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Ulrike Pilarczyk Ulrike Pilarczyk Gemeinschaft in Bildern Hamburger Beiträge zur Geschichte der deutschen Juden Für die Stiftung Institut für die Geschichte der deutschen Juden herausgegeben von Stefanie Schüler-Springorum und Andreas Brämer Bd. XXXV Ulrike Pilarczyk Gemeinschaft in Bildern Jüdische Jugendbewegung und zionistische Erziehungspraxis in Deutschland und Palästina/Israel Unter Mitarbeit von Ulrike Mietzner, Juliane Jacobi und Ilka von Cossart WALLSTEIN VERLAG Bibliografische Information der Deutschen Nationalbibliothek Die Deutsche Nationalbibliothek verzeichnet diese Publikation in der Deutschen Nationalbibliografie; detaillierte bibliografische Daten sind im Internet über http://dnb.d-nb.de abrufbar. © Wallstein Verlag, Göttingen 2009 www.wallstein-verlag.de Vom Verlag gesetzt aus der Adobe Garamond Umschlaggestaltung: Basta Werbeagentur, Steffi Riemann Umschlagbild unter Verwendung zweier Abbildungen: Unbek. Privatfotograf/in, Blau-Weiß-Gruppe ca. 1924 (Archiv Giwat Hayyim Ichud, Israel) Hanan Bahir, Jugend-Alija in Giwat Brenner, 1935/36 (Archiv Giwat Brenner, Israel) Reproduktionen: SchwabScantechnik GmbH, Göttingen Druck: Hubert & Co, Götingen isbn 978-3-8353-0439-0 Inhalt Einleitung . 7 I. Auf dem Weg zu jüdischer Gemeinschaft in Deutschland 1. Angriff von außen, Entfremdung von innen – zur Lage der Juden in Deutschland vor und nach dem Ersten Weltkrieg . 13 1.1 Frühe zionistische Bildkunst im Spannungsfeld von jüdischer Renaissance und politischem Zionismus . 18 2. Jugendbewegung als Erziehungsbewegung. 26 2.1 Exkurs: Martin Buber, Lehrer und »geistiger Führer« (Juliane Jacobi) . 28 2.2 Jugendvereine und Jugendbünde . 42 2.3 Das Erlebnis als »bewegende Mitte« . 48 3. Ikonografie einer Jugendgemeinschaft . 59 3.1 Fotografische Praxis in jugendbewegtem Alltag . 59 3.2 Fahrt, Rast, Gruppe – fotografische Selbstzeugnisse 1924-1934 61 3.3 Mädchen in der jüdischen Jugendbewegung (Ulrike Mietzner) 84 II. Transformationen jüdischer Gemeinschaftserziehung nach 1933 4. Jüdische Jugendbünde nach 1933 (Ilka von Cossart und Ulrike Pilarczyk) . 100 4.1 Gemeinschaft und Selbsthilfe . 100 4.2 Zum Aufbau des Hachschara-Werkes . 106 5. Chaluziut in Deutschland – Hachschara und Jugend-Alija . 115 5.1 Wege zur ›Verwirklichung‹ . 115 5.2 Erziehung und Ausbildung in landwirtschaftlichen Hachschara-Stätten . 120 5.3 Chaluzim – Bilder »neuer« Juden in Deutschland . 128 6. Jugend im Übergang . 145 6.1 »Zukunft wie, wo, was????«. 145 6.2 Leben auf Hachschara . 151 7. Epilog: Das Ende der jüdischen Jugendbewegung in Deutschland (Ilka von Cossart und Ulrike Pilarczyk) . 164 III. Lebens- und Erziehungsgemeinschaften – Erinnerung und Tradition in Palästina 8. Die »deutsche Alija« . 171 8.1 Giwat Brenner und Hasorea – Bilder eines Anfangs . 172 8.2 Das nationale Aufbauwerk als visuelles Erziehungsprogramm 183 8.3 Von der Gemeinschaft zur Chewra – Selbstbilder . 200 9. Die zweite Generation – Aufwachsen im Kibbuz . 218 9.1 »My Village in Israel« . 218 9.2 Pädagogische Räume . 225 10. Wandering Images . 243 10.1 Ashod Jaakov und Giwat Brenner – 1941 . 244 10.2 »Ein halbes Jahrhundert« – Giwat Brenner 1978 . 246 10.3 Ein Ausblick . 254 Dank . 261 Literatur . 262 Abkürzungen . 272 Glossar . 273 Einleitung Wenn ich aus der Entfernung von Jahrzehnten den Stufen meiner Reife im Rahmen der Jugendbewegung nachgehe, zeichnet sich ein konsequenter Weg vom Zusammensein der Jugendgruppe zur gemeinschaftlichen Gesellschaft des Kibbuz in Israel ab, die mehrere Generationen umfasst.1 Der Weg vom jüdischen Jugendbund zum Kibbuz war weder geradlinig noch zwangsläufig – etwa einer inneren Logik jüdischer Jugendorganisationen fol- gend. Dass jüdische Jugendgruppen ab Ende der 20er Jahre und verstärkt nach 1933 in die kollektiven Siedlungen in Palästina zogen, war Ergebnis ei- nes vielschichtigen und widerspruchsvollen Transformationsprozesses, der durch innerjüdische, politische und soziale Entwicklungen vor und nach dem Ersten Weltkrieg angestoßen wurde. So erwuchs das Streben nach Gemein- schaft aus vielgestaltigen lebensreformerischen Bewegungen seit dem Beginn des 20. Jahrhunderts. Den Glauben an den Jugendbund als Faktor gesell- schaftlicher Erneuerung teilte die gesamte deutsche Jugendbewegung der Weimarer Republik. Erst durch die aggressiv antisemitische Politik des deut- schen Staates ab 1933 gewann dieser Prozess eine eindeutige zionistische Richtung. Zentrales Element des Wandels war die Erziehung zu jüdischer Gemeinschaft: Dabei wurden bündisch inspirierte Erziehungsvorstellungen und -formen zunehmend von zionistischen Organisationen in Dienst genom- men, um möglichst viele jüdische Jugendliche auf ein kollektives, sozialisti- sches Leben in Kibbuzzim in Palästina vorzubereiten; diese Praxis rettete in der NS-Zeit vielen das Leben. Das Fortleben jugendbewegter Erziehungs- vorstellungen lässt sich bis in die Gestaltung der pädagogischen Praxen und Räume der nächsten, im Kibbuz geborenen Generation hinein beobachten. Kontinuitäten dieser Entwicklung, aber auch ihre Brüche in unterschied- lichen Perspektiven darzustellen ist Anliegen der vorliegenden Publikation. Sie präsentiert Quellen, die in diesem Umfang für die Rekonstruktion histo- rischer Erziehungsverhältnisse so noch keine Verwendung fanden – nämlich Bilder.2 Im Bildlichen manifestieren sich Vorstellungen und Ideen von Ge- meinschaft und Erziehung; im kommunikativen Gebrauch, der von den Bil- dern gemacht wird, konstituieren sich soziale und erzieherische Verhältnisse. Das Buch bündelt Ergebnisse bildanalytisch orientierter, erziehungshistori- scher Untersuchungen3, und zwar sowohl der über die Bildlichkeit transpor- tierten Gemeinschaftsvorstellungen als auch der gemeinschaftstiftenden Funktionen des Bildgebrauchs selbst. Der hier verwendete Bildbegriff grün- det sich auf den »Doppelsinn der Bilder«4, in dem er sich auf die äußeren, medialen Bilder (Fotografien) ebenso wie auf innere mentale bezieht und ein 7 einleitung permanentes Wechselverhältnis einschließt. Der größte Teil des Bildmateri- als, mehr als 18.000 analoge und digitale Reproduktionen von Fotografien aus Privatbesitz, Kibbuz- und staatlichen Archiven, wurde seit 2001 während zahlreicher Forschungsreisen nach Israel gesammelt.5 Die Arbeit gliedert sich in drei Abschnitte. Nach der Vorgeschichte der jüdischen Gemeinschaftsidee und -erziehung im Umfeld der deutschen Le- bensreform und der Pädagogik Martin Bubers (Kap. 1 und 2) stehen im Zen- trum des ersten Teils Bildanalysen bündischer Jugendfotografien nach dem Ersten Weltkrieg bis zum politischen Umbruch 1933/34 (Kap. 3). Hier wird nach der prägenden Kraft der Jugendbewegung und den erzieherischen, ge- meinschaftsbildenden Funktionen privater fotografischer Praxis gefragt. Da- für werden Dimensionen des Erlebnisses »Jugendbewegung« und der Gemein- schaftserfahrung auch in geschlechtsspezifischer Differenz rekonstruiert. Der zweite Teil ist auf die Jahre 1933-1938 in Deutschland konzentriert, in denen sich die jüdischen Jugendbünde, die zunächst großen Zuspruch hatten, unter dem Druck der politischen Verhältnisse zusammenschlossen, ideolo- gisch einheitlich ausrichteten und zu zionistischen Erziehungsorganisationen entwickelten. Dabei erwies sich die Hachschara als die zentrale Institution zur effektiven geistig-körperlichen und ideologischen Vorbereitung auf ein Leben in der Kibbuz-Gemeinschaft (Kap. 4). Die erzieherischen Maßnahmen wurden bis 1938 durch mediale Bildentwürfe in der jüdischen Presse, Publi- zistik und im zionistischen Film begleitet, die körperliche Arbeit heroisierten und den »neuen« Juden (weniger die »neue« Jüdin) in raum-zeitlich entrück- ten Inszenierungen modellierten (Kap. 5). Während sich daran thematisch und stilistisch auch Fotografien von Jugendführern anschlossen, drückte sich in den privaten Fotografien der Jugendlichen selbst eine persönliche Neuori- entierung lediglich in einer stärkeren Gewichtung des Themas Arbeit aus. Der angebotene elitäre Gestus wurde von ihnen nicht aufgenommen (Kap. 6), sondern ihre Fotografien zeigen das unmittelbare Lebensumfeld und den All- tag in der Gruppe. Sie vermitteln so vielmehr den offensichtlichen Wunsch nach Normalität. Auch in autobiografischen zeitgenössischen Texten zeigt sich Ambivalenz: Einerseits boten die Zugehörigkeit zu einem Jugendbund und mehr noch zu einem Hachschara-Lager Schutz vor dem allgegenwär- tigen Anti semitismus, Orientierung in einer unübersichtlich gewordenen Lebenssituation und reale Lebensperspektiven. Andererseits erzeugten die zionistische Ausrichtung der Bünde und die tendenziell eher rigide Hachs­ chara-Erziehung einen Druck zur ideologischen Anpassung und Einordnung in ein stark reglementiertes Gemeinschaftsleben. Dadurch und durch die res- triktive Zertifikatvergabe für die Ausreise (bzw. die Einreise) nach Palästina wurde der Druck auf die Jugendlichen, die ohnehin unter der sozialen Aus- grenzung und Verfolgung der Juden im NS-Staat litten, zusätzlich verstärkt. Die drei Kapitel des letzten Teiles wenden sich Entwicklungen der Ge- meinschaftsidee in Palästina zu – mit einer noch stärkeren Konzentration auf Bildquellen und in größerer Differenzierung der Bildsorten. Zunächst wird 8 am Beispiel von zwei jugendbewegten Amateurfotografen gezeigt, wie ju- einleitung gendliche Kibbuzgründer aus Deutschland Anfang der 30er Jahre die völlig neue, existenzielle Erfahrung ästhetisch zu bewältigen suchten – und schei- terten (Kap. 8.1). So genannte »Bilder vom Anfang«, über die dieser kom- plette Umbruch ihrer Lebenssituation als Neuanfang jüdischen Lebens in Palästina gedeutet und vermittelt
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