 It seems that Ellsberg is right when he argues that gaining diplomas can no longer be considered the only reliable factor in achieving success.
The second aspect that one should acknowledge in Rand’s work with regard to this notion is that her characters are always extraordinarily talented. If Dagny Taggart was to be considered, it would come as no surprise to the reader that she achieved excellent results and success in life. All of her competitors are utterly incompetent and she herself is incredibly gifted. It seems obvious that characters like her, or Hank Rearden, or Francisco d’Anconia, who show remarkable skills in production, do not have to compete for jobs or are in need of a personal brand. The inadequacy of others ensures that they do not need to make a brand of themselves – they rise, because they hardly ever face competition.
Reality today is obviously different as no one can, or should, rely on the incompetence of others to advance in life but is instead asked to take the matter of presenting one’s competence into one’s own hands. Additionally, this attitude would presuppose that every
165 Rand, The Fountainhead 23. 166 Josh Boak, Christopher Rugaber (03.07.2015). There‘s a new normal in America’s job market and it isn’t pretty. Web. http://www.businessinsider.com/theres-a-new-normal-in-americas-job-market-and-it- isnt-pretty-2015-7?IR=T (26.01.2018) 167 Ellsberg, The Education of Millionaires 175f. 85 employer always takes a lot of time and effort to choose the most gifted, talented, and productive person, which, already due to time issues, cannot always be expected.
Rand does represent this idea, in theory. She states that “money demands that you sell, not your weakness to men’s stupidity, but your talent to their reason.168 Yet, in her books this is hardly the case. While she does not argue that her characters are weak or should sell their weakness to the stupidity of their fellows, most other characters are in fact powerless and therefore pose no competition.
Conclusion Rand and Ellsberg both seem to have a problem with the educational system. While formal education offers many academic and interesting insights, it can no longer be considered the most important aspect in all fields. The authors argue for a more practical application of knowledge and especially Ellsberg proposes in “The Education of Millionaires” that one needs to first choose one’s perfect career before applying the right tools to achieve success in this area.
The reader of both works will soon discover, however, that Rand and Ellsberg approach one topic very differently – that of being a brand. Rand’s characters are not in need of proving themselves to others, as all characters around them are presented as weak and as no competition. The real job market is different, however; according to inc.com, a job offer in the United States attracts up to 250 resumes.169 The need to be presentable and to stand out to attract the employer’s consideration is therefore definitely given, which is why it could be argued that Ellsberg’s approach to the topic is certainly more realistic. If a person wants to achieve success in today’s society, it is not only important what he thinks of himself and the way he consequently manages his life but also how he is perceived by others. In this context, the understanding of the difference between creating a personal brand for oneself and thereby taking control over the way one is viewed in society, on the one hand, and faking what Rand calls integrity due to the influence of others, on the other hand, is important. Creating a brand certainly is not about giving up one’s values but rather about understanding one’s surroundings and acting in a self- preserving way on today’s job market. Rand puts less emphasis on other people in the course of her work while Ellsberg highlights the realistic need of reputation.
168 Rand, Atlas Shrugged 381. 169 Peter Economy (2015). 11 Interesting Hiring Statistics you should know. On: inc.com. Web. https://www.inc.com/peter-economy/19-interesting-hiring-statistics-you-should-know.html (28.01.2018) 86
Final Conclusion In the course of this thesis many important aspects regarding the life of man in modern day were mentioned and discussed. The first part of the thesis was primarily concerned with introducing to the reader a comprised version of Ayn Rand’s philosophy “Objectivism”.
The second part of the paper dealt with the idea of virtues and how they correspond with the idea of “the ideal man”, which then was the topic of the third section. It can be concluded that even today many authors, who are considered influential in Western societies, have established very clear views on how the ideal man should live. As the most crucial aspect, man, who can be regarded as ideal nowadays, has achieved a life that allows him to be happy, independent and successful. The state of “being successful” is however not clearly defined but it is regarded as an overall state of life which can affect work, family and relationships.
It can be said that Ayn Rand and modern-day philosophers agree on this notion of success. Rand concern herself to a large extent with the happiness of her characters. She states that happiness is the ultimate goal. McKeown, Greene, Holiday and Ellsberg all argue in a similar fashion, as neither recommends dependency, unhappiness and conformity.
While all, therefore, acknowledged happiness as the most important trait in the life of an ideal man, the way to achieve this happiness is not always consistent. One of the most striking differences between Rand and the other authors is the role of other people in one’s life. Rand is very strict upon her viewpoint that others should never be considered as important when they are not situated highly in one’s value hierarchy. Judgments and comparisons to others are of no importance to her fictional characters and she argues for a both selfish and self-sufficient approach. Greene, too, points his argumentation in this direction. However, the two define “being selfish” in quite a different way: “Being selfish” for Rand is not a negative notion but merely expresses one’s own concern with oneself first, neither exploiting nor needing others. Greene, on the other hand, views his ideal man as a person who does not shy away from manipulating and using the weakness of his fellow men to advance and succeed in life. One has to read and analyze the works thoroughly to understand the difference between the two approaches, yet, it could hardly be of more importance; the way Greene proposes speaks against many values and standards Rand has set for her philosophy, especially in terms of integrity. With regard to this point, the two are therefore incompatible. 87
Ellsberg, too, argues that other people are necessary, even though he does not agree with a path of exploitation. In his opinion, to succeed in a modern world, man has to concern himself with his reputation and market both his product as well as himself. It could not be said that Rand fiercely contradicts this notion, yet, none of her characters ever promote themselves to others. However, as it was already concluded in chapter 3.5.2. of this thesis, Rand’s characters never face true competition and the need for a positive reputation is therefore redundant. Ellsberg’s idea could consequently be considered to be the more realistic one today.
This difficulty of applicability in modern day could also be observed when the question of the ideal level of health and sleep was raised in chapter 3.2.1. The ideal man, in Ayn Rand’s eyes, is one who can produce and be productive at all times, without the need for rest or relaxation for the preservation of health and energy. This concept is not thoroughly supported anymore. While there are still so called “hustlers” who pride themselves on sleeping only 3 hours a night and deem everyone who cares about one’s health and state of mind undisciplined, current research suggests that the effect the lack of sleep has on the brain is similar to too much alcohol or even drugs, as McKeown summarizes.170 One should be careful with accusing Rand of inconsideration, though. Given that she probably did not know about the devastating effects sleep deprivation can have on one’s reason and mind as well as considering the huge emphasis she generally lays on logic and the mind in her philosophy, one would need a current statement of hers on the topic before assessing her viewpoint critically.
A final notion of diversion between Rand and the authors of the 21st century that were analyzed in this thesis is the idea of power. Especially Greene puts a lot of importance on men being powerful, not only over themselves but foremost over other people. As this too once again focuses on other people more than on oneself, Rand would not agree with this part.
Even though some discrepancies could be found, it is also interesting to see how many of Rand’s truths in “Objectivism” are still considered vital today. A point on which all five authors agree fully is seeing life as it is, without trying to euphemize it, a notion also already encouraged by the stoics. To change reality is considered weak and a coping mechanism for the truths of reality. To understand what makes one’s life truly successful and consequently enables a course of happiness, all of the authors agree that seeing reality
170 McKeown, Essentialism 97f. 88 unobstructed is vital. While McKeown makes a point of exploring all of one’s options to get a clear view over one’s life and choose the right path, Greene encourages this behavior to fully understand also one’s fellow men. Holiday points out that reality is needed when one considers one’s own mortality and emphasizes the importance of not letting emotions, prejudices and stereotypes affect one’s perception.
Finally, the philosophers agree on the notion of working as well. All of the four modern day authors, who were presented in the course of this paper, place a lot of emphasis on doing a job well. As does Rand. They do not argue that a certain talent or intelligence is needed to reach success in life but that the way one approaches one’s work is essential. All recognize that integrity with one’s values is necessary for job fulfillment and essentially, they all agree that how someone does his job is a lot more important than which job he carries out.
Rand states that to defy the mind and to deny productivity will ultimately lead to an unhappy life. Modern authors agree with this notion. In order to succeed and consequently be happy, it is of utmost importance to define one’s values, to rely on reason and on one’s own judgment, to act only according to one’s hierarchy of values and to never stand still but continue exploring, improving and working.
Ayn Rand’s works already built an essential basis for any man who wants to reach success in today’s world. While not all of the authors’ approaches seem to coincide, a stunning amount of ideas between the 1940s and now have stayed the same. What being ideal means ultimately has to be figured out by every living being themselves. However, the notions presented in this paper provide a good overview over the most important qualities and areas needed to reach this state, if one were to approach it from a philosophical point of view.
And no one came to say that your life belongs to you and that the good is to live it.171
171 Rand, Atlas Shrugged 926. 89
Bibliography
Primary literature Aurelius, Marcus (ca. 180 A.D.). Meditations. London: Penguin Classics (2006)
Ellsberg, Michael (2011). The Education of Millionaires. New York: Portfolio Penguins (2012) Epictetus (ca. 135 A.D.). The Enchiridion. Leipzig: Forgotten Books (2008) Greene, Robert (2009). The 50th law. New York: HarperCollins Publishers. Holiday, Ryan (2014). The Obstacle is the Way. London: Profile Books LTD (2015) McKeown Greg (2014). Essentialism. The Disciplined Pursuit of Less. New York: Crown Business. Rand, Ayn (1957). Atlas Shrugged. New York: Signet/ Penguin Group (1996). Rand, Ayn (1966). Capitalism: The Unknown Ideal. New York: Signet/ Penguin Group (1986) Rand, Ayn (1943). The Fountainhead. New York: Signet/ Penguin Group (1952) Rand, Ayn (1962). The Objectivist Ethics. In: The Virtue of Selfishness (1964). New York: Signet. Rand, Ayn (1962). The „Conflict“of Men’s Interests. In: The Virtue of Selfishness. (1964) New York: Signet. Rand, Ayn (1963). The Ethics of Emergencies. In: The Virtue of Selfishness. (1964) New York: Signet.
Secondary literature Acevedo Rafael, Cirocco Luis B. (2017) How Socialism ruined Venezuela. On:businessinsider.de. Web. < http://www.businessinsider.de/venezuela-how-socialism- ruined-country-2017-10?r=US&IR=T> (15.01.2018) Aistear, The Early Childhood Curriculum Framework. Learning and developing through play.On: ncca.biz. Web.
Bissell, Andrew (2011). Collectivism, Freedom, and Happiness. On: theatlassociety.org. Web.
Drucker, Peter F. (1999). Managing oneself. Boston: Harvard Business School Press (2008).
Economy, Peter (2015). 11 Interesting Hiring Statistics you should know. On: inc.com. Web.
Kelley, David (1998). Two Strains of Altruism. On: theatlassociety.org. Web.
Kelley, David (2010). Choosing life. On: theatlassociety.org. Web.
Kelley, David (2009). The Fourth Revolution. On: The Atlas Society. Web.
Klein, Shawn E. (2010). Responsibility, not Regulations. On: theatlassociety.org. Web.
Manpower GmbH & Co. KG. Jobzufriedenheit 2017. (Eschborn) Realisierung: Faktenkontor GmbH. (Hamburg) Merriam-Webster (2018). Definition of altruism. On: merriam-webster.com. Web.
Peikoff, Leonard (1993). Afterword “The Fountainhead”. New York: Signet/ Penguin Group (1993). Schmitz, Michael (2017). Die neue Bundesregierung: Kann Kurz Kanzler? In: Trend. Ausgabe 49/2017. Thomas, William (2011). What is the Objectivist View of Reality (Metaphysics)? On: atlassociety.org. Web.
92
Acknowledgment
I would like to express my sincere gratitude to…
… my supervisor Univ. Dr. Ralph Poole, who gave me the possibility and encouraged me to write about this topic.
…my family, especially my parents, who showed unfaltering support throughout my studies and have always been an inspiration to me.
…Alex, who is responsible for introducing me to Ayn Rand, and has enriched both my mind as also my life greatly in this past year.
…Riri, who is an enormous source of energy and well-being for me and thereby contributed greatly to the amazing time my studies turned out to be.
…Fabi, who was mainly responsible for making me choose Salzburg as the place for my studies and has stayed a great friend over all these years.
…Lisa, who thankfully offered to proof read this thesis and whose competence and friendship I value deeply.
93
Statutory Declaration
Eidesstaatliche Erklärung
Ich erkläre hiermit eidesstaatlich [durch meine eigenhändige Unterschrift], dass ich die vorliegende Arbeit selbstständig verfasst und keine anderen als die angegebenen Quellen und Hilfsmittel verwendet habe. Alle Stellen, die wörtlich oder inhaltlich den angegebenen Quellen entnommen wurden, sind als solche kenntliche gemacht. Die vorliegende Arbeit wurde bisher in gleicher oder ähnlicher Form noch nicht als Bachelor-/ Master-/ Diplomarbeit oder Dissertation eingereicht.
Datum, Unterschrift